January, 2014 Volume: 5 Issue - International Journal on New ...

International Journal

on

New Trends in Education

and

Their Implications

(IJONTE)

January, 2014

Volume: 5

Issue: 1

ISSN 1309-6249

http://ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications

January 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 1 ISSN 1309-6249

Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

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Contact Addresses

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü Tenik

Okullar Ankara/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre

Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu, İki Eylül

Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Phone: +902223350580

Indexed by

Sponsors




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Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editor Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey

Assistant Editors Assist. Prof. Dr. Beyhan Zabun, Gazi University, Turkey Ufuk Tanyeri, Gazi University, Turkey

Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University,TRNC

Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University , TRNC

Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC

Editorial Board

Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroğlu, Gazi University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University,TRNC Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia Prof. Dr. Ali Murat Sunbul, Selcuk University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Ali Şimşek, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University, Netherlands Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico, USA Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada, USA Prof. Dr. Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University, Canada Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Erol Yıldız, Alpen-Adria University, Austria Prof. Dr. Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information", Kazakhstan Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen, Netherlands Prof. Hayriye Koc Basara, Sakarya University, Turkey Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland, Finland Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Hacettepe University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom Prof. Dr. Jozef Gašparík, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University, Japan Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India Prof. Dr. Leyla Küçükahmet, Gazi University, Turkey




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Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti, Romania Prof. Dr. Manuel Alberto M. Ferreira, Lisbon University Institute, Portugal Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University, Canada Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali Kısakürek, Ankara University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karslı, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Mehmet Şişman, Osman Gazi University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abolgasem Artemimi, Zawia Engineering College, Libya Prof. Dr. Müfit Kömleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC Prof. Dr. Nedim Gürses, Anadolu University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente, Netherlands Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University, Germany Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University, China Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpınar, Bogaziçi University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel Prof. Dr. Yüksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Chareles University, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ok, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University, Belgium Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago, USA Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus, Greece Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney, Australia Assoc. Prof. Dr. Roberta E. (Bobby) Harreveld, Queensland University, Australia Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania Dr. Carmencita l. Castolo, Polytechnic University, Philippines Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications January 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 1 Contents ISSN 1309-6249


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CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….…….iv From The Editors…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………vi ARTICLES…………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………..………………………….01 01. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE USE OF MOBILE PHONES IN EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT Silvia Cristina Freitas BATISTA, Gilmara Teixeira BARCELOS- BRAZIL…………………………………………………………….01 02. THE EFFECTS OF MINIMALIST MOVEMENT ON PAINTING ARTS AND MUSIC Şükriye İNAN, İzzet YÜCETOKER- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….11

03. INVESTIGATING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ INFORMATION LITERACY IN TERMS OF DEMOGRAPHICAL DATA Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN, Yasemin DERİNGÖL KARATAŞ- TURKEY……………………………………………………………….26

04. EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS STUDY FOR THE SCALE OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS CHEMISTRY Gökhan DEMİRCİOĞLU, Ayşegül ASLAN, Mustafa YADİGAROĞLU- TURKEY…………………………………………….……38 05. LEARNING FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: GEOGRAPHICAL SCHOOL PRACTICE IN SLOVENIA

Karmen KOLNIK- SLOVENIA……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………..46

06. AN E-DEMOCRACY APPLICATION: DO NOT LET MY DREAMS OF AN IDEAL UNIVERSITY STAY ONLY IN MY DREAMS Serkan ŞENDAĞ- TURKEY …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...53

07. A LEARNING BY DOING APPROACH IN TEACHING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TRUSSES Gökhan YAZICI, Edip SEÇKIN-TURKEY……………………………………….………………………………………………………………….64 08. LEARNING OBJECT FOR LINEAR SYSTEMS: SCRATCH IN MATHEMATICS Silvia Cristina Freitas BATISTA, Carlos Bruno Freitas BAPTISTA- -BRAZIL……………………………………………………….71 09. VIEWS OF TURKISH EFL STUDENTS WITH REGARD TO LEARNING GRAMMAR WITH GAMES Onur KÖKSAL, Ahmet ÇEKİÇ, Ömer BEYHAN-TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………82 10. INTEGRATION OF VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGY IN LEARNING COMPUTER PROGRAMMING: A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK Siti Rosminah MD DERUS, Ahmad Zamzuri MOHAMAD ALI- MALAYSIA………………………………………………………93 11. DETERMINING PROSPECTIVE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION LEVELS OF ELECTRICITY CONCEPTS Özgül KAYA, Seyhan ERYILMAZ, Ali Rıza AKDENİZ- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………..104 12. AUGMENTED REALITY APPLIED TO NATURAL SCIENCES Bárbara Maria Lemos FERREIRA, Thaís Nogueira FERNANDES, Suzana da Hora MACEDO- BRAZIL………..…….116

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications January 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 1 Contents ISSN 1309-6249


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13. MEANINGFUL LEARNING AND CONCEPT MAPS TO TEACH ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR ADULTS Evanildo dos Santos LEITE- BRAZIL…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….125 14. CONTEMPORARY CHILDREN’S LITERATURE: TEACHERS’ FEEDBACK ON SUPPORT, RESOURCES, TRAINING AND TIME ALLOCATION Siti Salina MUSTAKIM, Othman LEBAR, Abdul Aziz MOHAMED, Hasniza BASRI, Nerlizam MAHAD- MALAYSIA…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….133 15. TEACHING THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR-SHAPED MAGNET USING AUGMENTED REALITY Suzana da Hora MACEDO, Evanildo dos Santos LEITE, Filipe Arantes FERNANDES- BRAZIL………………………..145 16. THE IMPACT OF LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE ON LANGUAGE LEARNER STRATEGY USE IN TURKISH EFL CONTEXT Mehmet Sercan UZTOSUN- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..157 17. THE COMPARISION OF 54-66 MONTHS OLD CHILDREN’S READINESS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL DURING PRESCHOOL PERIOD AND THEIR ADAPTATION TO PRIMARY SCHOOL Özgül POLAT, Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU, Şennur SOHTORIKOĞLU NIRAN, Fatma Özge ÜNSAL, Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….169 18. MOTIVATION, LEARNER IDENTITY AND LANGUAGE LEARNING Hakan TARHAN, Sena BALBAN- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….183 19. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS’ PLACE AND IMPORTANCE IN SOCIAL STUDIES LESSONS Aslı AYTAÇ – TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….198 20. MY OWN PAST: AN EXAMPLE OF FAMILY INVOLVEMENT PROJECT APPLIED TO IMPROVE 48 – 54 MONTHS OLD CHILDREN’S PERCEPTION OF THE PAST Rengin ZEMBAT, Fatma Özge ÜNSAL, Fatih YAZICI, Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU , Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ, Hilal İlknur TUNÇELI- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………209


January 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 1 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249


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Dear IJONTE Readers,

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications- IJONTE appears on your screen now

as Volume 5, Number 1. In this issue it publishes 20 articles. And this time, 51 authors from 5 different

countries are placed. These are Brazil, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan , Slovenia and Turkey.

Our journal has been published for over five years. It has been followed by many people and a lot of articles

have been sent to be published. 222 articles have been sent to referees for forthcoming issues. They will be

published according to the order and the results. Articles are sent to referees without names and addresses of

the authors. The articles who get positive responses will be published and the authors will be informed. The

articles who are not accepted to be published will be returned to their authors.

We wish you success and easiness in your studies.

Cordially,

1st

January, 2014

Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki KAYA, Gazi University, Ankara, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur ISTIFCI, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY


January 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 1 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249


CONSIDERATIONS ON THE USE OF MOBILE PHONES IN EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

Prof. Dr. Silvia Cristina Freitas BATISTA

Instituto Federal Fluminense

Campos dos Goytacazes – RJ, BRAZIL

Prof. Dr. Gilmara Teixeira BARCELOS



ABSTRACT

Technological advancements have allowed mobiles phones to perform various functions with increasingly

better performance. However, the use of these devices in educational contexts divides opinions, especially

when used in the classroom. Mobile phones can support different pedagogical tasks, but may also be

responsible for problems such as distractions during classes. Therefore, such use is still facing resistance in

formal education. Considering the scenario described, this paper aims at discussing the use of mobile phones in

education with support of data obtained in a survey with undergraduate students and teachers of Mathematics

Education at a federal institution. Data showed that the participants' opinions are consistent with the

literature, signaling difficulties and benefits of using the mobile phones in education.

Key Words: Mobile Phones, Educational Contexts, Mathematics Education.

INTRODUCTION

With the growing portability and functional convergence of technologies, as well as with cost reduction of

products and services, mobile devices are increasingly present in everyday life. According to the 2013 UNESCO

Report, mobile technologies are commonly found nowadays even in areas where schools, books, and

computers are scarce. Due to the fall in prices of these technologies, mobile phones in particular, many people,

even in impoverished areas, can afford and know how to use mobile devices (UNESCO, 2013).

Therefore, the presence and relevance of such devices in everyday life have motivated research in the

educational field (Pachler et al., 2010). Mobile learning (m-learning) is the field of study that analyzes how

mobile devices can contribute to learning (Batista, 2011). M-learning involves the use of mobile technologies,

either solely or combined with other communication and information technologies to allow learning anywhere,

at any time (UNESCO, 2013).

In formal education, however, mobile devices, especially mobile phones, are criticized by teachers in view of

the problems they bring – distraction, for instance. Regarding mobile phones specifically, Machado (2012)

argues that it is necessary to establish restrictions to the use of such devices in schools in order to have a better

development of the pedagogical actions, and also to “slow down” students from the hectic pace of

contemporary life. However, the author also considers feasible to incorporate this equipment into the various

educational projects. Gibson et al. (2012) also say that, even though many teachers consider mobile phones a

distraction in the classroom, others believe they are beneficial.

In this scenario, this paper discusses the use of mobile phones in education. To support this discussion, the

study analyzes data collected in a research conducted with students (pre-service teachers) and teachers in the

Mathematics Education program at a federal institution, with focus on their perception on the use of those




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tools. The Mathematics Education course was selected for the research due to the fact that this study was

carried out within the scope of the research project “Learning with Mobile Devices”1, which currently focuses

on the use of these tools in Mathematics. Thus, the undergraduate students (pre-service teachers) and

teachers of this course have been the target audience of several actions in the mentioned project.

Aiming at the objective of this paper, Section 2 discusses the use of mobile phones in educational contexts,

including their potential, and difficulties posed by them. The methodological procedures are described in

Section 3; while Section 4 analyzes data collected with students and teachers of Mathematics Education.

Section 5 closes the paper with considerations on the theme.

MOBILE PHONES IN FORMAL EDUCATION: POTENTIAL AND DIFFICULTIES

The popularization and technological development of mobile phones have given prominence to these devices

in m-learning (Xie et al., 2011; Gibson et al., 2012; Buck et al., 2013; Burton et al., 2013). Due to their

popularity, mobile phones can contribute to increase access to digital educational content. As portable

equipment, they can promote learning both inside and beyond the physical space of educational institutions

(UNESCO, 2012). Use of such devices can also contribute to more attractive teaching and learning processes,

thus catering, with their applications, to different learning styles (Buck et al., 2013). Therefore, mobile phones

have the potential to make learning more accessible, collaborative and relevant (UNESCO, 2012).

However, despite the potential of mobile phones for educational purposes, schools in general do not make use

of them; choosing, quite often, to prohibit their use in the classroom (Seabra, 2013). This author recognizes

that mobile phones can be responsible for distractions, and that they enable, with their embedded technology,

transfer of answers in tests and exams in more efficient ways than traditional ones. Nevertheless, in spite of

these pitfalls, Seabra (2013) is optimistic about the use of such devices in schools, suggesting that, in regards to

distraction, the teacher discusses acceptable usage rules with students. The author stresses that one must

consider that pencil and paper (and the brain itself) can also contribute to distraction when the student is not

engaged in the lesson. As to the transfer of answers, the author recommends the teacher to change the

preparation of tests and exams.

Machado (2012) also discusses the problems and potential of using mobile phones in schools, but more

prudent than Seabra (2013). For Machado (2012), ringtones in the classroom, with their variety of musical

genres and styles (often amusing) may significantly disturb pedagogical activities as planned by the teacher.

Though a silent practice, texting can also draw attention away from the lesson, as well as be used to send

answers of tests or exams. In addition, games, music, videos, photos and access to the internet may

compromise student performance in class (Machado, 2012). Therefore, the author understands that, in

general, use of mobile phones should be restricted in schools, but that, on the other hand, this equipment can

contribute to pedagogical actions as a tool for research and production.

In her joint analysis of an exploratory research and a case study on the use of mobile phones in education,

Batista (2011) lists these positive aspects found in the two experiments: i) students’ ability to use the keypad;

ii) practicability; iii) the students’ receptiveness regarding the educational use of mobile phones. The author

also identifies these negative points: i) variety of models and resources in the phones; ii) size of the screen; iii)

cost of internet access.

These pitfalls are not exclusive to a specific area of the curriculum. Similarly, the potential of these devices are

quite ample, as they support pedagogical actions in different areas. This article, however, focuses on studies

aimed at Mathematics (Tangney et al., 2010; Ndafenongo, 2011; Kalloo & Mohan, 2012), to illustrate that, even

in formal sciences, researches have shown the possibilities and contributions of mobile phones.

Tangney et al. (2010) argue that, given their inherent capacity to motivate collaboration and contextualized

learning, mobile technologies have the potential to contribute to Mathematics Education. The authors provide

strategies to develop resources for smartphones aimed at the teaching and learning of Mathematics, as well as

support teachers in using them. Such resources are aimed to data analysis, geometry and measurement,

1 <http://plataforma.nie.iff.edu.br/projetomlearning/>.




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numbers, operations, and algebra. When using these tools and apps, the teacher is free to create learning

activities, according to his/her teaching objectives. The authors also provide results of a study conducted with

24 students working in groups. In this investigation, the resource Angle Tool was used to measure the height of

three structures in the school. Though acknowledging that it is not possible to draw final conclusions, Tangney

et al. (2010) say that the initial results were quite positive. Most students: i) found the tool easy to handle; ii)

found the experience engaging; iii) enjoyed working collaboratively; iv) said they would like to do this type of

Mathematics activity more often.

Ndafenongo (2011) investigated how mobile phones can be used in the teaching of Mathematics. In their

study, the authors used five video clips on the Pythagorean Theorem. The videos were sent to the student’s

phone and were used in class to support the understanding of the subject. This case study was conducted in

two high schools in Grahamstown, South Africa, involving two teachers from each school and 47 students

altogether. The investigation showed that mobile phones can be useful resources to support teaching and

learning in the classroom, mostly in schools lacking resources. According to the author, use of video clips in

mobile phones contributed to improve student participation and concentration, to accelerate content

development, to stimulate peer collaboration and interaction, and to promote student autonomy.

Kalloo and Mohan (2012) describe a study carried out in Trinidad and Tobago using MobileMath, an app

designed to test the hypothesis that m-learning can help students improve their performance in Mathematics.

Aimed at the study of Elementary Algebra, MobileMath presents lessons, examples, tutorials, quizzes, and

curious facts. Use of this app was evaluated over a period of three months with students from different high

schools using the same phone model. Results showed improvement in student performance, mainly of those

who had studied Algebra in the previous period (the impact was not so significant for those having algebra for

the first time).

In general, the studies described here show positive results regarding the use of mobile phones. Nevertheless,

one must consider that this is a recent area of research.

Before closing this section, two issues must be addressed. One is the fact that mobile phones containing many

technological limitations restrict, or even impair their use in education (Batista, 2011). Accordingly, the

expectation is that popularization of smartphones becomes more practical this use. However, even with

smartphones, the choice of apps requires special attention, since many are specific to certain operating

systems (Batista, 2011).

The second issue refers to the fact that several projects in m-learning are financed by telecommunication

companies. Such projects are definitely significant, but as Kress and Pachler (2007) warn, the market has its

own strong rules that pervade the various social contexts. Thus, one must be alert, as market factors have

become so natural that end up being adopted as models in both social decisions and education (Kress &

Pachler, 2007).

Use of mobile phones in education is, therefore, a complex theme which presents positive aspects and

difficulties that must be taken into consideration. The authors of this paper stress the necessity to discuss this

issue with pre-service teachers early in their academic life, so that they can reflect on the several aspects

involved.

Next section describes the methodological procedures used in the research conducted with students and

teachers of a Mathematics Education program.

METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES USED IN THE RESEARCH

A descriptive research2 was conducted with the objective of collecting the opinion of students and teachers in a

Mathematics Education program in a federal institution on the use of mobile phones in educational contexts.

Two survey questionnaires were organized to collect data: one for students (pre-service teachers), another for

teachers. Both questionnaires presented topics such as: i) possession or not of a mobile phone (for those who

2 According to Gil (2008), descriptive researches are used to present characteristics of a population, phenomenon,

experience, or establish relations among variables.




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answered “Yes”, the following question was whether it was a smartphone); ii) experience with the educational

use of mobile phones (followed by various questions about their affirmative and negative answers); iii)

adequate school level for the pedagogical use of mobile phones; iv) experience or lack of experience with

situations in which use of mobile phones disturbed attention in the classroom; v) suggestions for the

educational use of smartphones.

Both questionnaires were created in Google Drive3, and their link was sent to participants by e-mail. Students

participating in the survey were enrolled in the 2nd, 4th, and 6th terms (periods)4, in the first half of 2013. All

classes were informed, in person, about the survey and the e-mail with the link to the questionnaire.

Nevertheless, only 21 students answered the survey: nine from the 2nd period, seven from the 4th, and five

from the 6th period.

Regarding the teachers, only the 11 of those working with specific Math disciplines participated in the survey.

The study with these teachers took place in the beginning of the second term of 2013. In this group, nine

answered the questionnaire.

It must be stressed that data analysis was qualitative, which hindered generalizations from it, and in the case of

the students, it was made as a whole – without specifications of the student’s term. Data analysis and

discussion are presented in the next section.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

The 21 students in the Mathematics Education program, subjects of the investigation, were 22 years old in

average, with the standard deviation of 2.45, approximately. In this group, 18 were female. All individuals said

they owned mobile phones, but only six (approximately 29%) had smartphones. In regard to teachers, all nine

individuals were female, and 42 years old in average, with the standard deviation of 7.40, approximately. All

teachers owned mobile phones, but only six (approximately 67%) had smartphones.

Asked whether they had used mobile phones for educational purposes, participants replied as shown in Tables

1 and 2. In Table 1, 100% correspond to 21 students and, in Table 2, to nine teachers.

Table 1: Use of Mobile Phones for Educational Purposes - Students

Options Students (%)

Yes 52

No 48

Table 2: Use of Mobile Phones for Educational Purposes - Teachers

Options Teachers (%)

Yes, but only for personal reasons (not in activities designed for students). 22

Yes, but only in activities designed for students. 0

Yes, both privately and in activities with students. 33

No 45

Results show that, even though most answered “Yes” in Tables 1 and 2, this percentage is not very significant (a

little over 50% in both cases). This indicates that the educational use of mobile phones is not a usual practice

among the participants yet.

3 Google’s on-line file storage and synchronization service which allows file sharing, and offers several production

applications, such as forms, spreadsheets, presentations, among others.

4 In this program, student enrolment is annual; therefore, one semester has only even periods, and the other only odd

periods.




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The 10 students and four teachers who answered “No” were presented with the alternatives listed in Table 3.

They were asked to indicate the main reason for having never used mobile phones as a pedagogical tool. Thus,

in Table 3, 100% of the students correspond to 10 people, and 100% of the teachers correspond to four people.

Table 3: Main Reason for Not Using Mobile Phones in Education

Reasons Students (%) Teachers (%)

Resources in the device do not favor educational use. 70 0

I never had interest in using them for this purpose. 20 75

I do not find mobile phones useful for this purpose. 0 0

Other 10 25

As most of the students did not have a smartphone, the percentage of the first option in Table 3 is a natural

result in the context. Even the participant who marked option “Other” explained that his/her phone did not run

programs. This reason is also related to the lack of resources in the phone that allow programs to run.

Therefore, most students justified their not using mobile phones for educational purposes for technological

limitations. This fact indicates that, in general, no previous use of mobile phones for educational purposes was

not due to rejection to the idea.

As for teachers, most said they never had any interest in using mobile phones for those purposes. The teacher

that marked option “Other” explained she did not know how to use it in pedagogical situations. These results

were also considered coherent with the context, since studies related to the use of mobile devices in education

are relatively recent and still did not become common sense among teachers.

The 11 students and five teachers who answered “Yes” for the educational use of mobile phones were asked to

answer alternatives listed in Table 4. They were requested to mark the main uses of these devices (they could

check more than one option). In the case of teachers, this part of the survey focused on the private use of

mobile phones (that is, not in activities with students). Thus, in Table 4, 100% of students correspond to 11

people, and 100% of teachers correspond to 5 individuals.

Table 4: Educational Use of Mobile Phones

Ways Students (%) Teachers (%)

Via educational apps 55 60

Searches on the Internet 100 80

Use of social networks 45 40

Access to a virtual learning environment 9 20

Use of resources in the phone (pictures, videos, etc.) 45 100

Other 0 40

Table 4 shows that doing searches on the Internet is a very frequent reason for using mobile phones for

educational purposes, both by students and teachers. As argued by Machado (2012), mobile phones have the

potential to contribute to pedagogical actions as a searching tool. Educational applications received a

percentage above 50% in both cases, but do not present significant values. Thus, even though there are good

options of free Math apps, of various types and of great quality (Amaral, 2013), use of apps is still not a

common practice among the participants of the study. Use of resources in the phones is relevant in regard to

teachers. According to Seabra (2013), mobile phones function like cameras, allowing the user to take pictures,

edit and publish them. They also have resources for recording video and audio files, as well as positioning

sensors and GPS. All these options open several pedagogical possibilities. For option “Other”, a teacher

mentioned “reading e-mails”, and another did not mention the resource she uses.




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The three teachers who confirmed having had used mobile phones in the classroom were asked to tell what

activity they proposed in class. The answers were: i) recommendation to use graphic plotters; ii) request of

pictures and films for video productions; iii) use of calculators; iv) searches on the Internet during class.

Although few teachers used mobile phones in activities with students, it can be observed that this was done

with a variety of purposes, demonstrating the pedagogical potential of those devices.

The 11 students who answered “Yes” for the educational use of mobile phones were asked to list its positive

and negative aspects. The most listed positive features were: i) convenience of carrying the device; ii)

popularization; iii) possibility of Internet connection when necessary. As for the negative aspects, distraction

caused by such devices was mentioned by most students. Size of the screen was also pointed out.

The five teachers who answered “Yes” listed the following positive aspects: i) mobility; ii) practicability; iii)

speed and easiness to download apps; iv) variety of free apps. As negative aspects, the following were listed: i)

size of the screen; ii) difficulty to type, depending on the model; iii) possibility of sending answers in tests; iv)

few apps in Portuguese.

Results for positive and negative aspects listed by teachers and students were coherent with the literature

review discussed in this article.

The statement below was presented to all 21 students and nine teachers participating in the investigation, with

the alternatives given in Table 5 (only one option could be marked). Thus, in Table 5, 100% of the students

correspond to 21 individuals, and 100% of the teachers correspond to nine people.

Some Brazilian states and municipalities have laws prohibiting use of mobile phones in the classroom, as they

may compromise student attention in class activities. There are exceptions, in several cases, for the pedagogical

use of these devices. Being an in-service teacher or a student teacher, you consider the use of mobile phones in

classroom activities appropriate:

Table 5: Appropriate School Levels for the Pedagogical Use of Mobile Phones

School Levels Students (%) Teachers (%)

Only at university level 10 0

High school and university 33 22

Starting in junior high school 33 22

From the beginning of elementary school 19 56

In none of the school levels 5 0

It is interesting to observe that the majority of the teachers considered the pedagogical use of mobile phones

to be viable as of elementary school, while students, younger individuals, were more careful in marking their

options. It is possible that, as more active users of the functionalities in mobile devices, students fear the

distractions caused by them.

Each participant was asked to justify the option marked in Table 5. Some of the justifications are quoted below.

It must be explained that, for data analysis, students are identified as S1, S2, S3, and so on. In the case of

teachers, they are named as T1, T2, T3, and so on.

The two students who marked option “Only at university level” justified their choice as follows:

Because in college, at least theoretically speaking, people are more mature. They

know that bad performance in college can compromise their professional career, so

they are usually more interested in studying. The same doesn’t happen with

children and teenagers, who study because they “have to”, and with a phone in

their hands, they would browse the internet or do things they were not supposed to

(S4).

I think the student must be mature when using a mobile phone for pedagogical

purposes, so that the device isn’t used only for entertainment (S16).




7

Seven students and two teachers chose option “high school and university”. Three justifications are listed next:

Because students are more mature in this stage, being able to use their phones as a

didactic resource (S5).

When used adequately, mobile phones can, indeed, be a learning tool, because they

are part of most students’ daily life. One must consider the students’ level of

maturity, so I believe this work is easier and more effective from high school on (S9).

It all depends on the class plan, but with elementary school students (and even with

those in junior high school), it is more difficult to keep them concentrated on the

activity and not being distracted with other resources offered by mobile phones (T5).

Seven students and two teachers also selected option “Starting in junior high school”. These are their

justifications:

Because students in junior high school are aware of what is right and wrong, of

what is necessary or not; thus it is easier to educate them in regard to the use of the

Internet (S3).

As of 5th grade I believe the student is a little more careful when using his/her

mobile phone and knows it can be an educational resource (S10).

Considering that children are born in the digital age and are digital natives, working

with technologies is much easier and practical for them, so it would be interesting

to make students aware of how mobile phones can be used for educational

purposes; so I think elementary school children are able to understand it (S21).

Four students and five teachers selected option “From Elementary School”. Three justifications are given next:

Children find it very easy to use mobile phones; so their use in the classroom can

make learning something more attractive and meaningful for them (S11).

If there is a pedagogical plan, it is possible to take advantages of mobile phones to

stimulate students and, thus, to contribute somehow to the teaching and learning

process (T1).

I believe that, just like with calculators, mobile phones, if used the right way, can

contribute to the teaching and learning process. Learning environments can no

longer ignore the technological development of the last decade, ‘pretend’ that they

don’t exist. If mobile phones are always at hand, why not use this resource? (T7).

Only one student marked option “In none of the school levels”, justifying as follows:

I believe many students are not mature enough to use such device (Student Q).

The position of the participants of the survey on the school levels in which use of mobile phones would be

appropriate reflects quite well the complexity of the issue. Opinions are diverse and, yet, they are coherent,

indicating that it is an issue with both positive and negative aspects, making it difficult to reach a consensus.

However, data collected in the study indicate that the positive aspects pointed by the participants are greater

than the pitfalls, since only one student found the use of mobile phones not viable in any school level. It must

be emphasized that the word ‘maturity’ was mentioned by several participants, signaling their concern with

possible distractions that the device may cause.

When asked whether they had experienced, as a university student or teacher, situations in which mobile

phones disturbed their class, participants answered accordingly to Table 6. In this case, 100% of the students

correspond to 21 individuals, and 100% of the teachers correspond to nine people.




8

Table 6: Mobile Phones Responsible For Disturbance

Options Students (%) Teachers (%)

Yes 62 67

No 38 33

It can be observed that, even at university level, the inappropriate use of mobile phones may cause distraction.

The following comments were made by participants who answered “Yes” in Table 6:

Loud music, silly apps with tunes, etc. (S1).

When a classmate was surfing on Facebook during class and called me to show me

something. This distracted me during an explanation (S19).

Texting, accessing Facebook, and making phone calls (T3).

When the student cannot resist the temptation to check his/her e-mail, messages

and social networks, this is can be a cause of distraction. One must know how and

where to use it; it is a matter of good manners. Even in work meetings, we can

observe colleagues doing something with their phones (T4).

The last part of the questionnaire asked for suggestions related to the pedagogical use of smartphones. Three

suggestions are quoted below:

Use (of mobile phone) should be free for all students, and teachers should be

trained to instruct pupils on how to use them (S3).

Teachers can suggest games and apps that can be used to help understand a topic

or the application of a specific content. It can be quite useful, if well guided (S4 ).

There are applications for mobile phones that draw function graphs, something that

can be perfectly used in the classroom (T7).

Although the answers collected in the survey do not allow generalizations, they provide a general view of a

group of people directly related to the educational context. They are not experts in the research theme, nor

have a wide experience in m-learning, but their answers were coherent with what is, in general, discussed in

the literature about mobile phones in education.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In current society, digital mobile technologies are present in various professional fields, including the

educational sector. Thus, it is important that pre-service teachers discuss the use of these technologies in

educational contexts, so that they become more aware of the role of digital tools in their professional activity.

Use of mobile phones, especially, is an issue that still poses several difficulties that must be discussed.

Prohibition of the use of these devices in the classroom may not prevent problems, as students often get

around restrictions. This is a complex topic that requires common sense and dialogue, even if only to justify

reasons for prohibition.

It is also essential to consider that even in other sectors mobile phones can cause trouble. Distraction related to

the use of these devices can, for instance, affect work, personal relations, and leisure. Hence, this is a matter

that demands pondering even in contexts other than educational.

On the other hand, one cannot deny that the practicability of having, at hand, such equipment with countless

functions, as is the case of smartphones, can make a difference in many situations. If used in the proper way,

these devices can make great contributions to educational actions.

To conclude, it must be emphasized that, in future researches, students and teachers in other courses and

school levels, as well as parents of students in elementary and junior high schools may be consulted about the

pedagogical use of mobile phones, thus expanding the analysis presented in this paper.




9

IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies –

WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of

IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Silvia Cristina F. BATISTA is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil. In 1987,

Batista has graduated in Science- Specialization in Mathematics, from the Faculdade de

Filosofia de Campos. She received her Master’s Degree in Engineering Sciences, focus on

Production Engineering, in 2004, from the Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense

Darcy Ribeiro, Rio de Janeiro. She received her Ph.D. in Information Technology in

Education from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Federal – UFRGS, Brazil, in

2011.Her research interest is mobile learning, and digital technologies applied to

Education.

Prof. Dr. Silvia Cristina F. BATISTA

Dr. Siqueira Street, 273,

Parque Dom Bosco, 28030-130.

Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL.

E. mail: [email protected]

http://plataforma.nie.iff.edu.br/projetomlearning/

Gilmara T. BARCELOS is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil. In 1988, Barcelos

has graduated in Science- Specialization in Mathematics, from the Faculdade de Filosofia

de Campos. She received her Master’s Degree in Engineering Sciences, focus on

Production Engineering, in 2004, from the Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense

Darcy Ribeiro, Rio de Janeiro. She received her Ph.D. in Information Technology in

Education from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Federal – UFRGS, Brazil, in

2011.

Her research interest is pedagogical use of Internet social networks, teacher training, and digital technologies

applied to Mathematics.

Prof. Dr. Gilmara T. BARCELOS

Dr. Siqueira Street, 273,

Parque Dom Bosco, 28030-130.

Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL.

E. Mail:[email protected]

REFERENCES

Batista, S. C. F. (2011). M-LearnMat: Modelo Pedagógico para Atividades de M-learning em Matemática. Tese,

Doutorado em Informática na Educação, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS,

Brazil.

Amaral, P. G. R. (2013). Softwares matemáticos e estatísticos para tablets: uma análise inicial. Dissertação,

Mestrado Profissional em Matemática em Rede Nacional – PROFMAT, Universidade Federal Fluminense, RJ,

Brazil.




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Buck, J. L., McInnis, E., & Randolph, C. (2013). The new frontier of education: the impact of smartphone

technology in the classroom. Proceedings of the ASEE Southeast Section Conference, Atlanta, GA, United States,

120, 11p.

Burton, L., Cobb Jr., R., Kateeb, I. A., Tsay, Li-S., Seay, C., Graham, T. E., & BouSaba, C. (2013, June). Mobile

teaching: merging smart phones, cloud, and desktop to achieve content-specific instruction in a generic

environment. Proceedings of the ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Atlanta, GA, United States, 120, 12 p.

Gibson, J., Taylor, T., Seymour, Z., Smith, D. T., & Fries, T. P. (2012). Educational aspects of undergraduate

research on smartphone application development. Proceedings of the World Multi-Conference on Systemics,

Cybernetics and Informatics (WMSCI 2012), Orlando, FL, USA , 16, 211-216.

GIL, A. C. (2008). Como elaborar projetos de pesquisa. São Paulo: Atlas.

Kalloo, V., & Mohan, P. (2012, April). MobileMath: an innovative solution to the problem of poor Mathematics

performance in the Caribbean. Caribbean Teaching Scholar, 2, 1, 5-18.

Kress, G., & Pachler, N. (2007). Thinking about the ‘m’ in m-learning. In N. Pachler (Ed.), Mobile learning:

towards a research agenda (pp 7-32). London, UK: WLE Centre/Elanders Hindson Ltd.

Machado, J. L. A. (2012). Celular na escola: o que fazer?. Retrieved October 03, 2013, from

http://cmais.com.br/educacao/celular-na-escola-o-que-fazer

Ndafenongo, G. (2011). An investigation into how cell phones can be used in the teaching of Mathematics using

Vitalmaths video clips: a case study of 2 schools in Grahamstown, South Africa. Thesis, degree of Master of

Education, Rhodes University (Faculty of Education), Grahamstown, South Africa.

Pachler, N., Bachmair, B., & Cook, J. (2010). Mobile Learning: Structures, Agency, Practices. New York, USA:

Springer.

Seabra, C. (2013). O celular na sala de aula. Retrieved October 01, 2013, from

http://cseabra.wordpress.com/2013/03/03/o-celular-na-sala-de-aula/

Tangney, B., Weber, S., O’Hanlon, P., Knowles, D., Munnelly, J., Salkham, A., Watson, R., Jennings, K. (2010,

October). MobiMaths: An approach to utilising smartphones in teaching mathematics. Proceedings of the

World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn2010), Valletta, Malta, 9, 9-16.

UNESCO (2012). Turning on Mobile Learning in Latin America: Illustrative Initiatives and Policy Implications.

[Working Paper Series on Mobile Learning]. Paris, France. Retrieved October 05, 2013, from

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002160/216080e.pdf

UNESCO (2013). Policy guidelines for mobile learning [Guidelines]. Paris, France. Retrieved October 04, 2013,

from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002196/219641e.pdf

Xie, A.; Zhu, Q., & Xia, H. (2011, July). Investigating College Major Differences in the Need of Mobile Phone

Learning. Proceedings of the International Conference on Multimedia Technology (ICMT), Hangzhou, China,

399-402.




11

THE EFFECTS OF MINIMALIST MOVEMENT ON PAINTING ARTS AND MUSIC

Lecturer Şükriye İNAN

Niğde University Department of Fine Art Niğde

TURKEY

Research Assistant İzzet YÜCETOKER

Niğde University College of Education Department of Fine Arts

Music Education Department, Niğde

TURKEY

ABSTRACT

The word minimalism which is derived from the word minimum in French means the least or the smallest

amount needed for something. Minimalism in arts was founded at the end of 1960s in New York and it’s called

in the technical literature as Minimalist Art, ABC Art or Reductive Art. The most important particularity of this

movement in arts is extreme simplicity and an objective approach. Painters and musicians gave particular

importance to simplicity in their works. The minimalist movement which flourished during the last phase of

paintings of Kazimir Malevich in 1913 has been a source of inspiration for the painters in the following decades.

Minimalism has also been used in music where melody and harmony are simplified to minimize the emotional

impressions.

The literature review has been used in this study. From the beginning of the minimalist movement, musicians

and painters in this movement were studied in chronological order and particularities in their works were put

under the scope. From among minimalist artist Ellsworth Kelly and Michael Nyman were chosen for sample

surveys and their works were examined in terms of minimal particularities. In addition differences and

similarities between the art styles of both artists were manifested. Consequences have been drawn from these

particularities and suggestions were made in terms of interdisciplinary minimal studies.

Key Words: Minimalism, minimalism in painting, minimalism in music.

INTRODUCTION

The word minimalism which is derived from the word minimum in French means the least or the smallest

amount needed for something. It’s called minimalist art, ABC art or reductive art. The basic particularities of

this movement are excessive simplicity and objective approach (Tdk, 1928:2008). ‘’Minimalism in general can

be defined as emphasising an idea with a minimum amount of colour, value, shape, line or texture.’’ (Ishakoğlu,

2005:14).

In accordance with this definition, simplicity turns out to be the most important characteristic of artistic works

produced in this movement. The common characteristic of painters and musicians in this movement are

simplicity in form, minimal usage of notes and lines, clarity and comprehensibility in line and texture.

It can be said that like all other artistic movements minimalism can also be defined in a sense as a revolt against

all other precedent movements and it brought new innovations to the old order. In 1961 which is the year in

which this movement had its beginning Richrad Wollheim defined is as an art ‘’with a minimum content’’. Later

this definition was used for three dimensioned works of art and sculpture (Erzen, 1997). Minimalism which is

indeed a kind of sculpture weighted abstract art was very effective in 1970s in the artistic environment in the

United States. Minimalist artist has a geometrical approach ‘’reducing the essence’’ of painting and music.

Artists like Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Donald Judd and Sol Le Witt were the pioneers of this movement and they




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were supporters of extreme simplicity and excessive objectivism in arts (Tizgöl, 2008). We know that the first

traces of minimal art can be found in the works of painter Kazimir Malevich in 1900s, but his art was not called

in those days as minimal art; the modern denomination came years later. Malevich improved a new kind of

original approach in terms of colour, form and style which was different than older approaches. ‘’In modern

painting art reductive trends were seen for the first time in the paintings ‘’Black Square on White’’ and ‘’White

on White’’ of Russian painter Kazimir Malevich. The minimal art of painting which is the peak of this trend came

up in 1950s as a subsection of American abstract expressionism as a reaction to abstract animation (Ishakoğlu,

s.15:2005).

As we see from above explanations, the minimal art came out as a reaction to former forms of art. We can say

that in this form of art, the balance, colour and form in paintings were more minimal, in more simplicity than

before in a way to relay the emotional impression better.

These changes naturally affected other fields of art as well. Besides form and colour changes in painting art, the

music of Eric Satie and aesthetical perception of John Cage were deeply affected by minimal art. These

composers created their compositions in a simple and plain way reacting in sense to the complex structure of

modern music.

The appearance of minimal art can be associated with events, wars, movements and such events occurred in

advance of this movement. Thousands of pages can be written and detailed researches can be executed about

such associations. Sources report that minimalism as an idea in arts can be traced back 1900s although its

history dates back in older times. Today we can see effects of minimalism in various fields of art such as

architecture, visual arts, sculpture, photography and web design. But in this study only the effects of minimal

art in painting and music and on painters and musicians will be examined and the nascence and development

of minimal painting and music will be put under scope. The works of a painter and a musician will be analyzed

in terms of minimal characteristics and the analysis results will then be commented. Similar and different point

of the effects of minimal art will be demonstrated. As this study shows similar and distinctive features of

minimal painting and music, it’s of great importance for artists in their studies on minimal painting and music.

We also think that this study will be a guiding light for studies to be realised on minimal art movement in the

future.

The Minimalist Movement in Music and its Effects

In a similar way as in other arts, minimalism in music came up as a reaction to excessive exaggeration in music

and aimed at eliminating excessive sentimentalism and intellectual complexity. It’s stated in Wikipedia that this

term was used for the first time in 1968 by Michale Nyman to define the work The Great Digest of Cornelius

Cardew. The term minimal movement used for the first time by Nyman as stated above also affected other

artist and thus artist such as Philip Glass, Steve Reich, John Adams, Tom Johnson and Terry Riley had all become

representatives of minimal art.

Minimalist Music was born in the late 1960’s and can be associated with a group of American composers

classified as “minimalists”. However, the origins of Minimalist music can be traced to the ‘total serialism’ music

of Webern whose music was based on the mathematical control of the musical elements. Minimalist music

consists of cells which are ‘looped’ at shifting time intervals. This creates a hypnotic quality to the music as the

cells shift in and out of ‘phase’ with each other. One way of thinking about Minimalist Music is as the musical

comparison of ‘Splitting the Atom’ or analyzing a DNA chain. Minimalist music could almost be described a

‘molecular music’. (Khorkher, 2003).

Philip Glass is a minimal composer. As he was occupied with his country’s music, he became interested in

Indian music and he tried to create new approaches mixing and synthesising the western technique which was

his field of expertise and the technique of the east. He began practising minimal music in 1990 and

implemented minimal music in various compositions for percussion units, string quartets, orchestra and opera

works and was able to demonstrate its effects.




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Steve Reich is also another musician and composer who is occupied with minimal music. Using the cadences of

western classical music, Reich created new approaches in his compositions comprising of structures, harmony

and rhythms which are unusual in western music. Reich composed especially jazz music pieces. We can say he

contributed to minimal music only with harmony techniques without distorting the traditional structure of

western music.

Tom Johnson, who is also a minimal composer, brought forward in 1989 that the term minimalism is much

broader than people think and it would comprise compositions composed with the least notes, the least lyrics

and a limited number of instruments (Köksal, 2007).

The above mentioned composers and many others are the composers who used the minimal technique and

characteristics of this movement effectively in their compositions in terms of form and harmony. If we

examine the compositions of these composers, some common characteristics of minimal music emerge. The

most distinguishing of these are as follows:

• Musical ideas are short. It’s based on short and essential phrases which are like a summary of long

phrases.

• The activity in the harmonic structure is limited. Structural harmonic integrity and the chords used are

all simple.

• The chords and the tones used in the harmonic structure are matching.

• The rhythmical structure is harmonious and fascinating. Stableness and easy perception in rhythmical

structure.

• Usage of lots of repetitions and sequences. Because of this the pieces are remembered easily.

As stated above, the main characteristics of minimal music are simplicity, plain, simplicity in harmony and

exposition of rhythms in an order. We will examine the compositions of Michale Nyman in this concept:

Michael Nyman

Michael Nyman born in New York in 1936. Purcell and Handel, and collecting folk music in Romania. Later he

wrote as a critic for several journals, including The Spectator, where, in a 1968 review of Cornelius Cardew's

The Great Digest, he became the first to apply the word 'minimalism' to music. That same year, a BBC

broadcast of Steve Reich's Come Out opened his ears to further possibilities, and a route back to composition

began to emerge. In 1968 he wrote the libretto for Harrison Birtwistle's 'dramatic pastoral' Down by the

Greenwood Side. Later, Birtwistle, now Musical Director of the National Theatre, London, commissioned him to

provide arrangements of 18th century Venetian songs for a 1976 production of Carlo Goldoni's Il Campiello, for

which Nyman assembled what he would describe as 'the loudest unamplified street band' he could imagine:

rebels, sackbuts, shows alongside banjo, bass drum and saxophone. Nyman kept the Campiello Band together

after the play's run had finished, adding his own energetic piano-playing to the ensemble. However, a band

needs repertoire, and Nyman set about providing it. The Band's line-up expanded, amplification was added and

the name changed to the Michael Nyman Band. This was the medium in which Nyman formulated his

compositional style around strong melodies, flexible yet assertive rhythms, and precisely articulated ensemble

playing. Nyman’s work ranges from compositions for the Michael Nyman Band, Symphony Orchestra, Vocal

Works and soundtracks. His work as a minimalist composer also draws on Baroque influences; at times one can

hear Vivaldi or Handel in his music. (Khorkher, 2003).

A structure based on phrases with repetitions and sequences is the main characteristic of Nyman’s music.

Nyman’s compositions are comprised of note subtractions and additions in terms of harmony simplicity and

rhythmic structure repetitions. He generally uses arpeggio technique and he repeats these arpeggio techniques

in different harmonies by means of sequences. Below we see four scales of his piano work ‘’The Heart Asks

Pleasure First.’’ This work was composed in the rhythm of 12/8. This rhythm is the double of 6/8. The part of

the composition for the left hand begins with an arpeggio in A minor and the same structure comes down

sequencing in 2 scales and in one tessitura. This is a reflection of minimal music characteristics. And it’s

noteworthy that he uses minimal harmony in this sequencing. Other 2 scales of the same hand demonstrate




14

stableness in rhythms. Usage of one – five – eight notes instead of treble notes in arpeggio facilitates an

analysis in terms of harmony and the memorising the piece. On the right hand position the composer creates

the arpeggio eith the same rhythmic movements. The melody shows itself with simplicity and colourfulness.

The notes are stable in rhythm and they are used in a rich but simple way. This is also an evidence of minimal

characteristic of this composition.

‘’The Promise’’, another composition of Nyman, was composed in 6/8 rhythm. In some scales the composer

uses the rhythm of 9/8 as if he wanted to use in those scales longer phrases. We see that fewer notes have

been used in the part for the right hand making out the most important peculiarity of this composition. A

simple expression, richer melodies with fewer notes and simplicity in harmony are main characteristics of

Nyman’s music. We can also see it in this composition. It’s outstanding that he can mix simple melodies in

harmonies without losing the beauty and the artistic value of the composition. We see that in this composition




15

Nyman could bring together his musical textures in simple harmony and sequences excellently. If we look at

the parts for right hand in the first 5 scales, we can see that the structure of the work comprises of smooth

rhythms and simple notes. The notes in the left hand part continue in dual spaces. The connections of tones are

not exaggerated and simple to play on the piano. The rhythmical structure on the left hand continues with

repetitions and the simplicity of playing comes to the forefront. In summary we can say that this composition

also contains minimal music characteristics.

The special structural features of these compositions are as follows:

• Simplicity of harmony structure.

• Simplicity in terms of playing them.

• Simplicity and stability of rhythmical structure.

• Lots of sequences.

• The chords are easy to perceive.

• Simple melody structure.

• Simple pedal usage.

• Changing beat numbers with simple modifications.

• Phrasing is easy to understand.

General Characteristics of Minimalism in Painting Art

After having confirmed its place in painting, architecture and sculpture, minimalism was also implemented in

other arts. This movement continues to be a source of inspiration for various artistic movements. Before we

examine the works of minimalist painter Ellesworth Kelly, we give some information on the nascence and the

general features of this artistic movement.

The term minimalism was used for the first time by David Burlyuk in 1929 in the catalogue of the exhibition

which was held in Dudensighn Gallery in New York (Want, 2006). This term was also used in 1965 in an article

written by Richard Wolheim, named ‘’The Minimal Art’’ which was published in Art Magazine. ‘’The notion of

minimal art emerges as an idea in the Russian constructivists such as Tatlin, Rodchenko and Malevich

(geometrical abstraction), in the works of painters belonging to the De Stileje group such as Mondrian, in pop

art, in the works of Hard Edge and Frank Stella.’’ (Garmaner, 1996:41). All these ideas have accumulated and

have been a source of inspiration for artists until 1960. This movement emerged in the first place among

American painters and sculptors and then it spread in Europe.

‘’Kazimir Malevich who put a black square on white ground in 1915 is the pioneer of an art conception finding

its meaning in itself by demolishing the old conception of painting originating from the old perception that a

painting shows and represents objects (Antmen, 2008:181). ‘’When the black square of Malevich was put on

exhibition, something appreciated by people and critics disappeared and was transformed into nothing. An

extremely simple and striking square was an incomprehensible and dangerous form for them. It’s not

contextlessness, it’s subjectlessness. The black square is intuition and the white ground is the emptiness

beyond it. Malevich demolished all the understandings and perceptions of colours and forms imposed on us by

nature and created an original language presenting new formats. He developed an expression based on lines.

Most of minimal artists didn’t entitle their works in order not to give them an identity (Ishakoğlu, 2005:14).




16

Picture 1: Black Square (1915).

When Minimalism came up in 1960s as an art movement, it was called ‘’ABC Art’’, ‘’Rejecting Art’’, ‘’Cold Art’’

or ‘’Basic Structure’’. According to minimalists, a work of art represents nothing. It’s only what you see. The

other thing doesn’t exist. They have an objective quietness. They have developed a kind of symmetry and order

as the sign of a rational attitude. (Antmen, 2008:181).

The most important representatives of this art in painting are Donald Judd, Frank Stella, Kneed Nolland and

Ellsworth Kelly, and in sculpture art Carl Andrea, Robert Morris and Richard Serra.

Reducing colour and form to a minimal state without transforming the material and creating a painting without

compositional expressions are the main attitudes of minimalist painters.

The main characteristics of minimalist painting art are:

• It’s based on systemic repetitions. The painters create their works by repeating lines and colours.

There are several repetitive works of their paintings.

• Simplicity plays an important role. No figures are used and these painters are never inspired by nature.

Excessive simplicity is the main feature.

• Sharp geometrical forms are used. Squares, rectangles and circles are also often used.

• Meronymy exists on these works. Big and small units are used together to create an integrity

relationship.

• Connotation and symbolisations are avoided.

• Materials are used fewer and less than normal.

• The painting ground is sometimes colourful, it comprises sometimes more than one colours.




17

• Simplicity, repetitions and symmetric geometrical forms are the main features. The artists prefer the

simplest forms and use the repetitions abundantly. As repetitions facilitate perception in brain, simple

perception was perhaps the main objective of these minimalist artists.

• Purified and reduced colours are used. Main colours are preferred.

Ellesworth Kelly

Ellsworth Kelly was born on May 31, 1923 in Newburgh, New York. Throughout his career, he crossed the

traditional boundaries between painting, sculpture, and architecture. With clarity of vision and a sense of

optimism, Kelly utilized abstraction to create a broad and diverse body of work that combines and expands the

issues of form, ground, color and space.

Kelly began his studies at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn from 1941 to 1943. After serving military duty from

1942 to 1945, Ellsworth Kelly studied at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston from 1946 to 1947.

Kelly then left the U.S. to study at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, where he discovered Romanesque art and

architecture, Byzantine art, Surrealism, and Neo-Plasticism. The automatic drawing of the surrealists led Kelly

to experiment with the element of chance; Kelly was introduced to Jean Arp, and during this period he created

shaped wood reliefs as well as collages incorporating this influence.

From 1950 to 1951, Ellsworth Kelly taught at the American School in Paris. “In addition to them in the natural

environment. While his painting stressed shape and planar masses (often assuming non-rectilinear formats),

his sculpture was insistently two-dimensional. For a period in the mid-1960s, Kelly came close to Op art in his

use of geometric configurations and colour contrasts that stressed perceptual ambiguities.” (Sims, 2009).

http://www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_id=3048 His work of this period also provided a useful

bridge from the vanguard American geometric abstraction of the 1930s and early 1940s to the Minimalism and

reductive art of the mid-1960s and 1970s. His work consisted of an abstraction of forms observed in the real

world, and he soon developed a style of geometric abstraction using bright, primary colors. This style

expanded and Kelly began to create works made up of multiple separate panels that recombined to produce

many alternate compositions. During this time the artist met Constantin Brancusi, Francis Picabia, Alexander

Calder and Georges Vantonqerloo. His first solo show took place at the Galerie Arnaud in Paris in 1951.

Returning to the U.S. in 1954, Ellsworth Kelly took residence at Coenties slip in lower Manhattan where he met

James Rosenquist, Robert Indiana, Lenore Tawney and Jack Youngerman. During a span of ten years, his

rounded, organic forms became sharp rectangles and his originally gestural style gained clarity with a more

architectural approach. The artist then created wall-mounted installations consisting of multiple monochrome

panels that could be seen both as sculptures and as paintings. In 1956, Kelly had his first New York solo show

at the Betty Parsons Gallery. In 1958 he moved on to create freestanding sculptures, and was included in the

Sixteen Americans exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

During the seventies, Ellsworth Kelly created a series of totemic sculptures executed in steel and aluminum,

and eventually freed himself from his characteristically severe, closed planes, exchanging them for open-

ended, infinite forms. He executed several public commissions, including a mural for UNESCO in Paris, 1969, a

sculpture for the city of Barcelona in 1978, Houston Triptych, a bronze sculpture for the Museum of Fine Arts in

Houston, 1986, and a memorial for the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C., 1993. He had his

first Retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1973, and has been included in various

retrospectives since, including a career retrospective in 1996 organized by the Solomon R. Guggenheim

Museum in New York. Today, Ellsworth Kelly lives in Spencertown, New York.

(http://www.lesliesacks.com/artists/ellsworth-kelly-1/bio).

Kelly who was a painter, sculptor and graphic designer, is one of the most important implementer of the

abstract art. Kelly was perceived in the beginning as a plant painter. Before she accepted minimalism as her

artistic expression, he painted plants in simple geometrical lines. Later she also used line repetitions and

geometrical forms as minimalist artists did. This well known painter was influenced by other movements such

as sharp edges and pictorial abstraction, but she could create an original form developing all these movements




18

into an integral approach of her own. She found herself later in the minimalist movement and was called as a

minimalist painter because of the new approach she found. Comments on the works of this artist are given

below.

Picture 2: Apples – Paris 1949

The painting we see above is an example why she is called a plant painter. Kelly reflected in such paintings

things in nature using simple geometrical lines. If we look at the painting named ‘’Apples’’ we see eight apples

are painted in extraordinary good abstract forms.

Picture 3: Horizontal Line – Circle Form – Mandorla Form, - Triangle Form – 1951

These are geometrical works of Kelly painted in 1951 and they are exhibited today in the Moma Gallery. As we

look at these works, the Black Square of Malevich comes into mind. Although the works of Malevich are not




19

considered in the movement of minimal art, we understand from these works that they influenced the minimal

artists to a great extent. ‘’Horizontal Line’’, the first painter seen above, is a horizontal black line over a white

ground. The painting ‘’Circle Form’’ is a black circle on white ground. The painting ‘’Mandorla Form’’ is an

almond form on white ground. In the painting ‘’Triangle Form’’, black triangles are represented on white

ground. The minimal characteristic of this painting are intuitivism and connotations and it tries to adopt the

principle ‘’What’s seen, it’s it’’.

Picture 4: Colors Serie 1951

Kelly’s application of colours shows that the painter uses simple colours in repetitions in different colours and

works especially with main colours. Kelly uses the colours white, red, yellow, blue and green separately and we

see that he created a series of colours without using the secondary colours. The objective of Kelly is to have the

paintings commented without perception and expression as we see them. In his works created later he united

the main colours with their values but he created a new series of colours separating these colours from each

other in a sharp way. He brought these colours with combinations of two and three colours. We see a sample

of it on the table below.

Picture5: Red and Yellow, Blue and Red, Red Yellow Blue – Red Blue Yellow 1951.

As explained above, we see on the paintings of Kelly that he used different colours together separating them

with sharp lines. He created his paintings on paper with ink technique and gouache technique.

Pictures 6: Color for a Large Wall – Spectrum Colors Arrenged by Change IV

Spectrum Colors Arranged by Change II – Nine Colors 1951.

When we look at the Kelly’s paintings above, we see minimal accents once more. In the painting ‘’Colors for A

Large Wall’’ we can observe the form repetition as used by other minimalist artists. In addition there is also




20

colour repetition in this painting. In the painting ‘’Spectrum Colors Arrenged by Change IV’’ we also see the

same features as above. The difference on this painting is small square figures. Geometrical figures of different

colours were used on this painting. Additionally we see sharp edges in his works. In the painting ‘’Nine Colors’’

nine different colours are used with same geometric figures. White edge and black square ground are minimal

art characteristics. We can say that these paintings have all the preparative features of this movement as

though they can’t be defined as minimal art.

Pictures 7: Blue Green Red Series 1962 – 1965.

Kelly aimed at creating a dynamism on flat surfaces and put special emphasis on separations between figures

and ground. In his work Red Blue Green which is a painting in one of the most important series in which this

motive has been explored, Kelly painted figures in deep red and blue with echoes and contrast as well in a

sharp structure on sharp green ground. The relationship between the double balanced form and colour around

it was a sign of the powerful deepness which we also see in the latter paintings of Kelly. Because of this, all

these works are an important bridge between the plain and multi panel paintings and lamellar and sculptural

works.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

It’s known that the minimal movement emerged as a reaction to the previous movements. These reactions all

together came up as an art movement named Minimalism and it affected so many artists. But Minimalism isn’t

a movement which came up in a blow like in all other art movements. Naturally there are some events, reasons

and processes which gave a start to Minimalism. For example Malevich is one of the most important painters

who germinated the ideal structure of this movement. But his works are not considered to be minimal art. I

conclusion we can say that the minimal movement was a preparation of the previous events and ideas.

When we examine the paintings and compositions included in this study we see that both arts are not so

distinct from each other. The main reason for this is the events and processes in the same period. In addition

artists in every period were influenced from each other in their works. The artists in the minimal movement

also experienced such a process.

The minimal characteristics in painting and music which emerge as a result of analysis made by researchers and

studies of related literature are as follows:

• Minimal painters created series bringing different forms in their paintings and repeating them. The

minimal musicians also have this characteristic. Kelly usd different geometrical forms on the same ground.

Nymann created compositions with repetitions of the same expression in different forms in the same

structure of harmony and form.

• The painters and musicians in the minimalist movements took care to use the notes, colours, form, style

and harmony in their works in the simplest form possible. We also see this simplicity in the expression and

presentation of the works to the audience/spectators.

• Purified elements are found stylistically in large amount in their works. The painters prefer simplicity in

colours and forms. And the musicians also prefer simplicity in their melodies and try to express the

maximum using minimum notes.




21

• Minimalist painters try to obtain an integrity creating contrasts by means of geometrical forms of every

size. The musicians on the other side created various variations using the same forms and harmonies and

tried to have an integrity by bringing these small differences together.

• Repetitions are the most important feature of the minimalist art movement. The painters repeat certain

geometrical shapes in same and different colours and thus try to express themselves in this way. We also

observe this characteristic at the musicians. Powerful sequences in the same tonality result in continuous

repetitions.

Information from art history and music history resources was brought together for the purpose of this study.

During the examination of resources for the study, we observed that there were only few researches

addressing various arts. This has been a deficiency for us. But as we know, art movements are all effected from

each other and they usually come up as reactions to previous movements. For this reason academicians and

artists having different areas of expertise on the same field must address all the movements in a single study

and take the initiative that they take their place in the related literature.

Lectures on art history and music history are given under different names in different departments in faculties.

But though the differences reflect the needs of the related department, we can say that there exists an

interdisciplinary relationship. For this reason it’s suggested that these lectures should be combined under the

title of fine arts and different fields of art should be given together. In addition extra lecture hours are needed

after expanding the contents in faculty syllabus.

IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 4th

International Conference on New Trends in Education and

Their Implications - ICONTE, 25-27 April, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5

Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.


Sükriye İNAN is lecturer at Niğde University I was born in Nigde. In 2004, I graduated from

Nigde University, Faculty of Art. I held the position as a lecturer at the department of fine

arts at Nigde University in 2005 and have been still working there. Her research interest is

history of art.

Sükriye İNAN

Niğde University Department of Fine Art Niğde- TURKEY


İzzet YÜCETOKER is Research assistant at Niğde University College of Education Department

of Fine Arts Music Education Department, TURKEY. In 2007, Yücetoker has graduated Music

Education from Selçuk University College of Education Department of Fine Arts Music

Education Department in Konya. He received his Master Degree in Piano Education from

Selçuk University. Earned his Ph.D. degree in 2009 at the University of Abant Izzet Baysal. He

is still a PhD candidate at the moment.His research interest is piano education, musicology,

music and literature..

Research Assistant İzzet YÜCETOKER

Niğde University College of Education Department of Fine Arts

Music Education Department, NiğdeTURKEY

E. Mail : [email protected]




22

REFERENCES

Türk Dil Kurumu, (1988). Türkçe Sözlük, (8. Baskı), 2. Cilt, Ankara.

Islakoğlu, P. M. (2005). Mimarlıkta Minimalizm, Ege Mimarlık Dergisi, 3 – 55, İzmir.

Erzen, J. N. (1997). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi 3, Yem Yayınları, İstanbul.

Tizgöl, K. (2008). Sanatta Minimalizm ve Günümüz Seramik Sanatına Yansımaları, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Güzel

Sanatlar Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Sanatta Yeterlilik Tezi, İzmir.

Minimalizm ve Özellikleri, http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalizm

Khokher, O. (2003). Gose Composition Guide Minimalist Music, MTRS & Omar Khokler www.mtrs.co.uk

Köksal, A. )2007. Minimalist Sanatta Bir Ressam ve Bir Besteci, Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih – Coğrafya

Fakültesi Dergisi, 47,1.

Want, C. (2006). Minimalism, Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press.

Garmaner, S. (1997). 1960 Sonrasında Sanat, Kabalcı Yayınevi, İstanbul.

Antmen, A. (2008). 20. Yüzyıl Batı Sanatında Akımlar, Sel Yayıncılık, İstanbul.

Sims, P. (2009). Ellsworth Kelly About This Artist, Grove Art Online, Oxfort University Press.

Ellsworth Kelly, (http://www.lesliesacks.com/artists/ellsworth-kelly-1/bio).

PICTURAL REFERENCES

Moma Sanat, http://www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_id=3048

IMSLP Petrucci Music Library, http://imslp.org/




26

INVESTIGATING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ INFORMATION LITERACY IN TERMS OF

DEMOGRAPHICAL DATA

Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN İstanbul University

Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education Department of Primary Education

Istanbul, TURKEY

Dr. Yasemin DERİNGÖL KARATAŞ İstanbul University

Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education Department of Primary Education

Istanbul, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

In today’s world, where information is produced, diversified, disseminated and shared, pre-service teachers are known to be in a never-ending learning process. In this context, it is important to study pre-service teachers’ skills of identifying information needs, obtaining, structuring and using information and taking into consideration ethical and legal values in this process. Teachers play an important role in accessing information and bringing up well-qualified generations. Therefore, this research aims to investigate pre-service teachers’ information literacy. The research was carried out with survey model, and the research sampling consisted of pre-service elementary and mathematics teachers enrolled in the education faculty of a state university in İstanbul. A survey form that consists of demographical features and “Information Literacy Scale” developed by Adıgüzel (2011) were used as data collection tools. SPSS 19.0 Statistical Package was used for the statistical analysis of the data. The findings of the research are expected to contribute not only to the literature but also to training of mathematics and elementary teachers. In addition to this, they are anticipated to pave the way for further research.

Key Words: Pre-service mathematics teachers, pre-service elementary teachers, information literacy and information. INTRODUCTION

Learning by oneself (independent learning) and information literacy have become an integral part of lifelong learning in the 21st century. Information literates are those who know how to access, interpret and use information appropriately (Henderson and Scheffer, 2003). Besides, they are ready for any change and challenge that their professional careers and private lives bring forth (Korkut and Akkoyunlu, 2008). In traditional sense, literacy is a static ability of decoding letters of an alphabetic system, whereas it means a developable ability that aims to interpret everything with a message today. In this context, information literacy, which has a contributory role in alleviating the heavy load of information individuals are exposed to in the 21st century, is of great importance due to its functions of not only having the information available in sources but also having the skills of conscious orientation towards information sources, selectivity, critical point of view, reaccess and evaluation (Kurudayıoğlu and Tüzel, 2010). Information literacy, which requires the efficient use of information sources and centers, means to provide students with skills of finding, evaluating, using and conveying information (Korkut and Akkoyunlu, 2002). These skills are known to be taught most effectively in the process of education (Korkut and Akkoyunlu, 2008). The quality of teachers is a key determining factor of education quality. Therefore, immense production, dissemination and sharing of information has transformed the image of a teacher from someone who knows




27

substantially to someone who knows how to access information. Well-qualified teachers are those who are aware of the need for information, know how to access, interpret and learn it and produce new information from what they have learnt and able to use this information to solve the problems (Adıgüzel, 2011). ALA (1989) emphasizes the need for redetermining teacher efficacies so that they embrace information literacy efficacies. Thus, as suggested by Korkut and Akkoyunlu (2008), in order to equip students with skills of information literacy, first of all teachers should have these skills and feel themselves competent. Prospective teachers are candidates enrolled in teacher training programs of education faculties. Therefore, teachers and teacher candidates need to be information literates in order to improve themselves and guide their students (Akkoyunlu and Kurbanoğlu, 2003; Başaran, 2005; Adıgüzel, 2005). Because, teachers who will enable their students to access, use, produce and convey information help students develop their skills of structuring and using information in order to provide interactive and participatory environments (Korkut and Akkoyunlu, 2008). This research was planned moving from the fact that it is crucial to study prospective teachers’ skills of identifying information needs, obtaining, structuring and using information and taking into consideration ethical and legal values. It is a fact that elementary and mathematics teachers play important roles in the learning process of students. Therefore, studying prospective mathematics and elementary teachers’ information literacies is expected to contribute not only to the literature but also to training of elementary and mathematics teachers. Aim This research was carried out for the purpose of investigating pre-service teachers’ levels of information literacy. In line with this aim, pre-service teachers’ levels of information literacy were studied in terms of gender, department (Mathematics Teaching and Elementary Teaching), computer ownership, Internet and e-mail use. Evaluation of the differences among these variables and the relationships between scale sub-dimensions and total scale scores compose the sub-problems of the research. METHOD

The research was designed in survey (descriptive-survey) model. Survey model aims to describe the existing situation as it stands in the past or currently (Karasar, 2005).

Research Scope and Sampling

The scope of the research is limited to pre-service mathematics and elementary teachers studying in İstanbul. The sampling of the research, on the other hand, consists of randomly chosen 90 senior pre-service teachers enrolled at the departments of Mathematics Education and Elementary Education of an education faculty in İstanbul.

Data Collection Tools

Personal information form (gender – department - computer ownership - Internet and e-mail use) and “Information Literacy Scale” were used as data collection tools. “Information Literacy Scale” developed by Adıgüzel (2011) is a five-point Likert type scale and is composed of 29 questions. The scale consists of the sub-dimensions of “Information Needs Identification”, “Information Access”, “Information Use” and “Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use”. The reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as .92, whereas it was calculated as .84 in this research. The highest possible score was 145 while the lowest possible score was 29. However, the highest possible score was calculated as 145, the lowest possible score was calculated as 87 and the mean score was calculated as 120.10 in the research. Data Analysis

Statistical analyses of the data collected in relation to the research problems were carried out using the SPSS19.0 package program. Independent Group t-Test, Kruskal Wallis and Mann Whitney-U tests were used for the analyses of the data depending on the variables. The relationship between the dependent variables was analysed using the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient method.




28

FINDINGS

This section presents the research findings. Table 1: Results of the Independent Group t Test Performed to Determine Whether Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale- ILS” Scores Differ or Not in Terms of Gender

Scores Gender N x S sd t p

ILS Dimension 1

Female 58 32,82 3,59

Male 32 33,46 4,36

54,415 -,750 ,455

ILS Dimension 2

Female 58 45,51 4,77

Male 32 45,65 6,25

51,265 -,118 ,906

ILS Dimension 3

Female 58 20,89 2,53

Male 32 20,40 3,27

51,909 ,790 ,432

ILS Dimension 4

Female 58 20,70 3,10

Male 32 20,84 3,09

64,309 -,200 ,842

ILS Total

Female 58 119,94 12,93

Male 32 120,37 16,07

53,390 -,137 ,891

As presented in Table 1, Independent Group t Test was performed to determine the significant difference between the mean ranks of pre-service teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” sub-dimensions and total scores in terms of gender. As a result of the analysis, no significant difference was detected between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores (t= -,137, p>.05) and the sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification-Dimension 1 (t= -,750, p>.05), Information Access-Dimension 2 (t= -,118, p>.05), Information Use-Dimension 3 (t= ,790, p>.05) and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use-Dimension 4 (t= -,200, p>.05). Table 2: Results of the Independent Group t Test Performed to Determine Whether Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” Scores Differ or Not in Terms of Department

Scores Department N x S sd t p

ILS Dimension 1

Mathematics 45 33,57 3,18

Elementary 45 32,53 4,42

79,933 1,284 ,203

ILS Dimension 2



83,601 1,173 ,244

ILS Dimension 3



79,935 1,626 ,107

ILS Dimension 4



78,860 2,162 ,033

ILS Total


Elementary 45 117,75 15,84

80,987 1,597 ,114




29

As presented in Table 2, Independent Group t Test was performed to determine the significant difference between the mean ranks of pre-service teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” sub-dimensions and total scores in terms of department. According to the results of the analysis, there was no significant difference between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores (t= 1,597, p>.05) and the sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification-Dimension 1 (t= 1,284, p>.05), Information Access-Dimension 2 (t= 1,173, p>.05) and Information Use-Dimension 3 (t= 1,626, p>.05). The difference between pre-service teachers’ arithmetic means and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use-Dimension 4 (t= 2,162, p<.05) was found to be statistically significant. Accordingly, it can be concluded that pre-service mathematics

teachers’ scores ( x =122,44) are higher than pre-service elementary teachers’ scores ( x =117,75). Table 3: Results of the Mann Whitney-U Analysis Perfomed to Determine Whether Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale- ILS” Scores Differ or Not in Terms of Computer Ownership

Scores Presence of Computer N S.O. S.T. U Z P

ILS Dimension 1

Available 82 44,62 354,00

Non-available 8 54,56 774,00

255,500 -1,042 ,297

ILS Dimension 2

Available 82 44,48 346,00


244,500 -1,193 ,233

ILS Dimension 3

Available 82 45,53 334,50


325,500 -,037 ,971

ILS Dimension 4

Available 82 44,95 334,00


283,000 -,650 ,515

ILS Total

Available 82 44,83 345,50


273,000 -,784 ,433

As presented in Table 3, Mann Whitney-U analysis was carried out to determine the significant difference between the mean ranks of pre-service teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” sub-dimensions and total scores in terms of computer ownership. According to the results of the analysis, there was no significant difference between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores (z= -,784, p>.05) and the sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification-Dimension 1 (z= -1,042, p>.05), Information Access-Dimension 2 (z= -1,193, p>.05), Information Use-Dimension 3 (z= -,037, p>.05) and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use-Dimension 4 (z= -,650, p>.05).

Table 4: Results of the Kruskal Wallis Test Performed to Determine Whether Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale- ILS Scores” Differ or Not in Terms of Internet Use Frequency

Scores Internet N Mean Rank Chi-Square Sd P

Less than once a week

11 39,27

Once a week 08 47,75

Several times a week

35 50,16

Every day 36 42,38

Dimension of

Information Needs

Identification

Total 90

2,376

3

,498


11 42,82





30


35 51,37

Every day 36 41,60

Dimension of

Information Access

Total 90

2,966

3

,397


11 43,14



35 48,39

Every day 36 45,35

Dimension of

Information Use

Total 90

1,492

3

,684


11 38,68



35 51,36

Every day 36 43,25

Ethical and Legal

Regulations in

Information Use

Total 90

3,340

3

,342


11 38,41



35 51,54

Every day 36 42,38

Total 90

Total

Scores

3,314

3

,346

As presented in Table 4, Kruskal Wallis Test was performed to determine whether “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” scores differ significantly or not in terms of internet use frequency. According to the results of the analysis, there was no significant difference between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores (x²= 3,314, p>.05) and the sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification (x²= 2,376, p>.05), Information Access (x²= 2,966, p>.05), Information Use (x²= 1,492, p>.05) and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use (x²= 3,340, p>.05).

Table 5: Results of the Kruskal Wallis Test Performed to Determine Whether Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” Scores Differ or Not in Terms of E-mail Use Frequency

Scores E-mail N Mean Rank Chi-Square Sd P

Never 3 9,17


14 38,61



38 51,87

Every day 18 45,50

Dimension of

Information Needs

Identification

Total 90

9,404

4

,052

Never 3 14,00




31


14 41,07



38 54,80

Every day 18 39,97

Dimension of

Information Access

Total 90

11,390

4

,023

Never 3 28,83


14 38,21



38 52,96

Every day 18 42,28

Dimension of

Information Use

Total 90

7,231

4

,124

Never 3 4,50


14 38,21



38 52,96

Every day 18 42,28

Ethical and Legal

Regulations in

Information Use

Total 90

12,312

4

,015

Never 3 7,00


14 38,64



38 54,70

Every day 18 41,67

Total Scores

Total 90

13,127

4

,011

As shown in Table 5, Kruskal Wallis Test was performed to determine whether “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” scores differ significantly or not in terms of e-mail use frequency. According to the results of the analysis, there was no statistically significant difference between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification (x²= 9,404, p>.05) and Information Use (x²= 7,231, p>.05). On the other hand, there was a statistically significant difference between the sub-dimension scores of Information Access (x²= 11,390, p<.05) and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use (x²= 12,312, p<.05) and total scores (x²= 13,127, p<.05).




32

Later, complementary statistical methods were performed to find the source of significant difference between the groups. Since there is not a specific test technique for this purpose, binary comparisons were performed with the non-parametric Mann Whitney-U Analysis. Table 6: Results of the Mann Whitney-U Analysis Performed to Determine the Source of Significant Difference Between the Mean Ranks of Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale- ILS” Scores in Terms of E-mail Use Frequency

Scores E-mail Use Frequency N S.O. S.T. U Z P

Never 3 3,50 10,50 4,500 -2,130 ,032

Less than once a week 14 10,18 142,50

Never 3 5,83 17,50 11,500 -1,488 ,146

Once a week 17 11,32 192,50

Never 3 5,50 16,50 10,500 -2,339 ,013

Several times a week 38 22,22 844,50

Never 3 5,17 15,50 9,500 -1,775 ,080

Every day 18 11,97 215,50

Less than once a week 14 16,25 227,50 115,500 -,141 ,891

Once a week 17 15,79 268,50

Less than once a week 14 20,11 281,50 176,500 -1,865 ,062



Every day 18 16,08 289,50

Once a week 17 21,76 370,00 217,000 -1,940 ,052


Once a week 17 17,88 304,00 151,000 -,067 ,961

Every day 18 18,11 326,00

Several times a week 38 31,43 1194,50 230,500 -1,969 ,049

Dim

en

sio

n o

f In

form

ati

on

Acc

ess

Every day 18 22,31 401,50

Never 3 2,67 8,00 2,000 -2,531 ,012


Never 3 2,33 7,00 1,000 -2,641 ,004

Once a week 17 11,94 203,00

Never 3 2,50 7,50 1,500 -2,818 ,000


Never 3 3,00 9,00 3,000 -2,424 ,011

Every day 18 12,33 222,00


Once a week 17 17,38 295,50




Every day 18 17,08 307,50

Once a week 17 24,44 415,50 262,500 -1,122 ,262


Once a week 17 18,71 318,00 141,000 -,402 ,708

Every day 18 17,33 312,00


Dim

en

sio

n o

f E

thic

al

an

d L

eg

al

Re

gu

lati

on

s in

In

form

ati

on

Use

Every day 18 24,03 432,50

Never 3 3,00 9,00 3,000 -2,290 ,021


To

tal

Sca

le

Never 3 4,00 12,00 6,000 -2,070 ,040




33

Once a week 17 11,65 198,00

Never 3 3,00 9,00 3,000 -2,721 ,001


Never 3 3,00 9,00 3,000 -2,424 ,011

Every day 18 12,33 222,00


Once a week 17 16,68 283,50




Every day 18 17,00 306,00

Once a week 17 22,21 377,50 224,500 -1,802 ,071


Once a week 17 17,91 304,50 151,500 -,050 ,961

Every day 18 18,08 325,50


Every day 18 22,75 409,50

As presented in Table 6, Mann Whitney-U analysis was performed to find out the source of significant difference between the mean ranks of the “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” total scores and the subdimensions of Information Access and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use in terms of e-mail use frequency. According to the results of the analysis, a significant difference was detected in the sub-dimension of Information Access between pre-service teachers who never use e-mails and those who use e-mails less than once a week: in favor of pre-service teachers who use e-mail less than once a week (z= -2,130; p<.05); between those who never use e-mail and those who use e-mail several times a week: in favor of those who use e-mail several times a week (z= -2,339; p<.05); between pre-service teachers who use e-mail several times a week and those who use e-mail every day: in favor of those who use e-mail several times a week (z= -1,969; p<.05). A significant difference took place in the sub-dimension of Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use between pre-service teachers who never use e-mail and those who use e-mail less than once a week: in favor of those who use e-mail less than once a week (z=-2,531; p<.05); between those who never use e-mail and those who use e-mail once a week: in favor of those who use e-mail once a week (z=-2,641; p<.05); between those who never use e-mail and those who use e-mail several times a week: in favor of those who use e-mail several times a week (z=-2,818; p<.01) and between those who never use e-mail and those who use e-mail every day: in favor of those who use e-mail every day (z=-2,424; p<.05). With respect to total scale scores, a significant difference was detected between pre-service teachers who never use e-mail and who use e-mail less than once a week: in favor of those who use e-mail less than once a week (z=-2,290; p<.05); between those who never use e-mail and who use e-mail once a week: in favor of those who use e-mail once a week (z=-2,070; p<.05); between those who never use e-mail and who use e-mail several times a week: in favor of those who use e-mail several times a week (z=-2,721; p<.01) and between those who never use e-mail and who use e-mail every day: in favor of those who use e-mail every day (z=-2,424; p<.05).




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Table 7: Results of the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Analysis Performed to Determine the Relationship Between Pre-service Teachers’ “Information Literacy Scale-ILS” Total Scores and Dimension Scores

Variables N r P

Total Scale Scores

Dimension of Information Needs Identification

90 ,928 ,000

Total Scale Scores

Dimension of Information Access

90 ,977 ,000

Total Scale Scores

Dimension of Information Use

90 ,907 ,000

Total Scale Scores

Dimension of Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information

Use

90 ,877 ,000

As shown in Table 7, a positively significant relationship was detected between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores and the sub-dimension scores of Information Needs Identification (r=,928; p<.01), Internet Access (r=,977; p<.01), Information Use (r=,907; p<.01) and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use (r=,877; p<.01). CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

As a result of the research findings, there was not a statistically significant difference between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores and sub-dimension scores of Information Needs Identification, Information Access, Information Use, and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use in terms of gender, computer ownership and internet use frequency. Pre-service mathematics teachers’ scores were higher than the scores of pre-service elementary teachers in terms of department in the sub-dimension of Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use. Another finding is that pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores and sub-dimension scores of Information Access, Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use differed significantly in terms of e-mail use frequency. The difference was in favor of those who used e-mail more frequently. The last finding is that there was a positively significant relationship between pre-service teachers’ Information Literacy Scale-ILS total scores and the total scores they got from the sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification, Information Access, Information Use and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use. According to the research results, it can be concluded that pre-service teachers’ levels of information literacy are not relevant to gender and female and male pre-service teachers have similar levels of literacy. The researches by Korkut and Akkoyunlu (2008), Ata and Baran (2011), Usluel (2006), Kahyaoğlu (2011) also support this finding. The research by Kahyaoğlu (2011) also supports the finding that pre-service teachers’ levels of information literacy do not differ in terms of computer ownership and internet use frequency. On the other hand, Ata and Baran (2011) found out that self-efficacy perceptions of information literacy differed significantly in terms of computer ownership and internet use frequency. Generally speaking, it can be concluded that pre-service teachers in the sampling have high levels of information literacy and hence, their information literacy levels are not influenced by these variables. Another finding is that pre-service teachers’ e-mail use frequency differentiated with respect to the dimensions of Information Access, Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use, and total scale scores. Accordingly, it can be said that pre-service teachers in the sampling use e-mail in order to access information and pay attention to ethical regulations. According to Akkoyunlu and Yılmaz (2005), as pre-service teachers’ skills of information literacy increase, the frequency of Internet use increases as well. Therefore, the differences in




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information literacy levels in terms of e-mail use frequency would have been expected to occur in terms of internet use frequency, too. As suggested by Atav et al. (2006), pre-service teachers use the Internet to do research and assignments in their daily life. In this context, students’ e-mail use can be said to be relevant to their internet use. Actually, it can be concluded that students use the internet to e-mail and thus, to access information. However, the fact that there was not any difference in the sub-dimensions of Information Needs Identification and Information Use has been evaluated as a controversial finding. The finding regarding pre-service teachers’ information literacy levels in terms of department has been interpreted as that it was due to the courses taken in mathematics education program. However, this finding has been viewed as controversial due to lack of similar research. On the other hand, a positively significant relationship was identified between pre-service teachers’ total and sub-dimension scores of the Information Literacy Scale-ILS. That means pre-service teachers’ information literacies grow as their activities regarding Information Needs Identification, Information Access, Information Use and Ethical and Legal Regulations in Information Use increase. As is known, it will be possible to train well-qualified teachers when the characteristics necessary for teachers are integrated into teacher training programs. Therefore, standards of quality pertaining to the realms of new literacy have to be determined in order to equip teachers with efficacies such as information literacy. Teachers’ endurance to ever-increasing information is ensured by learning how to access information rather than learning a great load of information. Thus, teachers should be trained as literates in many fields, particularly in information literacy (Adıgüzel, 2005). In line with this aim, the following suggestions can be put forward for further research and researchers:

• Pre-service teachers’ information literacies can be studied qualitatively in the dimensions of information needs identification and information use.

• Pre-service teachers’ information literacies can be studied in terms of grade levels and departments in education faculties.

• The relationship between information literacies and Internet&e-mail use frequency can be investigated in terms of different variables.

• Since this research is limited to senior pre-service math and elementary teachers studying in İstanbul, it can further be conducted with a broader scope and sampling.

• Quantitative and qualitative researches could be carried out to investigate pre-service teachers’ information literacies taking into consideration other variables.

IJONTE’s Note: This article is the revised form of the paper presented at the International Conference on New Trends in Education - ICONTE-2013 on 25-27 April 2013, Antalya, Turkey. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN currently employed as an Assistant Professor at Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics Education. She is specifically interested in contemporary approaches in instruction, approaches and techniques of teaching, creative drama, curriculum evaluation, lifelong learning, perceptual learning styles, individual differences in learning, the teaching of mathematics and learning of mathematics.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education Department of Primary Education, Istanbul, TURKEY

Tel: 0212 440 00 00/26064 E. Mail: [email protected]




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Research Assistant Dr. Yasemin DERİNGÖL KARATAŞ employed as a Research Assistant at Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics Education and Primary School Teacher Training Program. She is specifically interested in gifted education, creativity in mathematics, approaches and techniques of teaching, curriculum evaluation, individual differences in learning, the teaching of mathematics, and learning of mathematics.

Dr. Yasemin DERİNGÖL KARATAŞ Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education Department of Primary Education, Istanbul, TURKEY Tel: 0212 440 00 00/26064 E. Mail: [email protected] REFERENCES

Adıgüzel, A. (2005). Avrupa Birliğine Uyum Sürecinde Öğretmen Niteliklerinde Yeni Bir Boyut: Bilgi Okuryazarlığı [A New Dimension of Teacher Qualities During Adaptation Process to European Union: Information Literacy], Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 167, 355-363. Adıgüzel. A. (2011). Bilgi Okuryazarlığı Ölçeğinin Geliştirilmesi [The Development of the Scale of Information Literacy], Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17 (2011), 15-28. Akkoyunlu, B. ve Kurbanoğlu, S. (2003). Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgi Okuryazarlığı Ve Bilgisayar Öz-Yeterlik Algıları Üzerine Bir Çalışma [A Study On Teacher Candidates’ Perceived Information Literacy Self-Efficacy and Perceived Computer Self-Efficacy], Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24(1), 1- 10. Akkoyunlu, B., Yılmaz, E. (2005). Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgi Okuryazarlık Düzeyleri İle İnternet Kullanım Sıklıkları Ve İnternet Kullanım Amaçları [Prospective Teachers' Information Literacy Level, Internet Usage Frequencies and Purposes of their Internet Usage], Eğitim Araştırmaları, 19, 1-14. ALA (American Library Association). (1989) “Presidential committee on information literacy final report”. [Online], Retrieved on 20-March-2013, at URL: http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential Ata, F., & Baran, B. (2011). Investigation of Undergraduate Students’ Information Literaciy Self–Efficacy According to Foreign Language Level, Gender, Computer Ownership and The Internet Connection Duration, 5th International Computer & Instructional Technologies Symposium, 22-24 September 2011, Fırat University, Elazığ- TURKEY. Atav, E. , Akkoyunlu, B., Sağlam, N. (2006). Öğretmen Adaylarının İnternete Erişim Olanakları Ve Kullanım Amaçları [Prospective Teachers' Internet Access Facilities and Their Internet Usage], Hacettepe Üniversitesi

Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30, 37-44 Başaran, M. (2005). Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının bilgi okuryazarlıklarının değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of Preservice Primary School Teachers Information Literacy], [Elektronik Versiyonu]. GÜ, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi

Dergisi, C. 25, S. 3, 163-177. Henderson, Martha V. ve Scheffler, Anthony J. (2003). New Literacies, Standards And Teacher Education, Education, 124; 2, 390–396. Kahyaoğlu, M. (2011). Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgi Okur-Yazarlığı Becerileri İle İnternet Kullanımına Yönelik Tutumları Arasındaki İlişkinin Değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation The Relation Between Science Teacher




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Candidates' Attitudes Toward Use of Internet and Information Literacy Skills], Eğitim Teknolojileri Araştırmaları

Dergisi, 2(3). Karasar, N. (2004). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi [Scientific Research Method], 13. Baskı, Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Korkut, E. ve Akkoyunlu, B. (2008). Yabancı Dil Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgi Ve Bilgisayar Okuryazarlık Öz-Yeterlikleri [Foreign Language Teacher Candidates’ Information and Computer Literacy Perceived Self Efficacy], Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34, 178-188. Kurbanoğlu, S. ve Akkoyunlu, B. (2002). Bilgi Okuryazarlığı: Bir İlköğretim Okulunda Yürütülen Uygulama Çalışması [Information Literacy: A Study Applied in a Primary School], Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 16(1), 20 – 41. Kurudayıoğlu, M. ve Tüzel, S. (2010). 21. Yüzyıl Okuryazarlık Türleri, Değişen Metin Algısı ve Türkçe Eğitimi [The Types of Literacy of the 21

st Century, Changing Text Comprehension and Turkish Teaching], Türklük Bilimi

Araştırmaları, Güz 2010, S.28, 283-298. Usluel Y.K. (2006). Öğretmen Adayları ve Öğretmenlerin Bilgi Okuryazarlığı Öz-yeterliliklerinin Karşılaştırılması [Comparison of Prospective Teachers’ and Teachers’ Information Literacy Self – Efficacy], T 22, 233-243.




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EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS STUDY FOR THE SCALE

OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS CHEMISTRY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökhan DEMİRCİOĞLU

Karadeniz Technical University Trabzon, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Ayşegül ASLAN


Mustafa YADİGAROĞLU


ABSTRACT

It is important to develop students' positive attitudes chemistry lessons in school because research has suggested that attitudes are linked with academic achievement. Therefore, how to evaluate the attitudes is an important topic in education. The purpose of this study was to develop a Likert-type scale that could measure high school students’ attitudes toward chemistry. In order to develop this scale, it was benefited from some studies in the literature and expert ideas. After adjustments based on expert recommendations, a scale which is consisted of 25 items was developed and applied to 200 high school students. In order to determine the construct validity, exploratory factor analysis was performed. In this way, a final scale consists of 20 items. The factor analysis results indicated that the scale has two factors explaining 45.9% of the total variance. In addition, the scale’ reliability coefficient (Cronbach’ alpha) was found as 0.89. Obtained results showed that the scale which is reliable and valid measurement tool can be used to determine the attitudes of secondary school students to chemistry. Key Words: Chemistry education, attitude scale, validity, reliability. INTRODUCTION

The definitions concerning attitude are distributed to a wide range of literature. Therefore, the attitude’s definition is very difficult to summarize in one sentence. However, the all definitions for the attitude are within a consensus in which they are positive or negative thoughts, feelings or behaviors towards the objects around us (Petty, 1995). The attitude is a psychological construct which has cognitive, affective and behavioral components (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). The cognitive component contains a set of beliefs about the attributes of the attitudes’ object. The affective component includes feelings about object. The behavioral component consists the way people act toward the object (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Salta & Tzougraki, 2004). This construct is an important predictor of the feelings, emotions or behaviors one person has toward an event or an object (Anderson, 1988). The attitude is viewed as “a learned, positive, or negative feeling about science that serves as a summary of a wide variety of beliefs about science” (Koballa and Crawley, 1985). Therefore, the accurate acquisition of attitudes will be useful for improving the quality of teaching chemistry. The statements like that “I like chemistry” or “I hate chemistry” indicate negative or positive feelings towards leaning chemistry. That two students which have these different feelings are subjected to the same training will lead to different conclusions. Affective dimension acts as a bridge between the behavioral and the cognitive dimensions in learning. If the teacher is unable to build this bridge on her/his students, (S)he would not perform an effective teaching. As well as cognitive factors, concerns, attitudes, affective factors and self-efficacy beliefs are extremely important in learning (Krylova, 1997; Turner & Lindsay, 2003).




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Research has suggested that attitudes are linked with academic achievement (Freedman, 1997; Salta &Tzougraki, 2004; Weinburgh, 1995).Also, there is an agreement among educators on the importance of students’ attitudes toward science courses in school (Osborne, Simon, & Collins,2003). However, there is not an agreement about how to evaluate the attitudes. The attitude scales were generally used to evaluate the attitudes.The Test of Science Related Attitudes (TOSRA) developed by Fraser (1981) has an important place in this process. Cheung (2009) developed the Attitudes towards Chemistry Lessons Scale (ATCLS) by making use of “Enjoyment of Science Lessons”, which is a sub-scale of TOSRA. In our country, the studies on the development of attitude scale are quite common (Berberoğlu, 1990;Şimşek, 2002; Kan & Akbaş, 2007; Tüysüz &Tatar,2008). Although the attitude was widely investigated in the literature, it still continues to be an issue needed to be studied because it is an important predictor for learning. Because the students have difficulty to understand chemistry consisting of abstract concepts, it becomes important to investigate students’ attitudes toward chemistry. In this respect, the attitude scales that evaluate the attitude’ dimensions have great significance in education. The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the present study is to develop a reliable and valid measurement tool in a Likert-type which evaluates high school students’ attitudes towards chemistry. METHOD

The reliability of the scale was evaluated by Cronbach’s α, which is the most important reliability index and is based on the number of the scale’ items, as well as on the correlations between the items (Nunnally, 1978). The alpha (α) is the most important index of internal consistency. Then Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation was used to determine the scale construct validity. Two statistical tests were used to evaluate if the sub-scales were suitable for factor analysis. The first is the Bartlet Test of Sphericity, in which it is examined if the subscales of the scale are inter-independent, and the latter is KMO (Kaiser-Meyer Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy) which examines sample sufficiency. Sample

The sample of study is consisted of 200 students (95 girls and 105 boys) in high school in Trabzon. The number and grades of the students in the sample are shown in Table 1. Table 1: The number and grades of the students in the sample

Gender Number of Students

Boy Girl Grade Level

f % f % f %

9th

grade 50 25 26 13 24 12

10th

grade 48 24 25 12.5 23 11.5

11th

grade 53 26.5 28 14 25 12.5

12th

grade 49 24.5 26 13 23 11.5

Total 200 100 105 52.5 95 47.5

According to Table 1, 9

th grade students are 50, 10

th grade students are 48, 11

th grade students are 53 and 12

th

grade students are 49. There are different ideas about the required sample size for factor analysis. According to Comrey and Lee (1992), the sample is very weak when it is 50, weak when it is 100, medium when it is 200, good when it is 300, very good when it is 500 and perfect when it is 1000. On the other hand, according to Kline (1998), the appropriate sample size for factor analysis must be up to 10 times of variable (item) number. Taking into account all of these views, our sample (N=200) is medium level for factor analysis.




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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The Development of the Scale

First, an item pool which is consisted of 37 items was constituted by making use of Test of Science-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) which is designed to measure seven distinct science-related attitudes among secondary school students (Fraser, 1981). These sub-scales are called “Social Implications of Science”, “Normality of Scientists”, “Attitude to Scientific Inquiry”, “Adoption of Scientific Attitudes”, “Enjoyment of Science Lessons”,“Leisure Interest in Science”, and “Career Interest in Science”. TOSRA was found to be highly reliable and used in a variety of studies in science education (White &Richardson, 1993; Joyce &Farenga, 1999; Lang, Wong&Fraser, 2005).The items in the present scale were adapted from TOSRA. Then a panel of three judges evaluated the items for content validity and readability and the list was reduced to 25 items (13 positive and 12 negative statements) based on the evaluation. The instrument contained 25 items on a 5 point Likert-type scaleranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The scale has a possible minimum score of 25 and a maximum score of 125. Tavşancıl (2002) suggested that it is easier to develop a Likert-type scale than the others. In this study, the width of the class interval is found by dividing the data range by the the chosen number of classes (Kan, 2009). From this, range= highest value-lowest value=5-1=4, and the class interval is 4/5=0.80. Accordingly, in order to evaluate the findings obtained from data analysis, the following intervals were used: 4.21–5.00 strongly agree, 3.41 to 4.20 agree, 2.61 to 3.40 neutral, 1.81 to 2.60 disagree and 1.00 to 1.80 strongly disagree. Negative sentences were reverse scored. The scale was tested with 200 high school students. The item-total correlation values were determined for items and also mean of each item was calculated. The scalegenerated a mean of 3.14 (SD=1.17).The item-total correlation values ranged from 0.74 to -0.42.Item-total correlations should not be negative and smaller than 0.25 (Özdamar, 1997; Punch, 2005). However, it was found that correlation values of items 3, 17 and 18 were negative, and those of items 13 and 21 were smaller than 0.25. Because these items adversely affect the internal consistency of the scale, they were removed from the scale prior to the factor analysis. Exploratory Factor Analysis and the Construct Validity

Before the explanatory factor analysis, we determined if the sample data are suitable for the analysis. The table 2 gives information about two assumptions of factor analysis. To determine if the subscales were suitable for factor analysis, the Bartlett Test of Sphericity and KMO (Kaiser-Meyer Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy) tests were used. The first test examined if the subscales of the scale are inter-independent, and the latter examined sample sufficiency. As can be seen from Table 3, ΚΜΟ=0.89>0.70 indicated that the sample data are suitable for factor analysis(Büyüköztürk, 2004; Hair et al., 2006). The Bartlett’s Test (p<0.001) showed that the correlations coefficients are not all zero (Table 2). As a result, both assumptions required for factor analysis are satisfied. Table 2:The results of KMO and Barlett’s tests

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of sampling adequacy 0.89

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 1609.1

df 190

Sig. .000

Figure 1 shows a scree plot of eigenvalues plotted against the factor numbers. The criterion of Eigenvalue ≥1 was used for determining the number of the factors. In Figure 1, a high curved decrease was observed after the second factor. From this, it could be said that the scale has two factors (Field, 2002).




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Figure 1:The Scree plot graph of the scale of attitude towards chemistry. A Principal component analysis with Varimax Rotation was used to confirm the scale construct validity. The results of factor analysis, factor loadings and the variance explained were given in Table 3. As can be seen in Table 3, two factors explaining 49.5% of total variance were obtained. First factor explained 27.6% of total variance and has factor loadings ranging from 0.301 to 0.801.Second factor explained 18.3 % of total variance and has factor loadings ranging from 0.421 to 0.737. The reason behind use of Oblimin rotation is the relation between its factors of the scale (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). By this way, a two-factored construct consisting of 20 items explaining 45.9% of total variance is obtained. Table 3:The results of factor analysis

Rotated Component Matrix

Factors Scale items M SD I II

1 Chemistry lessons are funny. 3.22 1,04 ,801 18 I don’t like chemistry. 2.78 1,12 ,811 20 Chemistry does not interest me. 3.81 1.10 .796 7 Chemistry lessons bore me. 2.64 1.23 .783 10 Chemistry is easy for me to learn. 3.24 1.15 .773

3 I hate chemistry. 2.86 1.27 .758 19 I have positive attitude towards chemistry. 3.59 1.16 .758 5 I’m not good at chemistry. 3.37 1.31 .705

14 Although I endeavored, I didn’t understand chemistry lessons. 2.96 1.24 .626 13 I’m looking forward to chemistry lessons. 2.62 1.08 .582 2 Chemistry is necessary to solve daily life problems. 3.11 1.15 .417 9 Chemistry is one of the most interesting lessons. 3.44 1.32 .322

16 Chemistry knowledge is important to find a good job. 2.57 1.05 .301 8 It may be interesting to work in a laboratory to earn money. 3.67 1.19 .737 15 I want to become a scientist after high school. 2.94 1.29 .721

6 I don’t want to work in a laboratory after graduating from high school. 2.84 1.12 .712

4 After graduating, I would like to work with people who make discoveries for chemistry.

2.92 1.07 .687

12 To be a scientist is boring. 3.47 1.16 .650 11 To make career about chemistry is boring and routinized. 3.30 1.12 .619 17 I like chemistry projects. 3.49 1.25 .421 Variance Explained (%) 27.6 18.3

Cronbach's α (%) 0.90 0.81

Total Variance Explained (%) 45.9




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Each factor was named in accordance with the construct explained by the items. First factor was labeled as “Liking for chemistry lessons”. The items under this factor are related to the reactions of the students to the chemistry lesson activities. The factor consists of 13 items with loadings between 0.30 and 0.80 and explains 27.6 % of total variance. Two examples of the statements in the factor 1 are; “Chemistry does not interest me” and “chemistry is joyful.” The items of second factor are related to chemistry in students’ future plans. Considering that, the factor was named as “Career plans for chemistry”. The factor 2 consists of 7 items. The factor loadings of the items listed under this factor were ranged from 0.73 to 0.42. Two examples of the statements under the factor 2 are:- “I do not want to work in the Chemistry Laboratory” and “It may be interesting to work in a laboratory to earn money .” Reliability Analysis of the Scale

Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients are calculated for each scale and sub-dimension of the scale reliability. Cronbach alpha internal reliability coefficients are found as 0.90 for the factor 1 and 0.81 for the factor 2. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for the whole scale is found as 0.89. Nunnally (1967) suggested that scale is highly reliable if Cronbach Alpha is 0.80 ≤ α <1.00. Similarly, Spooren et al. (2007) asserted that Cronbach alpha value above 0.70 is sufficient. Therefore, it can be said that the items in the scale are consistent with each other and measure same property. In other words, the scale is a reliable and valid measurement tool. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Therefore, a model of two factors has reached after the examination of the validity and reliability of the initial students attitudes toward chemistry. The scale constitutes of 20 items and a tool useful for measuring students’ attitudes towards chemistry. Principal component analysis made evident two subscales, named as: Liking for chemistry lessons and Career plans for chemistry. The reliability of the scale is α= 0.89, which is satisfactory. The reliability coefficients of the sub-scales are found as 0.90 and 0.81, respectively. These are satisfactory, too. The scale developed in the present study could be used by researchers in experimental and descriptive studies. Further studies that will use the present scale might cope with testing its factor structure as well as its use in different samples. Also, the teachers can use it to determine their students’ attitudes toward chemistry the beginning and end of the academic year.

IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökhan DEMİRCİOĞLU currently employed as an Associate Professor at Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Faculty of Education, Department of Secondary Science Education. He is specifically interested in concept teaching, conceptual development and change, computer and instructional technology, secondary education, and context-based learning.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökhan DEMİRCİOĞLU Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education Department of Secondary Science Education Akçaabat, Trabzon, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]




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Res. Asst. Ayşegül ASLAN currently employed as a research assistant at Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Faculty of Education, Department of Secondary Science Education. She is specifically interested in concept teaching, conceptual change, secondary education, context-based learning, out-of school education, informal learning and professional development.

Res. Asst. Ayşegül ASLAN Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Faculty of Education, Department of Secondary Science Education, Akçaabat-Trabzon, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Mustafa YADİGAROĞLU is currently a PhD student at Karadeniz Technical University, Institute of Educational Sciences, and Department of Secondary Science Education. He is specifically interested in concept teaching, conceptual change, computer and instructional technology, secondary education, information and communication technology, context-based learning and teacher education.

Mustafa YADİGAROĞLU

Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education Department of Secondary Science Education Akçaabat-Trabzon, TURKEY. E. Mail: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Anderson, L.W. (1988). “Attitudes and their measurement. Educational Research, Metodology and Measurement, An International Hanbook”, Ed. John, P. Keves, New York: Pergamon Press, p 421-426 . Berberoğlu, G. (1990). Kimyaya İlişkin Tutumların Ölçülmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 76, 16–27. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2004).Veri Analizi El Kitabı.Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.

Cheung, D. (2009). Developing a scale to measure students‟ attitudes toward chemistry lessons. International Journal of Science Education, 31(16), 2185-2203. Comrey, A. L. & Lee, H. B. (1992). A first course in factor analiysis, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum. Eagly, A. H. &Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Freedman, M. P. (1997). Relationship among laboratory instruction, attitude toward science, and achievement in science knowledge. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 34(4), 343–357. Field, A. (2002). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Sage publications ltd., UK: London.




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Fraser, B.J. (1981). Test of Science Related Attitudes (TOSRA). Australia: The Australian Council for Educational Research Limited. Hair, J., Anderson, R.E.,Tatham, R.L.& Black, W.C. (2006).Multivariate data analysis. (6th ed.), Prenctice Hall, Upper Saddle River: New Jersey. Joyce, B. A.,& Farenga, S. J. (1999). Informal science experience, attitudes, future interest in science, and gender of high-ability students: An exploratory study. School Science and Mathematics, 99(8), 431–437. Kan, A. (2009). Ölçme sonuçları üzerinde istatistiksel işlemler. H. Atılgan (Ed.), Eğitimde Ölçme ve Değerlendirme (ss.397–456), Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Kan, A.,& Akbaş, A. (2005). Lise öğrencilerinin kimya dersine yönelik tutum ölçeği geliştirme çalışması, Mersin

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Şimşek, N. (2002). Kimya eğitimine yönelik bir tutum ölçeği hazırlanması ve buna yönelik çeşitli

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students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid South Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.




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LEARNING FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: GEOGRAPHICAL SCHOOL PRACTICE IN SLOVENIA

Prof. Dr. Karmen KOLNIK

Department for Geography Faculty of Arts

University of Maribor Maribor, SLOVENIA

ABSTRACT

We analyse some aspects of the integration of sustainable education in school practice in Slovenia with special reference on geography. The results of analyses (since 2007) have shown that the objectives, which should contribute to the achievement of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) are not all realized. So far the legal bases that support ESD, as well as the revised national curricula for primary and secondary schools have been provided, although they should be upgraded as we notice on school geography example. Less activity was observed in the area of accelerating teaching research and strengthening cooperation between the various stakeholders in the field of ESD at all levels. At this point, it is our opinion that the greatest attention should be, at this moment, put on training of professionals, especially teachers and educators, because they still have not internalized the principles of ESD to such an extent that it exercised decisive influence on their theaching philosophy. We strongly believe that education for a sustainable future must be based on the level of personal beliefs and to become a part of life of educators too. Key Words: Sustainability, education, curriculum, teacher, geography. INTRODUCTION

The United Nations has declared the period from 2005 to2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD). UNESCO was chosen as the agency in charge of promoting the Decade and was asked to initiate a draft international scheme. The underlying vision of the DESD is a world where each individual can benefit from quality education and learn the values, behaviour and lifestyles needed for a sustainable future and for positive societal transformation. (Interboard Education for Sustainable Development Group, 2005) They have put in the forefront the values and respect – to others, to diversity, to nature and to natural resources. With the inclusion of mentioned values in all points of education and learning we would encourage changes in people’s behaviour. With this a stronger future would be allowed concerning the purity of nature, development of economy and fair society for present and future generations (UNESCO – Education for Sustainable Development). In 2007 Ministry for Education, science and sport of Republic of Slovenia has issued educational guidelines for sustainable development from preschool education to university education. As they wrote in this document the main goal of this guideline is: »…to emphasise the importance of education for sustainable development and to

show possibilities for implementation of sustainable development in formal, unofficial and occasional learning«. (Ministry for Education, science and sport of Republic of Slovenia, 2007, 2). It is determined that in education sustainable development must include environmental, economic and social questionsjavascript:IzberiBesedo2(5,174) and that they that are connected mutually. Like this ESD is not only addition to previous general education, but must: � Be extensive, complete, harmonious teaching process, that comprises relationship between a person and

nature and relationships between people;




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� Leeds to understanding all-round correlations between environmental, economic, social and political systems and co-dependency of people, living in different parts of the world;

� Tries actively to save present and future environmental and social questions of mankind.

Some conditions, those need to be met for successful implementation in Slovenia on all levels of education: � Ensure normative bases, that are supporting ESD; � Quality professional workers with ESD; � Provide suitable didactic and other materials for implementation of ESD; � To expedite research and development of ESD; � To strengthen cooperation of all factors on the field of ESD on all levels (local, regional, national). (Ministry

for education, science and sport , 2007) In Slovenia, the principles for ESD have been the starting point for renovation of curricula for secondary schools in 2008 and in 2011 for renovation of national curricula for primary schools. The ESD principles were determines in cross-curricula competences, which the pupils should develop. With the ESD principles the new vision of education is connected, inside which the interdisciplinary approach is being emphasised to obtain knowledge and skills that are needed for sustainable future as well as the change of values in behaviour and life habits. GEOGRAPHY AND EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

Important feature and in the same time a large educational advantage of geography is in achieving goals in education for sustainable future, that enables complexity of information on public, professional and private life of people in different physical and socio-economic background, which enables pupils to realise, to understand and to accept civil responsibility for active involvement in local, regional, national and global space. These are basics for understanding the meaning of relationships and values at decision-making, readiness for responsible use of knowledge about space and the awareness of co-responsibility for it. Sustainable development features in all educational key stages and the fact that geography has come to be seen as education for sustainable development’s natural home. (Huckle, 2006) Geography education can offer quality in connecting natural and social knowledge and common values in order to understand both local and global problems and to encourage students to respond to these responsibly. This is the main educational potential of geography in civic education and education for sustainable development and living (Kolnik, 2009). For achieving this goals all elements and actors of educational process must be cohesive (picture 1), which demands thorough deliberation on their today‘s role as well as curtain changes in general national educational policy. Picture 1: Interdependence of elements and actors of education for sustainable future as the case of geography teaching and learning.




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Source: Kolnik, 2011 A large role in changing of curriculum have the changes of educational philosophy, were the curriculum is the result of compromise among existent educational philosophies () and changes, that we want to include in them from the point of view of new educational guidelines as reflection of social needs. Konečnik Kotnikova (2009) found when lists, that the deciding on curriculum can go on mostly on the level of teaching (in this case a profound influences of teachers is detected), on level of institution or schools and on the state level (e.g. influence of government services such as Ministry of education, science and sport, the National education institute of the Republic of Slovenia, etc.) The examination of developmental orientations of geographical education in Slovene and European space indicates that last decade of former century has brought the consciousness that is important to establish more quality attitudes within the use of space: change the attitude towards the surroundings, fellow men and future nations (education for coexistence, multicultural education and environmental education). The beginning of 21

st century closely connects school geography with interdisciplinary didactic goals of

protection of the environment for the survival of humankind and sustainable development on local, regional and planetary level (). Such defined educational objectives are integral part of curricula, according to some researchers of Slovene school geography () are important if not already decisive at influence on the class of geography alone. It is also important to know geography teachers, their competences, knowledge of their acceptance and understanding of starting points and characteristics of renovated curricula as key holders of didactic process. Geography teachers and ESD

Learning for sustainable future rests on the assumption that a person’s views on sustainability integrate his/her past experience (emotional, cognitive and conative). In their activity in the life world, students should have varied opportunities to obtain different kinds of experience and information. Each student can combine this




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input with pre-existing experience and directly or indirectly obtained information, in a combination that can become a catalyst for reflexive-constructive thinking (ESD, 2005). Active teaching and learning offers more opportunities for interaction among pupils and teachers, among pupils themselves and last but not least among pupils and the contents. Pupil is not only a passive listener, but an active participant in the learning process. Active teaching and learning requires also a changed role of the teacher, primarily as a mentor and consultant. A cooperative environment, flexibility, learning from mistakes, learning based on problem solving and process thinking is encouraged. (O`Donoghue & Cusack, 2008). New educational approach demands also new didactics that is by pupils developing skills and competences for partnership, participation and engagement and for these suitable qualified teachers. This move influenced on the conceptualization and acceding to matters that are: school management, didactic approaches, curriculums, additional didactic activities, resource management, school basics and partnership in a community. In the period between 2006 and 2008 a research named Analysis and stimulation of involving primary school education in sustainable development has been conducted in Slovenia. The research was looking into which elements of sustainable development teachers know in practice, and which contents they think are important and are recognised as a priority. The sample contained 172 teachers from different primary schools in Slovenia. Among others the research indicated, that the interviewed teachers at determining of key contents of sustainable development had showed little readiness for consideration of contents active citizenship (30%) and developing of enterprise (24%). The authors of the research have expressed concern over low percent of teachers that previously mentioned themes seem important. They are warning, that disequilibrium of key contents of sustainable development show wrong understanding of mentioned concept at teachers, consequentially also by pupils. A presenting problem are also approaches, which demand more contemporary manners of work and in space oriented curricula (case: only 25 % of teachers made possible for pupils to alone threw empirical way look into problems of sustainable development) (Jamšek & Javrh, 2009). Important personal experiences gained during the education on different points of view regarding sustainable development are not only present at teachers but also among students, future geography teachers. In the year 2011 at the Department of geography at the Faculty of Arts in Maribor a pedagogical experiment was conducted involving students – future geography teachers. The goals was to find out if students during their studies gain good examples of mentorship and are developing necessary skills and competences for their future profession based on contents and principles of education for sustainable development: 42 students cooperated, that were finishing two-subject study of geography were involved. In the first part of the teaching experiment the students with five keywords described their understanding of the sustainable development. Findings indicated that the cooperating students listed keywords from three fields of sustainable development (environmental, social and economic). In the second part students in groups analysed curriculum for geography at general high schools and based on that independently made a project didactic work for pupils of general high school, which was bases on principles of education for sustainable development at class of geography. Out of eleven groups, eight chosen goals from fields of ecology, two groups from field of economy, and one from field of population. On question why the vast majority decided for themes from field of ecology, the answer was because they have the most experience on this topic during the course of their so far education (Kolnik, 2011). From the listed literature it can be summarised that themes and contents from fields of social sustainability are not sufficiently and equally engaged in education of sustainable development, which influences wrongly on understanding and knowing the concept of sustainability. Goals and principles of education for sustainable development will not be able to be achieved completely, if teachers are not only professionally suitable but also that they recognise the meaning of principles of sustainable education and in a larger degree also recognise on a personal level as important in all their dimension. Co-creators of didactic process (teachers and pupils) have to be able to be aware of the meaning of holistic approach within the education of sustainable




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development. The whole integrated treatment and integrated education on concept of sustainability leads not only to a more complex knowledge and understanding of such problems, but also towards integrated solutions that are the sole way to sustainable society. CONCLUSION

One of the basic characteristics of school Geography is its constant adjusting to natural environment and the social (educational, economic, cultural, etc.) needs and also to the development of Geography as a science. In order to achieve the goals of upbringing and education for sustainable future, all the elements and agents of the educational process need to be sound with each other, which calls for a thorough consideration of their current role as well as for certain changes in the entire national educational policy. The latter include also the guidelines of upbringing and education for sustainable future on all the educational levels. We can be satisfied in Slovenia with the Geography Curriculum as a basic pedagogical documentation for Geography classes from the point of view of their accordance with the principles of education for sustainable development. However, important changes in them, for primary and secondary schools, which were recently revised, are still ahead of us. This refers in particular to the revision of Geography classes from the point of view of educational philosophy, according to which students and teachers should not only carry out the aims and topics of curriculum or consume knowledge produced by others (as case the teachers educators, didactic materials, etc.), but also produce and co-create this knowledge. Instead of “reaction” to the educational changes and novelties, they need to develop a proactive attitude as a starting point for innovative learning. Innovative learning, which encourages the upbringing and education for sustainable future, is composed of anticipatory learning (encouragement of creativity in the sense of long term planning of the future and assuming responsibility for one’s own decisions) and participatory learning (an individual’s active involvement and participation in group formation of problem directed questions and anticipation of alternative solutions for these questions), and directly supports the implementation of the educational principles for sustainability. Goals and principles of education for sustainable development won’t be able to be achieved completely, if teachers are not only professionally suitable but also that they recognise the meaning of principles of sustainable education and in a larger degree also recognise on a personal level as important in their entire dimension. Co-creators of didactic process (teachers and pupils) have to be able to be aware of the meaning of holistic approach within the education of sustainable development. The whole integrated treatment and integrated education on concept of sustainability leads not only to a more complex knowledge and understanding of such problems, but also towards integrated solutions that are the sole way to sustainable society. Coming to the main task: we must achieve cohesiveness between educational documents, didactic guidelines of education for sustainable development, modified curricula for geography in a way that teachers internalise them as their own. Only this way, teachers will implement them and direct these guide pupils on their own way to the future of sustainable society. IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.




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Karmen KOLNIK is professor and researcher at University of Maribor, Slovenia. She lectures at undergraduate and postgraduate study at Faculty of Arts and Faculty of Education. Her research interest is: geography teachers training, development of curricula, outdoor learning, sustainable and multicultural education. Dr. Kolnik has authored and co-authored more than 15 geography textbooks, workbooks and manuals for primary and secondary schools. She presented over one hundred book chapters, articles and conference presentations. Between 2006 and 2011 dr. Kolnik served as Vice-Dean for Academic Affairs at Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor.

Prof.Dr. Karmen KOLNIK University of Maribor Faculty of Arts Departement of Geography Koroška cesta 160 SI. 2000 Maribor, SLOVENIA E. Mail: [email protected] REFERENCES

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Kolenc Kolnik, K. (2008). Razvoj geografskih kurikulov in izobraževalni potencial geografije na začetku 21. stoletja. Dela 29, (pp 77-88), Oddelek za geografijo, Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani. Ljubljana. . Kolenc Kolnik, K., Konečnik Kotnik , E., 2010. Geografski kurikul kot proces. Posodobitev pouka v gimnazijski praksi. Geografija (ur. A. Polšak). (pp 13-28). Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo in šport. Kolnik, K., (2010). Šolska geografija v luči vzgoje in izobraževanja za trajnostni razvoj. Dela. [Tiskana izd.], Vol. 34. 201-210. Oddelek za geografijo Filozofska fakulteta. Ljubljana.. Kolnik, K. (2011). Usmerjanje bodočih učiteljev geografije v aktivno izobraževanje za trajnostni razvoj = Guidance of future geography teachers to active education for sustainable development. Revija za geografijo, 2011, Vol.6/2, 67-75. Oddelke za geografijo, Filozofska fakulteta Univerza v Mariboru. Maribor. Konečnik Kotnik. E. (2009). Vrednotenje učnega načrta za pouk geografije v splošni gimnaziji v Sloveniji z vidikov družbenih potreb, izobraževalnih smernic in geografske znanosti. Doktorska disertacija.. Maribor: Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru. Ministry for Education, science and sport of Republic of Slovenia (2007). Smernice vzgoje in izobraževanja za trajnostni razvoj od predšolske vzgoje do univerzitetnega izobraževanja. Retrived June 12, 2008 from http://www.mss.gov.si/si/delovna_podrocja/razvoj_solstva/vzgoja_in_izobrazevanje_za_trajnostni_razvoj/ Ministry for Education, science and sport of Republic of Slovenia (2008). Učni načrt Geografija: gimnazija: splošna, klasična, ekonomska gimnazija: obvezni predmet (210 ur), Matura (105 ur). Retrived June 1, 2010 from http://portal.mss.edus.si/msswww/programi2008/programi/media/pdf/un_gimnazija/geografija_spl_gimn.pdf Mulchany, C., Tutiaux-Guillon, N. ( 2005). Guidelines on Citizenship Education for Sustainable Development..CiCe Guidelines 9. London. O`Donoghue, M., Cusack. (2008). Images and objects active methodology toolkit. Hamar. Consumer Citizenship Network. Polšak A. (2007). Medpredmetno povezovanje in učni načrt. Geografija v šoli, Vol.16/2, 8-1. Zavod za šolstvo in šport. Ljubljana. . Reynolds, R.(2000). A Model for Research Syllabus Developement and Curiculum Change. Paper at the AARE Conference. University of Sydney. Sydney. UNESCO (2005). Education for Sustainable Development. Retrived July 22, 2008 from http://www.unesco.si/projekti-inaktivnosti/izobrazevanje-za-trajnostni-razvoj.html

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications January 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 1 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249


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AN E-DEMOCRACY APPLICATION: DO NOT LET MY DREAMS OF AN IDEAL UNIVERSITY STAY ONLY IN MY DREAMS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Serkan ŞENDAĞ

Akdeniz University Faculty of Education

Antalya, TURKEY ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to describe and discuss data gathered from a project titled “Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams”, which is an e-democracy application developed and implemented in light of the current e-democracy literature using Facebook and Twitter. The aim of the application is to develop ideas that would contribute to establishment of future higher education institutions bringing together relevant stakeholders. The project has four phases: (a) Launching, (b) Online interaction, (c) Evaluation (d) Sharing/Implementing the results. Current paper describes the structure and implementation of the application developed, and evaluates experiences on facilitating participation and interaction throughout the process with data gathered from the researcher’s dairy, meeting notes, online social networking sharing, and interviews. Data showed that there are some barriers to implement e-democracy applications at higher education level in Turkey. Results highlight that developing and implementing e-democracy applications is critical to improve participatory democracy for higher education institutions in Turkey. Key Words: E-democracy, digital culture, higher education. INTRODUCTION The digital culture inescapably continues to transform the society in many ways. One of these is a hope for revitalizing direct-democracy, e-democracy. It is a concept that facilitates the realization of participatory democracy. The only thing that differentiates the concept of e-democracy from the traditional notion of democracy is not the letter E, preceding the word ‘democracy’, but it is the contribution made by the letter itself (i.e. E) towards self-realization of the concept of democracy. This contribution seems to assign a key meaning to the concept in respect of realization of social transformations in the near future. At this stage, another significant concept, or more precisely institution is higher education. In the historical process, institutions of Higher Education have continued to be important institutions that have impacted the quality and form of social life. Consequently, e-democracy should not be seen far from being a source of social transformations of higher education institutions. This is why, these two concepts, e-democracy and higher education, which are likely to affect and transform each other in the immediate future are discussed together within this research. Presently, institutions of higher education remain inadequate in meeting expectations. In order for institutions of higher education to be able to respond to the expectations of the society and the requirements of our age, it is urgently needed that a radical transformation must take place in these institutions. That e-democracy can be utilized as an important tool to this end forms the main idea of this current study. Higher Education Institutions’ Need for Transformation The main purpose of this study is not only to evaluate the existing structure and operations of higher education institutions, but also some of the concepts that require transformation in higher education will be discussed in the context of the current structure. Some of these concepts include concepts that have been discussed over the years, in particular for the last ten years. Mostly, it is dealt with, within the framework of current problems, why higher education institutions have failed to meet expectations. For instance, the problems can be sorted as the increase in the number of students, the withdrawal tendency of government sources from higher education, disparities in access to higher education and so on. These factors can easily be linked with the need for transformation in higher education. In addition to these factors, some factors which appear to be more



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unstraightforward, but are likely to form the basis of transformation in higher education will be mentioned here in brief. Internationalization Internationalization has been one of the crucial concepts that affects the structure of higher education institutions, especially after the 1980s. In recent years, it has been observed that initiatives have increased towards attracting international students at a large scale rather than attracting students from a limited number of organizations that enable the circulation of students between higher education institutions (Brandenburg & De Wit, 2011). Internationalization comes to mean, from now on, more than student mobility (Marmolejo, 2011). Restriction of share of higher education institutions’ directly benefitting from government sources around the world gives rise to higher education institutions’ adoption of a commercial perspective on the internationalization of higher education institutions, and causes tendency to attract international students. Globalization and internationalization are factors that play key roles in higher education institutions’ taking on a commercial dimension. So much so that this competition has stimulated higher education institutions’ initiatives for collaboration on such issues as exchange of students and staff, offering joint programs and conducting research with international partners. The concept of globalization can be considered as a concept that aims at eliminating the negative perceptions generally associated with globalization in the world; however, whatever it is, universities’ processes of creating international joined initiatives for competition requires the formation of a system that necessitates the use of participatory democracy, accordingly the effective use of e-democracy. Massification Higher education institutions, in one sense, are institutions that accredit individuals’ obtaining qualification in any vocational area. In this sense, the effect of population growth in the world shows that more attention will be paid to higher education, with the increased interest of individuals in so-called white collar jobs and jobs that are associated with a more qualified higher education diploma. Altbach, Reisberg and Rumbley (2009) pointed out that massification is one of the leading factors that trigger higher education reform and transformation. Calderon (2012) speculates that if the demands continue to increase at this rate, it appears that there would be more 520 million people demanding of higher education by 2035 around the world. It seems inevitable that attempting to meet this intense demand with a limited number of higher education institutions, and limited infrastructure and resources has a number of alarming implications. In order to reduce negativities to the least possible degree, and increase the quality of learning environments, reasons such as the establishment of relations between different contexts are the factors that highlight the need for effective use of e-democracy in higher education management and instruction. Globalization, Competition and Technology Considered form the perspective of higher education institutions, it is not possible to think about globalization independently from internationalization. Globalization represents the international system that shapes many of today's societies. It refers to the integration and interaction of business world, cultures, politics and intellectual components at an international level (Wood, 2012). As the global economy sees the world as a single and large market, it has led to an increase in competition in education, particularly in the context of universities, as has been the case in many domains. While this competition has led to an increase of quality of the competition, development of technology and its use in different areas on the one hand, it has been criticized on the grounds that it has ignored human values with the influence of competition. In this sense, globalization has gained a more political meaning. Therefore, educational institutions opt to use the concept ‘internationalization’ instead of ‘globalization’ with an eye to highlighting the positive aspects of globalization (Brandenburg & De Wit, 2011). The basic formula to survive in the global economy is to produce technology and effectively use the produced technology again during the process of competition (Narula, 2003). Described as an evolution in the history of the Internet, Web 2.0 is one of the important developments caused by this competition, following the arrival of WWW. There has been a transformation to web technology that requires simple, purpose-built user interaction rather than personal, static web pages (Şendağ, 2008). In addition, Web 2.0 has not only acquired a version number itself, but also enabled many other fields to acquire version numbers, such as e-learning 2.0, and research 2.0. This fast transformation experienced in technology has led



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to emergence of the concepts named as deprofessionalization, and a reduction of the controllability of the amount of academic knowledge produced towards a particular subject area. However, e-democracy, a potential candidate to be a leading factor among the invisible agents in the path of surviving in the global competition, seems to be a concept that will become increasingly important in near future. Higher education institutions have to efficiently use e-democracy that enables the operation of the shared wisdom and negotiation process in order to think in multi-dimensional ways and make the right decisions in a world where knowledge changes and is transformed rather quickly. E-democracy in Higher Education Before discussing the concept of e-democracy, it would be useful to mention the concepts of e-voting and online discussions help explain what e-democracy is indeed not. E-voting, in its most general sense, is the process of voting in an electronic environment. Although e-voting is a process of decision making, generally the options voted for are not designed, and negotiated and discussed by the participants themselves prior to voting. As for online discussion, it is individuals’ involvement in a discussion occurring in an online environment within the framework of a specific topic. Here, the participants are not required to reach any decision on the given subject, and even if certain decisions have been made, the prerequisite of implementation of these decisions might not be a matter of question. E-democracy can be thought of as a problem solving tool that makes use of e-voting along with online discussion. While e-voting brings the political aspect of democracy to the fore, the online discussion is more like a discussion of specific phenomena in a limited setting by a limited number of participants. Another issue concerned with what e-democracy is not relates to e-politics. E-politics is the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in political processes. The use of e-democracy in this meaning is just a tendency towards associating democracy with the regime of the state. According to Şendağ (2010) “democracy should refer to any kind of negotiation, agreement, and human interaction such as representative–citizen, citizen–citizen, and representative–representative. In this sense, ICTs are the most contemporary facilitator of these negotiations, agreements, and human interaction processes. Briefly, e-democracy is involvement in every part of the community in the decision-making process through ICTs (p.1684). This definition emphasizes the administrative aspect of e-democracy. However, e-democracy as a way of life can be used as a method of decision making regarding how to live together in the workplace, the neighborhood, and the city. This case is associated with the concept of governance. While mentioning the national and global scales of the governance, Uçkan (2003) emphasized the necessity of making applicable decisions by grounding the governance on all parties’ consensus. This circumstance indicates that e-democracy has a relatively comprehensive meaning. Within this sense, e-democracy requires contextual factors and participation of stakeholders of decision making in the process, their interaction during the process, and discussion of raised ideas. This interaction must generally result in reaching a decision. Şişman (2006) specifically expresses the importance of participatory democracy in the school management, by highlighting the need for the participation of parents, students and all other stakeholders in decision making processes. When considered from the perspective of higher education institutions, the significance of participation of principal stakeholders, viz. students and academics, in decision-making processes has been in the main ignored up to the present. This occasion stands as an important barrier to realization of the expected transformation in higher education. It seems that e-democracy that facilitates the realization of participatory democracy for materialization of the anticipated transformations in higher education is likely to gain more significance in the short run. For this reason, it is fairly vital that various aspects of e-democracy applications should be studied by performing e-democracy applications in the higher education. Theoretical Framework In general, it can be reckoned that there is no need for a theoretical framework for the implementation of e-democracy, and the stakeholders already discuss their problems, especially in online social networking sites. For example, Caldow (2004) considers such activities as sending e-mails, writing e-petitions to administrators, and participations in forums and surveys within the framework of e-democracy. However, authorities’ power to impose sanctions on the subject of paying attention to these views (due to lack of reconciled opinions) cannot be said to be high. These tools which only make citizen-administrator interactions possible can be effective with respect to very specific topics; however, there is a necessity for structured e-democracy applications in



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which all stakeholders come together for the formation of negotiated ideas with the power to impose sanctions in matters concerning the public. There are two basic reasons why efforts are made to formulate e-democracy applications. First of all, it is to enable a participation that includes all the stakeholders at the highest level, and secondly it is the necessity of all ideas to be discussed through keeping the interaction among the participants at the highest level, which is the most distinctive characteristic of e-democracy applications that distinguishes it from citizens’ individual interaction with administrators. These two processes should be combined by means of an effective moderation and a decision needs to be reached by voting the consequential opinions. Models that support this framework can be found within the relevant literature. Nair’s (2007) proposed ‘digital democracy’ model was used in the e–democracy application performed within the scope of this study. Nair (2007) elaborates on four stages required for the realization of digital democracy: (1) Information sharing: sharing of wide variety of information that is related to topics generally concerned with the process of decision making, (2) Listening/Consultation: citizens’ getting feedback from the public institutions, (3) Online discussion: stakeholders’ negotiation of the subject to be decided on in various ways, (4) decision making: making such a decision that represents all views proposed. In this context, an e-democracy application, entitled “Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams” was undertaken in this present study. In this application, it is aimed to arrive at decisions by discussing ideas that will shape the future of universities in Turkey. To this end, the application has been carried out in four stages. (1) Introduction: the stage where stakeholders were invited for participation by setting up digital platforms and determining the objectives and framework of the application, (2) Online interaction: the stage where stakeholders negotiate their views, (3) Evaluation; the stage where decisions were made based on the evaluation of the results, (4) Sharing the results /Application: the stage where the application is carried out by sharing the obtained report of results with the individuals. In order for participatory democracy to be properly realized, there is a need to keep the interaction in online environment at the highest level among participants by encouraging all stakeholders to participate in the process as much as possible. Therefore, the experiences endured with respect to the matter of enabling participation and interaction in the application, ‘Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’, and are shared in this research. Problem Statement New digital technologies offer new opportunities for the revitalization of participatory democracy. The concept ‘e-democracy’ emerged in this sense is put to work in order to facilitate participatory democracy. There are a variety of transformations occurring in higher education institutions in the world, with the effect of technology. In this context, e-democracy that may render the thinking and decision making process active seems to take on a rather significant role in the near future. For this reason, in Turkey, there is a need particularly for the reconfiguration of higher education institutions and particularly the effective use of e-democracy during this configuration process. Moreover, there is a need for the assessment of applications for the use of e-democracy by investigating its various aspects, and the developments that will contribute to promoting participatory democracy culture in higher education institutions. Within the justifications specified in this study, an e-democracy application, entitled ‘Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’ was carried out. The application developed was evaluated from the perspective of its ensuring participation and interaction. Answers to the following questions have been focused on for achieving the objective of the research. 1. What are the experiences regarding the provision of participation in the e-democracy application, “Do not

let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams”? 2. What are the experiences regarding the ensuring of interaction in the e-democracy application, “Do not let

my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams”? METHOD The research adopts a case study design in which qualitative data gleaned through various content and document analyses and interviews are analyzed. In case studies, an event or situation is analyzed to be able to identify its different aspects by collecting various data (Willis, 2008). In this context, the e-democracy application ‘Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’ has been investigated with its various aspects in line with data obtained from content analyses and interviews.



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Participants and Settings After coming up with the idea of ‘Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’ project, a project web page, Facebook page and group, and a twitter account were created. An introductory text was written and sent to several public and private institutions by e-mails. The purpose of the project was to encourage participation of all public institutions and organizations, private sector and citizens, especially the Council of Higher Education in the project. However, it was observed that about 90 % of the participation in the project were from the universities, and of that participation, more than 90% were constituted by university students. The project was officially launched on November 20, 2012. Facebook group was used more actively in the project. More than 3,000 people became a member of the group. Members generally preferred sharing their dreams of the future universities by means of Facebook group. Similarly, discussions were largely held within this group. Twitter and Facebook pages were not much preferred by the members. In the study, the comments sent to the group were analyzed in picking themes related to higher education. The project team is comprised of ten people, with eight senior undergraduate students, one graduate student and a faculty member. In the evaluation of the process of conducted e-democracy project, seven meeting protocols attended by a team of 10 people, and researcher logs kept during the project, and the data obtained from 15 members who joined the project through social networking sites were used. Eight out of 15 participants were undergraduate students, one was administrative staff and six were members of university academic staff. Instruments The research instruments, used as the source of data in this research, were composed of researcher diaries, seven meeting protocols attended by the research team, and interviews carried out with 12 participants. Researcher diaries, meeting minutes, and the interviews done with participants were used in the evaluation of e-democracy application in terms of participation and interaction. In the researcher diaries, the number of the participants, number of comments, the characteristic of the participants and the progress in relation to the comments made on the social networking sites were noted down. In the meeting protocols, it is mentioned that which steps should be taken to comply with the adopted model, what steps have become successful and what steps have failed before at each step of the application of e-democracy. Information on brain storming relating to what can be done to make each step more effective is also kept in meeting protocols. A semi-structured interview protocol was used in the interviews with the participants at the end of the application. Participants’ general views on the project, their reasons for making or not making comments regarding their dream university, their overall views on democracy and the main obstacles to democracy in the country, and their opinions on whether the project has reached its aims were probed and their responses were recorded with a voice recorder. The data obtained were transcribed for analysis by means of electronic media. FİNDİNGS Participation The following steps were taken in order to ensure the participation of stakeholders in the project: 1. Project introductory text and an invitation card were created. 2. Project web page, Facebook page, Facebook group, Twitter account were created. 3. It was decided to make an announcement of raffling a tablet computer off. 4. The introductory text and invitations cards were emailed to academic and administrative staff in Turkey. 5. The 10-person project team invited their Facebook friends to participate in the project. 6. Posts have been shared on Facebook and Twitter which ask participants to invite their friend on their

Facebook and Twitter profiles. 7. A brief description of the project was aired on TRT Antalya radio. 8. A promotional video was shot. 9. Several public and private institutions have been invited to participate in the project via the Internet. 10. The famous journalist, author, broadcaster and actors were contacted by emails to announce the project

publicly. 11. Various media and television companies were contacted regarding the introduction of the project.



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The first step in effective implementation of e-democracy is to ensure the participation of all stakeholders in decision-making. Since it is not always possible to ensure this participation, the above steps were taken in order to be as much inclusive as possible in the study. The issue searched with the highest priority in regards to participation was concerned with which of the above steps were more effective. On this issue, meeting protocols and social network analysis have provided important data. While the number of group members was around 100 when the participation was tried to be ensured with an introductory text and e-mails on the first 15 days of the project, the number of members of Facebook group has reached a figure of around 3000 in a month after our friends in our profiles and their own friend groups were encouraged to invite their friends to participate in the project. Those who left the group are not included in this figure. During the study, it was seen that the efforts except for this Facebook group were not that much effective. Particularly, efforts to access the celebrities have been fruitless. Similarly, we could not get a result in our efforts to reach various media and television organizations. Apart from this, the participation of a small number of members in the group was achieved owing to e-mails and introduction of the website. As participation in the project was provided mainly through the profiles of Facebook friends, Facebook group was intensively used in the project. Throughout the entire project, while there were 50 tweets shared on Twitter, there were roughly 150 posts on Facebook group and comments made on these posts. On the Facebook page, however, there were almost no posts shared or virtually no comments made except for the project team’s introductory shares. In this context, it was clear to see that Facebook group came into prominence in the sense of ensuring participation in the project. In the same way, one of the most important issues mentioned in the meeting protocols was that the tablet computer which was planned to be given as a gift within the scope of the project was not encouraging enough to convince students to take part in the project. In general, students stated that a specific amount of monetary award or a gift/money card would have been more effective than a tablet computer to encourage participation. Interaction The most important feature that distinguishes an e-democracy application from e-voting and that can be described as the heart of e-democracy is particularly stakeholders’ discussion of the issue with its various aspects through interacting with each other. In short, all possible opinions should be discussed in detail and with its various facets prior to proceeding for voting. Therefore, the creation of an effective platform in e-democracy applications is relatively crucial. When researcher diaries, meeting protocols, and posts shared on the group were analyzed, it was found that one of the most challenging issues faced by the team was ensuring interaction. On the first days of the project, the ‘Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’ group appeared to be a platform where members shared their views rather than a platform where members were involved in discussion. For the purpose of igniting discussions, discussions were conducted within the framework of several topics, such as management and leadership, education and instruction, infrastructure and social activities in my dream university. However, these practices that lasted about two weeks were concluded to be not very much effective in terms of increasing the interaction and discussion, and thus they were terminated. Similarly, some faculty members were asked to write reflections that talk of their dream universities in order to increase the interaction. Only two faculty members provided texts, and their responses were shared on social media by publishing the texts on the project blog; however, this could not contribute to occurrence of the expected discussion platform. Another initiative done in order to increase the interaction was ‘my dream university videos’, in which various videos were shot with people who spoke of their dream universities and shared again on social media, but the expected dynamism was not obtained. Another application, ‘comment of the week’, carried out with an eye to increasing the interaction, remained again ineffective. In spite of the fact that the application called as ‘provocative questions’ by the project team seemed to be more effective than other applications with respect to ensuring interaction, one or two members called ‘discussion facilitators’ by the project team naturally facilitated the activation of discussions and turned out to be more effective than all the other initiatives seized by the project team. Nevertheless, the discussions triggered by these members took place among only a few members, and with the passivation of the discussion facilitators, the discussions came to an end. The discussion facilitators’ being successful drove us to the idea



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that the discussions might be triggered by some of the project members by taking on a discussion facilitator role. However, such initiatives did not arouse the same effect as the discussion facilitator naturally did. One of the most striking points from the perspective of interaction was the scarce number of posts shared, and discussion according to the number of members in the group. Only around 100 members out of a total 3,000 were engaged in sharing posts and discussions. In the interviews done with the participants, the reason of this issue was tried to be sought and ascertained. All 15 participants mentioned that the project entitled ‘Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’ was significant, and in general they used such descriptors as ‘useful’, ‘functional’, interesting’, important for the next generation’ and ‘helpful’ by touching on the need for a transformation in the universities in Turkey. However, two undergraduate students out of eight noted that they took part in sharing posts, and while three of the remaining six academic and one administrative staff reported their engagement in sharing posts, four of them remarked that they did not involve in such activities. Those undergraduate students who did not involve in the study put forwards some reasons in their own words, by writing their non-participation was thanks to the reasons that “in general what I have already thought has been already written”, “I thought my views would not be taken into account”, “a matter of personality, as I am shy”, and “I do not use social networks frequently”. Academic staff, likewise, explained their non-participation by making the following remarks: “a personality matter… I cannot express myself easily”, “an individual case, I am not someone who can express him/herself well on social networks”, and “the others already shared what I had to say”. Participants’ reasons for non-participation could be categorized under three headings in general:

• The belief that their views would not be taken seriously

• Personal/reasons related to personality traits

• Their thoughts’ being already voiced by the others As the fact that the participants’ perception that their views would not be taken into consideration is an important issue, moving from whether a general perception regarding the possibility of our views to be not taken into account by the authorities might be true, the participants were posed a question, worded as “do you think the views/ideas generated within the spectrum of the project would be taken into account by primarily the council of Higher Education and other official and authorized organizations”. Various utterances were made by undergraduate students: “I do not think they would respect…” articulated only one of the undergraduate students, and seven of them told “I do not think they would pay attention” or “I hope they would do so” or “A little more pressure needs to be put on them to consider such views/ideas”. Only one of seven academic and administrative staff said “I think they would take them into account only if the results reach up to them”, six participants had a negative attitude towards this matter. Consequently, it was noticed that only two of the 15 participants had positive views on this matter, and that there is a general perception among administrative and academic staff with respect to the fact that “their views are not taken into account by the authorities”. The issue that how participants describe their personalities, who cited their personality trains as reasons for non-participation, were put under investigation, as well. It was found that they were inclined to describe themselves in the following ways: “I am not that much sociable”, “I do not like taking the lead in any kind of task”, “I am not a man of action”, and “[I am] quiet, calm and introverted”. Some of the participants uttered that their views had been already voiced by other people, and thus they shied away from expressing their views separately. It was found that the number of this group of people who we referred to as “silent followers” as the project team was dramatically high. It was anticipated that this group would participate in the questionnaire in which the ideas raised as a result of the project were voted. However, the ratio of participation in the questionnaires invalidated this prediction. This result drove us to investigate whether “a negative perception might be effective in respect to participatory democracy and the formation of democracy in the country”. In fact, the main objective in participatory democracy is to discuss opinions and ideas with all details as well as expressing them, and talk over the views that we agree or disagree with by justifying the underlying reasons. In the introductory text of the Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams’ project and shared posts by the project team on the group, this case was continuously underlined. However, it is emphasized that participants’ negative perceptions towards participatory democracy and the general understanding of democracy in Turkey would lead to the belief that it is not possible to operate a true



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democratic process. With this in mind, the participants were asked what they understood by the term participatory democracy, and what the barriers are in regards to the level of democracy, and actualization of the democracy in Turkey. In this context, undergraduate students defined participatory democracy in the following statements as: “The public’s views being conveyed to the authorities”, “People’s having a say on the functioning of the state”, “An organization that everyone could say their opinion freely”, “A functional democracy where public opinions come at the forefront, a debatable environment is created, and that does not deviate from the principles of democracy” and “People’s active involvement in the government affairs”. It might be said that undergraduate students perceived participatory democracy more as a form of communication of government authorities to communicate with public, and public’s reporting their views to the state/the authorities. This situation, for the result of this application to be paid attention, led to a belief that “the authorized individuals are required to be involved in the process”. In this context, if the participations of intuitions particularly such as the Council of Higher Education, university rectors and administrators had been ensured, and the participants had been informed about this circumstance, it would have been possible to increase the participation. However, the project team’s efforts have been fruitless to involve the authorities. Students, in general sense, brought up some obstacles standing ahead of actualization of the Turkish democracy. It was also put into words that there were also some problems in representing the opinions. For example, a student expressed his/her view saying that “I think participatory democracy would not be effective in a country where people are convicted due to their writings/comments”. Students keyed out the obstacles to the development of our democracy as “economic reasons”, “lack of education”, “being full of oneself and selfishness”, “inability to empathize with others” and “ignorance”. These negative perceptions towards the development of democracy might have led to the idea that the project would not be fruitful, and this accordingly might have resulted in an adequate level of participation in the questionnaires. Academic and administrative staff, however, defined participatory democracy as “individual’s having a say in the governance of the society and living area in which she/he resides, and in the regulations likely to be done in that living area”, “a concept that I heard for the first time” and “it means freedom”. One academic described participatory democracy in the following ways: “Participatory democracy indeed requires that people could always have a say and be shareholders in the management and governance of any location. Participatory democracy is an understanding that advocates this in fact. I manage the factory but by taking the views of many people into account, ranging from my wife to workers and to my drivers; now that the factory belongs to us, we can manage it together. It is because when people believe their views are taken seriously and changes are made based on their views, they will widely adopt such an institution. Now, you, as my boss, make me feel as if I were a shareholder of the factory, I would then switch off the lights when I saw them on in the factory. I consume the water more carefully. I pay more attention to my shift. I back up my boss more outside the factory. I highlight my brand value more. The issue of adopting is quite significant. Namely, these descriptions come to my mind directly as far as participatory democracy is concerned”. “If we are talking about democracy, this should be participatory; the minorities should have a say, everyone should be able to express their views freely”. In academic and administrative staff’s expressions on participatory democracy, the perception of “communication with the administrator” appears to be strong. In addition, these statements essentially reflect participants’ perceptions towards the conception of sine qua non or ideal participatory democracy. However, it was found that the participants considered the level of democracy established in practice insufficient. In this regard, participants generally touched on some problems encountered as obstacles for actualization of the democracy, and they pointed out that we move towards becoming a democratic country, and time is needed for the establishment of the democracy culture in the country. Also, the primary factors that hinder the actualization of democracy in Turkey were stated to be owing to “nepotism”, “superficial knowledge”, “the lack of democracy culture”, “failure to adopt the existence of different voices”, “fear culture”, and “non-adoption of democracy as a lifestyle in the education system and family”. In this context, these negative perceptions were considered to be the important factors that account for participants’ low level of interaction.



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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Weeks (2000) argues that politicians fail utterly, as they cannot manage to resolve the public’s problems by consensus. Today, the most effective way of ensuring that consensus is resort to e-democracy applications. The “Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams” project is an e-democracy application carried out in this sense. Within the scope of this study, experiences and efforts that were done to ensure participation in the e-democracy application and to increase the interaction among the participants were presented. To this end, it was observed that participants showed an interest in the Facebook group the most, and that it was quite efficient to invite friends on Facebook profiles to the group, and encourage such friends for inviting their own friends to the group in terms of increasing the number of participants. This case gave rise to the Facebook group’s being more intensively used compared to the Twitter, YouTube and Facebook pages. Based on these results, in the e-democracy application to be carried out in the future, Facebook groups can be actively used. Ensuring participation to the Facebook group was much easier than other social networks. This might be due mainly to the fact that Facebook enjoys more users than Twitter and YouTube. It was seen that the tablet computer which was proposed to be raffled to one participant among those who shared their views within the scope of the project for the purpose of increasing participation was not very effective. It is therefore suggested that promotions should be decided in such e-democracy applications where higher education students largely take part in by investigating the target participants’ tendencies towards such promotions. Participatory democracy is a form of governance. It is a process in which participants reach a decision by negotiating any subject that concerns themselves. This process may pertain to family, class, school, workplace, neighborhood or the city. What bears importance here is to create a healthy interaction for the sake of formation of an effective negotiation process. For that reason, various activities were undertaken in the “Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams” project to ensure interaction. These can be enumerated as determining thematic issues, asking proactive questions, my dream university videos and the comment of the week. Data indicated that none of these activities became as affective as the participants who were called ‘discussion facilitators’, and activated all-natural interactions by stimulating several discussions. According to these results, the presence of discussion facilitators in such platforms was considered to be important in respect of encouraging and promoting other participants. Therefore, it is highly recommended that participants who have high debate tendency and skills should be convinced to participate in e-democracy applications that will be carried in the years to come. According to the findings, the reasons for participants’ avoidance of their views can be classified under three categories: (a) the belief that their views will not be taken seriously, (b) reasons related to personality traits, (c) their views’ being already shared by others. The belief that their views would not be taken seriously might stem from the perception that their views are not taken into account by the authorities. This perception may be interpreted as a barrier for important stakeholders of higher education, namely students, academic and administrative staff to be involved in interaction in such e-democracy applications. Furthermore, the findings revealed that participants conceived of participatory democracy as ‘the administrators’ way of communication with the public’. In this context, it is expected that ensuring participation of the council of higher education and/or university administrators in the process in such projects would increase the level of interaction. Dealing with this issue in future studies to be done in higher education in great details will contribute to the field and development of participatory democracy. Those participants who put forward their personal traits as reasons for non-participation in sharing were found to describe themselves by using such descriptors as calm, quiet, introvert, one who does not like shining out. Again, these issues can be further dealt with in more detail in future research. Participants’ excuse that they did not engage in sharing their views in the process of e-democracy, as their views were already posted by the others was in general associated with a negative perception towards functioning of the established democracy. According to the findings, both students and academic and administrative staff underlined that while there were positive developments with respect to the establishment of democracy in the country, these developments were not sufficient enough in point of actualizing democracy ,and time is needed for democracy culture to come about in the country. In this sense, they pointed at economic problems, lack of education, ignorance, nepotism, intolerance of new ideas, and fear culture as the main factors that render the development of democracy difficult. No matter how participants expressed their belief in the significance of



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the project “Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams”, negative statements voiced towards democracy above might have negatively affected the belief that the project could be effective. And this might be thought of as one of the major factors of insufficient levels of interaction. In conclusion, such important concepts as globalization, internationalization, massification, competition and technology in the world make the occurrence of transformations in higher education essential. It is projected that the institutions which establish participatory democracy by managing e-democracy in an effective manner will successfully perform this process of transformation. Thus, performing e-democracy applications is regarded as considerably crucial on the subject of transformation of higher education in Turkey. The findings obtained in the project “Do not let my dreams of an ideal university stay only in my dreams” undertaken for this purpose demonstrate that there are promising developments as regards the provision of participation in e-democracy applications in higher education in Turkey as well as that some barriers stand against that provision. It is recommended that e-democracy applications should be effectively made use of as a problem-solving and decision-making mechanism in higher education in order for individuals to be able to acquire the culture of participatory democracy and transform that culture into their professional and family life in Turkey. However, the issue of whether e-democracy will be effective in respect of performing the expected transformation in higher education in Turkey seems to be determined by only implementing the decisions taken at the end of such projects. IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR

Serkan ŞENDAĞ is an assistant professor of instructional technology at department of Computer Education & Instructional Technology, Faculty of Education, Akdeniz University. His research interests focus on e-learning, critical thinking, problem solving, and e-democracy.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Serkan SENDAG Department of Computer Education & Instructional Technology Faculty of Education Akdeniz University, Dumlupinar Boulevard , Campus O7058 Antalya/TURKEY Tel: 90 242 2274400/4618 E Mail: [email protected] REFRENCES Altbach,P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009).Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. A Report Prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education, 29.10.2103 tarihinde http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0018/001831/183168e.pdf adresinden alınmıştır.



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Paradigma Arayışları Bildiriler Kitabı, (291-305). Uçkan Ö.(2003). E-Devlet, e-demokrasi ve e-yönetişim modeli: Bir ilkesel öncelik olarak bilgiye erişim özgürlüğü [E-government, e-democracy, and e-management model: freedom of information access as a principle priority]. 5, Stradigma. 24.10.2013 tarihinde http://www.wceis.org/FileUpload/ds217229/File/bidiri_yazim_kurallari.pdf adresinden alınmıştır. Weeks, E. C. (2000). The practice of deliberative democracy: results from four large-scale trials. Public

Administration Review, 60(4), 360–372. Willis, J. (Ed.). (2008). Qualitative Research Methods in Education and Instructional Technology. Charlotte, NC:Information Age Publishing. Wood, V. R. (2012). Globalization and higher education: Eight common perceptions from university leaders. African Network for Internationalization of Education (ANIE), 25.10.2013 tarihinde http://www.anienetwork. org/ content /globalization-and-higher-education-eight-common-perceptions-university-leaders adresinden alınmıştır.




64

A LEARNING BY DOING APPROACH IN TEACHING THE FUNDAMENTALS

OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TRUSSES

Assist. Prof. Dr.Gökhan YAZICI

Istanbul Kültür University

İstanbul, TURKEY

Dr. Edip SEÇKIN

Istanbul Kültür University

İstanbul, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This paper reports the findings of a study, conducted with second year students of civil engineering enrolled in

the course of Engineering Mechanics at the Civil Engineering Department of Istanbul Kultur University, to

improve the understanding of fundamental concepts related to the structural design of trusses. Students were

asked to build truss systems from Balsa wood loaded with small weights, analize the truss member forces and

indicate whether the members are under tension or compression. At the final stage of the workshop, a group

discussion was held on the factors effecting the design of trusses with references to the structural models

prepared by the students. In addition to supplementing the theoretical concepts related to the analysis and

design of truss systems, preparation of the physical models and experimentation with the educational analysis

software have also increased the motivation of the students towards the course of Engineering Mechanics.

Key Words: Civil Engineering Education, Trusses, Learning by Doing.

INTRODUCTION

Trusses are essentially triangular assemblies of slender pin-connected straight structural elements, typically

made of metal or timber and are widely used for crossing large spans. Structural members of a truss are

subjected to either compression or tension when external concentrated loads are applied at their nodes.

Trusses are preferred over full sectioned structural systems when it is particularly desirable to reduce the self

weight of the structure. A sound understanding of the working principles of trusses is not only essential for the

analysis and design of truss members but is also helpful for the comprehension of relatively complex structural

engineering concepts, such as the strut and tie mechanisms of deep reinforced concrete beams and masonry

walls.

Structural analysis of trusses with pin connections is initially covered within the scope of the course of

Engineering Mechanics, which is a second year course in the curriculum of the Civil Engineering undergraduate

program at the Istanbul Kultur University. The course of engineering mechanics is conducted in two sessions

per week, a 4 hour theoretical session and a 2 hour problem solving session. The subject of trusses is expected

to be covered in two weeks.

Conventional classroom delivery of the subject of trusses typically covers the definition of a truss, classification

and of truss systems, basic assumptions used in the analysis of trusses with pin connections, determinancy of

trusses as well as the analytical and graphical methods used in the structural analysis of trusses. Although,

students may also experiment with standardized truss kits when such laboratory sets are available, the mode

of delivery of the subject primarily relies on classroom lectures and problem solving sessions. Therefore,




65

students tend to focus on the problem solving aspects of the lectures in order to prepare for the exams which

may reduce their motivation and their desire to gain a deeper understanding of the subject.

This paper reports a set of complementary exercises that aim to support the theoretical discourse on the

analysis and design of trusses, though a “learning by doing” approach which is widely used in engineering and

architectural design education (Yazici and Erkan Yazici, 2013).

CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATIONS WITH EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE

Conventional classroom delivery of the theoretical and practical aspects of the structural design of trusses, was

enriched with the use of educational computer programs of ForcePad and Pointsketch2D. ForcePad is a simple

and program which provides insight on how loads are transferred in structural components (Division of

Structural Mechanics, Lund university, 1999). Students can easily draw arbitrary 2D shapes, apply structural

restraints, forces or displacement and observe the distribution of stresses and the deformed shape. ForcePad is

also capable of demonstrating the basics of truss optimization.

In the classroom demonstration, ForcePad was used to show the distribution of loads in a simply supported

rectangular plane section subjected to a concentrated load at the midspan. It was observed that there are

compression zones between the concentrated load and the structural supports. It was also observed that there

is a tension zone between the pin support on the left and the roller support on the right (Figure1a). Afterwards,

optimization features of the ForcePad was used to abstract the shape of a simple truss that students are quite

familiar with. Students were also briefly informed on the strut and tie mechanisms in plane elements and how

their structural response can be estimated with simple analytical models using truss analogy.

Figure 1: (a) Stress distribution due to the concentrated load at midspan (b) Strut and tie abstraction created by

the truss optimization feature of ForcePad

Pointsketch2D was selected as the educational structural analysis software for supporting problem solving

aspects of the lectures on trusses (Olsson, 2006). Pointsketch 2D was also particulary useful in demonstrating

how truss systems deform under forces. After a very brief demonstration on the use of Pointsketch2D,

students were asked to verify the results of the hand calculations of their homework assignments on trusses

with this software. Structural analysis results and the deformed shape of a simple truss obtained from

Pointsketch 2D is shown in the Figure 2.




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Figure 2: A screenshot of the structural analysis results generated by Pointsketch2D

COMPLEMENTARY WORKSHOP EXERCISE

Experimentation, even with small scale models, can provide insight on understanding design issues which may

arise in real life construction applications, in addition to increasing the physical understanding of engineering

design problems. A workshop exercise which involved building and testing small scale truss models with

voluntary participation of a limited number of students. Truss models, made of balsa wood, were built at the

architectural model workshop of the Faculty of Architecture and later loaded with small weights (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Testing of small scale truss models




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Preparation of the construction drawings with CAD software and the use of model building equipment were

side benefits of this exercise. Model building process lead students to focus on issues such as the design and

construction of connections, material imperfections and dimensional tolerances (Figure 4).

Figure 4: (a) Construction of a connection using model building equipment (b) Model assembly

In addition to conventional truss models made of balsa wood with glued joints, modular truss models made of

PVC members (Figure 5) or a combination of balsa wood and PVC members (Figure 6) have also been

constructed in order to obtain truss systems with pin connections.

Figure 5: Truss model with pin connected PVC members




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Figure 6: Truss model with pin connected diagonal members

PVC components have been cut out of 0,30 cm thick PVC plates using the laser cutter at the architectural

model workshop of the Faculty of Architecture (Figure 7). Although, these models have not been tested with

loads, they have been extremely useful in demonstrating the response of pin connected truss systems and

some of problems which may arise during the detailing of pin connections.

Figure 7: Preparation of the PVC components with the laser cutter

At the final stage of the workshop, a group discussion was held on the factors effecting the design of trusses

with references to the structural models prepared by the students.




69

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The course of engineering mechanics embodies the study of forces and their effects on rigid bodies and is

considered as a fundamental course in the undergraduate curriculums of civil engineering. This is due to the

fact that the concepts covered within the scope of this course are essential for laying out the foundations for

the vast majority of civil engineering analysis and design courses. Complementary exercises with educational

software and physical models outlined in this paper can help facilitate the understanding of the theoretical

concepts presented in the lectures. Working with physical models also had the added benefit of increasing the

familiarity of students with computer aided drafting and manufacturing technologies, which is actually quite

important since civil engineers have to take into consideration the available construction materials and

manufacturing capabilities when designing structural systems (Seckin et al., 2013). Engineers also have to use

hand calculations in the development of the initial structural design plans and during the verification of the

results obtained from refined computer aided analysis. Therefore, combined use of hand calculations,

computer aided analysis tools and manufacturing technologies outlined in this study makes contact with

essential elements of the structural design cycle.

Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank Senior Lecturer Dr.Anders Peterson of Malmö University

for his valuable suggestions on the use of educational software on structural mechanics courses.





Gökhan YAZICI is an assistant professor of Civil Engineering at the Istanbul Kultur

University. He completed his BSc Degree in Civil Engineering from the Yildiz Technical

University (1998), and received his MSc (2000) and PhD (2008) Degrees in Structural

Engineering from the Istanbul Technical University. He has experience in teaching

structural engineering courses in the Departments of Civil Engineering and Architecture.

His research interests in the field of undergraduate education include the enhancement of

the collaboration between architects and engineers in the design process and the use of

finite element modeling tools in the architectural design education.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Gökhan YAZICI

Faculty of Engineering

Istanbul Kultur University

Bakirkoy, Istanbul TURKEY


Edip SEÇKİN is a research assistant of Civil Engineering at the Istanbul Kultur University. He

completed his BSc Degree in Civil Engineering from the Istanbul Kultur University (2002),

and also received his MSc (2004) and PhD (2013) Degrees from Istanbul Kultur University.

His research interests include Steel plated structures, steel-concrete composite structural

systems, earthquake-resistant design of structures, behavior and design of steel welded

and bolted connections.

Res. Assist. Dr. Edip SEÇKİN

Faculty of Engineering

Istanbul Kultur University

Bakirkoy, Istanbul TURKEY





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REFERENCES

Division of Structural Mechanics, Lund university, (1999). ForcePad Home Page, Retrieved September 10, 2013

from http://forcepad.sourceforge.net/index.htm

Olsson, K.G., (2006). Pointsketch 2D Home Page (Chalmers Tekniska Högskola) , Retrieved September 10, 2013

from http://www.chalmers.se/sv/institutioner/arch/forskning/pointSketch2D/Sidor/default.aspx

Seçkin, E. Yazici, G., and Coskun, E., (2013) Steel Bridge Competitions: A Case of Hands-On Structural Steel

Education, International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Consequences (IJONTE), 4(2), 185-191.

Yazici, G., and Erkan Yazici, Y., (2013) A ”Learning By Doing” Approach In The Delivery of Structural Engineering

Courses of Architecture, International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Consequences (IJONTE),

4(2), 137-142.




71

LEARNING OBJECT FOR LINEAR SYSTEMS: SCRATCH IN MATHEMATICS

Prof. Dr. Silvia Cristina Freitas BATISTA Instituto Federal Fluminense


Carlos Bruno Freitas BAPTISTA

Instituto Federal Fluminense Campos dos Goytacazes

– RJ, BRAZIL

ABSTRACT

The Scratch programming language was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and allows the creation of games, animated stories and other interactive programs, through a simple and handy user interface. The use of this language for the Mathematics learning has been analyzed by educators in various contexts. In this scenario, this paper aims to present the learning object (LO) 2x2 Linear.S, for the study of linear systems, developed using Scratch. Initially, the Scratch language is characterized and its use in Mathematics is discussed. Next, the LO 2x2 Linear.S is presented. Finally, quality evaluation data of the LO, conducted with students of Information Systems, Bachelor’s Degree, are analyzed. Key Words: Scratch, learning object, linear systems, Mathematics.

INTRODUCTION

The proposal to use programming language to develop students’ skills isn’t quite recent. The development of the Logo language, in 1967, illustrates this well. Logo was developed for educational purposes, based on Piaget's theory (Valente, 1999). However, although experienced in many parts of the world over the years, the results obtained using Logo, generally, were below expectations (Resnick et al., 2009). Analyzing what happened to the initial enthusiasm related to the initiatives for introducing programming for children, Resnick et al. (2009) emphasize that: i) early programming languages were difficult to use and many children didn’t master the syntax of programming; ii) programming was often introduced through activities unattractive for young; iii) educational purposes with low interference of the teacher were generally adopted, therefore orientations were not provided in case of errors, as well as incentives for deeper analyzes did not occur in successful cases. The developers of Scratch programming language, aware of this panorama, but confident in the educational proposal behind the educational use of programming language, established three core design principles for the same: make it more tinkerable, more meaningful, and more social than others programming environments (Resnick et al., 2009). Thus, the Scratch language is very accessible. Its graphical user interface allows programs to be structured as stack of blocks. That is, all programming can be done from the predetermined command, to be grouped together. Although simple, the Scratch language allows the user to unleash their imagination, developing interactive programs (Teixeira, 2011). Although the main focus of the educational use of Scratch is the development of programs by students, it can also be used for the development of learning objects (LO), by the academic community. These objects are resources that aim to support the construction of knowledge. The LO can be created in any media or format, and can be as simple as an animation or a slide show, or complex, such as a simulation (Macêdo et al., 2007). In




72

this context, this paper aims to report the development of a LO in Scratch, for the study of linear systems, the 2x2 Linear.S. Aiming at the objective of this paper, Section 2 characterizes the Scratch language and Section 3 focuses on the use of the same in Mathematics. Section 4 presents the LO 2x2 Linear.S

1 and analyzes results of the LO’s quality

evaluation conducted with students of Information Systems, Bachelor’s Degree. Section 5 closes the paper with considerations on the theme. SCRATCH

Scratch is a project of the Lifelong Kindergarten Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab. This programming language is designed

2 specifically for educational purposes, for ages eight to 16.

However, it is used by people of all ages (Resnick et al., 2009). Scratch is provided free of charge (Massachusetts Institute of Technology [MIT], n. d.). The Scratch language is object-oriented and uses a syntax common to many programming languages. Its development was aimed at encouraging the creative capacity of young people, the power of reflection and collaborative work (Resnick et al., 2009). The Scratch programming environment, version 1.4, is still available for download from their website

3. The LO

2x2 Linear.S was developed in this version. Figure 1 shows the main screen of the Scratch environment version 1.4 in English.

Figure 1: Scratch’s Main Screen - version 1.4 – in English

1 Learning object developed within the research project Information and Communications Technologies in the Process of

Teaching and Learning of Mathematics, Instituto Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (http://www.es.iff.edu.br/softmat/projetotic/index.html). 2 The first version of Scratch was released in 2007 (Resnick et al., 2009).

3 <http://scratch.mit.edu/scratch_1.4/>.




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However, there is version 2.0, which has an on-line editor4 and also has a beta version for download

5 (Figure 2),

available in several languages. With the on-line version the user can create, edit and view projects directly from Web browser. Version 2.0 brings several improvements over version 1.4, such as: i) the users can set up their own programming blocks; ii) possibility of cloning (duplicate) a sprite (a sprite clone will be equal to the original sprite, but in a separate instance); iii) inclusion of vector graphics: images are resized without becoming irregular; iv) the Backpack option allows the user to copy and move sprites, costumes, backdrops, and scripts from any project to another. The Backpack can be opened inside any project; v) possibility to use the computer's webcam to interact with projects (MIT, 2013a).

Figure 2: Scratch’s Main Screen - Offline Editor - version 2.0 Beta – in English After preparing a project in the offline version, the users can share their production, publishing it on the Scratch website

6. For that, in version 2.0 beta, just click File /“Share to website” from the top menu of the

program. But, it is important to note that before sharing the project the user must make a registration on the website.

The project includes the ScratchEd, Scratch online community educational in which educators from around the world share experiences and resources. There is also the Scratch Day, the day on which institutions promote events where people gather to share projects and experiences and learn more about this programming language (MIT, 2013b). To conclude, the Scratch is a feature-rich environment and the educational possibilities are varied. Next section discusses the use of this environment in the Mathematics teaching and learning.

USE OF SCRATCH IN MATHEMATICS

Scratch, through its many features, can allow approaches that bring contributions to Mathematics learning. A very significant use of this environment is the proposal of situations in which the students prepare programs, with a view to solving problems. The use of this environment for this purpose can stimulate interest in

4 <http://scratch.mit.edu/projects/editor/?tip_bar=getStarted>.

5 <http://scratch.mit.edu/scratch2download/>.

6 <http://scratch.mit.edu/>.




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Mathematics and help in understanding the issues involved (Pinto, 2010). This author states that the Scratch by allowing to represent and simulate problem situations, can contribute to the exchange between the formal and rigorous character of mathematical language and his character more intuitive and contextual. As advocated by Resnick (2013), when using Scratch, people are not just learning to program, are actually programming to learn. In addition to understanding mathematical and computational ideas, people can develop problem-solving strategies, organize projects and communicate their ideas. From the analysis of a case study, Calder (2010) states that the Scratch is an engaging and relatively easy-to-use space for problem solving, and at the same time, an interesting and motivating programming environment to explore mathematical concepts. In a survey, Quinn (2011) investigated how the use of Scratch could contribute to the development of mathematical thinking skills and to teach Key Stage Three Mathematics (KS3 - Northern Ireland Curriculum). The study indicated that there is a great deal of Mathematics involved in creating Scratch projects, even in basic projects. Scratch provides a fun way for the development of mathematical skills, to enable the creation of games, projects and animations. The author emphasizes that may occur some competitiveness among students in creating projects and it has to be well utilized in order to develop better projects and consequently the students' mathematical thinking. Thus, in the author's view, Scratch has the potential to contribute to thinking skills and personal capabilities (such as being creative, self-management, working with others, managing information). Furthermore, according to Quinn (2011), Scratch can be used in various ways in Mathematics classes (creation of new projects or alteration of existing projects, as alternative method of presentations and animations, lesson resource, storytelling with animations, among others). There are many resources made on Scratch developed by the mathematical academic community and available to anyone. These LO can support the study of various mathematical topics. Many are targeted to early childhood education

7; however, as shown in Figures 3 and 4 also are several LO for Mathematics, focusing on

other segments of formal education.

Figure 3: Gallery of resources – Elementary and Middle School Source: http://scratch.mit.edu/studios/54584/

7 For example, those available on <http://kids.sapo.pt/scratch/galleries/view/82> and on

<http://scratch.mit.edu/studios/10733/>.




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Figure 4: Gallery of resources - Fractal Geometry Source: http://scratch.mit.edu/studios/33129/

Likewise, the LO 2x2 Linear.S was developed for later stages of formal education (High School and early periods of Higher Education). Next section presents the LO 2x2 Linear.S. LEARNING OBJECT 2x2 LINEAR.S

The LO 2x2 Linear.S aims to support the study of 2x2 linear systems (two linear equations, two variables

8),

allowing to analyze the relationship between the coefficients of the equations (and also between constant terms) and the graphical representation of the system. The LO was developed using Scratch 1.4 and is available in Portuguese

9 and in English

10, on Scratch’s website.

When starting LO, the user must input the system’s coefficients of the two equations. Figure 5 shows the screen corresponding to the typing of the coefficient of the variable x, of the first equation.

8 The coefficients of each linear equation are real numbers not both zero and the constant terms are real numbers.

However, non-integer values must be entered as a decimal (exact or approximate). 9 <http://scratch.mit.edu/projects/11688101/#player/>.

10 <http://scratch.mit.edu/projects/13090813/>.




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Figure 5: Input screen of variable x - first equation Source: LO 2x2 Linear.S

As 2x2 Linear.S works with the relative position of two lines in the plane, it displays an error message if the user enters the coefficients of x and y simultaneously zero in any of the two equations (Figure 6). In this case, the user must restart the process of typing the coefficients.

Figure 6: Error message - coefficients of x and y simultaneously zero Source: LO 2x2 Linear.S




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When the user completes the two equations, the LO exhibits: i) the relative position of the two lines representing the equations; ii) the classification system in terms of the number of solutions; iii) the system‘s solution set. In addition, LO displays a merely illustrative image of two lines in the position mentioned. Thus, the image shown does not correspond, in fact, the graphical representation of the system considered, only illustrates such situation. Figures 7, 8 and 9 show three possible situations.

Figure 7: Sample Independent System Source: LO 2x2 Linear.S

Figure 8: Sample Dependent System Source: LO 2x2 Linear.S.




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Figure 9: Sample Inconsistent System Source: LO 2x2 Linear.S

Due to technical limitations, non-integer coefficients should be entered in their decimal representations (exact or approximate). A note on LO’s website alerts users to this fact. Also the results when there are non-integer numbers are given in decimal representations. The LO was submitted to a first quality evaluation with six students of Information Systems, Bachelor’s Degree, in a federal institution. These students had already studied graphic analysis of linear systems in the Linear Algebra and Analytical Geometry subject. Such subject is taught in the second term of that course. Of the six students, four were in the end of the second period and two in the third period. All had active participation and adequate performance when studying the topic addressed. For the evaluation, a questionnaire containing statements about operational aspects, usability and content was used. In each statement, students should check one of the options: Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree. The results obtained are shown respectively in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Table 1: Operational aspects

Students (%)

Statements Strongly

agree Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Disagree Strongly Disagree

The program worked correctly. 67 33 0 0 0

The functions available are sufficient to accomplish the tasks.

33 50 17 0 0

The processing time is adequate. 50 50 0 0 0




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Table 2: Usability

Students (%)

Statements Strongly

agree Agree



The program is easy to use. 83 17 0 0 0

The instructions are clear. 83 17 0 0 0

The program is motivating. 33 67 0 0 0

The program is interactive. 67 33 0 0 0

Graphic design presented good quality. 0 83 0 17 0

Table 3: Content

Students (%)

Statements Strongly

agree Agree



The program is clear and succinct. 33 50 17 0 0

The program addresses relevant content.

50 33 0 0 17

The concepts presented are correct. 33 67 0 0 0

The conventions and definitions related to Mathematics are used correctly.

33 67 0 0 0

In general, the LO 2x2 Linear.S was positively evaluated in three criteria. Comments solicited in an open question in the questionnaire confirmed the good acceptance of students to the program. However, some aspects of the content need to be improved, such as: i) coefficients and independent terms that are non-integer numbers must be typed in decimal representations, which implies to perform approximations, in various situations; ii) the results of the independent systems that are non-integer numbers or exact decimal are presented with many decimal places; iii) the solution set of dependent systems is given correctly, but the display form is, in some situations, a little confused, such as : {( (1-(-3k))/(-1), k ), k real}; iv) the graphical representations shown are illustrative only and do not represent, in fact, the linear system typed by the user.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Scratch, using a graphical interface that allows the user to mount the programs' code as stack of blocks, makes the development process much simpler than in traditional programming environments. In developing 2x2

Linear.S, version 1.4 was used, but version 2.0 will be analyzed in terms of possible improvements to the LO. With the proposal of the work described, the authors of this paper aimed to not only develop LO, but also to better understand the potential of Scratch, considering academic future actions. The LO was assessed as adequate by test participants in the three criteria. However, 2x2 Linear.S needs to be improved in some aspects, and subsequently experienced during real use, in the context of the classroom. In general, the evaluation of digital resources is important. Such analyzes can provide feedback to the developers, with a view to enhancing the features. Additionally, the evaluators noted the evaluation criteria, as well as develop a critical sense. Students of Information Systems, Bachelor’s Degree, as potential developers, should also learn to take into account the user and take care with certain quality criteria. To conclude, it must be emphasized that a proposal for future research is the development of 3x3 Linear.S (three linear equations, three variables), focusing on the eight positions of the three planes.




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IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.


Silvia Cristina F. BATISTA is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1987, Batista has graduated in Science - Specialization in Mathematics, from the Faculdade de Filosofia de Campos. She received her Master’s Degree in Engineering Sciences, focus on Production Engineering, in 2004, from the Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Rio de Janeiro. She received her Ph.D. in Information Technology in Education from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Federal – UFRGS, Brazil, in 2011. Her research interest is mobile learning, and digital technologies applied to Education.

Prof. Dr. Silvia Cristina F. BATISTA Dr. Siqueira Street, 273, Parque Dom Bosco, 28030-130. Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]

Carlos Bruno F. BAPTISTA is technical computing course student at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In addition, he is undergraduate student of Mathematics Education at Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

His research interest is digital technologies applied to Mathematics and subjects related to polytopes.

Carlos Bruno F. BAPTISTA Padre Carmelo Street, 248, Parque Califórnia, 28013-045. Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Calder, N. (2010, Fourth Quarter). Using Scratch: an integrated problem-solving approach to mathematical thinking. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom (APMC), v. 15, n. 4, 9-14. Quinn, S. (2011). An Investigation into the Use of Scratch to Teach KS3 Mathematics. Dissertation (Maths and Science Bachelors Education Degree). St Marys Teaching College Belfast, N. Ireland. Macêdo, L. N. de, Castro Filho, J. A. de, Macêdo, A. A. M., Siqueira, D. M. B., Oliveira, E. M. de, Sales, G. L. & Freire, R. S. (2007). Desenvolvendo o pensamento proporcional com o uso de um objeto de aprendizagem. In: C. L. Prata & A. C. A de Nascimento (Org.). Objetos de aprendizagem: uma proposta de recurso pedagógico (pp. 17-26). Brasília: MEC, SEED.




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Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (n.d.). About Scratch. Retrieved October 06, 2013, from http://scratch.mit.edu/about/ Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (2013a). What's new in Scratch 2.0? Retrieved October 06, 2013, from http://scratch.mit.edu/overview/ Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (2013b). Scratch Day. 2013. Retrieved October 06, 2013, from http://day.scratch.mit.edu/home Pinto, A. S. (2010). Scratch na aprendizagem da Matemática no 1º ciclo de ensino básico: estudo de caso na

resolução de problemas. Dissertação (Mestrado em Estudos da Criança. Área de Especialização em Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação). Universidade do Minho, Portugal. Retrieved October 07, 2013, from http://scratched.media.mit.edu/resources/investigation-using-scratch-teach-ks3-mathematics Resnick, M., Maloney, J., Monroy-Hernández, A., Rusk, N., Eastmond, E., Brennan, K., Millner, A., Rosenbaum, E., Silver, J., Silverman, B. & Kafai, Y. (2009, November). Scratch: Programming for all. Communications of the

ACM, v. 52, n. 11, 60-67. Retrieved October 05, 2013, from http://web.media.mit.edu/~mres/papers/Scratch-CACM-final.pdf Resnick, M. (2013). Aprender a programar, programar para aprender. Retrieved October 04, 2013, from http://www.eduteka.org/codetolearn.php Teixeira, G. (2011). Scratch: a linguagem de programação para todos que auxilia o ensino e insere nerds no mundo de criação de games. Retrieved October 03, 2013, from http://www.plantaonerd.com/blog/2011/05/02/scratch-a-linguagem-de-programacao-para-todos-que-auxilia-o-ensino-e-insere-nerds-no-mundo-de-criacao-de-games/ Valente, J. A. (1999). Informática na educação no Brasil: análise e contextualização histórica. In J. A. Valente (Org.), O computador na sociedade do conhecimento (pp. 11-28). Coleção Informática para a mudança na Educação. Brasil: Ministério da Educação. Secretaria de Educação a Distância.




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VIEWS OF TURKISH EFL STUDENTS WITH REGARD TO LEARNING GRAMMAR WITH GAMES

Dr. Onur KÖKSAL

Selçuk University

Konya, TURKEY

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmet ÇEKİÇ

Cumhuriyet University

Sivas, TURKEY

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ömer BEYHAN

Necmeddin Erbakan University

Konya, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This study aims to determine the views of elementary level Turkish EFL learners with regard to learning

Grammar with games. Three dimensions were discussed in the study: students’ assessment of learning

grammar with games, their views about the challenges in the application process and their suggestions with

regard to the application. This case study was conducted on 49 students at the Faculty of Education,

Cumhuriyet University. The data was collected via semi-structured interviews to get profound insight about the

students’ opinions. Descriptive analysis method was used for the analysis of the data obtained. As a result of

the study, it was concluded that learning grammar with games was effective in learning English in that it

increased students’ motivation, changed their attitudes to English classes positively, increased their self-

confidence and thus led to better and more retainable learning in grammar as perceived by the students

themselves and the researchers.

Key Words: English grammar, learning English with games.

INTRODUCTION

In general, game is the name given all the activities used as a tool for learning, creativeness, experiencing,

communication and getting ready for adulthood and a way to express feelings, getting rid of bothers, and

source of happiness which are done freely and which provide pleasure, develop and entertain children and

support every area development in children (Poyraz, 1999). For a healthy mental and physical development,

game is a need for children just like food. Entrepreneurship, creativeness and naturalism can be developed via

games. Yörükoğlu (1979, p. 108) expresses his ideas about games as follows

"Game is the most natural way of learning for children. Games provide an environment for children where they

can test what they hear and see and consolidate what they have learnt. Children sharpen their senses and

develop their kinesthetic skills through games. Game environment is the experiment room for children. It is

such an experiment room that the child freely engages in numerous trials on his/her own. S/he makes and

spoils and freely applies various possibilities. In his/her small world s/he sets the rules and changes them.”

Following from these definitions, game is one of the most effective learning processes which may or may not

serve a certain purpose, in which children participate willingly and enjoyably. Besides, games are the basis of

physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional and social development and a part of real life in which children can

express themselves (Karadağ and Çalışkan, 2005).

Games, language games in particular, can be a good alternative to teach grammar in EFL classrooms.

Miscellaneous exercises, activities and tasks are employed in foreign language classrooms to enhance foreign




83

language learning to yield better results. Foreign language teaching with games can be an alternative method

in EFL classes as it enables language learners to enjoy language learning experience and acquire knowledge and

skills in a fun way. Besides providing learners chances to improve their English, such a learning environment

can also help them develop their cooperation and socialization skills and self-confidence in the target language.

Grammar of the target language is one of the most important language areas to be mastered by EFL learners to

have a good command of spoken and writing language. It is now a well-established fact in EFL that language

learning is not memorizing the vocabulary items and the rules in the grammar of the target language but ability

to use them in appropriate contexts for communication purposes. The ability to use the language appropriately

to achieve certain communicative objectives requires fluency and accuracy which can be enhanced by learning

the form and function of grammar items in L2 in real-life like contexts. The emphasis on communicative aspect

required language classrooms to go beyond grammar-translation method with an aim to improve learners’

communicative competence. Following from the recent trends in EFL, games can be incorporated as integral

elements of communicative and tasks based classes to achieve fluency in equilibrium with accuracy.

Though not very widely used, grammar games in EFL classes have always been one of the most favorite

language practice activities for learners and teachers alike. So far, several books including collections of

grammar games (Rinvolucri, 1995; Zaorob & Chin 2001; Kealey & Inness, 2008) have been written and many

studies have been carried out to reveal the role of grammar games in EFL classes. In a study by Şahhüseyinoğlu

(2007) it was revealed that educational games are effective on improving pre-service English language teacher

trainees’ critical thinking and reading skills, and besides they improved their speaking skills as games provide a

real medium of communication. In a more recent study, Constantinescu (2012) examined the role that the

computer games might play in teaching, learning and practicing English grammar and concluded that

computer games can contribute to successful language learning and teaching experiences as they can bring fun

in ELF grammar classes, which can be long and, sometimes, boring.

In another study, Zhu (2012) pointed out the value and importance of using games in developing students’

communicative ability. The researcher introduced eight types of games and made some suggestions with

regard to using games. Affective factors influence learning either positively or negatively, in line with this Zhu

(2012, p.802) argued that the first aim of using games in class is to create a situation where students’ affective

filter is lowered so that the comprehensible input could be taken in. Zhu (p.804) claimed that teachers are to

be cautious about time, choice, preparation and management of games in class to reach their educational

objectives.

Azarmi (2011) carried out a quantitative study on sixth and seventh grade ELF students for a term and found

out that the students in the experimental group in which games were used outperformed the control group. In

a study by Yolageldili and Arıkan (2011) in which the views of Turkish EFL teachers working in primary schools

about games were explored, it was revealed, in line with the current literature, that Turkish EFL teachers

appreciate the effectiveness of using games in grammar teaching but do not use them as frequently as

expected. Gaudart (1999) examined some of the tried and tested games, reactions of the teacher trainees to

the games, and discussed possible problems teacher trainees will face when using games in secondary schools

in Malaysia and concluded that games are conducive for foreign language learning and their educational value

cannot be denied by even the most staid teacher.

In a more recent study, Lawrence and Lawrence (2013) examined the attitudes of student teachers towards

using the grammar games for teaching English. Based on the analysis of the data collected from student

teachers in Tirunelveli district, they found that majority of the student teachers had a favorable attitude

towards the using grammar games for teaching English at the secondary level, and that female teacher trainees

favored games more than their male counterparts. As it can be understood from the results of the studies

mentioned above, it is undeniable that games have educational value. However, we must bear in mind that

there are advantages and disadvantages of using games and that certain criteria are to be met when using

games in EFL classes.




84

Constantinescu (2012, p.112) stated that there are several points to be considered when choosing language

games: • “Games should have an aim. They are used to motivate students, not only for fun.

• Games should focus on the use of language. By their means students have to learn, practise, or refresh language

components

• The content should be appropriate. It should fit the curriculum, be correct from all points of view and not to promote

wrong values (e.g. violence).

• Games should be technically easy to use in the classroom.

• Games should be in accordance with students’ age and level of knowledge.

• Games should keep all of the students interested.

• It is advisable to use short games; otherwise students may lose their interest.”

In foreign language learning games can be considered as a framework to provide a meaningful context for

language acquisition. Constantinescu (2012, p.114) states that educational games improve students’

understanding of written and spoken English (they get accustomed to learning words and structures in

a context, they learn correct pronunciation and spelling).

Constantinescu (2012, p.115) states the following with regard to advantages of games: • “Games build up learners’ English repertoire in a familiar and comfortable environment (even for students who

may have special needs), where they feel confident. More than this, English is widespread used with computers.

• Games increase motivation and desire for self improvement.

• Challenge and competition are key factors for any game and students pay more attention to completing the task.

• Interdisciplinary approach. Students use knowledge from other classes, too.

• Games develop students’ ability to observe.

• Games have clear rules and objectives.

• Games develop critical thinking, problem solving, and imagination.

• Games offer new and dynamic forms of teaching/ practicing which replace the traditional worksheets.

• Games are adaptable for different levels of knowledge.

• Educational games are easy to understand and use.

• Educational games do not take long time to be played in the class.

• There are many online educational games which are free of charge.

• Immediate feedback both for the students and the teacher.

• The results are more visible (sometimes both visual and acoustic) and have a stronger impact.

• The working time is usually known from the beginning and it is respected

• Games facilitate collaborative learning but, in the same time, students may learn at their own speed and cognitive level.

• Games may be used in the classroom as rewards for students.”

Besides games can boost motivation as they are challenging. They have both competitive and collaborative

aspects, which can be used to take account of different learning styles and individual differences in the class.

Games can encourage students to be more active during class. Games can be motivating as they provide more

chances to learners to be active participants as the constructors of knowledge in ELF class. Their creativity and

critical thinking skills can be improved as they are to be strategic in using the knowledge and skills they have.

They can find innovative ways to use knowledge and reflect upon their learning process. Therefore, games are

to be considered as valuable part of effective foreign language classrooms.

However, we must bear in mind that it is the teacher’s responsibility to arrange games in a way to emphasize

their educational value. The instructions are to be given clearly, and rules and scoring are to be explicitly stated

at the beginning. Besides, for each game teachers are to have clear educational purpose and assessment tool in

mind. The students can be asked to reflect about the experience and note down what they have learnt, the

problems they faced in the game. It is the teacher’s duty to provide feedback about the general mistakes

during games after it is over.




85

The Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to determine the views of elementary EFL learners about learning grammar with

games. Within the scope of the study, three dimensions were handled: students’ evaluation of learning English

grammar with games, the challenges they faced during the application process and their suggestions for

application. The study also aims to determine the level students think they can use the grammar they learnt in

this instruction period in productive skills, namely; writing and speaking. To this end, answers for the following

questions were sought:

1. What are the views of the students with regard to learning English grammar with games?

2. What are the views of the students with regard to the challenges they faced in the application process?

3. What are the students’ suggestions with regard to the application?

METHOD

This study, which attempts to determine views of elementary EFL learners with regard to learning English

Grammar, employed a case study model, which is one of the qualitative research paradigms. The essential

characteristics of qualitative inquiries are the definition of the problem- which is not necessarily be at the

beginning of the study-, examination of environmental factors within the framework of participants, data

collection from a determined small group of respondents, and the use of non-numerical and interpretive

approaches to reach descriptive stories of participants and their environments (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006). In

this case study, horizontal and in-depth examinations were made rather than discussing limited numbers of

variables with rigid rules (Flyvbjerg, 2006).

The study sample included 49 elementary EFL learners majoring in Pre-school education at the Faculty of

Education, Cumhuriyet University in the fall term of 2013 and 2014 education year. The group was chosen by

the researchers as one of the researchers was teaching the class. In spite of the fact that they have been

learning English for 7 seven years, they were at elementary level. At the beginning of the term, the 56 students

were given an English proficiency exam at intermediate level and 7 students passed the exam and exempted

from the course. As a result, a total of 49 elementary level students were left in the class. Some students failed

to attend all the games and thus data were collected from only those who took part in all game activities

(n=35). The students were informed about the study and learning grammar with games before the application

process and participated in the study upon their consents.

Procedure

The study was conducted by one of the researches in his classes. Games from a grammar games book were

adopted and used to practice grammar point covered in the week. The researcher as the teacher of the class

met the students 3 class hours a week during 2 hours of which he taught the grammar point and conducted the

game activities for consolidation in the last hour. The researcher provided the instructions and displayed how

the game is played with a sample group in front of the classroom. New vocabulary in the game activities were

covered and written on the board by the teacher, which remained on the board till the game activity ended as

a scaffold for students experiencing difficulty with the vocabulary in the game.

The instruction period lasted for 5 weeks and one class hours were allocated for teaching target grammar point

each week. The students practiced the Simple Present Tense, Adverbs of frequency, the Present Continuous

tense, the Future Tense, Present Perfect Tense. The activities and relevant images were taken from Zaorob and

Chin (2001) with small procedural amendments.

Considering the scope of the article, it will be sufficient to mention the procedures for only one of the games.

The game is called “Time and again” aims to practice the use of adverbs of frequency (every day, more than

once a day, quite often, almost every day, about once a week, sometimes, a couple of times a month, once or

twice a year, not very often, hardly ever, seldom, never), to make students practice asking questions in the

Simple Present Tense using “How often..” and use target vocabulary in the activity cards.

At the beginning of the game, the teacher as the researcher wrote the target adverbs of frequency on the

board and studies their meaning by providing their L1 equivalents and taught their pronunciation with




86

repetitions. Later on the pictures of the activity cards were shown and their meanings in English were discussed

with the students.

The teacher asked a group of students to play the game as a demo for the whole class. After that the teacher

asked the students to form group of fours and provided them with a set activity cards (n=15) and frequency of

adverbs cards (see the Appendix A). The teacher asked each group to shuffle and deal frequency cards out

evenly and place activity cards face down in the middle. Then, the first player starts the game by picking up an

activity card and asking a question about the activity beginning with “How often?”. The first player (and others

in turn) direct the question to whom s/he thinks will answer using one of the frequency card the first player

himself/herself has. Then, the next player picks up an activity card and asks a question and the game goes on

like this till the player who gets rid of all of his/her frequency cards first is announced as the winner.

The target language output for the game is follows:

A: How often do you do your homework?

B: I seldom do my homework.

The students were asked to reflect on the learning experience and note down challenges and suggestions

about the learning experience after each class hour. The students’ views were taken by the researcher

immediately after all the activities had been finished. Solutions and suggestions were discussed and shared

among students as a part of feedback. The following procedural steps were followed during the

implementation of the study:

Figure 1: The Procedure of the Study

Data Collection

In the study, semi-structured interview was conducted with students to reveal their views about learning

English grammar with games. With this aim in mind, an interview form was developed by the researchers.

Relevant literature was reviewed and expert views were taken for the validity of the interview form. After all

the game activities were finished, the interviews were made with volunteered students among the

participants, whose consent was taken by informing them that their names will be kept confidential and that

their comments will be used only for the study.

Data Analysis

For the analysis of the data, descriptive analysis method, which is one of the qualitative data analyses methods,

was used. In descriptive analysis, the aim is to present findings in an organized way with interpretations. Later

on, these descriptions are explained and interpreted, causal relations are discussed and conclusions are drawn

(Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005).

After interviews are completed, voice records were transcribed. Transcribed interviews were thoroughly read

by the researchers to look for patterns that make sense. To achieve reliability, the transcripts were

independently coded by two of the researchers. Later on, the authors discussed their ideas and agreed on the

Determination and adaptation of the game

Interviews with Students

Evaluation of learning with games experience

Discussion of challenges faced during application

Students’ suggestions with regard to the application

Presentation of the Grammar Subject

and Application of Grammar Games




87

classifications. In the remaining part of the report, after the analyses by one of the authors were checked by

the other author, disagreements were discussed and related changes were made. Amendments were made

upon consensus before theme series are constructed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this section, the results of the analyses of the interviews with students are presented. The findings were

classified under three themes: students’ evaluation of learning grammar with games, challenges faced during

application and their suggestions with regard to the application. Detailed information about each theme is

given below.

Evaluation of Learning Grammar with Games

With regard to learning grammar with games students stated that they learnt the grammar points better, had

fun learning foreign language and thus their motivation and self-confidence in English increased and that

learning with games can possibly lead to longer retention of the knowledge acquired. One of the students

stated the following sentences to indicate that he understood grammar points more easily:

“I understood tenses better in this class. I learnt more easily….. I think that it (game activities) should not be only

employed at the end of the class but every time.”(Mehmet)

One of the students stated that they were pleased with this application and attended classes more eagerly

during the application:

“First of all, in this class questions like “How much time do we have left ?” were reduced to the least………I have

not played any language learning game before. But now I see that many things could be taught in this

way.”(Ayla)

Some of the students stated that grammar practice with games increased their success and they think that

learning with games will yield longer retention.

“I think English should be learnt in this way…..I understood the topic better. I think I will remember (the topic)

for longer period of time.”(Maşide)

“It increased our learning and it was catchier.”(Merve)

“I think the things we learnt would be more long lasting as we studied them practically.”(Nurgül)

The students also stated that their motivation increased their attitudes toward English class changed positively

and their self-confidence increased. The participants emphasized that learning grammar with games motivated

them to study and learn used the following sentences to indicate that they willingly took part in the games and

become aware of their learning processes:

“It increased my self-confidence…….My speaking skill improved and the classes became more

entertaining.”(Aliye)

“If the classes go on like this, we can learn English more easily in a fun way.”(Asım)

“We should always do it.”(Tuğçe)

“It was better when we did it practically. I think I can ask and answer questions. I liked it very much.”(Pınar)

“The classes made me think that I can come over English.”(Emine)

“Our motivation increases when games and grammar are intertwined and thus learn better.”(Esin)

“If we go on like this, I think I can talk easily.”(Habib)

When the students’ statements are considered, it is understood that learning grammar with games made

students enjoy foreign language learning, increased their perception of success and self-confidence in English

class, and motivated them to learn the language. Furthermore, they stated that it increased retention of what

has been learnt and their attitudes toward the lesson changed positively. In addition to gains in the grammar




88

points, students stated that their speaking skills and vocabulary knowledge increased. Based on the students’

responses, it can be argued that learning grammar with games is effective in foreign language learning.

Challenges Faced During the Application Process

In their responds with regard to the problems they had during the process, the students shared their feelings

and previous language learning experiences. For example, one of the students stated the following with regard

to her feelings:

“I would be better if grammar structures were written as a summary on the board. I think I would understand

better if they were written on the board more concretely.”(Aysun)

Some of the students indicated that they had a problem to make sentences as they did not know some

vocabulary items.

“It would have been better if we wrote the Turkish meanings of the words on the board” I had difficulty in

learning the vocabulary.”(Ayla)

“The number of unknown vocabulary is a little bit more…I am having a little difficulty.”(Tuğçe)

Yet another student stated that “it would have been better if we knew more vocabulary. At least, we would

make sentences more actively.”(Asım)

Some of the students said the following:

“I had difficulty making sentences but I think it was beneficial.”(Aliye)

“I had difficulty in the Simple Past tense (game) because I did not know the V2 forms of the verbs.”(Ayşe)

Some of the students stated that the number of groups was a problem:

“….but there was a lot of confusion and noise as the number of the groups was too much.”(Havva)

As it is seen, the students stated that they had difficulty in vocabulary and sometimes in the grammar

structures. Besides, the number of the groups and the design of classroom was a problem for the students. The

problems the teachers as the researcher observed will be mentioned in as suggestions in the conclusion.

Suggestions with Regard to Application

The students made suggestions with regard to the effective English grammar learning with games. These

suggestions focused on the pace of the game activities, choice of games, the number of the groups and the

number of sessions and the quality of information and instruction provided about the games.

Some of the students made the following suggestions with regard to the game activities:

“We could have started with a larger group and then we could consolidate it (the topic) in smaller

groups.”(Ayla)

“Groups of two or three would enhance communication.”(Maşide)

“I would be better if we played them as a whole class.”(Hayriye)

“…..besides better groupings can contribute to the effectiveness of the games.”(Gülhan)

“It would be better if the class were a little slower.”(Tuğçe)

“ We can play games about vocabulary as well.”(Zeynep)

“ It would be better if the copies were colorful.”(Remziye)

As it can be understood from the students’ suggestions, for a more effective application it would be

appropriate to provide more detailed instruction about games and their objectives. Vocabulary items and

grammar points are to be written on the board and stay there till the activity ends, and the games are to be

played in smaller groups. Besides, the pace of the game is to be tuned to the level of the students.




89

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

When students’ statements with regard to the evaluation of learning grammar with games are considered, it is

understood that the students had fun learning the foreign language with games and it encouraged them to

reflect on their learning experience and improve themselves, motivated them to study EFL. Besides, the

students stated that the application motivated them to study and increased their self-confidence. The students

think that they can be more successful and use linguistic knowledge in speaking as well. Moreover, they think

that the grammar points learnt with games will be more long lasting.

The students stated that learning with games was more effective compared to traditionally conducted classes

as they played games and acquired new knowledge as they had fun. The students in the study agreed on the

idea that more detailed information is to be provided about the procedure and objectives of the games.

Besides, they stated that grouping is another important factor for the effectiveness of language learning games.

As a result of this case study, the following are research and application suggestions with regard to the use of

games in foreign language can be made:

• Longer periods of application such as a whole term or academic can increase students’ exposure to more

games and different kinds of games, which is expected to reveal the effectiveness of learning with games

more clearly.

• The instructions and objectives of the games are to be clearly stated and the game is to be exemplified in

front of the class.

• The seats in the classrooms can be arranged in a way to increase group interaction

• The materials can be printed colorfully on hard paper so that they can be reused. Besides, colorful pictures

with comic strips on them can be anchor language points in the long term memory of the learners.

• Summary of grammar structures and new vocabulary with their L1 meanings are to be written on the

board and be available during activities.

• New games can be developed so that students can learn different grammar subjects or skills in a foreign

language more easily.

• Besides descriptive studies which examines the experiences of learners and teachers other types of

qualitative research paradigms can provide in-depth insights about the processes in teaching and learning

a foreign language with games.

• In this study, elementary level EFL students were taught grammar with games. The study aimed to reveal

the effectiveness of learning grammar with games. Further studies can examine the effectiveness of games

in foreign language teaching by focusing on other areas and skills in language learning in EFL learners at

different levels and in different contexts.







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Onur KÖKSAL started his PhD studies in education programs (curriculum) and instruction

department of Graduate School of Educational Sciences at Selçuk University in 2009. He

has carried out studies on English Language Teaching, Special Teaching methods in foreign

language instruction, Active Learning, Brain-Based learning, Mnemonics, Constructivism, 5-

e and 7e model, Lateral Thinking Approach, Teaching Methods and Techniques, Tutor

Supported Teaching Method, Multiple Intelligence Theory, Thematic Teaching and

Curriculum Development in English language. Besides, he has studies on problems foreign

language teachers face in teaching process.

Dr. Onur KÖKSAL

Selçuk University School of Foreign Languages

Konya, TURKEY


Born in 1979 in İstanbul, Ahmet ÇEKİÇ graduated from the ELT department of Hacettepe

University in 2002 with a bachelor degree. He worked as an English language instructor at

Selçuk University School of Foreign Languages for 10 years. Çekiç, who completed his PhD

study in English Language Teaching in 2011, currently works at the department of ELT,

Cumhuriyet University. His interests areas includes vocabulary teaching, pragmatics,

English as a lingua franca, technology enhanced language learning (TELL). He has published

several papers in international refereed journal about pragmatics, the whole language

learning, vocabulary teaching, language games and accent in ELT.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmet ÇEKİÇ

Cumhuriyet University Education Faculty

English Language Teaching Department

Sivas, TURKEY


I am Ömer BEYHAN. I have been working as an Assistant Professor at Necmettin Erbakan

University, Ahmet Keleşoğlu Education Faculty, Konya /Turkey. I received my Doctorate

Degree from the Selçuk University Department of Curriculum Development and

Instruction. My thesis called “The Effects of Advance Organizers on The students

Achievement, Attitudes and Retention of the things taught”. I have lectures on teaching

methods and assessment at the undergraduate level and on Democracy and human rights

at the graduate level. Related to the field, I attended the conferences in USA, Austria,

Spain, China, japan, Portugal.

Assit. Prof.Dr. Ömer BEYHAN

Necmettin Erbakan University

Education Faculty

Konya, TURKEY


REFERENCES

Azarmi, S (2011). The use of authentic games in English language teaching Ekev Akademi Dergisi, 15 (47), 411-

422. Retrieved November 2, 2013, from Ebscohost Web database.




91

Constantinescu, R.S. (2012, April 26-27). Learning by playing. Using computer games in teaching English

grammar to high school students. eLearning & Software for Education (2) 110-115. Retrieved November 6,

2013 from Education Source. doi: 10.5682/2066-026X-12-109.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five Misunderstandings about Case Study Research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12 (2), 219-245.

Gaudart, H. (1999). Games as Teaching Tools for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, Simulation &

Gaming, 30, 283-291. Retrieved November 3 2013 from Business Source Complete database. doi:

10.1177/104687819903000304

Gay, L. R., & Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2006). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications

(Eighth Edition). New Jersey: Pearson.

Karadağ, E. ve Çalışkan, N. (2005). Kuramdan-Uygulamaya İlköğretimde Drama "Oyun ve İşleniş Örnekleriyle.

Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.

Kealey, J. & Inness, D. (2008) Shenani Games: Grammar-Focused Interactive ESL/EFL Activities and Games.

Fredericksburg, Virginia: Sheridan Books.

Lawrence, A. J. & Lawrence, A. S. (2013). Attitude of student teachers towards using grammar games for

teaching English, International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 4 (1), 65-72.

Retrieved November 2 2013 from Education Source database.

Poyraz, H. (1999). Okul Öncesi Dönemde Oyun ve Oyuncak. Anı Yayıncılık. Ankara

Rinvolucri, M. (1995) Grammar Games: Cognitive, affective and drama activities for EFL students. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Şahhüseyinoğlu, D. (2007) Educational Games for Developing Critical Thinking Skills: Pre-service English

Language Teachers’ views, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 32, 266-273.

Yıldırım, A., ve Şimşek, H. (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınevi.

Yolageldili, G. & Arıkan, A. (2011) Effectiveness of Using Games in Teaching Grammar to Young

Learners, Elementary Education Online, 10(1), 219-229. Retrieved November, 02, 2013, from http://ilkogretim-

online.org.tr/vol10say1/v10s1m18.pdf

Yörükoğlu, A. (1997). Çocuğun Oyunu ve Yaratıcılık. Maya Yayıncılık. Ankara

Zaorob, M. & Chin, E. (2001) Games for Grammar Practice. Cambridge University Press.

Zhu, D. (2012). Using Games to Improve Students' Communicative Ability. Journal of Language Teaching and

Research, 3 (4), 801-805. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from Education Source. doi:10.4304/jltr.3.4.801-805.




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APPENDIX A

Examples of Activity Cards and Frequency Cards

Activity Cards

(From Zaorob and Chin, 2001)

Frequency Cards

(From Zaorob and Chin, 2001)




93

INTEGRATION OF VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES AND ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGY

IN LEARNING COMPUTER PROGRAMMING: A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK

Siti Rosminah MD DERUS

Faculty of Art, Computing and Creative Industry

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris,

35900, Tanjong Malim

Perak, MALAYSIA

Assoc.Prof. Dr. Ahmad Zamzuri MOHAMAD ALI



35900, Tanjong Malim

Perak, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews the issues and problems faced by students in learning programming, thus recommend a

conceptual framework to overcome the problem. Computer programming courses are said to be complex and

difficult, particularly to novice students. Among the causes of students’ failure in developing programming skills

is their inability to visually illustrate the flow of the program code during the program execution. To overcome

this problem, a Program Visualization (PV) is recognized as one of the available learning support tools that can

help novice students in enhancing their understanding of the programming execution. Nevertheless, using the

PV alone without the active engagement with the tools will not produce the optimal learning outcome on

students' programming performance. Previous studies indicated that, active learning strategies are among the

most effective strategies in learning programming. Apart from learning strategies, there is a requirement of

active involvement of students in the learning process, the ability to think logically which affect their ability to

solve problems, thus lead them to develop a program. In addition, using PV as learning aids is expected to

increase the students’ self-efficacy in learning assignment activity and overcome the challenges of learning.

Consequently, it is also important that these aspects are viewed in studies related to the effectiveness of any

instructional materials such as PV to enhance programming performance, particularly in finding approaches

that can improve novices’ self-efficacy.

Key Words: Programming, program visualization, active learning, logical ability, self-efficacy.

INTRODUCTION

It was globally known that programming courses are generally regarded as complex and difficult, particularly to

novice students (Bennedsen & Caspersen, 2007; Caitlin, Pausch, & Kelleher, 2003; A. J. Gomes & Mendes, 2010;

Jenkins, 2002; Robins, Rountree, & Rountree, 2003). In fact, it is considered as one of seven grand challenges

in computing education (McGetrick et al., 2005).

Many studies have been conducted pertaining to novices’ difficulties to learn programming (A. Gomes &

Mendes, 2007; Mohd Nasir, Nor Azilah, & Irfan Naufal, 2010a; Mow, 2008; Phit-Huan, Choo-Yee, & Siew-Woei,

2009; Reginamary, Hew, & Koo, 2009; Tuovinen, 2000). Based on these studies, among the problems

frequently faced by them is a difficulty in understanding abstract programming characteristics as well as to

relate the program development environment with real problems (Ala-Mutka, 2004). According to Winslow

(1996), typically a novice approach programming “line by line” rather than using meaningful program

structures. This factor is due to their limited knowledge to surface and superficial, resulting their inability to

develop a perfect mental model for problem solution involving the programming development process




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(Reginamary et al., 2009; Robins et al., 2003). Research finding showed that among the reason of student’s

difficulty in mastering programming skills was due to their inability in visualizing the flow of the programming

process (Ahmad Rizal, Mohd Yusop, Abdul Rasid, & Mohamad Zaid, 2011; Milne & Rowe, 2002). Moreover, the

problem worsens when static media were employed in teaching dynamic concepts of programming (A. Gomes

& Mendes, 2007; Linden & Lederman, 2011). Therefore, an effective instructional strategy with the aid of

appropriate learning support tool is crucial to ensure an optimal learning outcome (Ala-Mutka, 2004; Mow,

2008). Program Visualization (PV) is a learning support tool which can be visually assisting the students in

understanding the behaviour of programs (Lahtinen, Ala-Mutka, & Järvinen, 2005; Mow, 2008; Yousoof,

Sapiyan, & Khaja, 2005). According to Pears et al., (2007), humans have a better ability in processing visual

information. It is therefore, PV could potentially aid students to understand the important elements related to

program behavior during the execution of programs. Furthermore, visualization could also be used in assisting

students to link new knowledge with old knowledge (Hyrskykari, 1993).

PROGRAM VISUALIZATION (PV)

Program visualization (PV) can be defined as a visual representation of program or algorithm execution in the

form of graphical components. The main goal of PV is to assist students in understanding the dynamic

behaviour of the program by displaying aspects like values of variables, evaluation of statements, and changes

in the program state in general. In addition, PV could also explain visually the hidden processes during the

program run-time (Bednarik, Moreno, Myller, & Sutinen, 2005). PV consists of two categories: dynamic PV and

static PV (Rajala, Laaksi, Kaila, & Salakoski, 2008). Dynamic PV visualizes the flow of programming execution for

every line of code for each value to the program variables used. An example of a dynamic PV tool is

Jeliot3(Moreno, Myller, Sutinen, & Ben-Ari, 2004). While Static PV visualizes program structures and relations

between program objects. An example of a popular static PV tool is BlueJ (Kölling, Quig, Patterson, &

Rosenberg, 2003).

Programming involves numerous of implicit knowledge which lecturers are having constraint to explain

explicitly with greater clarity and orderly, particularly the abstraction concept in programming (Fetaji,

Loskovska, Fetaji, & Ebibi, 2007). Exist tension among novice students in understanding through static media

such as text book, projected presentation, white board or verbal explanation (Fouh, Akbar, & Shaffer, 2012).

Therefore, PV provides an environment which dynamically represent programming concepts for better

understanding (Gomes & Mendes, 2007; Gračanin, Matković, & Eltoweissy, 2005). However, in developing PV,

the role and limitation of students’ cognitive ability need to be addressed throughout the development

process. Developers need to understand how program visualization can be used to foster learning and they

should not base the design on their own preferences that may or may not fit well with learners. For that

reason, understanding how PV affects students’ learning requires deep understanding of how information is

processed in human memory structure. Design that do not consider students' cognitive ability will only lead to

failure of the device to assist effective learning (Tudoreanu, 2003).

Though PV have strong arguments towards assisting learning, the excessive studies about the effectiveness of

these teaching and learning aids show inconsistence results (Hundhausen, Douglas, & Stasko, 2002; Linden &

Lederman, 2011; Sheard, Simon, Hamilton, & Lonnberg, 2009). One of the most recognized studies in the field

of visualization in computer science education is the meta-study by Hundhausen et al. (2002). They conducted

a study which analysed 24 educational experiments using visualizations. Only 46% (11 out of 24) of studies

yielded significant results favouring the treatment group. Hundhausen et al. (2002) reported that in many of

those evaluated experiments the focus was on the number of visualized components instead of how those

visualizations benefited students’ learning. Hundhausen et al. (2002) concluded that the passive usage

(viewing) of visualization does not guarantee better learning performance and it is really important to engage

and activate the learner with visualization during the learning activity. The importance of interaction between

students and material is reported in the educational literature, in the field of multimedia learning which the

addition element of interactivity to the multimedia learning enhanced the students performance (see e.g Evans

& Gibbons, 2007; Mayer, Dow, & Mayer, 2003).




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ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES INVOLVING ENGAGEMENT OF STUDENTS

Active learning is generally defined as any method of teaching that involves students in the learning process

(Prince, 2004). It requires students to do meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing. In

the theory of constructivism, knowledge is constructed by students as a result of the learning experience

through which they had (Driscoll, 2005; Loyens & Gijbels, 2008). It means during the learning process, students

will activate prior knowledge stored in long-term memory and try to connect with new knowledge learned

(Loyens & Gijbels, 2008).

Programming skills cannot be obtained directly if they have not actively engaged in learning activities (Fetaji et

al., 2007; Reginamary et al., 2009). Abstract concepts in programming can't be concrete unless students are

given hands-on experience that will make the concept of being clear and also learned through their own

experience (Parham, 2003). This is proven through studies carried out by Gonzalez (2006) that implement

active learning strategy and cooperative learning in the introduction programming course (CS1), showed

positive results in students' programming performance when 70% of the students successful while learning in

advanced programming courses (CS2). Therefore, as PV is beneficial for students to comprehend the abstract

concept of programming, it is essential to administer an active learning strategy in order to guide student to

actively engage with the tool. This can be implemented by utilizing Engagement Taxonomy (ET) proposed by

(Naps et al. (2002), the modes by which students could become active participants in exploring with a PV. ET

describes different forms of engagement that can be promoted by a visualization tool and it provides testable

hypotheses about how the engagement level of visualization affects the learning outcomes. The central idea of

the taxonomy is a higher-level engagement between learner and the visualization results for better learning

outcomes. The ET consists of six levels of engagement and they are described in Table 1. Nevertheless question

arises for novice students since they do not have strong existing knowledge related to topics studied. Without a

strong pre-existing knowledge, active involvement may be limited. In this regard, to study the impact of the

engagement level and programming learning performance would be of a great value and interest.

Table 1: Engagement Taxonomy Level (Source: Naps et al.,( 2002))

No. Engagement Level

1 No Viewing There is no use of visualization tools

2 Viewing Considered the core of student engagement with the visualization tool. Students

only view the behavior of program activities from screen display.

3 Responding

Learner interacts with visualization by responding to visualization’s related

questions.

4 Changing Visualization or state of visualization can be altered.

5 Constructing Learner can create own visualizations.

6 Presenting Learner presents visualizations for discussion and feedback.

OTHERS FACTOR RELATING TO STUDENT’S PROGRAMMING PERFORMANCE

Aspect from the correct design and the right active learning strategy still does not guarantee students’

programming performance. Factors such as student’s perception and self-efficacy that they are able to

complete tasks, control strategies and learning environment should also be taken into account (Ghazali, Nik

Mohd, Parilah, Wan Haslina, & Ahmed Thalal, 2011). Self-efficacy is a belief in an individual's capability to

organize and perform necessary actions required to attain designated types of performance (Bandura, 1977).

Previous reseach conducted showed a significant relationship between student self-efficacy learning

performance especially in the area of programming (Ramalingam, LaBelle, & Wiedenbeck, 2004). In relation to

the effectiveness of any instructional materials such as utilizing PV to enhance learning programming, these are

seen as important aspects of approaches, which could improve novice self-efficacy.




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The relationship between problem solving and programming development should be the main focus of any

introductory course in programming (Eckerdal & Berglund, 2005; Schneider, 1978). The core skill of problem

solving is depending on competencies of students in making logical assumption (Ahmad Rizal et al., 2011).

There is a correlation between students' logical skills with programming performance (Mohd Nasir, Nor Azilah,

& Irfan Naufal, 2010b; Parham, 2003). Therefore, logical and analytical skills are function as an important

elements in determining the ability of students to solve problems. Logical and analytical skills are crucial in

order to understand the problem, to analyze the situation and review results of each step taken and, creativity

is necessary for them to form solution to the problem.

Hence, in this study, a prototype PV with various active learning strategies is developed and designed

specifically for novice to test their effectiveness of performance and self-efficacy. This study will also look at the

impact of learning strategies aided by PV on students from different logical capabilities in detail. The acctive

learning strategy is based on the engagement taxonomy levels as recommended by Naps et al., (2002).

According to Naps (2005) which stated that the level of ET truly involves students actively participate is the

highest of four levels. Therefore, this study will only focus on four active learning strategies based from the

four highest levels of ET, which is: i) responding), ii) changing), iii) constructing and iv) presenting.

Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework of this study is grounded on Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin,

1971) and Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988). Learning is a process which information is received,

processed, encoded and retrievable from memory structure (Lin & Dwyer, 2004). Atkinson & Shiffrin, (1971)

classifies memory storage into three types, namely sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory

(Figure 1). Each of these memories has its own role in receiving and processing information. Typically,

information stored in sensory memory is merely about ½ to 1 second, working memory will store information

about 15 to 30 seconds and long-term memory will store information permanently (Ismail, 2011). New

information can purely be stored in long-term memory after they first appear and process in working memory.

However, as disclosed, working memory capacity is limited and the duration of information storage is very

short. Therefore, not all information penetrated the memory structures will work successfully, and registered

permanently as in the long-term memory, in the form of perfect schema (Chandler, 1995).

Figure 1: Information Flow In Memory System (Source: Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)

Cognitive Load theory (Sweller, 1988; 2002) describes the learning process from the perspective of information

processing system that keep all information obtained from working memory in the long-term memory in the

form of perfect schema. Scheme is a memory structure that allows students to deal with a large number of

information blocks as if they are a single block. New information which enters the working needs to be

integrated with pre-existing schemas in long term memory for sufficient mental model development in working

memory. For this to take place, relevant schemas in long-term memory must be activated and decoded into

working memory which is also defined as the process of schema aquisition. The inability of perfect mental

models construction can be a barrier in the learning process, primarily to novice students who are not capable

of recognizing the relevant pre-existing scheme in the learning process. Due to limited capacity of working

memory, when student are overloaded with information and the complexity of teaching materials that are not

well managed, it will be resulted in a cognitive load that potentially cause the process of loaded coding scheme

perfectly affected (Jong, 2009; Sweller, 1988).




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Cognitive load is divided into three different categories of: i) intrinsic cognitive load, refers to the level of

complexity or difficulty of the information to be learned; ii) extraneous cognitive load, refers to the techniques

and strategies used in presenting information ; and iii) germane cognitive load, refer to impulse formation

scheme through learning content management and integration of educational content to student knowledge

(Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller, 2007; Sweller, Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998; Sweller, 2010). Consequently, the

development of instructional materials must be taken into consideration of principles which can reduce

intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load, and simultaneously will increase germane cognitive load

(Caspersen & Bennedsen, 2007). Optimizing the learning outcomes is through by balancing the three cognitive

loads, for instance to reduce intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load which will indirectly increase

germane cognitive load (Bennedsen & Caspersen, 2007; Sweller, 2010)..

Conceptual Framework

Based on theories, principles and literature overview, the study proposes a framework of utilizing a

visualization technique for the purpose of learning the program as depicted in Figure 2. A prototyped PV

developed specifically for novice students in understanding the basic concepts of programming. The visual

information presented by PV dynamically is expected to help students to understand the key elements relating

to program behavior during the program execution. Nevertheless, the PV developed should be balanced with

the role and limitation of students' working memory capacity. This is because the visual information conveyed

by PV should be able to help students develop accurate mental models in working memory for processing, thus

creating the perfect scheme to be stored in long-term memory. Considering the limited capacity of working

memory, if the visual information presented is not in line with the scheme which has been in existence in the

long-term memory, this will cause cognitive load happens to students as they have to strive to understand the

new information to be conveyed without associating it with existing knowledge. Therefore, the development of

PV based on instructional design principles is crucial in this study to ensure the effectiveness of PV as a

programming learning support tool.

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework

Learning Active Strategy (LAS)

• LAS (Responding)

• LAS (Changing)

• LAS (Constructing)

• LAS (Presenting)

Logical Ability

• Low Logic (LL)

• High Logic (HL)

Engagement Taxonomy

(Naps et. al, (2002)

Performance

Test

Self-Efficacy




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Strategy and approaches the visual representation of information is also essential to ensure effective use of

information in long-term memory. Inappropriate use of strategies will lead to increase a cognitive load during

learning activities, particularly if the visual information from the PV only focuses the dynamic presentation of

program execution. Students should be actively engaged with PV in order to active processing occurs in

working memory. Consequently, this framework proposed the implementation of active learning strategies

based upon the engagement taxonomy levels as recommended by Naps et al., (2002) with the central idea of

ET that the higher the level of student engagement with PV, the better the learning outcome. However, does

this assumption could effectively affect novice? Students will actively be involved if they have been existing

knowledge related to the topics learned. Without pre-existing knowledge, active engagement is likely to be

limited. Thus, it is important to study the impact of engagement level on the students’ programming

performance, especially among novices.

The development of education world nowadays does not only focus on learning performance. Consideration is

given towards students’ self-efficacy improvement of foreseeing them to carry out learning tasks and overcome

the challenges of learning. Students with high self-eeficacy tend to learn and strive to achieve success as

compared to students with low self-efficacy, although they have the same capabilities (Bandura, 1986). Thus,

this study is important to observe whether through the active learning strategies approach aided by PV are able

to increase students' self-efficacy, especially novice.

This framework involves the relationship of logical ability with the proposed active learning strategy. This is

because as believed, student’s logical ability is recognized as one of the important elements needed to solve

programming problems during the learning activities. Thus, it is important to investigate whether the student’s

logical ability really affect the learning performance through the active learning strategies approach aided by

PV.

CONCLUSION

Programming courses are closely related to skills comprises the set of sequence or order through the

programming language which then is translated and executed by a computer. However, the subject is said to

be difficult and complex. This is because novice students require a proper understanding to capture an abstract

concept of the learning and difficult to imagine. Previous finding shows that amongst factor students’ difficulty

to master programming is because they could not visualize the programming process. Therefore, the designed

and developed PV is function as the potential learning support tools to strengthen students' understanding of

the programming learning process. PV using the approaches and techniques of dynamic performances in

illustrating the changes to the program code and thus helping students grasp the changes that occurred to the

program states. Nevertheless, using PV merely without the active engagement of students will not be able to

give an effective impact on students' programming performance. Therefore, an active learning strategy is

functions an approach that must be embedded in the learning process of programming. Through active

learning strategies aided by PV, it is hoped that it will help to develop students' confidence in mastering the

basic concepts of programming. There is still a thin layer lining in the clowd and we may expect to see the light

at the end of the tunnel.







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Siti Rosminah MD DERUS is currently a PHD student in the Faculty of Art, Computing and

Creative Industry, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia. She has a Bachelor degree

in Electrical Engineering (Computer Technology) from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, and a

Master in Education from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Her research interest is

instructional technology and programming visualization.

Siti Rosminah MD DERUS



35900, Tanjong Malim, Perak, MALAYSIA


Ahmad Zamzuri MOHAMAD ALI is Associate Professor of Multimedia in the Faculty of Art,

Computing and Creative Industry, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia. He has a

Bachelor degree in Electrical Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, a Master in

Education from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and PhD in Multimedia Design from Universiti

Sains Malaysia. His research interest is multimedia design, instructional technology, mobile

learning, and integrated knowledge.

Assoc.Prof. Dr. Ahmad Zamzuri MOHAMAD ALI



35900, Tanjong Malim, Perak, MALAYSIA


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DETERMINING PROSPECTIVE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION LEVELS

OF ELECTRICITY CONCEPTS

Dr. Özgül KAYA Karadeniz Technical University

Fatih Faculty of Education Department of Secondary Science Education

Trabzon, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Seyhan ERYILMAZ Karadeniz Technical University


Trabzon, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza AKDENİZ Karadeniz Technical University


Trabzon, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

Science teachers should know basic science concepts and associations between them in terms of successful concept instruction. It is also important for prospective science teachers to know these basic concepts and associate them properly. In this research, it is aimed to determine associations of electricity concepts taking part in science and technology curriculums by prospective science teachers; teachers in a near future. Basic concepts partaking in the unit of ‘Electricity in Our Life’ were designated and it was asked for 3

rd class students

(n=55) studied in Science Teaching Program at Karadeniz Technical University to prepare a concept map by using these concepts. Associations were written as a text and classified by researchers as false, partly true and meaningless. It is seen that participants have difficulties in association of electricity concepts, use some alternative concepts, do not associate all of the given concepts and add associations about some concepts that were not given. It is suggested that teachers and lecturers should use these concepts carefully, direct students to accurate sources; develop concept association oriented materials and implement them. Key Words: Prospective science teachers, electricity concepts, association.

INTRODUCTION

Innovations emerge at science brings the innovations at technology itself (Ayas and Özmen, 2002). For this reason, it is increasing day by day that students should learn about science and technology. It is not possible to teach all of this knowledge to students therefore, science education should be made effectively at conceptual level (Özmen, 2005). Students should know basic concepts and the ways of reaching needed knowledge in order to interpret the innovations at science and technology. Hence, it is emphasized the importance of teaching basic concepts and ways of reaching knowledge (Koray, Özdemir and Tatar, 2005). Researches in recent years made at science education centre on how science concepts are perceived by students (Sencer and Eryılmaz, 2002). As a result of these studies, it was generally determined that students do not associate some concepts to scientific realities and they have great number of misconceptions at physics lessons, especially about electricity concepts (Çıldır and Şen, 2006). The subject of electricity is one of the basic areas that maintains its importance at all levels of physics instruction. At primary level, students experience




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simple electric circuits, they learn electricity subject systematically in the following stages (Duit and Rhöneck, 1997; Suchai and Thasaneeya, 2012). There is an increasing view between teachers about instruction of electricity concepts and the difficulty of nature of physics knowledge (Gunstone, Mulhall and McKittrick, 2009). Many studies searching students’ misconceptions about electricity concepts and learning difficulties indicate that students have difficulties in understanding electric current (Aykutlu and Şen, 2011; Aykutlu and Şen, 2012; Carlton, 1999; Duit and Rhöneck 1997; Gunstone et al., 2009; Karakuyu and Tüysüz, 2011; Küçüközer and Demirci, 2005; Küçüközer and Kocakülah, 2007; Mioković, Ganzberger and Radolić, 2012; Mulhall, McKittrick and Gunstone, 2001; Sencer and Eryılmaz, 2002; Şen and Aykutlu, 2008; Turgut, Gϋrbϋz and Turgut, 2011; Yıldırım, Yalçın and Şensoy, 2008). Before formal education for all age levels of learners, readability of electric current is frequently affected by the words (e.g. power, current, voltage) that conflicts between physic concepts and daily life use. This conflict can rarely be changed by traditional instructional strategies. The studies about electricity misconceptions designate that there are two underlying reasons that causes concerns about this subject. Firstly, electricity, in some forms, is seen as a centre area at all levels of physics/science curriculums. Secondly, electric concepts are difficult to understand. Understanding these highly abstract and complex concepts depends on analogies and metaphors (Mulhall et al., 2001). Concepts are the most important knowledge forms in thinking process as they are mental thinking tools that provide both understanding physical and social world and communicating (Sisovic and Bojovic, 2000). Concepts which are seen as a knowledge form and a learning product are categories used for grouping objects and events according to their common and changeable properties (Acat, 2003:170). Concept can be also defined as regularity at objects and events and it is indicated by a label. These labels can be a word, word groups or symbols (Novak and Cañas, 2006). Misunderstanding of basic concepts by students in the process of constructing knowledge affects learning advanced level concepts. This situation causes students to have difficulties in associating previous and new knowledge (Canpolat and Pınarbaşı, 2012). Determining misconceptions of students gives opportunity to teachers to gain an understanding about how students perceive a concept and to prepare a learning environment that can remove learning difficulties (Suchai and Thasaneeya, 2012). Effective science education can occur by approaching scientific knowledge at concept level which serves to classify and organize learnt (Ayvacı and Devecioğlu, 2002: 62; Koray et al., 2005). Knowledge can be learnt by associating previous and new ones. While teaching a scientific knowledge teaching concepts included by knowledge and associations between concepts enables learning. For this reason it is important associating concepts at teaching process (Acat, 2003; Ayas, 2007; Canpolat and Pınarbaşı, 2012). Concept mapping, prediction-observation-explanation, interviews about instances and events, interviewing about concepts, drawings, and word association are some techniques used for determining misconceptions (Ayas, 2007; Özmen, 2005; White and Gunstone, 1992). In this study, it is focused on concept mapping among given techniques. Concept maps are graphical tools used for organizing and presenting knowledge (Novak and Cañas, 2006). A concept map reveals an individual’s structural knowledge about a concept or subject (Zele, Lenaerts and Wieme, 2004) and aims to indicate how individuals see relations between objects, thoughts and people (White and Gunstone, 1992: 15). In a study that was made on association of concepts by concepts maps, it was designated that there are four intended purpose of concept maps as teaching, learning, planning and assessing readability of scientific concepts (Novak and Gowin, 1984 cited by Taşkın Can, Yaşadı, Sönmezer and Kesercioğlu, 2006). Besides using concept maps as a tool of teaching, while researching students’ cognitive structures they are valid and reliable tools in terms of reifying associations between concepts (Atasoy, 2002) and they are used as an alternative assessment tool (Barertholz and Tamir, 1992; Kalaycı and Çakmak, 2000; Karakuyu and Tüysüz, 2011; Şen and Aykutlu, 2008). There are studies in literature about importance of concept maps in science education (Karamustafaoğlu, Ayas and Coştu, 2002), using concept maps in teaching process (Ayvacı and Devecioğlu, 2002; Çakmak, Gürbüz and Kaplan, 2012); Duru and Gürdal, 2002; Kalaycı and Çakmak, 2000; Šket, 2005; Taşkın Can et al., 2006; Türkmen, Çardak and Dikmenli, 2005; Üce and Sarıçayır, 2002) and using concept maps as an assessment tool (Barertholz and Tamir, 1992; Gemici, Küçüközer and Mergen Kocakülah, 2002; Kandil İngeç, 2008; Kaya, 2003; Şahin, 2002; Şen and Aykutlu, 2008). When these studies are analyzed, the existence of conflicted ideas and beliefs with scientific realities can be seen at all levels and all age groups (Özmen, 2005). Anywhere in the world, students of all ages have




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misconceptions about basic science concepts. It is possible to remove these misconceptions by well educated teachers who do not have any misconceptions. For this reason, it is important to determine whether prospective teachers have misconceptions or not (Aydın and Altuk, 2013; Sarıkaya, 2007). If prospective teachers do not gain understanding about basic concepts, later on it will affect their students negatively (Haidar, 1997). Therefore, prospective teachers’ possible misconceptions should be determined and teacher educators should be aware of these misconceptions (Aydın and Altuk, 2013). Within this context, prospective science teachers were chosen and concept maps were used as an assessment tool. In this study it is aimed to determine prospective science teachers’ association levels of electricity concepts taking part in science and technology curriculums via concept maps formed by themselves. METHOD

Information about participants, data collection tools, data collection process and data analyze are taking part in this section. Participants

According to the aim of the research participants consists of 55, 3rd

class prospective science teachers who are studying at Karadeniz Technical University in 2011-2012 academic year and know how to make a concept map.

Data Collection Tools and Process

Concept maps which are effective at determining students’ valid and invalid thoughts (Novak and Canas, 2006) were used as a data collection tool. Generally, concepts used for forming concept maps are chosen from curriculums, class notes, lesson notes and other sources taking part in classroom (Atasoy, 2004). In this study, acquirements and concepts about the unit ‘Electricity in Our Life’ taking part in the 6

th, 7

th and 8

th class science

curriculums were investigated and 51 concepts (electrical energy, conductor, non conductor, solid conductor, metals, solid non conductor, liquid conductor, solutions, liquid non conductor, electrical conductivity, brightness of the bulb, length, cross-sectional area, kind, resistance, ohm, ohmmeter, electrification, electric charge, positive, negative, neutral, electrification by touching, charge imbalance, electroscope, grounding, electrification by effect, electric current, generator, positive pole, negative pole, ampermeter, voltmeter, electrical energy sources, connection in series, connection in parallel, bobbin, magnet, electromagnet, magnetic effect, number of turn, motional energy, heat energy, heat, electrical fuse, light energy, electrical power and electrical devices) were designated. Concepts were given to students and they were asked to prepare a concept map in a period by using these concepts. Students were not informed about concept maps as they have already known. Data Analysis Scoring methods of concept maps can be classified as quantitative and qualitative methods (Zele et al., 2004). Intended purpose of concept maps is important in determining analyze method of collected data (Şen and Koca, 2003). Quantitative analyzing methods are appropriate for investigating learning process in mental structure and revealing personal differences whereas qualitative analyzing methods are appropriate for confirming previous knowledge and learning difficulties. In this study data collected by concept maps were converted into text in the manner indicating associations between two concepts. Descriptive analysis is used for data analysis. Two physics teachers’ opinions were taken during analysis. Inappropriate association words or additions may refer partly true or false understandings therefore researchers took cognizance of associations and additions. In studies searching associations between concepts, data were classified as understanding, misunderstanding, not understanding and irresponsiveness (Ayas and Özmen, 2002); true, false, acceptable and meaningless (Aykutlu and Şen, 2008; Çıldır and Şen, 2006); true, partial misconception, misconception, unanswered, not being able to associate (Kalın and Arıkıl, 2010). In this study associations were classified as false, partly true and meaningless. Definitions of classifications are indicated below: False association: There is a false association between two related concepts or concepts which have no relations are associated.




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Partly true association: Inappropriate associations between two related concepts, far or indirect associations between related concepts Meaningless association: Associations have no meanings when converted into text. FINDINGS

Categories related to associations were determined according to the definitions given in data analysis part. Associations representing same relations and associations stated by more than one student were shown in tables. Students’ false associations about electricity concepts and frequency of these associations were given in Table 1. Table 1: False associations

According to Table 1, 24 students have false associations about types of electricity charges. Students think that electricity charges are sorted as positive, negative and neutral. Being neutral is not considered as the balance of positive and negative charges. 6 students falsely associated electrical conductivity to electrification concepts. They think that electrical conductivity is a result of electrification. Another false association is about poles of magnet. 3 students consider that magnet has two poles called as positive and negative. Whereas 3 students think that magnet is an electrical device, another 2 students describe electromagnet as an electrical device. 8 students have false associations about electrification. Whereas 2 of them think that electrification by magnet is a type of electrification, 4 of them think that grounding is a type of electrification. 2 students think that electrification by touching creates positive and negative poles. 2 students think that metals are sorted as conductor and non conductor. Another false association is about ‘Ohm’s Law’. 2 students think that resistance -independently of conductor- is inversely proportional to electric current. Finally, 2 students falsely associated resistance to voltage. They think that resistance creates voltage in an electric circuit. Students’ partly true associations about electricity concepts and frequency of these associations were given in Table 2.

Associations f

Positive, negative and neutral are types of electricity charges 24 Electrical conductivity is supplied by electrification 6 Grounding is a type of electrification 4 Magnet has positive/negative poles 3 Bobbin/magnet are examples of electrical devices 3 Electromagnet is an example of electrical devices 2 Electrification by magnet is a type of electrification 2 Electrification by touching creates positive/negative pole 2 Metals are sorted as conductor/non conductor 2 Resistance is inversely proportional to electric current 2 Resistance creates voltage 2




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Table 2: Partly true associations

Associations f

Electric energy is related to electrification 14 Electric current creates magnetic effect 6 Non-conductor does not conduct electricity 6 Conductor conducts electricity 5 Electric current is formed by electric charges 5 Electric current is conducted by electrification 3 Electrification is formed by electric charges 2 Electric creates magnetic effect 2 Electrification causes electricity 2 Electrical conductivity is not conducted by non conductor 2 Electrical conductivity is conducted by conductor 2 Electrical devices works with electrical power 2 Electrical current creates magnet 2 Electric energy is formed by electric charges 2 Electric energy is produced by electricity 2 Electrical conductivity depends on resistance 2 Motional energy/light energy/heat energy are types of electric energy 2 Bobbin/magnet/electromagnet produces magnetic effect 2 Electrification is formed by electric current 2 Resistance is a react to electric energy 2 Generator is formed by positive/negative poles 2

Partly true associations in Table 2 come under three themes as associations not expressed clearly, associations with alternative concepts and far associations. These themes are presented below.

Associations not expressed clearly As shown in Table 2, 14 students associated electrification to electrical energy partly true. Students used different words that have same meaning in relating concepts but they did not express clearly what kind of electrical energy will be created by electrification and they did not mention that energy is electrical potential energy. 6 students associated electric current to magnetic effect. Students are of one mind that electric current creates a magnetic effect but they did not mention that electric charges’ motion is the source of magnetic effect. 4 students associated conductor and non conductor to electrical conductivity. 2 students defined non conductor as not conducting electrical conductivity, 2 students defined conductor as conducting electrical conductivity. 5 students associated electric current to electric charges. Students stated that electric charges create electric current but they did not mention which aspects of electric charges create electric current. There is an association between electric charges and electrical energy indicated by 2 students. They stated that electric charges may create electrical energy without mentioning how it happens. Another two concepts that students try to associate are electrical conductivity and resistance. 2 students stated that these concepts are related to each other without mentioning what kind of relation it is. They did not write how electrical conductivity will be affected in case resistance increase or decrease. When associations between electric energy and other energy types are taken into account, it is seen that 2 students thought that light, heat and motional energy are types of electrical energy. These concepts have a relation but this relation should be ‘electrical energy transforms into light, heat and motional energy’.




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Bobbin, magnet and electromagnet are the other concepts associated to magnetic effect. 2 students indicated that bobbin, magnet and electromagnet may create magnetic effect but they did not give place to how this effect will occur. Associations with alternative concepts 17 students made associations using electric concept instead of electrical energy or electric current concepts. 6 of them indicated that non conductors do not conduct electrical energy or electric current, whereas 5 of them indicated that conductors conduct electrical energy or electric current by using only electricity concept. 2 students used electricity concept while stating electric current may create magnetic effect. 2 students both used electricity concept and made far association in regard to electrification causes electric current. 2 of them could not express relation between concepts well enough in spite of they used concepts properly. Finally, 2 students chose electric concept instead of electric current while they were indicating that electric current produces electrical energy. Far associations

2 students associated electric power to electrical devices. They indicated that electrical devices use or work with electrical power. There is an association between electric current and magnet stated by 2 students. Students mentioned that a magnet can be derived from electric current but there is no direct relation between these concepts. Students’ meaningless associations about electricity concepts and frequency of these associations were given in Table 3. Table 3: Meaningless associations

Associations f

Ohm meter is related to voltmeter 2 Electricity creates electric current 2 Electrical energy sources creates resistance 2

According to Table 3, there are 3 different meaningless associations indicated by 6 students. 2 of them mentioned that ohmmeter and voltmeter have a relation. 2 students stated that electric may create electric current. Finally, 2 students associated electrical energy sources to resistance. They stated that resistance is created by electrical energy sources.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Prospective science teachers’ association levels of electricity concepts were determined via concept maps in this study. Generally, prospective science teachers have difficulties in associating electricity concepts, they do not associate all of the concepts given and they add some concepts to associations that were not given. According to the findings, discussion, conclusion and suggestions were given below in detail. It is determined that prospective science teachers’ false associations were mostly about electrification taking part in electrostatics unit. In a research Kurnaz, Tarakçı, Saydam and Pektaş (2013) aimed to reveal secondary school students’ mental models about electrification, thunderbolt and lightning. They precipitated that students have some non scientific knowledge about these concepts. However, it is seen that prospective science teachers could not express the relation between electrostatics and flowing electricity clearly. They did not articulate the relation between electrification and electrical energy or electric current. Electrostatics as a subject is firstly taught at primary level. It is precipitated that electrostatics and electric circuits are seen as independent subjects at a research made with university students in France and Sweden (Rainson, Tranströmer and Viennot, 1994). This may be rooted in previous knowledge of students or studied materials before. Moreau & Ryan (1985) stated that the relation between electrostatics and electric circuits is given superficially or not




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touched in many textbooks. Ünsal and Güneş (2002) made an argumentative research about 4. class science textbook in terms of physics subjects. They expressed that electrification subject taking part in electricity unit should be changed otherwise it will ground students’ misconceptions. However, according to researchers, it will be hard to remove the thought that ‘statics’ and ‘current’ states opposite points. Therefore, it is suggested that materials should be prepared by not permitting misconceptions. It is seen that some prospective science teachers have difficulties in interpreting mathematical formula of Ohm’ Law. They think that resistance will be decrease if electric current increases or resistance will increase if voltage increases. There are similar findings about Ohm’s Law in literature (Afra, 2009; Çıldır, 2005; Duit and Rhöneck, 1997; Periago, 2005; Picciarelli, Di Gennaro, Stella and Conte, 1991). In a study made by using concept maps with 244 secondary school students, it is determined that there are false associations between resistance and electric current or voltage. Students’ not understanding Ohm’s Law literally and perceiving this law as a simple mathematical formula may cause this misconception (Çıldır, 2005). Students think that resistance depends on electric current or voltage rather than it is a property of conductor. This way of thinking may be also a source of this misconception. Another study carried out with 12 students at the age of 14-15 revealed that students failed at understanding that resistance is a property of conductor’s itself. Students have a misconception as ‘If there is not electric current there will be no resistance’ (Afra, 2009). Prospective science teachers have similar misconceptions with the indicated 14-15 aged students and that may arise from maintained misconceptions of prospective science teachers. Teachers and lecturers should not give only mathematical formula of Ohm’s Law, they should express it qualitatively and examine in detail to remove this kind of misconceptions (Periago, 2005). It is seen that some prospective science teachers can not comprehend electricity, electric current and electrical energy literally. Prospective teachers sometimes use these concepts interchangeable whereas sometimes they associate them each other. These results are in compliance with the results of researches made by Çıldır (2005) and Cheng and Kwen’in (1998). Abstract nature of electricity, usage in daily life and mistakes made by teachers about electricity subject may cause students not to comprehend these concepts (Çıldır, 2005). Quantity of electric charges, quantity of energy, electrical potential, force, field, net charge, current or power can be mentioned by the word ‘electricity’. Trying to mention all of these concepts with one word may complicate electricity subject (Ünsal and Güneş, 2002). It is important to indicate the difference between scientific meaning and daily meaning of these concepts for preventing misconceptions. Definitions which are in accord with scientific realities should be given during the instruction of these concepts. As distinct from literature, prospective science teachers have a misconception in regard to electric charges have three types. They think being neutral is another type of electric charges rather than balance of positive and negative charges. Usage of these three concepts generally together may cause this misconception. The misconception ‘magnet has positive and negative poles’ is taking part in literature as ‘south and north magnetic poles are the same as positive and negative charges’ (Barrow, 2000). It is seen that prospective science teachers could not associate basic concepts that should be known well as conductor and non conductor. However, they know that there is a relation between electricity and magnetism concepts but they could not articulate this relation. Demirci and Çirkinoğlu (2004) aimed to determine misconceptions and previous knowledge of university students about electricity and magnetism concepts. As a result of the study it was found that students have problems about charge distribution of conductors and non conductors and also they have misconceptions about electricity and magnetism. Some prospective science teachers did not use all of the concepts given while preparing concept maps. Unassociated concepts are differing from each student. Some prospective science teachers added certain concepts that were not given. These concepts taking part in concept maps are ‘energy, heat and frictional electrification’. Students’ previous knowledge about these concepts and the related concepts may cause these adding.




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IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS

Dr. Özgül KAYA completed her PhD at Karadeniz Technical University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of Secondary Science Education. She is specially interested in educational change, curriculum change, concept teaching and physics education.

Dr. Özgül KAYA Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education Department of Secondary Science Education Akçaabat, Trabzon, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Res. Assist. Seyhan ERYILMAZ is currently a PhD student at Karadeniz Technical University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of Secondary Science Education. She is specially interested in is problem solving at physics education, material development, concept teaching, physics education.

Res. Assist. Seyhan ERYILMAZ Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education Department of Secondary Science Education Akçaabat, Trabzon, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza AKDENİZ is currently employed as a Professor at Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Faculty of Education, Department of Secondary Science Education. He is specially interested in physics education, teacher education, material development and concept teaching.

Prof. Dr. Ali Rıza AKDENİZ Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Faculty of Education Department of Secondary Science Education Akçaabat, Trabzon- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]




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AUGMENTED REALITY APPLIED TO NATURAL SCIENCES

Prof. Bárbara Maria Lemos FERREIRA

Instituto Federal Fluminense BRAZIL

Prof. Thaís Nogueira FERNANDES


Prof. Dr. Suzana da Hora MACEDO


ABSTRACT

This research presents Augmented Reality applied to Natural Sciences, specifically wind energy. A Learning Object showing the generation of wind energy was used in an experiment with high school students. In this Learning Object, the student can see the energy generation in an Augmented Reality environment. In the environment created in Augmented Reality there is the simultaneous presence of real and virtual objects. In this environment, the students could interact with the Learning Object. This work was based on the theory of Meaningful Learning, which, according to Ausubel, occurs when a concept is related in a substantive way and not arbitrary concepts with pre-existing in the cognitive structure of the individual. Reviews and evaluations were done to complete the work, highlighting its advantages in the learning process. Key Words: Augmented Reality, Meaningful Learning, Natural Sciences.

INTRODUCTION

Several studies have shown the importance of content integration in the school environment. The unification of related content leads to an increase of interest in addition to lead students to a greater understanding of the content covered. In different segments of education, broad themes such as the environment can be identified in the curriculum of various disciplines, being, however, more common in areas of Natural Sciences and Geography. Thus, when it is about environment, interdisciplinarity emerges as an appropriate pedagogical propose (Fazenda, 2011), but lacks practical measures that can articulate the actions of teachers and students. This paper aims to present results regarding the use of a Learning Object constructed on an Augmented Reality environment. In this experiment, it was observed that, through a common point of view, knowledge can be increased leading to production of a new collective knowledge with a critical understanding of the whole, with a transforming perspective (Barbosa, 2011). It is a work facing educators from disciplines in question, which are mainly in search of new strategies for teaching and learning, making use of a methodology that will arouse the interest of students in the light of the theory of Meaningful Learning. Aims to:




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• Present the software Windows Movie Maker as a resource to facilitate in the learning process of the Natural Sciences and Geography;

• Exposing the methodology used as a proposal to raise the interest of high school students in science and geography;

• Demonstrate the ability to go beyond the traditional boundaries of the classroom from technological resources. Thus, during the implementation of the project, we sought a real integration of disciplines, enabling the subject to be addressed in a unified way. Thus, teachers of disciplines involved alternated their placements with the purpose of bringing students to an understanding on wind energy.

WIND POWER

The conversion of kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy has been used by mankind for over 3000 years, and the great development of the application of wind energy in Denmark began in 1980 when the first turbines were manufactured by small companies of agricultural equipment. From the 1990s the wind energy industry grew worldwide (Martins et al., 2008). And, according to Santos (2006) the installation of the first wind power plant in Brazil, Ceará happened in 1999 (the wind power plant of Taiba). The energy issue is one of the most important topics of our time and the quality of life of society is closely linked to their energy consumption, and where the growth of world energy demand due to the improvement of living standards in developing countries brings concern with aspects essential for energy policy and planning of all emerging economies. Among these aspects we have the amount of energy needed for social and economic development of a country and the environmental costs to meet this increase in energy consumption (Martins et al, 2008). According to Ortiz and Kampel (2011) since the early twentieth century, some scientists have suggested the power supply, to society, from renewable sources. To Inatomi and Udaeta (2005) concern with the sustainability issue, widely discussed in academic circles, aiming the inclusion of new sources of energy that are renewable and impact the environment as little as possible, comes to the need for global that future generations are able to survive. AUGMENTED REALITY (AR)

Augmented Reality is a type of unconventional interface that allows users to mix images of a real environment, obtained by video camera or other processes with virtual three-dimensional objects, enriching the user's view. In this environment, the user has the feeling that the real and virtual objects coexist in space, to the extent that the virtual objects are amenable to visualization and interaction as they exist in the real world (Akagui, Kirner, 2004). In AR there is an emphasis on visualization together with the interaction. With the use of glasses or helmet virtual reality (VR), one can visualize virtual objects mixed with the real world, in a highly realistic, increasing the perception of the user in the use the computer interface. Still, when the RA interface uses hands as interaction elements, allows the overlay virtual objects in the real world, it enables the manipulation of these objects with their hands, making feasible the development of numerous applications that benefit human training, motivating more to the user tasks to be accomplished (Utiyama, Kirner, 2004) (Figure 1).




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Figure 1: Functioning of Augmented Reality (http://www.agenciadda.com.br/realidade-aumentada-ra) In building an environment of RA, it is necessary the use of sensory devices that allow the user to make the integration of virtual objects in the real environment. So, the technological breakthrough of peripherals for Virtual Reality (RV) contributes greatly to the development of Augmented Reality and basically uses the same devices, such as helmets or Head Mounted Display (HMD) optical or videos, stereoscopic or stereo glasses and monitors (visual devices); headphones and external microphones (hearing aids). Besides allowing virtual objects to be placed in real environments, Augmented Reality also provides the user to manage those objects with their own hands without the need for special equipment, ensuring then a process of interaction with the natural environment mentioned (Zorzal et al., 2006), allowing him an attractive interaction with the environment and motivating. WINDOWS MOVIE MAKER

Windows Movie Maker (WMM), is a simple tool to edit videos created in 2004 and is constantly updating. In Figure 2 we can see the home screen of Windows Movie Maker. Among its capabilities, the program allows the user to import files (images, video segments, audio, photos) on your computer or through Webcam. Also, allows ordering scenes, create titles, captions, transitions and special effects to the recording of the final work in different formats. Given the functionality of this feature, its implementation is given in order to provide dynamism to the process of teaching and learning, overcoming some limitations of the classroom, making the student, the builder of his own knowledge.




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Figure 2: Windows Movie Maker's home screen CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism gives a higher value to the storage of information by students, emphasizes the act of knowing, it is concerned with how the individual constructs his cognitive structure, where the goal of learning is the construction of meaning by the student to he gives his own things, without requiring the memorization of "right" answers with the intention of replicating the direction of another person. So, to Moreira (1999) the human being has the creative ability to interpret the world, not only to respond to it. Objectively, the cognitivist philosophy studies mostly mental processes, aiming the assignment of meaning, understanding, processing, storage and use of the information involved in cognition. Thus, the student is no longer seen as a mere receiver of information, no matter how it stores and organizes your mind, and is regarded agent of a building that is their cognitive structure, where he also will be able to new mental models to include and organize new experiences. The challenge of any project that involves technological innovations in education is that they do not become ephemeral, without the possibility to change the routine involved in the learning process. Thus, constructivism appears to guide the development of computerized learning materials, especially of multimedia learning environments. Rezende (2002) says that constructivist epistemology relates fundamentally to the idea of construction, which planning of computerized instructional materials can be translated in creating learning environments that allow and give support to the construction of something or the active involvement of the student in conducting a task, which can be individual or group, and the context of this task (Rezende, 2002). And according to Carvalho et al. (2011) at the Freire's concept, curiosity is an ontological necessity and characterizes human existence in its process of creation and recreation. This curiosity, that principle can be naive by being associated with the common sense, becomes critical to be exercised, and, as soon as approaches with methodical rigor to the knowable object, becomes epistemological. Cruz-Cunha et al. (2010) think that technology has been continually changing in profound ways how people learn and live. Even as the Internet, many other tools of information technology can be useful in learning contexts and certainly there are




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issues that are best suited to their use. [...] Some technologies bring advantages to institutions, since they can benefit from its use in teaching, both on campus and to reach new audiences, such as the fact that they can be seen as a mechanism for computer-assisted learning which can provide simulations, support visualization and interactive tools (Cruz-Cunha, 2010). METHOD

The work was developed by students from the 8th grade of elementary school II from Alpha College in Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. The production period of work, has been two weeks since the proposal was submitted on 12 August and the presentation to the whole school happened between 26 to 30 August 2013. The proposal offered to students aimed to propose a discussion about the importance of wind energy, especially in the city of Campos dos Goytacazes, because it is home of the students, highlighting their benefits, costs, operating turbines, pros and cons for the production energy through this renewable source. The experiment was done with 16 students, and these were divided into 4 groups of individuals, with the task of creating a video using Windons Movie Maker lasting between 2 and 3 minutes each. The genre of the videos could have been chosen by students, not just the documentary genre is required. However, the students had to respect the age rating of 10 years to avoid inappropriate images to school environment. In the video, still was required an explanation of the operation of a wind turbine at Augmented Reality environment. Taking into account the objectives and the questions asked, the research is a case study of a qualitative nature. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

According to Almeida (2011), in an increasingly globalized world, using new technologies in the pedagogical project is a way of approaching the generation who are in school. She also emphasized that "technology is not a garnish and the teacher needs to understand in which situations it effectively helps to student learning". Of the 16 students who participated in this research, one chose not to respond to questionnaires proposed, despite having effectively participated in the making of the video using Windows Movie Maker and Augmented Reality. Thus, students answered questionnaires qualitative, where responses are at the following charts. The students were asked if they had done any study on Wind Energy and the result was that eigth of them had studied, because the option marked "agree" (53 %). Four students marked the option "strongly agree" (27 %), which leads us to believe that they best remember learning. Two students marked the option " have no opinion" (13 %), which makes us think that there is no remembrance of this learning, and one marked the option “disagree” (7 %), which means they had no contact with this earlier (Graphic 1).

Graphic 1: udents who studied wind energy




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Still, considering constructivism, students were asked if they were familiar with the interface Augmented Reality (AR), and 9 students did not know, because the options marked "disagree" (7%) and "strongly disagree" (2%) while 6 knew, perceived by dialing options "agree" (5%) and "strongly agree" (1%) (Graphic 3). Since constructivism pedagogy was employed in this work, was asked if they already knew the Windons Movie Maker (WMM), and the responses were tabulated and organized in Graphic 2, where it is seen that 13 students already knew, because options marked "strongly agree" (66%) and “agree” (20%), and only two did not know, that realized the options "disagree" (7%) and "strongly disagree" (7%).

Graphic 2: udents who knew about Windows Movie Maker Still, considering constructivism, students were asked if they were familiar with the interface Augmented Reality (AR), and 9 students did not know, because the options marked "disagree" (7%) and "strongly disagree" (2%) while 6 knew, perceived by dialing options "agree" (5%) and "strongly agree" (1%) (Graphic 3).

Graphic 3: Students who knew about Augmented Reality




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CONCLUSION

The methodology and strategies used in the development of this project show that the use of technological materials always arouses great enthusiasm in our young people. But the fact of the use of the video camera, the operation of turbines for wind energy production through Augmented Reality interface, is shown as a novelty well accepted by the students, and constituted as a motivational factor in increasing order. Still, it is possible to observe that the technological resources are already part of learning moments and increases the interests of the students, given that his world includes technology. IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS

Barbara Maria L. FERREIRA is a teacher at Colégio e PréVestibular Alpha and Conselheiro Josino Municipal School, Brazil. In 2010, Ferreira was graduated in Natural Sciences - Specialization in Biology at Instituto Federal Fluminense de Campos. She is finishing her specialization in Teaching in the XXI century, at Instituto Federal Fluminense de Campos. Her research interest is the pedagogical use of Augmented Reality (AR) and digital technologies applied to Science and Biology.

Barbara Maria L. FERREIRA Rua Dr. Smith, 273, Parque Dom Bosco - 28030-130. Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]

Thaís Nogueira FERNANDES is Geography teacher at private and municipal schools in Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil. She is finishing her specialization in Teaching in the XXI century, at Instituto Federal Fluminense de Campos. Her research interest is the pedagogical use of digital technologies.

Thaís Nogueira FERNANDES Rua Dr. Siqueira, 273 Parque Dom Bosco – 28030-130 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]




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Suzana da Hora MACEDO is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil, since 1987. In 1986, Macedo has graduated in Electrical Engineering, at the Universidade Santa Úrsula. She received her Master’s Degree in Tecnology, with focus on Electrical Engineering, in 1998, at Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Sukov da Fonseca (CEFET/Rio), Rio de Janeiro. She received her Ph.D. in Information Technology on Education from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil, in 2011. Her research interest is Augmented Reality and Digital Technologies applied to Education.

Prof. Dr. Suzana da Hora MACEDO Rua Rodrigues Peixoto, 30 Parque Tamandaré – 28035-060 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected] REFERENCES

Akagui, D. & Kirner, C. (2004). Desenvolvimento de Aplicações de Realidade Aumentada com ARTollKit. In: http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/wra/2004/002.pdf. Almeida, M. E. B. (2011). A tecnologia precisa estar presente na sala de aula. In: http://educarparacrescer.abril.com.br/gestao-escolar/tecnologia-na-escola-618016.shtml. Barbosa, Derly. (2011). A competência do educador popular e a interdisciplinaridade do conhecimento. In: Fazenda, I. C. A. (Org.) Práticas interdisciplinares na escola. São Paulo: Cortez, 2011. p.65-78. Carvalho, J. D. S.; Ramacciotti, A. & Rocha, J. C. D. (2012). O diálogo na Educação online inspirada na pedagogia

freiriana: algumas aproximações. In: http://revistas.pucsp.br/index.php/curriculum/article/download/6869/9673. Cruz-Cunha, M.. M.; Reis, M. G. A. D.; Peres, E.; Varajão, João; Bessa, M.; Magalhães, L.; Barbosa, L.; Barreira, J. (2010). Realidade Aumentada e Ubiquidade na Educação. IEEE-RITA, v. 5, n. 4, In: http://rita.det.uvigo.es/201011/uploads/IEE-RITA.2010.V5.N4.A8.pdf. Fazenda, I. (2011).Práticas interdisciplinares na escola. São Paulo: Cortez. Inatomi, T. A. H. & Udaeta M. E. M. (2005). "Análise dos impactos ambientais na produção de energia dentro do planejamento integrado de recursos." Brasil Japão3. Trabalhos2005. Coordenadoria de Relações Institucionais e Internacionais. UNICAMP – Universidade Estadual de Campinas. Disponível em http://www.espacosustentavel.com/pdf/INATOMI_TAHI_IMPACTOS_AMBIENTAIS.pdf Martins, F. R.; Garnieri, R. A. & Pereira, E. B. O aproveitamento de energia eólica. Revista Brasileira de Ensino de

Física. V. 30. n. 1. 1304 (2008). In: http://www.sbfisica.org.br/rbef/pdf/301304.pdf Moreira, M., A. (1999.)Teorias de aprendizagem. São Paulo: EPU. Ortiz, Gustavo P. & Kampel, M. (2011) Potencial de energia eólica offshore na margem do Brasil. V Simpósio

Brasileiro de Oceonografia. Oceanografia e Políticas Públicas. Santos, SP, Brasil. In: http://mtc-m19.sid.inpe.br/col/sid.inpe.br/mtc-m19/2011/07.06.17.10/doc/Ortiz_Potencial.pdf Rezende, F. (2008) As novas tecnologias na prática pedagógica sob a perspectiva construtivista. Ensaio pesquisa em Educação em Ciências [on-line], v. 2, n. 1, In: http://www.portal.fae.ufmg.br/seer/index.php/ensaio/article/viewArticle/13




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Santos, A. (2006). Projeto de geração de energia eólica. Projeto de Conclusão do Curso de Engenharia Mecânica. Universidade de Santa Cecília. Santos, SP, In: http://cursos.unisanta.br/mecanica/polari/energiaeolica-tcc.pdf Utiyama, F. & Kirner, C. (2004). Rastreamento de Trajetórias para treinamento com Realidade Aumentada. Disponível em: http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/wra/2004/003.pdf Zorzal, E. R.; Buccioli, A. A. B. & Kirner, C. (2006) “Usando Realidade Aumentada no Desenvolvimento de Quebra-cabeças Educacionais”. In: http://www.lbd.dcc.ufmg.br/colecoes/svr/2006/019.pdf




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MEANINGFUL LEARNING AND CONCEPT MAPS TO TEACH

ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR ADULTS

Prof. Msc. Evanildo dos Santos LEITE


BRAZIL

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the use of concept maps as a tool for teaching and learning Electrical Machines for adults.

This experience is based on the Theory of Meaningful Learning. An experiment was conducted in a classroom

where adult students could produce concept maps according to the subjects studied. Reviews and evaluations

were done to complete the work, highlighting its advantages in the learning process.

Key Words: Meaningful Learning, concept maps, teaching adults, electrical machines.

INTRODUCTION

With the advent of computer new learning spaces begin to be planned and built, no longer restricted to the

perimeter where there is a closed and traditional relationship between teachers and students. Informatics

allows rethink more dynamic and new approaches to the universe of knowledge working, creating new forms

of learning and communication, encouraging the active participation of students in the educational process,

urging them to see the world from a more critical, with the teacher as guiding this process. As stated by Leite

et al., therefore, the construction of knowledge can and should be mediated by resources more enjoyable and

stimulating (Leite et al., 2010, p.11).

Having your favor application versatility and adaptability in the application to various activities, information can

promote curriculum integration, the breaking down of barriers between disciplines and between different

cultures, enriching the education of students and contributing to raise the cultural and technological of

learners. Moreover, according to Leite et al., digital technologies are increasingly, as mediating tools in

teaching and learning (Leite et al., 2010, p.2).

In this context, the computer can be expected to contribute positively to accelerate the cognitive and

intellectual development of the student, especially as this relates to the development and formal logical

reasoning, the ability to think with rigor and systematicity, the ability to invent or find solutions for problems

(Costa, 1998). You can also enable the student to develop their ability to learn to learn, stimulating autonomy -

which is based on learning by doing - experimenting and creating. This is now a priority of the school, using this

new technology, this process can become richer and more enjoyable (Coll, 2000). Accordingly, to the words of

Leite et al., Information and Communication allow the organization of more flexible curriculum, in form that it

been adapted to individual learning styles, and to promote greater academic autonomy and professional (Leite

et al., 2010, p. 3). Figure 1 shows a concept map about how computing resources can be used in educational

activities.




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Figure 1: How the computing resources can be used in educational activities (Albuquerque et al.)

This work presents the use of concept maps as a tool to teach Electrical Machines in a class of adults. The

objective was to provide teachers with new potentially meaningful situations on teaching-learning of Electrical

Machines using concept maps.

THE PROEJA

Considering that in Brazil there are a lot of people who left the school before the right time, the government is

starting to minimize this problem with some politics of including these person in educational system again. By

the Decree 5.478/05 which was replaced by Decree 5.840/06 made mandatory the implementation and

expansion of the number of vacancies in the network of Federal Institutions of Professional Education for the

sport PROEJA (National Integration of the Vocational Education and basic education in d mode and Education

for Young people and Adults) (Leite and Franco, 2011).

The PROEJA, offering integrated technical vocational training in high school level in the form of education for

young people and adults, absorbs students with varying degrees of difficulty of assimilating the content,

students who have interrupted their studies and now want to resume it, in others words, features that need to

be taken into consideration when establishing a planning. Thus, in the words of Leite et al., PROEJA faces its

own problems and seek to solve them critically and creatively. (Leite et al., 2010, p. 02).

Computer resources are well observed by Albuquerque et al. (2009). According to them, given the demands of

society, globalized character and networked, the proceeds with the development of IT have a meaningful

contribution to the training and qualification of students entered in the National Program for the Integration of

Professional Education with basic education in mode of Young and Adults Education (PROEJA).




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In this paper, the concept maps were used for the enrichment of the student study, allowing a better

understanding of the contents studied.

MEANINGFUL LEARNING AND THIS WORK

This educational proposal is based on the Theory of Meaningful Learning David Ausubel. Meaningful learning is

a process by which a new information relates to an important aspect of the knowledge structure of the

individual (Moreira and Masini, 2001).

Concept maps are only diagrams indicating relationships between concepts or between words we use to

represent concepts (Moreira, 1997).

This work intends from existing concepts in the cognitive structure of the student in Electrical, concepts such as

electrical current and voltage, the student uses them as subsumers in order to underpin the new concepts to

be learned, as the interaction between magnetic fields, these concepts are fundamental to understanding the

functioning of Electrical Machines. According to Moreira (2006, p. 15) the subsumers are a concept, an idea, a

proposition already existing cognitive structure, able to serve as 'anchor' the new information so that it

acquires thus meaningful to the individual (i.e., it has able to assign meaning to this information). In this

respect the concepts previously "anchored" in the cognitive structure of the learner, such as voltage and

current, act as subsumers, so that new information is acquired by the learner. As new information, understand

the concepts needed for the teaching of Electrical Machines.

According to Moreira (2006, p. 13), the most important idea in Ausubel's theory can be summarized in the

following proposition Ausubel's own, the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner

already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly (Ausubel et al., 1980, p. viii).

According to Moreira (2006), Ausubel is referring to the cognitive structure of the learner. It takes the content

to be learned meaningfully.

Also, when Ausubel refers to "what the learner already knows" for learning to occur of new information, it is

referring to specific aspects of cognitive structure.

Still according to Moreira (2006, p. 14), ascertain would be discover the pre-existing structure, concepts that

already exist in the mind of the individual, his organization and their interrelationships; doing a "mapping" of

cognitive structure, which is also something difficult to accomplish. This information serves as a basis for that is

the planned use of concept maps as a teaching resource (Silveira, 2008, p. 95).

In Ausubel’s proposition, "teach him accordingly", Moreira (2006) states that it means education basing on

what the learner already knows, and identify it is not an easy task.

This work intends from existing concepts in the cognitive structure of the student of Electrical Engineering, the

student uses them as subsumers in order to underpin the new concepts to be learned.

In this aspect concepts previously "anchored" at the student cognitive structures, act as subsumers, so that

new information is acquired by the learner. As new information, understand the concepts needed for the

teaching of Electrical Machines. As teaching Electrical Machines occurs in the second year of the Technical

Course of Electricity and the student already has the concepts of current, voltage and magnetism well-founded,

serving thus as subsumers to new learning. Ausubel says:

The essence of the meaningful learning process is that symbolically expressed ideas are related in a

nonarbitrary and substantive (nonverbatim) fashion to watch the learner already knows, namely, to some

existing relevant aspect of his structure of knowledge (AUSUBEL, 1968, p. 331).




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Therefore, it is important that students relate the concepts in new concepts with pre existing in their cognitive

structure. In this case, such concepts are concepts grounded in the disciplines of low voltage electrical

installations. Also, according to Moreira, one of the conditions to the occurrence of meaningful learning is that

the material to be learned is relatable to the cognitive structure of the learner, in the way not arbitrary

(Moreira, 2006, p. 19). Therefore, the Theory of Meaningful Learning will be of great value and will be used as a

theoretical foundation in this work.

CONCEPT MAPS

Concept Maps are closely linked to Meaningful Learning Theory proposed by Ausubel. However, Ausubel never

addressed concept maps in his theory. This is a technique developed by Joseph Novak and his colleagues at

Cornell University (USA) (Moreira, 2010, p.17). Therefore, the concept maps were developed by Joseph Novak

as a constructivist tool to support Meaningful Learning of Ausubel. Diagrams are used to represent, describe,

organize, communicate concepts and the relationships between them. The concepts are the nodes (crosslinks)

of the map and relations are the links. Generally, concepts are nouns and relationships are represented by

verbal expressions. Figure 2 illustrates what is a concept map.

Concept maps can be used as an evaluation tool of learning, study strategy, content presentation, learning

resource, among others. Concept maps may be used in obtaining evidence of meaningful learning, namely the

evaluation of learning (Moreira, 2010, p. 22).

Figure 2: Definition of concept maps (adapted from: http://yohabloespaol.blogspot.com.br/2011/05/mapa-

conceitual-sobre-cultura-flamenca_20.html




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According to Carvalho et al. (2010, p. 8), the evidence of meaningful learning will be checked in the records of

the students by reports and especially in concept maps constructed. But be careful, because, like concept maps

have meanings personal, some maps are very poor and demonstrate that there was no understanding of the

desired content.

EXPERIMENT CONDUCTED IN THE CLASSROOM: CONCEPT MAPS CONSTRUCTED BY STUDENTS

This experiment was carried out using the tool CMap Tools which is free and can be downloaded on:

http://cmap.ihmc.us/download/.

This experiment was conducted in a class that was studying the discipline Electrical Machines, night shift,

module IV, PROEJA, Technical Course of Electricity at the Institute Federal Fluminense in Campos dos

Goytacazes, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. As the class was already in Module IV, had prior knowledge of the

concepts needed as subsumers in the experiment. How Silveira says, recognition of prior skills is important in

order to identify pre-existing subsumers in cognitive structure of the students (Silveira, 2008, p. 95).

The class had a total of eleven students aged 18-45 years, nine men and two women. The experiment was

conducted at the first semester of 2011. We carried out a study on "Step Motors". Activities in the classroom

were developed by lectures with handouts on their issues to be worked out. According to Moreira, it is possible

to draw up a concept map for a single class for a unit of study for a course or even for a complete educational

program (Moreira, 2010, p .16). Therefore, the end of each class the students were asked to jointly do a

concept map on the subjects studied. The concept map on "Stepper Motors" is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Concept map on "Stepper Motor" performed by students (Students at the classroom)

In the construction of the maps is a fundamental constant observation of the teacher, because, according to

Silveira, the big challenge for the teacher is to help the student to use, consciously and productive, the

potential of thinking (Silveira, 2008, p. 86).




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At the end of the realization of the map, the students were asked to explain the same to all colleagues, since,

according to Moreira, concept maps should be explained by those who do them. So, explain it to the person

externalizes the meanings (Moreira, 2010, p. 15). At this time the students were able to present all material

learned demonstrating that the making of the map facilitated the learning. In the words of Silveira, concept

maps are different instruments that must be evaluated, especially qualitatively, in order to obtain evidence of

meaningful learning (Silveira, 2008, p.87).

The maps prepared by students and later in the explanation made by them at the classroom, was evident the

evolution of the students on the issues studied, making possible to observe evidence of meaningful learning.

Noticed on the maps that students can do connections between the concepts studied, demonstrating a good

knowledge of the subjects proposed.

FINDINGS

After the experiment, the students answered a questionnaire and the main results are described below.

Importantly, all stated that, while they were constructing the concept map, they could realize what were their

difficulties in relation to the content studied and also considered it important to discuss with colleagues the

subject studied during the making of the map.

All students said they considered easy to use the tool concept map and all the students said they had a broader

view of the subject studied in the classroom.

Questions were asked in which students could freely respond to questions. Below are highlighted the most

relevant answers.

A) "There are benefits to the student because it helps to organize the content studied." ... "I think there

should be more widespread in educational institutions."

B) "You can interact more with the matter."

C) "Should be used more often."

D) "I thought cool. I would like to take more classes using these materials. "

E) "It is easy to learn, well organized. Good for organizing the contents. "

F) "Illustrates the best content studied. Great software for teaching. I realized that is very easy to learn

the subject".

DISCUSSION

According to the questionnaire responses, the students had no difficulty to build the concept maps. Also, they

have a more comprehensive view of the content studied. Together construction of concept maps enabled the

interaction between students, and bringing the possibility of inclusion and appreciation of the tacit knowledge

of each student. The students were succeeded in better organize the contents studied. Was important that the

map was made exclusively by students, becoming a great authoring tool. Another aspect observed was the

creativity of the students at the time of construction of the maps. The students felt very motivated, both at the

time of creation, and in time the explanation of the maps, allowing a good possibility of evaluation by the

teacher, the content studied. Another aspect to be addressed is the economy, because it is a free software,

which only needs a computer. With the analysis of the concept map the teacher can have a great information

about how learning is being developed.

CONCLUSION

It is important to recognize the subsumers pre-existing cognitive structure of the students so that they can plan

the best use of concept maps as a teaching resource.




131

The teacher has to make a good planning so that activities in the classroom are developed efficiently.

Concept maps were presented as a great resource for teaching and learning.

Moreover, consider important to observe that this work applied the concept maps tool only with adults and

young people that have a lot of living experience to put on the maps together the contents.




BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR

Evanildo dos Santos LEITE is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil, since 1996.

In 2004, Leite has graduated in Industrial Maintenance Technology, at the Centro Federal

de Educação Tecnológica de Campos (CEFET-Campos). He received her Master’s Degree in

Mechanical Engineering, with focus on Automation, in 2008 at Universidade Federal

Fluminense (UFF). Today he is a doctoral student and studies new Electric Materials at

Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF).

Prof. M.Sc. Evanildo dos Santos LEITE

Rua Rodrigues Peixoto, 30

Parque Tamandaré – 28035-060

Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL


REFERENCES

Albuquerque, R. C.; Mansur, A. F. U.; Bastos, H. P. P.; Leite, M. L. T. T.; Amorim, M. J. V. & Macedo, S. H.

(2009).Tecnologias da Informação e da comunicação no PROEJA: contribuições, possibilidades e desafios.

Dialogando PROEJA – algumas contribuições, p. 91-106.

Ausubel, D.; Novak, J. & Haneisian, H. (1980).Psicologia Educacional. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Interamericana

Carvalho, A. S.; Barone, D. A. C. & Zaro, M. A. (2010).A aprendizagem significativa no ensino de engenharia de

controle de automação. RENOTE. Revista Novas Tecnologias na Educação. V. 8 Nº 3, dezembro

Coll, C. (2000). Aprendizagem escolar e construção do conhecimento. Porto Alegre: Artmed.

Costa, J. W.( 1998). Informática na educação — uma síntese. Campinas, SP: Papirus.

Leite, M. L. T. T.; Bastos, H. P. P.; Lima, J. V.; Biazus, M. C. V.; Mansur, A. F. U.; Amorim, M. J. V.; Albuquerque,

R. C.; Macedo, S. H. (2010). Hiperdocumento aplicado a alunos do PROEJA: relato de experiência. Revista

Ciências & Idéias N.1, vol. 2, set.

Leite, M. L. F. T. T.; Franco, S. R. K.( 2011). Proeja e Letramento Digital. Cadernos de Informática. Vol. 6 No 1.

Moreira, M. A.( 1997). Mapas Conceituais e Aprendizagem Significativa. Disponível in:

http://www.if.ufrgs.br/~moreira/mapasport.pdf




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Moreira, M. A.( 2006). A teoria da Aprendizagem Significativa e sua implementação em sala de aula. Brasília:

Editora Universidade de Brasília.

Moreira, M. A. (2010).Mapas Conceituais e Aprendizagem Significativa. São Paulo: Centauro.

Moreira, M. A., Masini, E. F. S.( 2001). Aprendizagem Significativa – A Teoria de David Ausubel. São Paulo:

Centauro.

Silveira, F. P. R. A. (2008).Levantamento preliminar de habilidades prévias: subsídios para a utilização de mapas

conceituais como recurso didático. In: Revista Eletrônica Experiências em Ensino de Ciência, v. 3, p. 85-96.




133

CONTEMPORARY CHILDREN’S LITERATURE: TEACHERS’ FEEDBACK ON SUPPORT,

RESOURCES, TRAINING AND TIME ALLOCATION

Siti Salina MUSTAKIM

Faculty of Education and Human Development

Sultan Idris Education University

Tanjung Malim, 35900 Perak

MALAYSIA

Othman LEBAR



Tanjung Malim, 35900 Perak

MALAYSIA

Abdul Aziz MOHAMED

Sekolah Kebangsaan Puncak Alam 2

Bandar Puncak Alam, 42300 Selangor

MALAYSIA

Hasniza BASRI



MALAYSIA

Nerlizam MAHAD



MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

Support from the administrators, resources provided, training for the teachers and allocation of time for

effective classroom learning are amongst the important components provided by schools. The main purpose of

this study is to evaluate the implementation of Contemporary Children’s Literature Program based on the

feedback by upper primary school teachers. Using survey questionnaire of four Likert scale as research

instrument, this study seeks to identify the quality of support from administrators, availability and utilization of

resources, scope of training, and appropriateness of time allocation in the implementation of the program. A

total of 45 respondents were asked to complete the survey. Data were analyzed using SPSS 19. Results of the

study indicated that 75.6% teachers agree that the administrators give opportunity to try out new ideas in their

teaching, 53.3% strongly agree on the provision of appropriate textbook to be used as teaching materials in the

classroom, 17.8% disagree that the training provided is sufficient as a preparation to teach literature in the

classroom, and 62.2% agree that the allocation of time is sufficient for the teaching of literature in the

classroom. This study proposed the importance of cascade training provided by the Ministry of Education to be

conducted yearly to ensure the effectiveness of transfer of training, the availability of resources to ensure the

success of the program, and consideration of time allocated in the timetable of teaching and learning.

Key Words: Contemporary, Literature, Children’s Literature.




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INTRODUCTION

The literature component in English is aimed at enhancing students’ language proficiency, and it is also geared

for the purpose of generating the aesthetic part of the language that is personal response from students. The

English language Curriculum Specifications stated that the aim of literature is not only meant to address the

interpersonal, informational aesthetic value of learning but also the learning of the English language in general.

Outlined with six learning objectives for the literature components, Cheng (2008) stated that the study of

literature aids in language acquisition be developing the children’s awareness on how language works in

communication and experiencing the form of narratives. It is also an attempt to curb the declining levels of

achievement in standard assessment of English proficiency in recent years in primary schools (Basree, 2009). In

line with the Contemporary Children’s Literature (CCL) Program’s objectives and aims in the implementation,

the Ministry of Education (MOE) has given good support in the implementation of children’s literature into the

schools systems. Without the belief an support of the MOE in the importance of literature of literature as a

component in the syllabus, the death of literature is a sure thing (Cheng, 2008) in the schools syllabus.

This study looks into the provision of support, resources, training, and time allocation in the implementation of

Contemporary Children’s Literature Program as previous study conducted by (Basree, 2009) indicated that the

child-centered approaches and activities required by CCL were largely ignored as teacher continued in their

usual teacher-centered patterns. The existence of limited opportunities for pupils to initiate talk due to the

failure, on the part of teachers, creates pupils less contributions in the classroom. Teachers too, did not

differentiate between more and less proficient students. In fact, the more proficient students complained

about being bored by in appropriate activities. This findings is supported by supported by recent study

conducted by (Radzuwan Abdul Rashid & Vethamani, 2010) in their findings which stated that after ten years

literature in the syllabus, teachers should be able to teach literature effectively, however, the incorporation of

literature component is still argued and debated amongst teachers, students, researchers, parents as well as

the policy makers. These findings lead to remarkable questions of the importance of support, resources,

training, and time allocation that teachers received for the teaching and learning of literature in the classroom

instruction.

In implementing the CCL Program into the school syllabus, the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) has

provided resources for the CCL Component. Materials provided include power point slides and a guide. The

power point slides walk the teacher through the plot, setting, characters, lesson learnt and the emotions

evoked by the story (Cheng, 2008). There is a specification in the writing guidelines for the English Language

textbook, that books for the CCL Program must be utilized in the textbook.

In line with the implementation of the program, a wide support from administration is crucial to ensure the

success of programs at school level. Bernam, P. and McLaughlin (1977) discover in the first major study of

innovation involving over 300 US school districts, for instance, that projects which received the active support

of the principal are likely to fair well. Hall, G. E. Hord, S. and Griffin (1980) argue that the degree of

implementation of the innovation is different in different schools because of the actions and concern of the

principal. Nevertheless, with regards to the implementation of CCL Program, it was noticeable that there was

no attempt at detailed discussion regarding the suitability of the book, the content of the program and any of

the related problems (Shireena Basree, 2007). Head teachers in three schools conducted by Shireena Basree

showed broad general support for the program. Their grasp of what it was expected to entail was often

limited. Many of the observation conducted in the previous study drew attention to poor levels of

understanding of the expectations of the program.

A thorough read of the aims and objectives of the CCL Program, however, leaves no room for doubt that it is a

standardized intensive reading program whereby all schools across all states are required to use a designated

set of three storybooks. The Ministry Official provided confirmation that it is compulsory for all the students to

complete the three titles specified by the Ministry first; it is only at this point that teachers may provide other




135

forms of extended reading, especially for the more proficient classes. However, a study conducted by (Basree,

2009) states that schools received ‘a lot of books’ when actually; at the most, they received only a total of one

hundred and twenty books, forty books per title. In overcoming the shortage of book provided to schools,

teachers were able to use stories of any kinds in the classroom instruction. According to Maley (2001) cited by

Saraceni (2003), the text may also be used as an example of certain types of pattern and structure. Using any

kind of stories could lead to the same objective of learning.

In the early year of its implementation, cascade training was provided by the MOE for teachers who are

teaching upper primary school students. In the year 2008, a group of 24 ESL teachers from three states in

Malaysia were sent to a one month project-based course in RELC Singapore about how to teach English

through literature (Sarala A/P Subramanyam, 2012). These teachers were then required to conduct the same

course to other teachers in their particular states, districts and schools. However, the course held was

inadequate and insufficient and sometimes held even just for one day. The cascade training is important for

the teachers to adapt with the teaching using modules provided by the MOE and at the same time, to ensure

the classroom instruction fits with the needs and expectation of the time scheduled in the timetable allocated

by the administrator. Shireena Basree, (2007) states that there exist various problems with the cascade model

of training used to prepare teachers responsible for the implementation of CCL. The shortage of specialist

English teachers available for training, the in-house training is not common in Malaysian schools, the heavy

workload placed upon the teachers, and the very limited nature of monitoring the program and assistance

beyond state level training are just some of them.

Another consideration is the allocation of time for the teaching and learning of CCL Program is one period per

week (Malaysia Ministry of Education., 2006). Teachers and students are required to teach and to learn three

books in a year which consists of stories and poems. At any one time, students will have one book to read for

every three months. The CDC has allocated “books on rotation basis” to be taught by teachers and learnt by

students in the classroom. They are shown in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Books on Rotation Basis in CCL Program

5A 5B 5C

January – April Title 1 Title 2 Title 3

May – July Title 3 Title 1 Title 2

August – September Title 2 Title 3 Title 1

With the implementation of one period per week, teachers are required to fulfil the requirement of the aims to

(1) improve pupils’ English reading, (2) provide a continuum for the literature component introduced in

secondary school, and (3) create and enjoyable learning environment. They are also required to fulfil the

objectives to (1) instil and inculcate the reading habit among pupils, (2) enrich pupils’ vocabulary and language

content, (3) enhance pupils’ thinking skills, (4) promote cultural understanding in the Malaysian context, (5)

improve English language proficiency, and (6) provide lively, enjoyable and high-interest readings (Malaysia

Ministry of Education., 2006).

It is essential to receive good support, available resources, training, and adequate time allocation in the

implementation of CCL Program to ensure the success of CCL Program’s effectiveness in the schools syllabus.

In order to determine these, this study evaluates the provision of support, resources, training, and time

allocation for the teaching and learning of literature component in CCL Program.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the implementation of Contemporary Children’s Literature

Program (CCL) in primary schools via the four components involved; 1) support, (2) resources, (3) training and

(4) time allocation from the feedback of upper primary school teachers. A survey method is used in this study.

Survey research is the most widely used research method in educational research, commonly used to measure




136

attitudes, opinion or achievements, feelings and any number of variables in natural setting (Leary, 2001;

Wiersma, 1991).

Forty-five respondents from the upper primary schools teachers in the state of Selangor, Malaysia were

selected for this study. In each school, five ESL teachers were selected to answer the questionnaire. The

research objectives of this study are:

1. to determine the provision of support by the schools’ management in the context of role and assistance in

the implementation of CCL Program?

2. to determine the provision of teaching and learning resources by the schools’ management in the context

of language room, teaching aids and financial support in the implementation of CCL Program?

3. to determine the provision of training by the schools’ management pertaining to the implementation of

CCL Program?

4. to determine the provision of time allocated by the schools’ management for the implementation of CCL

Program?

Research Instruments

A survey questionnaire adapted and adopted from Nordin (2011) is employed. The questionnaire was

validated by five experts from the field of Curriculum and Instruction. The items consists of two main parts

covering the general background information from a respondent, including the provision of support, resources,

training and time allocation in the implementation of CCL Program. Table 2 below illustrates the items

evaluated in the questionnaire:

Table 2: Items in the Questionnaire

Item Description References

Part A:

1-10 Respondent’s general information Nordin (2011)

Part B :

11-18 Provision of support by school management (role and

assistance)

Salina 2013

19-26 Provision of resources by school management (language

room, teaching aids, and financial support)

Salina 2013

27-34 Provision of training by State / District / School

Department respondents’ have attended

Salina 2013

35-42 Provision of time allocation by school management Nordin, 2011 & Salina 2013

Part A of the questionnaire contains 10 statements with regards the demographic background of the

participants. It was designed to obtain information related to their individual background and prior experience

of similar courses. Individual background in this study included race, gender, age, teaching experience, years of

teaching, educational attainment and attendance of the related course. Name and present position of the

participants were not mentioned in the report. Data collection was referring to ethical consideration by

(Mertiler, C. A. & Charles, 2005) on principle of beneficence, principle of honesty, and principle of accurate

disclosure. Part B of the questionnaire consist four likert scale of obtaining information related to four

variables of 1) support, 2) resources, 3) training, and 4) time allocation of the program implemented in their

schools. An explanation session was held to help the participants to clearly understand the questions. Quick

check of the returned questionnaires is done to make sure that every question is answered. Otherwise, the

participants were requested to do so with the guidance of the researcher. The main intention is to increase the

validity of the instruments. As suggested by Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Razavieh, A., & Sorensen (1990), a return rate

of any research must be well above 75% for external high relative validity. In this study, the researcher

obtained 100% return rate from the participants.




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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results are presented in accordance to the research objectives of the study. Results and discussion of this

study contains the following heading: 1) Demographic Profile of Teachers, 2) Teachers’ Feedback on Support,

3) Teachers’ Feedback on Resources, 4) Teachers’ Feedback on Training, and 5) Teachers’ Feedback on Time

Allocation in the implementation of CCL Program in primary schools.

Demographic Profile of Teachers

Malay was the majority respondent in the study. The number of female respondent is 88.8% and male 11.1%.

Out of 45 respondents, 15.5% were 50 years and above, 42.2% were in age group of 40 to 49 years old. The

other 33.3% and 8.88% were in age group of below 39 years old. Teaching experience of the respondents

showed that the highest teaching experience was teachers in age group 20 to 29 years old (33.3%) and the

lowest teaching experience were teachers in age group 30 years and above (8.88%). 22.2% were belonged to

age group of 10 to 19 years old teaching experience. The other 20.0% and 15.5% were belonged to age group

of below 9 years of teaching experience. Education attainments of the respondents were categorized

according to Malaysia Certificate Examination (MCE), Higher Certificate Secondary Examination (HSCE),

Diploma, Bachelor, Bachelor of Education, and Master level. Results showed that Diploma had the highest

percentage of respondents (35.5%) while STPM had the lowest percentage of respondents with only 24.2%.

24.2% of them are Bachelor Degree holders, and 25.5% of them are Bachelor of Education holders. Teachers’

specialization in Malaysian Education of Institution (MEI) or University showed 62.2% majoring at English as

Second Language (ESL) teaching and the other were at various field of teaching. With regards to levels of

courses attended in the implementation of CCL Program, 37.7% of the respondents attended courses only at

school level and 28.8% of the respondents never attended any courses related to CCL Program. Only 1

respondent (2.2%) attended Professionalism Course at State level, and another 1 respondent (2.2%) attended

Primary Literature Training Workshop. The other 60.0% of the respondents never attended any course related

to CCL Program.

Teachers’ Feedback on Support

Table 3 below provides further information related to provision of support by school management via the role

and assistance of the administrators. It was found that in item 2, majority of the respondents strongly agreed

(80%) that the administrators paid attention and sensitive to provide the necessary equipment and facilities in

the implementation of the program. 57.8% of the respondents agreed that the administrators observe and

supervise their teaching in the implementation of the program. However, item 1 stated that only 37.8%

disagree that their administrators understand the objectives and goal of CCL Program implemented in their

schools. Only 6.7% of the respondents agree that they are given opportunity to try out new ideas in the

teaching of literature, and 13.3% disagree that the administrators are concerned with all matters and problems

associated with CCL Program. 22.2% of the respondents disagree that the administrators provide guidance and

assistance in carrying out the implementation of the program, and observe as well as supervise their teaching

in the implementation of the program. Only 13.3% of the respondents strongly agreed that the administrators

provide adequate training before the implementation of the program. Details findings related to respondents’

feedback on Support is described in Table 3:




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Table 3: Respondents’ Feedback on Support (N=45)

Questions below are related to support given by the school management towards the implementation of

Contemporary Children’s Literature Program in school. To what extent do you agree with the role and

assistance given by the administrator at your school in the following areas?

Percentage Items Questions

SDA D A SA

1. Understand the objectives and goals of CCL Program

implementation in school.

-

37.8 26.7 35.6

2. Pay attention and are sensitive to provide the necessary

equipment and facilities.

-

8.9 11.1 80.0

3. Give opportunity to try out new ideas in teaching. - 15.6 6.7 77.8

4. Provide guidance and assistance to me in carrying out the

implementation of CCL Program

-

22.2 31.1 46.7

5. Provide time to listen to teacher’s problem in implementing

the CCL Program.

-

22.2 35.6 42.2

6. Observe and supervise my teaching in the implementation of

CCL Program.

-

15.6 57.8 26.7

7. Are concerned with all matters and problems associated with

CCL Program.

-

13.3 37.8 48.9

8. Provide adequate training before the implementation of CCL

Program.

-

33.3 53.3 13.3

SD – Strongly Disagree; D – Disagree; FA – Fairly Agree; A – Agree; SA – Strongly Agree

Teachers’ Feedback on Resources

Results in Table 4 are related to respondents’ feedback on resources by school management via the provision

of language room, teaching aids, and financial support. Only 13.3% of the respondents strongly agreed that the

administrators allowed teachers to carry out activities in the language room, and the opportunity for teacher to

be involved with the planning of expenditure of CCL Program. 75% of the respondents agree that the

administrator provide appropriate textbook to be used as teaching materials in the classroom. However, 42.2%

of the respondents disagree that the school management provide sufficient textbook. 11.1% of the

respondents disagree that the administrator provide materials to perform activities in the learning process, the

usage of CCL Program module as a guide to teacher, and opportunity to be involved in the purchase of goods

pertaining to the implementation of CCL Program. Details result related to respondents’ feedback on resources

is described in Table 4:




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Table 4: Respondents’ Feedback on Resources (N=45)

Questions below are related to teaching and learning resources provided by the school management

(Language room, teaching aids and financial support) towards the implementation of Contemporary

Children’s Literature Program in school. The resources provided by the school management at my school

fulfil the following aspects:


SDA D A SA

1. Provision for students to carry out activities in the language

room.

-

24.4 62.2 13.3

2. Provision of materials to perform activities in the learning

process.

-

11.1 71.1 17.8

3. Usage of CCL Program module as a guide to teacher. - 11.1 82.2 6.7

4. Provision of sufficient textbook. - 42.2 51.1 6.7

5. Provision of appropriate textbook to be used as teaching

materials in the classroom.

-

24.4 75.6 0.0

6. Opportunity for teacher to be involved with the planning of

expenditure of CCL Program.

-

20.0 66.7 13.3

7. Opportunity to be involved in the purchase of goods

pertaining to the implementation of CCL Program.

-

11.1 88.9 0.0

8. Permitting the English Language panel to be responsible to

manage the expenses for the CCL Program.

-

20.0 8.9 71.1


Teachers’ Feedback on Training

Table 5 provides information related to respondents’ feedback on training provided by the state / district /

school department that the respondents’ have attended. 71.1% of the respondents agree that the training and

courses provided assists them in the teaching of CCL Program. 55.6% of the respondents agree that the

training provided is sufficient as a preparation to teach literature in their schools. Respondents are strongly

agree in Item 2 (42.2%) stated that the instructor for the training is a capable and knowledgeable person, Item

3 (46.7%) stated that the time for training is sufficient form preparation to teach literature in their schools,

Item 4 (75.6%) stated that the handouts and other related materials provided during the training are sufficient

and adequate, and Item 5 (60%) stated that they received full benefit each of the course they attended.

However, Item 6 and 8 stated that only 33.3% of the respondents always attended training and course

provided by the state / district / school management, and 33.3% feel confident to teach after attended the

training and courses provided.

Table 5: Respondents’ Feedback on Training (N=45)

Questions below are related to training pertaining the implementation of Contemporary Children’s

Literature Program in school. To what extent do you agree with statements provided below related to

trainings provided by the State / District / School Department that you have attended?


SDA D A SA

1. The training provided is sufficient as a preparation to teach

CCL Program in my school.

-

31.1 55.6 13.3

2. The instructor for the training is a capable and

knowledgeable person.

-

26.7 31.1 42.2

3. The time for training is sufficient for preparation to teach

CCL Program in my school.

-

20.0 33.3 46.7

4. Handouts and other related materials provided during the

training are sufficient and adequate.

-

24.4 0.0 75.6




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5. I received full benefit each of the program that I attended. - 20.0 20.0 60.0

6. I always attended training and courses provided. - 33.3 35.6 31.1

7. The training and courses provided assist me in the teaching

of CCL Program in my school.

-

6.7 71.1 22.2

8. I feel confident to teach after attended the training and

courses provided.

-

33.3 26.7 40.0


Teachers’ Feedback on Time Allocation

Table 6 below provides results related to respondents’ feedback on time allocation in the implementation of

CCL Program. Respondents were strongly agreed in Item 1 that 75.6% the allocation of time is sufficient for the

teaching and learning of CCL Program. 77.8% of the respondents were strongly agreed that the time allocated

is adequate for the While and Post-Reading activities. 71.1% of the respondents were also strongly agreed that

the time provide sufficient time for teachers to fulfill their requirement of teaching two textbook in a year.

31.1% of the respondents disagree that in setting the timetable for the implementation of CCL Program,

priority is given to CCL Program before the other program takes place. Only 8.9% of the respondents agree

that the combination of teaching schedule is appropriate for the teaching and learning of CCL Program. 60.0%

were strongly agreed that the time allocated in the implementation of CCL Program, there is no overlap with

any other use of the Language Room when the CCL Program is implemented. 48.9% of the respondents

disagree that the time allocated gives consideration for teachers to adjust the teaching elements of literature

teaching. Details result of respondents’ feedback on time allocation is described in Table 6:

Table 6: Respondents’ Feedback on Time Allocation Content (N=45)

Questions below are related to the allocation of time by the school management for the implementation of

Contemporary Children’s Literature Program in school. I found that the allocation of time:


SDA D A SA

1. is sufficient for the teaching and learning of CCL Program. - 6.7 17.8 75.6

2. for the combination of teaching schedule is appropriate for

the teaching and learning of CCL Program.

-

24.4 8.9 66.7

3. by the administrators for the implementation of CCL

Program in setting the timetable give priority to the

implementation of CCL Program.

-

31.1 31.1 37.8

4. gives consideration to the views of English teachers. - 17.8 20.0 62.2

5. ensures that there is no overlap with any other use of the

Language room when the CCL Program is implemented.

-

24.4 15.6 60.0

6. is adequate for the While and Post-Reading activities. - 4.4 17.8 77.8

7. provide sufficient time for teachers to fulfil the requirement

of teaching two textbook in a year.

-

20.0 8.9 71.1

8. gives consideration for teachers to adjust the teaching

elements (plot, setting, characters, etc) of literature

teaching.

-

48.9 28.9 22.2


CONCLUSION

Respondents’ feedback concerning the support, resources, training, and time allocation in the implementation

of CCL Program is generally positive. Of the 45 respondents who answered the survey questionnaire, 75% of

their feedback on support agreed that the administrators pay attention and sensitive to provide the necessary

equipment and facilities in the implementation of CCL Program, and provide opportunity for teachers to try out

new ideas in the teaching of literature. However, only 40% of the feedback stated that the administrator

understand the objectives and goals of CCL Program implementation in school. However, it is evident that the




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training provided does not successfully helping respondents to teach literature in the

implementation of the program. Feedback from respondents’ stated that only 55.6%

agree that the training is sufficient as a preparation to teach the program and only

33.3% stated that they attended the training and course provided. The lack of

training provided lead to teacher’s lack of confident to teach the program.

Obviously, it is proven that the resource provided by the administrator is generally

positive too. Majority of the respondents agree that their administrator provide

enough resources in the implementation of the program. Nevertheless, one

consideration is highlighted in the findings of resources whereby 42.2% of the

responded disagree that the administrators provide sufficient text book. This is due to each school has an

enrolment of at least a hundred over students, whereby, in the early implementation of the program with

standard four students, schools were only provided with four sets of 35 books. The following year that is for

standard five students the schools were provided with four sets of 15 books. And, the standard six students

were provided with only four sets of 14 books per schools.

The provision of time allocation by the school management revealed that more than 70% of the respondents

strongly agree that the time allocated is adequate for the While and Post-Reading activities, sufficient for the

teaching and learning of CCL Program, and sufficient time for teachers to fulfill the requirement of teaching two

text book in a year. However, the setting of timetable is given priority to the implementation of CCL Program,

and it does not given consideration for teachers to adjust the teaching elements of literature teaching.

In conclusion, it is important for the authority to conduct cascade training similar to the early year of CCL

Program implementation to ensure the effectiveness of transfer of training among teachers or even

educational leaders, to provide sufficient resources, and consideration of time allocation in the timetable of

teaching and learning. It would also be great if the training is provided among administrators for them to have

better understanding of the aims and objectives of the program. These would lead to the effectiveness of the

program, thus, to add the limit of understanding of the CCL Program.





Siti Salina MUSTAKIM is currently a PhD Scholar by the Ministry of Education, pursuing her

Philosophical Doctorate in the Faculty of Education and Human Development, Sultan Idris

Education University, Malaysia. She has been a teacher of Teaching English as a Second

Language (TESL) for eight years in secondary school before pursuing her PhD. She holds a

Diploma in Secretarial Science from Malaysia University of Technology, Bachelor of

Education TESL (Hons.) from Malaysia University of Technology, and Master of Education

(TESL) from University Putra Malaysia.

Siti Salina MUSTAKIM



Tanjung Malim 35900 Perak

MALAYSIA





142

Othman LEBAR is currently teaching at the Faculty of Education and Human Development,

Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia. He has been appointed as Director of Centre of

Educational Testing, Director of International Relation, Deputy Dean and Dean Faculty of

Cognitive Science and Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University. His career

as lecturer started when he joined Sultan Idris Education University in 1997, and to date

he has served for 16 years. Before joining Sultan Idris Education University, he was

teaching for several years in secondary schools and teacher training colleges, holding a

position as Assistant Director at the Teacher Education Division, Ministry of Education,

Malaysia. He earned his Bachelor Degree from University of Malaya, and Master degrees

in the field of Educational Testing, Measurement and Evaluation from the Michigan State University, East

Lansing, Michigan USA and his PhD degree in Educational Evaluation from the University of East Anglia,

Norwich, UK. As a Professor at the Faculty of Education and Human Development, he has been entrusted to

teach undergraduate and graduate courses in his field of expertise, i.e Educational Testing,

Othman LEBAR



Tanjung Malim 35900 Perak

MALAYSIA


Abdul Aziz MOHAMED is the Headmaster of Sekolah Kebangsaan Puncak Alam 2, Bandar

Puncak Alam, Selangor. He has served as a Geography teacher for more than 30 years in

primary schools. He has been entrusted to hold the position of Chairman of the

Headmaster’s Department in Selangor, and granted the title of Excellent Headmaster by

the Malaysia Ministry of Education. Abdul Aziz Mohamed has been invited by various

national organizations in Malaysia to conduct seminars, workshop, and courses related to

teaching education in Malaysia.

Abdul Aziz MOHAMED


Bandar Puncak Alam 42300 Selangor

MALAYSIA


Hasniza BASRI earned a Bachelor of Business Administration from the Malaysia University

of Technology, Malaysia. She furthers her studies in the teaching college of Temenggung

Ibrahim, Johor, Malaysia in order to qualify her to be English for Second Language (ESL)

teacher. Her career as a teacher started in the year 2005 and to date she has served for

eight years in the teaching of English for upper primary schools students. Hasniza Basri is

the Head of English Department in the Sekolah Kebangsaan Puncak Alam 2, Malaysia, and

the Committee of English District Department, Selangor. She is entrusted to teach the

Year 12 students in upper primary schools as a preparation for the Standard Examination

in Malaysian Primary Schools.

Hasniza BASRI



MALAYSIA





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Nerlizam MAAHAD earned a Diploma in Teaching English as Second Language (TESL) from

the teaching college of Srikota, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She has been teaching English as

Second Language (ESL) for upper primary schools for more than twenty years. Between

209 and 2010, she served as the Head of English Department in Sekolah Kebangsaan

Puncak Alam 2, Selangor. She is also the Committee of English District Department,

Selangor. Nerlizam Maahad has been entrusted to teach the Year 11 and Year 12 students

in upper primary schools as a preparation for the Standard Examination in Malaysian

Primary Schools.

Nerlizam MAAHAD



MALAYSIA


REFERENCES

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Basree, S. (2009). The Implementation of Contemporary Children’s Literature Program (CCL) in Malaysian

Primary Schools: Feedback from Stakeholders, 16(8).

Bernam, P. and McLaughlin, M. (1977). Federal Programs Supporting Educational Change. Vol VII: Factors

affecting implementation and continuation. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corporation.

Cheng, K. (2008). ISSUES IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN MALAYSIA. k@ ta,

(2002), 112–125. Retrieved from http://puslit2.petra.ac.id/ejournal/index.php/ing/article/viewArticle/16693

Hall, G. E. Hord, S. and Griffin, T. (1980). Implementing Change (Third Edition). New York: Routledge-Falmer.

Leary, M. R. (2001). Introduction to Behavioral Methods (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Malaysia Ministry of Education. (2006). Kursus Pelaksanaan Program Bacaan Kesusasteraan Kanak-Kanak

Bahasa Inggeris Tahun 6. Kuala Lumpur.

Mertiler, C. A. & Charles, C. M. (2005). Introduction to Educational Research. Boston: Pearson Education.

Nordin, M. (2011). Penilaian Program Mata Pelajaran Vokasional (MPV) Bagi Bidang Pertanian di Sekolah

Menengah Harian di Semenanjung Malaysia. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Radzuwan Abdul Rashid, & Vethamani, M. E. (2010). Approaches Employed by Teachers in Teaching Literature

to Less Proficient Students in Form 1 and Form 2, 3(4), 87–99.

Saraceni, M. (2003). Literature in the EFL Classroom: roses or Thorns? Teaching of Literature in ESL / EFL

Context. Sasbadi-Melta ELT Series.




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Sarala A/P Subramanyam. (2012). on English Language Teaching. The Malaysia International Conference on

English Language Teaching MICELT 2012 (pp. 110–114). UPM, Serdang. Malaysia: Department of Language &

Humanities Education.

Shireena Basree. (2007). The University of Reading The Implementation of the Contemporary Children ’ s

Literature Program in Malaysian Primary Schools, (June).

Wiersma, W. (1991). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.




145

TEACHING THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A BAR-SHAPED MAGNET

USING AUGMENTED REALITY

Prof. Dr. Suzana da Hora MACEDO Rua Rodrigues Peixoto, 30

Parque Tamandaré – 28035-060 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL

Prof. M.Sc. Evanildo dos Santos LEITE Rua Rodrigues Peixoto, 30

Parque Tamandaré – 28035-060 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL

Prof. Filipe Arantes FERNANDES

Rua Dr. Siqueira, 273 Parque Dom Bosco – 28030-130

Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL

ABSTRACT

It is proposed in this paper the use of an Augmented Reality environment developed to support the teaching of the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet. It was created a prototype with software based on Augmented Reality that has been tested with students of engineering. In this environment the student can see in 3D and interact with the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet. In a screen of Augmented Reality there is the simultaneous presence of real and virtual objects. In this work the magnetic fields are displayed, in the virtual world, which will be around a magnet, in the real world. From the results, analysis and evaluations were done to complete the work. Key Words: Augmented Reality, Magnetic field, Teaching.

INTRODUCTION

With the advent of computer, new learning spaces begin to be planned and built, no longer restricted to the perimeter where there is a closed and traditional relationship between teachers and students. From the indications of the National Curriculum to High school in the area of Information Technology (Brazil, 1999), some schools already have the integration of information technology in their daily lives, beginning the shift to value learning activities for virtual experiments and experiences in places, spaces and times where and when things happen, as a way to enrich teaching. In other words, they show their concern by offering a better quality teaching, encouraging the involvement of teachers and students to build individual and colective knowledge (Kenski, 2003). The computer allows the creation of new forms of learning and communication, providing the student to know the world more critically. In this context, the computer can be expected to contribute positively to the acceleration of cognitive and intellectual development of the student, especially as this relates to the development and formal logical reasoning, the ability to think with rigor and systematicity, the ability to invent or find solutions to problems (Costa, 1998). You can also enable the student to develop their ability to learn to learn, stimulating autonomy - which is based on learning by doing - experimenting and creating. This is now a priority of the school, using this new technology, this process can become richer and more enjoyable (Coll, 2000).




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According to Lemos and Carvalho (2010), educational software can be the interface between teachers and students as an auxiliary tool to improve the processes of teaching and learning content or educational issue. For this process to happen in our study, Augmented Reality was used to support the teaching of the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet. Milgran and Kishino (1994) argue that Augmented Reality is the combination of real and virtual objects. In the study of the magnetic field of a magnet bar shaped the actual object used was the magnet and the virtual object is its magnetic field. Supported by Augmented Reality the student can see in three dimensions the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet. This phenomenon can not be seen with the naked eye because the magnetic fields are not visible to the human eye. For teaching purposes, teachers use spray iron filings around a magnet, as shown in Figure 1. A magnet is placed on a flat surface and gently pulverized iron powder thinly thereby forming a figure would be a representation of the magnetic field. However, even if using real elements, this representation is two-dimensional, bringing great difficulties to students in the sense that they have to imagine a three-dimensional (3D) magnetic field from a two-dimensional figure (2D).

Figure 1: Magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet (http://fuches.wordpress.com/)

However, as stated by Buchau, Rucker, Wössner and Becker (2009), the real-life problems are in 3D. Augmented Reality can help in this aspect, because with this technology it is possible to show these magnetic fields in 3D, and d and according Buchau et al., the magnetic invisible fields can be shown in an Augmented Reality environment. According Kaufmann et al., the main advantage of using Augmented Reality is that students actually can see three dimensional objects (2005). Thus, the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet was demonstrated in the virtual world interacting with the real world. According to Buchau et al., Augmented Reality helps students to understand the electromagnetic field’s theory. In this work, the Augmented Reality enables the three-




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dimensional visualization and interaction with the magnetic field under study, providing the student to view objects in the virtual world that cannot be seen in the real world. This environment in Augmented Reality will act as Learning Object. SOME PROPOSALS USING OF AUGMENTED REALITY IN EDUCATION

Although relatively new, this technology is already being used successfully in several areas. Some of the proposed use of Augmented Reality in Education will be addressed at this section. Buchau et al. (2009) created three applications based on Augmented Reality for use in magnetic field of a magnet, the magnetic field of a solenoid and a magnetic field of an antenna. In figure 2, the magnetic field of a magnet can be seen, result of their work.

Figure 2: Magnetic field of a magnet (Buchau et al.)

These applications allow the student to view the magnetic field in three dimensions. This study does not present the results of using the student applications. Also using Augmented Reality in teaching, Lemos and Carvalho (2010) created the SISEULER, which acts as Learning Object where the student can have a better understanding of the relationship of Euler through visualization and manipulation of objects. This experiment was tested with a positive result with basic education Mathematics teachers. Figure 3 shows a dodecahedron using SISEULER.




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Figure 3: Dodecahedron using SISEULER(Lemos and Carvalho) Macedo et al. (2010) presented one method to teach Solids using Augmented Reality, providing the student interaction and visualization of solids. Figure 4 shows the user in an Augmented Reality environment manipulating a pyramid.

Figure 4: User in an Augmented Reality environment manipulating a pyramid (Macedo et al.)




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Lima et al. (2008) developed the VSTARGD (Viewer of Torus Surfaces of Descriptive Geometry Through Reality). With this viewer the user can see torus surfaces, which three are animated. Figure 5 shows the VSTARGD.

Figure 5: VSTARGD (Lima et al.) HOW AUGMENTED REALITY WORKS

Augmented Reality from d and shoot a scene in real time and from a marker at the scene, brings to the computer screen a scene in a virtual world mixed with a real world, which is the world Augmented Reality. The formation of the Augmented Reality environment is the exemplified in figure 6.

Figure 6 : Formation of the Augmented Reality environment




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To create Augmented Reality environment it was used the ARToolKit (Augmented Reality Toolkit), which is a library with open source and free, suitable for developing applications of Augmented Reality (Zorzal et al., 2008). According to Coelho and Bähr: Through Augmented Reality scenes are formed in a certain place, in real time, from real world scenes and scenes of a virtual world, corresponding to this location. The scenes are formed to give the impression that virtual objects exist in real world (2005). Augmented Reality works as follows: 1. Puts up a marker on an object where you want the interaction to occur; 2. This marker will be displayed by the camera's microcomputer; 3. If it is recognized, will lead to a pre-established library; 4. Will appear on the computer screen, the first object where was the marker mixed with the object that was

at the library. 5. The two objects will be merged into a world that mixes the real world with the virtual world. In Figure 7, an example of Augmented Reality where the user and the bar-shaped magnet are mixed in the real world with a magnetic field of the virtual world in the same screen.

Figure 7: The user and the bar-shaped magnet mixed The magnet used at this experiment can be seen in Figure 8.




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Figure 8: Magnet bar-shaped A marker (figure 9) is placed in front of the camera. Then the link has been established and the virtual image emerged, which is the magnetic field.

Figure 9: Marker




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Figure 10, shows that there is no presence of the magnet.

Figure 10: Marker without the magnet Subsequently, the marker was placed just in front of the magnet and the camera captured the image. The camera recorded the marker image and made the link with the magnetic field that was stored in a preset library. The user, the magnet and the magnetic field are now in an environment of Augmented Reality (Figure 11).

Figure 11: The user, the magnet and the magnetic field are now in an environment of Augmented Reality




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In this proposal, a research was conducted with the students, where the magnetic field of a magnet was mixed into the real world environment in Augmented Reality. AN EXPERIENCE IN THE CLASSROOM

The intent of this experiment was to create a playful environment in the classroom, where students could interact with the Learning Object and could also visualize this object, also increasing the students motivation, aiming to learn. The students can view the magnetic field of a bar shaped magnet like never previously experienced. In this experiment, the learner has the opportunity to visualize the magnetic field in three dimensions. Also the aspect of motivation has been taken into consideration. The students have needs that must be met, it is up to the teacher to make this happen (Mouly, 1963). With Augmented Reality the students have the opportunity to visualize the magnetic field on a ludic way. Thus, the learning process will be more attractive and, therefore, the learning is more efficient, since, according Mouly (1963), the efficiency is proportional to the motivation of the individual. Figure 12 shows a student with the lap top's camera in class. The marker is located on the bar-shaped magnet. This marker made the link with the virtual world, bringing to the screen the magnetic field.

Figure 12: Student at the Augmented Reality environment Participated in this experiment three groups of Technical Course of Electricity and One group of Technical Course of Electromechanical of the Instituto Federal Fluminense, totaling 33 students, aged between 19 and 44




154

years. Among students who participate at this experiment, a group of Electricity is day shift, with a total of 12 students and the other classes are night shift. The experiment was conducted in classes in march/2011. After the experiment they answered a questionnaire and the main results are described in the next section. FINDINGS

When asked if they found it easy to use Augmented Reality, 32 students answered yes and one said he did not know. The 33 students responded, when asked, they could see the magnetic field of the magnet bar shaped. To the question: "Would you like to take more classes using Augmented Reality?", also 32 students responded that they would like and just one said “I don’t know”. There have also been questions in which students could respond freely to questions. The following will highlight the main responses:

A) (20 years - man) "I really liked. I think that’s useful, functional and practical to help us understand the physical phenomena. "

B) (24 years - man) "I found it very useful and easy to use but best of all, what you see in practice is what is said in theory."

C) (19 years - woman) " Helps understand how it works in reality." D) (24 years - man) "I like it because of the view of the things that we cannot see with the naked eye." E) (21 years - man) "Becomes more practical the understanding the issues difficult to demonstrate." F) (29 years - man) "Much interesting to observe the magnetic field in 3D." G) (44 years - man) "Other materials could also use this technology." H) (31 years - man) "I finally could see the ‘so famous’ magnetic field."

It’s important to highlight that there was no negative response demonstrated by the students. CONCLUSIONS

The Learning Object on Augmented Reality environment proposed aimed to introduce students to a way of interaction and visualization, in three-dimensional, of the bar-shaped magnetic field. This work proposes is a new way of teaching magnetic fields. With this experiment, and According to the questionnaire answered by the students, it was observed that the students were able to visualize the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet, and they found it's easy to use the Learning Object based Augmented Reality. Also, all the students would like to have more classes using Augmented Reality. According to the questions that could respond freely, the students commented that they found useful, practical to use and it helps to understand the physical phenomena. From what was shown, the students could actually see the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet in three-dimensions and were also able to interact with this field. Augmented Reality presents the following advantages, among others:

• Allowed students to visualize the magnetic field of a bar-shaped magnet;

• Allowed student interaction with this magnetic field;

• From the moment the Learning Objects in Augmented Reality has been prepared, its use is simple and practical;

• Simplicity and economy of the equipment used: the experiment was conducted with only a webcam and a laptop. Also, a data show with big screen, only to enrich the experiment.

• The Augmented Reality environment is excellent to visualization of magnetic fields.




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We conclude, therefore, that, with this technological apparatus, contributions to education will be of great value. IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies – WCEIS 07- 09 November, 2013, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 1 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Suzana da Hora MACEDO is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil, since 1987. In 1986, Macedo has graduated in Electrical Engineering, at the Universidade Santa Úrsula. She received her Master’s Degree in Tecnology, with focus on Electrical Engineering, in 1998, at Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Sukov da Fonseca (CEFET/Rio), Rio de Janeiro. She received her Ph.D. in Information Technology on Education from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil, in 2011. Her research interest is Augmented Reality and Digital Technologies applied to Education.

Prof. Dr. Suzana da Hora MACEDO Rua Rodrigues Peixoto, 30 Parque Tamandaré – 28035-060 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]

Evanildo dos Santos LEITE is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil, since 1996. In 2004, Leite has graduated in Industrial Maintenance Technology, at the Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Campos (CEFET-Campos). He received her Master’s Degree in Mechanical Engineering, with focus on Automation, in 2008 at Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF). Today he is a doctoral student and studies new Electric Materials at Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF).

Prof. M.Sc. Evanildo dos Santos LEITE Rua Rodrigues Peixoto, 30 Parque Tamandaré – 28035-060 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]

Filipe Arantes FERNANDES is professor at Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil. He is bachelor at Tecnologia em Informática from Centro Universitário São José de Itaperuna (2009). Has experience in Computer Science, acting on the following subjects: augmented reality and teaching-learning. Also is graduating student in Software Engineering by COPPE/UFRJ.

Prof. Filipe Arantes FERNANDES Rua Dr. Siqueira, 273 Parque Dom Bosco – 28030-130 Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, BRAZIL E. Mail: [email protected]




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REFERENCES

ART ool K it version 2.71. DOI = HTTP ://www.hitl.washington.edu/research/shared_space/download Brazil. Ministry of Education(1999). Department of Secondary and Technological Education. National curricular parameters: high school: languages, codes and its technologies. Brasilia: MEC/SEMTEC. Buchau, A.; Rucker, W. M.; Wössner, U. & Becker, M. (2009). Augmented Reality in T eaching Eletrodynamics. The International Journal for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic Engineering. Vol 28 No. 4. Pp. 948-963. Coelho, A. H. & Bähr, H. P. (2005)Visualização de Dados CAD e LIDAR por meio de Realidade Aumentada. In XII

Simpósio de Sensoriamento Remoto, INPE, p. 925 to 2932. DOI = http://marte.dpi.inpe.br/col/ltid.inpe.br/sbsr/2004/11.11.08.15/doc/2925.pdf Kaufmann H; Steinbüegl, K; Dünser, A. & Gluck, J. 2005. Feneral Training of Spatial Abilities by Geometry Education in augmented Reality. In Annual Review of CyberTherapy and Telemedicine: A Decade of VR, vol 3, pp. 65-76. DOI = http://www.ims.tuwien.ac.at/media/documents/publications/CT05_GeomEdu_SpatialAbilities.pdf Lemos, B. M. & Carvalho, C. V.( 2010), Uso da Realidade aumentada para apoio ao entendimento da Relação de Euler. Renote. In Revista Novas Tecnologias na Educação. V. 8, p. 1-10. Lima, A. J. R.; Cunha, G. G.; Haguenauer, C. J. & Lima R. G. R. (2008) Torus Surfaces of Descriptive Geometry in Augmented Reality. V Workshop de Realidade Virtual e Aumentada, UNESP. Macedo, S. H.; Lima, J. V. & Azevedo, C. F. (2010)Use of Augmented Reality in the Teaching of Solids. Congresso

Iberoamenricano de Informática na Educação. Santiago: Universidad de Chile, p. 179-183. Mouly, G. (1963) Psicologia Educacional, 1 ed. São Paulo. Livraria Pioneira Editora.




157

THE IMPACT OF LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE ON LANGUAGE LEARNER STRATEGY

USE IN TURKISH EFL CONTEXT Dr. Mehmet Sercan UZTOSUN

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University


Anafartalar Campus C1-205

17100 Çanakkale, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This study aims at investigating language learner strategies deployed by 275 Turkish university students at

English Language Teaching Department and seeks for possible differences in strategy uses of learners with

different educational backgrounds. The theoretical framework of the study was informed by Oxford’s

taxonomy (1990) and SILL was implemented as a data collection tool. The findings of the study parallel previous

studies conducted in Turkey, in that Turkish university students mostly employ compensation and

metacognitive strategies. The present study goes beyond this and reveals that educational background is a

factor influencing the strategy choice: more experienced learners have wider range of strategy repertoire and

use compensation and cognitive strategies significantly greater than less experienced learners. This article

introduces the educational backgrounds of experienced learners as a sample of English language learning that

promotes the use of language learner strategies.

Key Words: Language learner strategies, language learning experience, language educational background,

English as a foreign language, English language teaching in Turkey.

INTRODUCTION

Language learning strategy research goes back to the 1960s (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990). The scopes of research

studies have undergone significant changes according to the conceptualisation of the learner role in learning a

language. The early studies (for example, Rubin 1975; Stern 1975) were informed by behaviouristic point of

view, in that the main concern was to identify the strategies employed by good language learners which can be

transferred to less successful learners (Greenfeel & Macaro, 2007; Lai, 2009; Wong & Nunan, 2011). By the

development of cognitive psychology in the 1980s, the focus of language learning strategies shifted from

methods of teaching to learner characteristics and second language acquisition process (Wenden, 1987). In the

1990s, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and Oxford (1990) introduced language learner strategies from learners-

as-individual’s perspective and learners, rather than teachers, were seen as responsible agents of learning

process (Cohen, 1998). This gave birth to the consideration of language learner strategies as having value-

neutral nature: there is no good or bad strategies but they are used either effectively or ineffectively by

learners (Grenfell & Macaro, 2007). In the light of this, qualitative studies were conducted and individuals

became focal points of post-1990 strategy research (Grenfell & Macaro, 2007).

The history of strategy research summarised above illustrates that, despite differences in its conceptualisation,

strategy research is still a significant area of investigation in the field. This is because strategy research allows

for gaining insight into language learning process through revealing how learners cope with various problems

to learn language effectively. To address this, the present study introduced a new perspective through

comparing strategy uses of learners with different educational backgrounds. To shed light on the backdrop of

language learning strategy use, this study is designed to explore whether language learning experience is a

significant factor influencing strategy choice.




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THE DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE LEARNER STRATEGIES

Defining and classifying language learner strategies were the major concerns of strategy research (Grenfell &

Macaro, 2007). There are different views about its definition, each of which relies on different understanding of

what constitutes language. Stern (1983) considers strategies as particular form of observable language

behaviours. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) highlight the cognitive process and define learning strategies as

“special ways of processing information that enhanced comprehension, learning or retention of the

information” (p.1). Oxford (1990:8) provides a humanistic point of view and states that “language learning

strategies are behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-

directed, and enjoyable”.

Macaro (2006) provides an alternative theoretical framework underpinning cognitive psychology and claims

that strategies should not be defined but described in relation to variables such as a goal, a situation and a

mental action. He also criticised previous research studies and put forward a number of problematic issues in

strategy research. Macaro’s emphasis on some unresolved issues portrays the lacks of strategy research and

provides a glimpse about the issues to be addressed in future strategy research studies. Nevertheless, the high

number of unresolved issues cannot undervalue strategy research but should increase researchers’ enthusiasm

to provide profound insight in the role of strategies in language learning.

In addition to defining the term, different classification systems were proposed (e.g. Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1990;

O’Malley & Chamot 1990). This study was informed by Oxford’s taxonomy (1990) because it is ‘very

comprehensive’ (Ellis, 1994:539; Lai, 2009: 256) and ‘detailed and systematic’ (Vidal, 2002:47). Oxford’s

classification of language learner strategies is displayed in Table 1.

Table 1: Oxford’s strategy classification system (1990)

Category Function Sets of categories

Creating mental linkages

Applying images and sounds

Reviewing well Memory Strategies

Enable learners to store verbal

material and then retrieve it when

needed for communication Employing action

Practising

Receiving and sending messages

Analysing and reasoning

Creating structure for input and output

Cognitive Strategies

Enable learners to better

understand produce the target

language

Guessing intelligently

Overcoming limitations in speaking and

writing

Compensation

Strategies

Enable learners to use the new

language for either comprehension

or production despite the

limitations in knowledge

Centring your learning

Arranging and planning your learner Metacognitive

Strategies

Enable learners to coordinate their

own learning process Evaluation your learning

Lowering your anxiety

Encouraging yourself Affective Strategies

Enable learners to gain control over

affective factors

Taking your emotional temperature

Asking questions

Cooperating with others Social Strategies

Enable learners to interact with

others through the target language

Empathizing with others




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LANGUAGE LEARNER STRATEGY RESEARCH

Many studies devoted to explore how language learning strategy use is influenced by different variables.

Overall, these studies conclude that more proficient students employ more language strategies (Chamot,

Kupper & Impink-Hernandez, 1988; Green and Oxford, 1995; Lai, 2009; Magogwe & Oliver, 2007). Gender is

also found as a factor influencing strategy use and females were reported to employ greater number of

strategies (Ehrman & Oxford, 1995; Macaro, 2000; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Yalçın, 2006). Some studies also

confirmed that strategy use differs across contexts (Levine, Reyes & Leaver, 1996; LoCastro, 1994; Oxford &

Nyikos, 1989).

The context-specific nature of language learning strategies was confirmed by Chamot (2005), who asserted that

“learning strategies are sensitive to the learning context and to the learner’s internal processing processes”

(p.113). According to Ellis (1994), situational factors influence strategy choice, and therefore, it may be

problematic to generalise findings to other cultural context in strategy research (Lai, 2009: Olivares-Cuhat,

2002).

A number of studies has been carried out to investigate Turkish learners’ strategy uses in relation to different

variables such as 'proficiency' (Yılmaz, 2010), 'learner perceptions' (Yalçın, 2006), 'adult learners' (Karatay,

2006) 'class grade' (Karahan, 2007; Razı, 2012), 'self-efficacy beliefs' (Yılmaz, 2010), 'age' (Hiçyılmaz, 2006),

'tutored and non-tutored learning' (Alptekin, 2007), and 'gender' (Dursun, 2007, Karahan, 2007; Razı, 2012;

Yılmaz, 2010).

Three studies addressed learners’ language learning experiences (Hiçyılmaz, 2006; Yalçın, 2006; Razı, 2012).

Yalçın (2006) compared strategy uses of preparatory students from different departments at a university and

focused on different variables such as gender, subject of study, and type of high school that students had

graduated. He compared strategies employed by learners with different educational experiences: the ones who

had and had not taken preparatory class in high school. The only significant difference was found in the use of

compensation strategies: students who had taken preparatory class employed greater number of

compensation strategies.

Hiçyılmaz (2006) compared strategy uses of ninth grade high school students and university preparatory

students. She revealed a disconnection between language learning experience and strategy use, in that ninth

grade students employed more strategies than university students. Although this finding seems interesting as it

conflicted with the common assumption, Hiçyılmaz’s study has a number of limitations. Firstly, the study was

small-scale and the sample comprised of 50 students. Furthermore, no information is available regarding the

educational backgrounds of university students and it is doubtful whether all participants have similar

educational backgrounds. Ninth graders may have more effective educational background compared to

university students.

Razı’s study (2012) had similar scope to the current study. He investigated English Language Teaching (ELT)

department students’ language learning strategy uses with reference to gender, class and period of English

study. With regard to language learning experience, he grouped students into two: with less than ten years of

learning experience and with more than ten years of learning experience. His analysis did not reveal significant

differences in terms of both class and learning experience. This showed that having more or less than ten years

of English language learning experience does not differentiate learners’ strategy uses.

The studies discussed above show that the pedagogical tendency to investigate strategy uses of language

learners affects the scope of studies in Turkish context and a great number of studies devoted to investigate

strategy use. However, the role language learning experience on strategy use is still questionable. This study

attempts to mask this gap through investigating strategy uses of learners with different educational

backgrounds and aims at revealing the impact of language learning background on the use of language learner

strategies.




160

This study addresses following research questions:

1. What language learner strategy categories and individual language learner strategies do Turkish EFL

learners use?

2. Are there significant differences between Turkish EFL learners with different educational backgrounds in

terms of the use of language learner strategy categories?

METHODOLOGY

The scope of present study is in line with the objectives of survey methodology, which is one of the most

common methodologies seeking for the relationship between variables in data collected from a large group of

participants (Mackey and Gass, 2005). A scale was administered to collect valid and reliable data, which allows

for implementing statistical analyses to explore similarities and differences between variables.

The sample involved 275 students pursuing different years of university at ELT Department. Purposive sampling

was used: preparatory (Level 1), first year (Level 2) and fourth year (Level 3) students participated in the study.

Preparatory students had recently graduated from high school. Considering the structure-based English

language education in Turkey (Alagözlü, 2012; Işık, 2011), these students, around eighteen years old, mostly

focused on developing their grammatical, reading and lexical skills, and hence, they are highly competent in

these skills but less so in listening, speaking, pronunciation and writing. Level 2 students completed the

preparatory class last year and had been taking skill-based classes at more advanced level than Level 1

students. Level 3 students were the final year students, around 22 years old, who would be qualified as English

language teachers at the end of the year. These students experienced five-year ELT department education and

had taken various courses that required dealing with different aspects of English such as writing short

dissertation projects, doing several micro-teachings and giving oral presentations. For that reason, these

students experienced various aspects of English compared to other groups of participants. The biographic

information of participants is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: The Distribution of participants according to level, age and gender

Gender Years of study N

Male Female

Age

(average)

Prep (Level 1) 101 (38%) 21 (21%) 80 (79%) 18.88

First Grade (Level 2) 92 (34%) 28 (30%) 64 (70%) 19.75

Fourth Grade (Level 3) 80 (28%) 14 (18%) 66 (82%) 22.17

Total 273 (2 missing) 63 (24%) 210 (76%) 20.13

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was implemented. Being informed by Oxford’s taxonomy

(1990), SILL is most widely used questionnaire in strategy research (Chamot, 2005) because of its high reliability

across many cultural groups with Cronbach alpha values 0.93-0.98 (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995). SILL

comprises 5 point Likert-type items in 6 categories, involving ‘memory’, ‘cognitive’, ‘compensation’,

‘metacognitive’, ‘affective’, and ‘social’ strategies. The Turkish version of SILL, which was formed by Dursun

(2007) with Cronbach alpha values 0.76, was implemented in this study to ensure that the participants

understand the items thoroughly.

The participants’ responses are measured on an interval scale and the mean and standard deviation were

calculated by using SPSS v.16. The levels of differences were checked through ANOVA and the LSD posthoc test

was used to see the direction of significant differences between participants.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The use of SILL categories of all participants

The frequencies of the use of SILL categorises revealed in the current study are displayed in Table 3.




161

Table 3: Frequency of the use of SILL categories

Rank Category N Mean Std. Dev.

Compensation Strategies 273 3.76 .59

Metacognitive Strategies 265 3.75 .61

Social Strategies 273 3.46 .61

Cognitive Strategies 263 3.28 .44

Memory Strategies 264 3.19 .50

Affective strategies 268 3.10 .54

TOTAL 239 3.43 .61

According to Oxford’s category sets (1990), a frequency between 2.5 and 3.49 is the mid-level of strategy use.

This shows that the participants employ language learner strategies at medium level. This is in line with

previous studies conducted in Turkish context (e.g. Hiçyılmaz, 2006; Yalçın, 2006). Participants reported a high-

level of compensation and metacognitive strategy use, which parallels Yılmaz’s study (2010), a study with

similar scope conducted in the same context.

Turkish learners’ higher dependence on compensation strategies was also supported in previous studies (e.g.

Alptekin, 2007; Hiçyılmaz, 2006; Karahan, 2007; Razı, 2012; Yalçın 2006; Yılmaz, 2010). Furthermore, relying on

compensation, metacognition and social strategies more than other three strategies was another common

point of previous studies, the results of which are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Findings of previous studies on the use of SILL categories

Yalçın (2006) Hiçyılmaz (2006) Dursun (2007) Razı (2012) Current Study

1. Compensation Social Metacognitive Compensation Compensation

2. Metacognitive Compensation Social Metacognitive Metacognitive

3. Social Metacognitive Compensation Cognitive Social

4. Memory Cognitive Cognitive Memory Cognitive

5. Affective Affective Affective Social Memory

6. Cognitive Memory Memory Affective Affective

The frequent use of compensation strategies may reflect Turkish learners’ weaknesses in speaking skills

because compensation strategies serve the purpose of comprehending or producing the language despite the

limited knowledge (Oxford, 1990). This is because compensation strategies concern using the language rather

than learning it (Dörnyei, 1995). In doing so, learners employ different strategies to compensate the lacking

information such as using clues, getting help, coining words, adjusting or approximating the message, and using

mime or gesture.

The less dependence on cognitive strategies may seem contradictory because it is believed that there is a linear

relationship between cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Green & Oxford, 1995; O’Malley & Chamot,

1990). This is probably because cognitive strategies play important role in achieving a particular objective and

metacognitive strategies indicate whether the objective is achieved or not (Phakiti, 2003). However, as

confirmed by other studies conducted in Turkey, Turkish learners do not tend to use cognitive strategies as

frequently as metacognitive strategies. This may indicate that Turkish EFL learners employ strategies to

organise their learning through setting goals and objectives but they do not frequently use strategies that help

them learn and produce the target language. With regard to social strategies, participants seemed to prefer

involving others by asking questions, co-operating and empathizing with others. This reliance illustrates the

willingness to collaborate with other people.

The less frequent use of the affective strategies confirms that learners do not tend to gain control over

emotional factors through lowering anxiety, encouraging or taking emotional temperature. The low frequency




162

of memory strategies may not indicate participants’ low reliance on memory strategies (Goh and Kwah, 1997):

there are numerous memory strategies to be used in language learning and SILL only addresses a limited

number of it. I would therefore restrain to make generalisation about the use of memory strategies.

The use of individual strategies

In addition to the use of SILL categories, it is worth considering the popular individual strategies, which profile

the strategy repertoires of Turkish EFL learners. The descriptive analysis of the use of individual strategies is

displayed in Table 5.

Table 5: Most frequently used individual strategies

Rank Item N Mean Std. Dev. Strategy

1 32 274 4.38 .78 Paying attention to the interlocutor

2 45 275 4.33 .80 Asking for slowing down or repetition

3 29 275 4.21 .80 Using a different word or phrase with similar

meaning

4 31 275 4.11 .80 Noticing and using mistakes for doing better

5 27 275 4.05 .90 Trying not to look up every word while reading in

English

6 1 274 4.03 .80 Trying to make connections between known and

new things

7 24 275 4.02 .82 Guessing unknown words

8 42 273 4.01 1.09 Noticing nervousness when speaking English

9 33 272 4 .90 Trying to find different ways to learn English

more effectively

10 37 274 3.97 .94 Having clear objectives about improving abilities

in English

Some of these findings are in line with previous studies: ‘Paying attention to the interlocutor’, ‘asking for

slowing down’, ‘trying to make connections between known and new things’, ‘noticing and using mistakes’

were found as the most popular individual strategies employed by Turkish learners (Karatay, 2006; Razı, 2012).

It is possible to categorise these popular strategies into three. First category specifies that Turkish learners

frequently deal with problems stemming from the lack of competency in speaking skills. To overcome this, they

closely pay attention to interlocutors to understand the message thoroughly and frequently ask them to slow

down or repeat. The third popular strategy, which is about circumlocution, refers to participants’ lack of

speaking skills as well because this strategy is used when the speaker has difficulty in sending a message and

tries to send it by using different words or phrases (Dörnyei & Scott, 1997). Furthermore, noticing nervousness

during conversations was another issue mentioned by participants. This is also related to other popular

strategies as students may not feel comfortable when dealing with problems in conversations because

speakers need to find immediate solutions while speaking, and therefore, speaking is considered as the most

anxiety-producing experience (Young, 1990). The second category indicates that Turkish EFL learners tend to

use existing knowledge through connecting it with the new information: they try to guess unknown words and

avoid looking up the dictionary. The third category may reflect students’ attitudes towards studying English:

reporting that they frequently try to learn from mistakes, find different ways to learn English more effectively

and have clear objectives about improving their abilities in English, the participants seemed to be pleased with

their learning process.

In addition to the popular strategies, unpopular strategies may also profile the characteristics of Turkish EFL

learners. The results of the ten least-used individual strategies are displayed in Table 6.




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Table 6: Unpopular individual strategies

Rank Item N Mean Std. Dev. Strategy

41 41 273 2.97 2,96 Rewarding yourself after a success

42 14 274 2.94 2,93 Creating opportunities to speak English inside or

outside the classroom

43 21 275 2.93 2,93 Finding the meaning from the structure of a word

44 44 272 2.70 2,70 Explaining feelings to other people

45 17 274 2.69 2,68 Writing notes, messages, letters in English

46 23 275 2.63 2,63 Making summary of what is learned

47 5 270 2.47 1,12 Using rhymes to remember new words

48 7 274 2.04 1,17 Physically acting out new English words

49 6 274 1.95 1,06 Using flashcards to remember new words

50 43 274 1.37 .83977 Keeping a language diary

The less dependence on some of these strategies parallels Razı’s study (2012), where ‘keeping a language

diary’, ‘using flashcards’, ‘physically acting out new words’, ‘explaining feelings’, ‘using rhymes’, and ‘rewarding

your success’ were the most unpopular strategies.

When the natures of these strategies are examined, it is clear that participants do not create opportunities to

use the language through speaking and writing in English. This tendency also shows less dependence on

cognitive strategies and illustrates the fact that Turkish learners do not deal with English outside the class.

Although Turkish EFL learners prefer involving others to their learning process, they do not tend to share their

feelings. Examining the structure of a word to find the meaning and making summary of what is learned may

also indicate that they do not commonly analyse and synthesis the target language.

The differences in the use of SILL categories

To explore the differences in strategy uses of participants with different educational backgrounds, One-Way

ANOVA and LSD post-hoc tests were carried out, the results of which are displayed in Table 7:

Table 7: The differences between participants in using SILL categories

Category Sum of Squares df Mean

Square F Sig

Direction of

differences

Between

Groups 4,987 2 2,494 Level 3>1 p<.000

Within Groups 73,407 261 .281

Memory

Strategies

Total 78,394 263

8,866 .000

Level 3>2 p<.007

Between

Groups 1,571 2 .786


Cognitive

Strategies

Total 66,929 262

3,125 .046 Level 3>1 p<.023

Between

Groups 4,665 2 2,332


Compensation

Strategies

Total 97,122 272

6,812 .001 Level 3>1 p<.000




164

As can be seen in Table 7, Level 3 students employ memory, cognitive and compensation strategies significantly

more than Level 1 students. Although Level 3 students develop more varied English competencies than Level 1

students, I would be cautious to argue that participants’ proficiency levels are different in this study because no

proficiency test was administered. However, the differences between Level 3 and Level 1 students parallel the

differences between proficient and less proficient learners in terms of the use of cognitive strategies, in that

proficient learners employ cognitive strategies significantly greater than less proficient students (Chamot,

Kupper & Impink-Hernandez, 1988; Green &Oxford, 1995; Lai, 2009; Magogwe & Oliver, 2007).

According to Oxford (1990), cognitive strategies are crucial for language learning. Employing cognitive

strategies enhances language practice and this is essential for learning a language. Through practice, learners

develop competencies in different aspects of English and they are more likely to internalise the language

through integrating it to everyday life by carrying out activities such as watching English programmes or films,

reading English books, and studying on pronunciation. Considering the participants of the present study, as a

result of dealing with English only in classroom, less experienced learners regard English solely as a course

rather than a language and this hinders using cognitive strategies.

Compensation strategies are the other type of strategies that were employed significantly greater by Level 3

students. Yalçın (2006), who compared strategy uses of students who had taken and who had not taken

preparatory class at high schools, also found significant differences in the use of compensation strategies. In

essence, compensation strategies are different in nature. As maintained by Dörnyei (1995), these strategies do

not address language learning but language production. Therefore, compensation strategies are closely related

to communication strategies which are used to overcome communication difficulties in spoken language

(Dörnyei & Scott, 1997). The present study illustrated that dealing with different aspects of English result in

greater use of compensation strategies.

Another strategy type that the participants differed was social strategies. However, contrary to other

categories, social strategies employed by less experienced learners and significant differences were found not

only between Level 1 and Level 2 but also between Level 2 and Level 3. This result parallels Magogwe and

Oliver’s study (2007), who concluded that social strategies are deployed more by less proficient learners. This is

probably because less experienced learners need more support. They reported to rely on other people who are

more competent in English through asking questions, cooperating, and empathizing. This is what Williams and

Between

Groups .569 2 .285


Metacognitive

Strategies

Total 98,940 264

.758 .470 N/A

Between

Groups .199 2 .100


Affective

Strategies

Total 101,804 267

.260 .771 N/A

Between

Groups 2,985 2 1,493 Level 1>3 p< .014

Within Groups 101,535 270 .376 Social Strategies

Total 104,520 272

3,969 .020

Level 2>3 p< .015

Between

Groups .455 2 .228


TOTAL

Total 46,145 238

1,176 .310 N/A




165

Burden (1997:133) term as ‘the involvement of significant others’. The greater use of social strategies by less

experienced learners may indicate their needs for assistance in language learning.

IMPLICATIONS

A number of useful implications for ELT field can be suggested considering the findings of the present study.

Firstly, this study showed that learners with different educational backgrounds use language learner strategies

differently: learners who have experienced different aspects of English tend to use greater number of

strategies compared to learners solely focused on structural aspects of the target language. To address this,

teachers should be aware of the needs of learners in using language strategies and appropriate teaching

procedures should be provided to develop learners’ ability to use varied language strategies.

Secondly, the findings of the study parallel earlier studies conducted in Turkey (e.g. Alptekin, 2007; Hiçyılmaz,

2006; Karahan, 2007; Razı, 2012; Yalçin 2006; Yılmaz, 2010), in that Turkish EFL learners are high users of

compensation and metacognitive strategies. This shows that learners mainly have problems in using the

language communicatively because, in broad perspective, compensation strategies serve the purpose of coping

with problems in speaking by means of communication strategies. Furthermore, compensation strategies were

found to significantly differentiate more experienced learners and less experienced learners. Considering the

differences of participants in language educational backgrounds, this may indicate that, dealing with different

aspects of language lead to the development of ability to use compensation strategies. For that reason, rather

than solely dealing with the structural aspects of English, language classes should also focus on communicative

aspect of the target language. It is therefore recommended that less experienced learners’ weaknesses in using

compensation strategies should be considered in classes and teachers should take into account their needs to

learn and use strategies while using English communicatively.

Thirdly, despite common belief in the literature (Green & Oxford, 1995; O’Malley and Chamot, 1990), the

majority of strategy research studies in Turkish context support that high metacognitive strategy use do not

lead to the high use cognitive strategies. Moreover, the data yielded by this study revealed that gaining

experience in language learning results in higher use of cognitive strategies. The less dependence on cognitive

strategies may be problematic for less experienced language learners because cognitive strategies are directly

related to specific learning tasks (Brown, 1987) and allow for practising the language which enables learners to

use and produce the target language (Oxford, 1990). This should be one of the major concerns of English

language teachers in Turkey and appropriate teaching procedures should be presented to provide learners with

the opportunity of using their cognitive skills in learning English.

Lastly, this study revealed a disconnection between language experience and the use of social strategies. This is

probably because less experienced learners needs more support, and therefore, they tend to rely on other

people more. More experienced learners, on the other hand, are better at controlling their own learning. To

address these, teachers should consider learners' characteristics and less experienced learners should actively

take part in the learning process.

CONCLUSIONS

This study was designed to investigate possible differences in language learner strategy use of learners with

different language learning backgrounds. The results portrayed the strategy repertoire of Turkish EFL learners

and statistically significant differences were found in strategy choice.

The present study confirmed that Turkish EFL learners rely more on compensation and metacognitive

strategies. However, the high use of metacognitive strategies was not congruent with the use of cognitive

strategies. Additionally, this study concluded that more experienced learners use compensation and cognitive

strategies significantly more than less experienced learners. On the other hand, less experienced learners’

social strategy use were significantly higher than more experienced learners.




166

Although this study goes beyond previous research studies by addressing different perspectives of strategy

research, it also posed a number of limitations. This study was conducted in Turkish context, and therefore, it is

difficult to generalise the findings into other contexts. However, readers and researchers can compare the

research context with their own context and see the relevance of the findings and implications. The study was

conducted at a particular university in Turkey. For that reason, it is difficult to assure that the sample

represents the characteristics of Turkish EFL learners at other universities. The study also reported of the

findings of one data collection method. Further research is needed employing multiple data collection tools. It

is also recommended to conduct qualitative studies which will be useful to gain more insight into the use of

learner strategies.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR

Mehmet Sercan UZTOSUN is a research assistant at English Language Teaching

Department, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. His current research interests focus on

teaching speaking through student negotiation, action research methodology, language

learning strategies, and communication strategies.

Research Assistant Dr. Mehmet Sercan UZTOSUN

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University


Anafartalar Campus C1-205

17100 Çanakkale, TURKEY


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THE COMPARISION OF 54-66 MONTHS OLD CHILDREN’S READINESS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL

DURING PRESCHOOL PERIOD AND THEIR ADAPTATION TO PRIMARY SCHOOL

Assist. Prof. Dr. Özgül POLAT Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty

Department of Primary Education Preschool Teacher Education

Istanbul, TURKEY

Inst. Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


Istanbul, TURKEY

Inst. Şennur SOHTORIKOĞLU NIRAN Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


Istanbul, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Fatma Özge ÜNSAL Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


Istanbul, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


Istanbul, TURKEY ABSTRACT

The preparation process of children for primary school can only be effective by means qualified education in which necessary pre skills in every zone of development are supported. This preparation process also makes children’s social adaptation to primary school environment easier. For this reason, the purpose of this study is to compare children’s social adaptation when they start primary school by identifying their readiness for primary school. The participants of the study are 54-66 months old 22 students who attended Prof. Dr. Ayla Oktay’s Preschool Education Application Unit during 2012-2013 academic year. Children’s readiness level for primary school in 2012-2013 academic year was assessed by Marmara Scale of Readiness for Primary School. At the beginning of 2013-2014 academic year, the same students’ adaptation levels to the school they attended was measured by School Social Behavior Scale. The data obtained were interpreted by comparison.

Key Words: Preschool education, readiness for primary school, adaptation to primary school, social adaptation.




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INTRODUCTION

When an individual starts primary school, an important phase begins for her educational life. One of the most important criteria for a child to improve in this phase is to have the necessary and sufficient readiness level in all development phases for primary school education. Meisels emphasizes that readiness for school must be regarded as “process that occurs over time and is not complete by the first day of Kindergarten”. He states that readiness for school is more than a checklist of skills and conceptual knowledge and more than a set of behaviors that are compliant in the classroom. Meisels keynoted that readiness incorporates all aspects of a child’s life that affect child’s ability to learn and is focused on relations which means relations among children, parents and educators are important during the transition period to school (Dockette & Perry, 2002). Parallel to Meisels, according to Polat readiness for school is the state when children reach to a maturity level in which they can fulfill what is expected from them at primary school by supporting them in each development phase equally throughout the period that the child is continuing pre-school education (Polat, 2010). What are expected from a child who has just started school different from the child’s home environment are to join tasks that are necessities of his first programmed education, to obey the rules within a discipline plan, to follow the instructions of the teacher, to behave in the frame of some basic rules, to leave his/her mother easily, to communicate with his friends, to fulfill his own self-care needs and most importantly to learn subject matters such as reading-writing, arithmetic. (Polat Unutkan,2006 ). Whereas some children can succeed this transition easily, some of them need more support to achieve. They have difficulties in leaving their mothers on the first day of school, entering classroom and following what is said in the classroom. The children who have trouble in getting used to their friends and teachers need more time, more understanding and help than the others to adapt the school and class atmosphere (Oktay, 2004). Maturity or readiness concept needs to be dealt with caution at this point. However, it is known that the children who received a good pre-school education adapt the school better. The Ministry of National Education describes its one of the basic purposes of pre-school education as preparing a child to primary school; pre-school education programs are prepared in line with this purpose. Preparing children to primary school, creating a common education atmosphere for children who came from unfavorable environment or families, make the children who receive preschool education more advantages in their readiness for primary school (M.E.B.,2013). In other words, a successful pre-school period makes readiness for primary school and academic success and passing primary school easier. (Liubica, Simona & Katia, 2008; Gürkan,1979; Görmez, 2007). Social skills that are acquired in pre-school education period are important because for children who pass from pre-school to primary school first grade this process necessitates leaving game childhood and becoming a student of an education process with rules and this is highly stressful. Besides behavioral, cognitive, socio-emotional and physical worries, new tasks and a difficult social environment emerge as the factors that complicate this transition. (Fox, Dunlap & Cushing, 2002). Because of these reasons, readiness process require readiness not only for children but also for their parents, schools and the social environment that the child is in. Moreover, primarily basic health controls (physical examination, eye examination etc.) should be held and should be waited until the child reach a certain degree of social, emotional, cognitive, motor and language maturity (Polat, 2010). In the light of this information the purpose of this study is to compare social adaptation of children who attended Marmara University Prof. Dr. Ayla Oktay’s Preschool Education Application Unit during 2012-2013 academic year when they start primary school by identifying their readiness for primary school. METHOD

Research Design

In this research study, the single screening model, which is a type of general screening model, was applied. Research models conducted for the identification of the variables are called as single screening models. By means of single screening models, temporal developments and changes can also be identified. Such research




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studies are called as longitudinal research studies carried out by means of observations and cross-sectional approaches. In observations, the variable, whose temporal development and change is to be specified, is observed focusing on the same elements or units either continuously or at regular intervals starting from a certain point (Karasar, 2005). This study is a longitudinal study aiming to follow the social adaptation process of primary school children in the 2013-2014 academic year after they attended the Marmara University Prof. Dr. Ayla Oktay Pre-school Education Unit in the 2012-2013 academic year.

Population

The population of the study was comprised of children who completed Marmara University Prof. Dr. Ayla Oktay Pre-school Education Unit in the 2012-2013 academic year and started primary school in the 2013-2014 academic year. Among the total number of 21 children, 8 were female (38%) and the remaining 13 were male (62%). 6 of the children (29%) received two years and 15 of them (71%) received 3 years of pre-school education. 6 children who received 2 years of pre-school education were born between January-March 2008; 15 children who received 3 years of pre-school education were born between April- December 2007. 5 of the children (24%) started to kinder garden at their schools, 1 of them (5%) settled in another country, 15 of them (71%) started first grade. The data of 10 of 15 children who started first grade (48%) could be obtained for longitudinal study from their teachers. Data Collection Instruments

Marmara Primary School Readiness Test (MPRT): The test was developed by Özgül Polat Unutkan in 2003 as a part of her PhD thesis. The scale was designed and standardized specifically for Turkish children so as to reveal to what extent 60-78-month-old children are ready for the primary school in terms of basic skills and each developmental area included in the scale. The Scale includes two forms that are the Application form and the Development form. The item total, item remaining and discriminant analysis of the scale yielded significant results at the level of p<. 001. The confirmatory factor analysis and the validity analysis of the scale were carried out using the data collected from 1002 children. The Cronbach α value of the Development form was found to be .982 while the Cronbach α value of the Application Form was found to be .930. The Application form is comprised of 5 parts as mathematics, science, sound, drawing and the labyrinth and 74 questions. The questions were prepared in line with application areas needed by the children for the preparation for the primary school. The responses given by the children were scored as (1) if they were correct and (0) if they were incorrect. On the other hand, the Development form includes 4 sub-scales that are mind and language development, socio-emotional development, physical development, and self-care skills as well as 175 items. Each item designed to be filled by teachers or parents has four possible responses related to the frequency of the behavior displayed by the child: always (3 points), often (2 points), sometimes (1 point) and never (0 point). (Unutkan Polat, 2003). School Social Behavior Scales (SSBS): School Social Behavior Scales were developed by Kenneth W. Merrell in 1993 and translated into Turkish by Yüksel (2009). Aiming to evaluate the levels of social skills of pre-school and primary school children, the scales designed in line with the five-point Likert model is comprised of 65 items. As a result of the linguistic equivalence analysis, each item was found to be significantly related to one another at the level of p<.001. The item total, item remaining and discriminant analysis of the scale revealed significant results at the level of p<.001. The confirmatory factor analysis and the validity analysis of the scale were done using the data collected from 467 students and teachers. The Cronbach α value for both sub-scales was found to be .98. School Social Behavior Scales is comprised of two sub-scales that are social competence and negative social behavior. The Social Competence sub-scale includes three sub-dimensions, such as interpersonal relationship, self-control skill and academic skills while the Negative Social Behaviors sub-scale has three sub-dimensions that are assailant-angry, antisocial-aggressive and destructive-demanding.

Application

The data was collected from children attending the Pre-school Education Unit in the 2012-2013 academic year. The social skills of the children were identified through the “School Social Behavior Scales” (SSBS). On the other




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hand, “Marmara Primary School Readiness Test” (MPRT) was focused on to assess children’s readiness for primary. The assessment of the children during the pre-school period was carried out in April, 2013 while their social skills at the primary school was investigated by means of the SSBS in the first term of the 2013-2014 academic year. The scales were administered in 6 months intervals. By this means, the changes and developments of the children participating in this study were observed during six months. The applications throughout the pre-school period were carried out by their classroom teachers while the primary school applications were done by their classroom teachers at the primary school they were attending at that time. Data Analysis

The data obtained was analyzed using the SPSS 16.0 statistical package program. The relationship between children’s level of social behavior at school and their readiness for primary school as well as the relationship between their social skills in pre-school and primary school were investigated by means of the Spearman’s Rho Correlation analysis. Simple linear regression analysis was administered to identify the effect of school maturity as an indicator of social adaptation in primary school. The significance of the data gathered for the study was tested at the level of .05 . FINDINGS

Table 1: Spearman’s Rho Correlation Analysis Done to Identify the Relationship between the Scores of Sub-dimensions of the MPRT and Scores of SSBS Applied in Pre-school

Spearman's rho Pre-school SC

Pre-school SSB Total

Pre-school SSBS Total

R ,286 -,082 ,335

P ,209 ,723 ,138

Math

N 21 21 21

R ,141 -,467* -,099

P ,542 ,033 ,669

Science

N 21 21 21

R ,064 -,149 -,015

P ,782 ,518 ,950

Vocal

N 21 21 21

R ,454* -,376 ,251

P ,039 ,093 ,273

Drawing

N 21 21 21

R ,424 -,305 ,272

P ,056 ,179 ,232

Labyrinth

N 21 21 21

R ,386 -,283 ,305

P ,084 ,214 ,179

Implication Cognitive and Lang. Skills

N 21 21 21

Spearman's rho Pre-school SC

Pre-school SSB Total





173

R ,286 -,082 ,335

P ,209 ,723 ,138

Math

N 21 21 21

R ,141 -,467

* -,099

P ,542 ,033 ,669

Science

N 21 21 21

R ,064 -,149 -,015

P ,782 ,518 ,950

Vocal

N 21 21 21

R ,454

* -,376 ,251

P ,039 ,093 ,273

Drawing Çizgi çalışmaları

N 21 21 21

R ,424 -,305 ,272

P ,056 ,179 ,232

Labyrinth

N 21 21 21

R ,386 -,283 ,305

P ,084 ,214 ,179

Implication

N 21 21 21

R ,563

** -,295 ,519

*

P ,008 ,193 ,016

Cognitive and Lang. Skills

N 21 21 21

R ,590

** -,365 ,428

P ,005 ,104 ,053

Socio-Emotional

N 21 21 21

r ,468

* -,222 ,411

P ,032 ,334 ,064

Physical

N 21 21 21

r ,402 -,368 ,164

P ,071 ,101 ,476

Self-Care

N 21 21 21

Developmental r ,573

** -,338 ,481

*




174

P ,007 ,134 ,027

N 21 21 21

As can be realized from the table, the relationship between the scores of MPRT’s “drawing” and the scores of the “social competence” sub-scale of the SSBS applied in pre-school (r=,454; p<.05) was found to be statistically significant at the level of p<.05 and positively meaningful. The same is also true for the relationship between the scores of the MPRTS’s Mind and Langeage sub-dimension and the scores obtained from the “social competence” (r=,563; p<.01) and for the total score of the SSBS (r=.519; p<.05).

The relationship between the scores of MPRT’s “socio-emotional” and the scores of the “social competence” sub-scale of the SSBS applied in pre-school (r=,590; p<.01) was found to be statistically significant at the level of p<.01 and positively meaningful; between scores of MPRT’s “physical” and the scores of the “social competence” sub-scale of the SSBS applied in pre-school (r=,468; p<.05) was found to be statistically significant at the level of p<.01 and positively meaningful. The relationship between the scores of MPRT’s “developmental” and the scores of the “social competence” sub-scale of the SSBS applied in pre-school (r=,573; p<.01) and for the total score of the SSBS (r=,481; p<.05). Table 2: Spearman’s Rho Correlation Analysis Done to Identify the Relationship between the Scores of Sub-dimensions of the MPRT and Scores of SSBS Applied in Primary School

Spearman's rho Primary School SC Primary School SSB

Primary School SSBS Total

r ,763* -,138 ,763*

P ,010 ,704 ,010

Math

N 10 10 10

r ,381 -,208 ,195

P ,278 ,564 ,589

Science

N 10 10 10

r ,379 ,094 ,429

P ,280 ,796 ,216

Vocal

N 10 10 10

r ,325 -,507 -,033

P ,359 ,135 ,929

Drawing

N 10 10 10

r ,580 -,737* ,193

P ,079 ,015 ,593

Labyrinth

N 10 10 10




175

r ,854** -,286 ,738*

P ,002 ,423 ,015

Implication

N 10 10 10

r ,651* -,215 ,563

P ,041 ,550 ,090

Cognitive and Lang. Skills

N 10 10 10

r ,673* -,414 ,456

P ,033 ,234 ,186

Socio-Emotional

N 10 10 10

r ,682* -,563 ,391

P ,030 ,090 ,263

Physical

N 10 10 10

r ,511 -,488 ,429

P ,131 ,152 ,216

Self-Care

N 10 10 10

r ,704* -,306 ,595

P ,023 ,390 ,070

Developmental

N 10 10 10

As can be understood from the table, the relationship between the scores of MPRT’s “Math” and the scores of the “social competence” sub-scale of the SSBS applied at the primary school was found to be statistically significant at the level of p<.01 and positively meaningful (r=,763; p<.01). The same case also applies the relationship between the scores of the MPRTS’s math sub-dimension and the scores obtained from the total score of the SSBS (r=,763; p<.01). The same is also true for the relationship between the scores of the MPRTS’s Implication Dimension and the scores obtained from the “social competence” (r=,854; p<.01) and for the total score of the SSBS (r=,738;

p<.01).

The relationships between the scores of the “social competence” sub-scale of the SSBS applied at the primary school and the scores of MPRT’s “Mind and Languages” (r=,651; p<.05); “Physical” (r=,682; p<.05);

“Developmental” (r=,704; p<.05) were found to be statistically significant at the level of p<.05 and positively meaningful.




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Table 3: Spearman’s Rho Correlation Analysis Done to Identify the Relationship of the Scores of the SSBS and its Sub-tests Applied in Pre-school with the Scores of the SBSS and its Sub-tests Applied at Primary School

Spearman's rho Pre-school

SC Pre-school

SSB Pre-school SSBS Total

Primary School SC

Primary School SSB

Primary School

SSBS Total

R 1,000 -,434* ,894** ,892** -,545 ,702*

P . ,049 ,000 ,001 ,103 ,024

Pre-School SC

N 21 21 21 10 10 10

R -,434* 1,000 -,126 -,201 ,732

* ,142

P ,049 . ,588 ,577 ,016 ,696

Pre-School SSB

N 21 21 21 10 10 10

R ,894**

-,126 1,000 ,720* -,276 ,683

*

P ,000 ,588 . ,019 ,440 ,029


N 21 21 21 10 10 10

R ,892**

-,201 ,720* 1,000 -,394 ,881

**

P ,001 ,577 ,019 . ,260 ,001

Primary School

SC N 10 10 10 10 10 10

R -,545 ,732* -,276 -,394 1,000 ,013

P ,103 ,016 ,440 ,260 . ,972

Primary School

SSB N 10 10 10 10 10 10

R ,702* ,142 ,683

* ,881

** ,013 1,000

P ,024 ,696 ,029 ,001 ,972 .

Primary School

SSBS Total N 10 10 10 10 10 10

The table above shows that there is a positively meaningful and a statistically significant relationship at the level of p<.05and negatively meaningful between the scores of the SSBS’s “social competence” sub-scale applied in pre-school and the “negative social behaviors” sub-scale (r=-,434; p<.05). The scores of the SSBS’s “social competence” sub-scale was also found to be significantly and positively related to the total scores of the SSBS (r=,894; p<.01); to the “social competence” scores of the SSBS applied at primary school (r=,892; p<.01);

and to the total scores of the SSBS (r=,702; p<.05).

The scores obtained from the SSBS’s “negative social behaviors” sub-scale applied in pre-school were found to be statistically (p<.05) and positively related to the scores obtained from the “negative social behaviors” sub-scale (r=,732; p<.05). On the other hand, the total scores obtained from the SSBS administered in primary school were found to be statistically (p<.01) and positively related to “social competence” sub-scale administered at pre school (r=,892;

p<.01); to to the total scores of SSBS (r=,720; p<.05) and to the total scores of SSBS administerede at primary school (r=,881; p<.01).




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Table 4: The Results of the Regression Analysis Showing Whether the School Readiness for Mathematics Levels of Children who Received Pre-school Education Predict Their Levels of School Social Behavior at Primary School

β t

p

R² F P

Modal 1 Regression 126,530 8,846 ,000

Math ,751 3,212 ,012 ,563 10,318 ,012

As can be realized in Table 4, as a result of the regression analysis applied to identify the extent to which the MPRT Math Sub-Scale can justify the total score of the SSBS (F=10,318; p<,01), the model was found to be significant. Thus, the predictive power of MPRT Math Sub-Scale predicting the “the total scores of the SSBS (R

2=,563; p<.01) was found to be significant. School readiness for Math justifies around 56% of the social

competence levels of the children who started primary school after receiving pre-school education. Table 5: The Results of the Regression Analysis Showing Whether the School Readiness for Implication Levels of Children who Received Pre-school Education Predict Their Levels of School Social Behavior at Primary School (PS)

β t

p

R² F P

Modal 1 Regression 119,345 6,857 ,000

Implication ,732 3,036 ,016 ,535 9,220 ,016

As can be realized in Table 5, as a result of the regression analysis applied to identify the extent to which the MPRT Implication Scale can justify the total score of the SSBS (F=9,220; p<,05), the model was found to be significant. Thus, the predictive power of MPRT Implication Scale predicting the “the total scores of the SSBS (R

2=,535; p<.01) was found to be significant. School readiness for Implıcations justifies around 53% of the social

competence levels of the children who started primary school after receiving pre-school education.

Table 6: The Results of the Regression Analysis Showing Whether the School Readiness for Mind and Language Levels of Children who Received Pre-school Education Predict Their Levels of School Social Behavior at Primary School

β t

p

R² F P

Modal l 1 Regression -16,970 -,229 ,824 Mind and language ,668 2,541 ,035

,447 6,457 ,035

As can be realized in Table 6, as a result of the regression analysis applied to identify the extent to which the MPRT Mind and Language sub-scale can justify the total score of the SSBS (F=6,457; p<,05), the model was found to be significant. Thus, the predictive power of MPRT Mind and Language predicting the “the total scores of the SSBS (R

2=,447; p<.01) was found to be significant. School readiness for Implıcations justifies around 45%

of the social competence levels of the children who started primary school after receiving pre-school education. Table 7: The Results of the Regression Analysis Showing Whether the School Readiness Levels of Children who Received Pre-school Education Predict Their Levels of School Social Behavior at Primary School

β t

p

R² F P

Modal 1 Regression 41,937 ,760 ,469

Developmental ,638 2,344 ,047 ,407 5,494 ,047

As can be realized in Table 7, as a result of the regression analysis applied to identify the extent to which the MPRT Developmental Scale can justify the total score of the SSBS (F=5,494; p<,05), the model was found to be significant. Thus, the predictive power of MPRT Developmental Scale predicting the “the total scores of the SSBS (R

2=,407; p<.05) was found to be significant. School readiness for Implıcations justifies around 40% of the

social competence levels of the children who started primary school after receiving pre-school education.




178

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study is to compare children’s social adaptation when they start primary school by identifying their readiness for primary school. The findings are discussed below in the research questions order. The results of the statistical analysis yielded that readiness for school of 54-66 months old children is an effective factor in primary school social adaptation. A significant correlation was observed between School Social Adaptation scores in pre-school and primary school and social competence, negative social behaviors and SSBS total scores. Besides, having a higher readiness level to primary school in pre-school period affects primary school social skills positively and consequently these children adapt primary school quicker. It has been reported by many researchers that receiving education to develop social skills during pre-school period affects social emotional development and readiness for school positively (Powless & Eliot, 2002 Metin, 1999; Ayhan, 1998; Unutkan, 2003; Boz, 2004; Atılgan, 2001; Başal, 1998). Bracken, Stacey and Storch (2007), examined the readiness for school of children with social skills and behavior problems. Social skills of children who has received pre-school education as from four years old and have social skills and behavioral problems have improved during pre-school education. It has been stated that linguistic and mathematics skills also have developed and became ready for school. Yüksel et all (2013) indicate that social skills and abilities are effective in children to start school. Uğur (1998) found out that the children who joined kinder garden in private and state schools have higher socialization grades compared to children who didn’t receive any pre-school education. . Gürkan (1979), Yazıcı (2002) and Balat Uyanık (2003),indicated that in first grade children who received pre-school education were in better condition in terms of mental, social, emotional development, skills and interests, physical development and health and were adaptive and successful with regards to social behaviors compared to children who didn’t get any pre-school education. According to Özbek (2003) study results, there is a significant relationship between first graders who received pre-school education and first graders who didn’t in terms of social skills that are need to be gained in primary school which are initiating a relationship and sustaining it, working in groups, skills related to emotions, skills to handle stressful events, planning, problem solving skills, managing self-control in favor of pre-school education group. In addition, it has been proven by several researches that emotional maturity of a child, language improving acvities at home and school, cognitive activities are important for a successful school start (Unutkan, 2003). This study’s other findings; MPRT Math sub-scale, Implication Scale, Mind Langduages Sub-scales and Developmental Scale justifies the social competence levels of the children who started primary school after receiving pre-school education. Akşin (2013) investigated the relation between children’s sense of self and their readiness for primary school; the results of the study yielded a positive correlation between children’s self-confidence and since of self, and their success in mathematical studies. To put it in a different way, it was observed that the higher a child has a self-confidence and total sense of self scores, the better he becomes at mathematical studies. Wang and Lin (2008) also compared sense of self of children who studies in China and the United States of America and their mathematical success, and found out that ,in both countries a positive relation was obtained between sense of self and mathematical success as a result of anaysis conducted in these countries. Adıbelli (2011) stated that in the report that was prepared together with 52 teachers who were teaching first graders in Merzifon District by Merzifon District National Education Directorate it is reported that common traits of the children who didn’t receive pre-school educaiton are having poor skills in expressing themselves, adapting school environment late, underdeveloped hand skills, undeveloped communicaiton skills, having problems with self-confidecne, over dependent to their familaies and shy, having difficultires in understaning concepts, having problems with their self care. Yenilmez and Kakmacı (2008) suggest that individuals with higher reaidness levels understand concept quicker and can comment on the subject matter. Since the individual learns the subject and concepts related to that subject can do homework easily, since he learns the previour subject well he can become ready for the next subject matter. For this reason, an individual’s physical needs should be catered and the love and attention that an indivual needs amotionally should be given so that he can have a higher level of readiness (Akt:Harman ve Çelikler; 2011).




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SUGGESTIONS

The suggestions proposed based on the reserah findings;

• Pre-school education is an important process that need to be supported since it affects children’s social, cognitive, emotional, physical and self-care skills positively. It is important that pre-school education especially in rural areas and areas in which socioeconomically low-income families live should be extended so that the inequalities in term of readiness for school throughout turkey can be destroyed.

• Instead of using the chronologic age as the only criteria to start primary school, children should take a nationalized and compulsory readiness tests in our country. Children’s readiness level to primary school can be identified and children who aren’t ready should be supported in terms of the specific fields of development they have not fully developed and it should be determined whether they need to have one or more year of preschool education.

• To raise awareness by preparing seminars, radio and TV broadcasts, families can be made aware of the fact that what is important is children should start school when they are ready, not as soon as possible.

• In pre-school education facilities, the activities that support social skills such as cooperating, controlling themselves, enterprise, problem solving, empathy and activities that support the relationship between the same age groups should be integrated.

• In pre-school period, the activities related to readiness should be inserted as classroom activities.



Dr.Özgül POLAT ia an Assistant Professor in in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. Her researh interest include school readiness, early childhood education programme, familiy education, writing and reading in primary school and development of children capacity in early years.

Assist.Prof .Dr. Özgül POLAT Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit Istanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU is a instructor in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She is in carge of managing the Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Unit. She completed her undergraduate and master education in Department of Pre-school Teaching and still registered to doctorate program therein. Her researh interest include early childhood education programme, visual and auditorial perception children, teaching tecnologies and material design in pre-school education.

Ins. Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit Istanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]




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Şennur SOHTORİKOĞLU NİRAN is a instructor in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk EDUCATİON Faculty, Marmara University. She is in carge of managing the Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Unit. She completed her undergraduate and master education in Department of Pre-school Teaching. Her researh interest include early childhood education programme, educational drama.

Ins. Şennur SOHTORİKOĞLU NİRAN Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit Istanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Fatma Özge ÜNSAL has been working as a research assistant in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She completed her undergraduate and master education in Department of Pre-school Teaching and still registered to doctorate program therein. She specially focused on socio-emotional development, behavioral problems and urban awaireness in early childhood.

Res.Assist. Fatma Özge ÜNSAL Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Prof.Dr.Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit İstanbul- TURKEY E..Mail: [email protected]

Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ has been working as a research assistant in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She is in carge of teaching the Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Unit. She specially focused on early childhood education programme and family involvement in early childhood.

Res.Assist. Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Prof.Dr.Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit İstanbul- TURKEY E..Mail: [email protected]

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İlköğretime Hazır Bulunuşluk İle Benlik Algılarının Bazı Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi,İstanbul.




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beklentileri. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Atılgan, G. (2001). Okulöncesi eğitim kurumlarına devam eden ve etmeyen ilköğretim 1. kademe 1. devre

öğrencilerinin sosyal beceri özelliklerinin karşılaştırılması. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Konya. Balat Uyanık, G. (2003). Altı yaş grubu korunmaya muhtaç ve ailesinin yanında kalan çocukların okula hazır

bulunuşluk ile ilgili temel kavram bilgilerinin karşılaştırılması. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Boz, M. (2004). Altı yaş çocuklarının okula hazır bulunuşluk düzeylerinin veli ve öğretmen görüşleri yönünden

incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Dilli, F. (2013). 60-72 Aylık Sosyal Açıdan Dezavantajlı Çocuklar İçin Hazırlanan İlköğretime Hazırlık Destek

Programının Çocukların İlköğretime Hazırbulunuşluluğuna Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul.

Dockett, S. ve Perry, B. (2002). Who’s ready for what? Young children starting school. Contemporary Issues’ın

Early Childhood Journall,Cilt 3, No: 1, 1-30 Fox, L., G. Dunlap, & L. Cushing. 2002. Early intervention, positive behavior , support, and transition to school. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 10 (3): 149–57. Görmez, E. (2007). İlköğretim Birinci Sınıf Öğrencisinin Okul Olgunluğu ve Matematik Hazır bulunuşluk

Düzeyleri. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Osmangazi Üniversitesi, Eskişehir. Gürkan, T. (1979). Neden Okul Öncesi Eğitim. Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi. Cilt No:15, Sayı No:2, S. 215-219. Harman, G. Çelikler D. (2011) Eğitimde Hazır Bulunuşluğun Önemi Üzerine Bir Derleme Çalışması , Eğitim ve Öğretim Araştırmaları Dergisi Ağustos 2012 Sayı:1 Sayı:3 Ljubica M., Simona K. and Urska F. (2008). The Effect Of Preschool On Childrens School Readiness, Early Child

Development And Care. Metin, G. G. (1999). Dramanın 5-6 yaş çocuklarının sosyal-duygusal gelişimlerine etkisinin incelenmesi.

Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, (2012) Okul Öncesi Eğitim Program Kitabı, Alıntılanma tarihi 09/09/2013. Polat Unutkan, Ö. (2003). Marmara ilköğretime hazır oluş ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi ve standardizasyonu.

Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul.

Polat Unutkan, Ö. (2006 ). Okul Öncesinde İlköğretime Hazırlık. İstanbul: Morpa Yayınevi. Polat, Ö. (2010). Okul Öncesinde İlköğretime Hazırlık Etkinlikleri. İstanbul: İlk Adım Yayınevi. Oktay, A. (2004). Yaşamın Sihirli Yılları: Okul Öncesi Dönem. İstanbul: Epsilon Yayınları. Özbek, A., (2003). Okulöncesi Eğitim Kurumlarına Devam Eden ve Etmeyen Çocukların İlköğretim Birinci Sınıfta

Sosyal Gelişim Açısından Öğretmen Görüşüne Dayalı Olarak Karşılaştırılması. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir.




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Devlet Anasınıflarının Karşılaştırılması. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sakarya. Yapıcı,M,(2004). İlköğretim 1. Sınıfa Başlayan Öğrencilerin Hazırbulunuşluk Düzeyleri. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi ISSN: 1303-5134 www.insanbilimleri.com Yüksel M. ve diğerleri, (2013). Analysing The School Readiness Of Preschoolers From The Aspect Of The Social Skills When They Start Primary School. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 4 (2), s.98-112.




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MOTIVATION, LEARNER IDENTITY AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Hakan TARHAN

TOBB University of Economics and Technology

Ankara, TURKEY

Sena BALBAN

Ankara University

Ankara, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This case study was conducted at a state university in Turkey. The participants were 9 students from the same

classroom consisting of 24, registered in the English Preparatory Program at Ankara University. The main

methods of the of data collection were a survey adapted from Gardner’s (2004) Attitude/ Motivation Battery

Test and the interviews conducted based on the results of the survey. In this study, we aimed to explore the

context-based relationship among motivation, learner identity and second language acquisition in the given

context. The findings indicated that learners possessing integrative and instrumental motivation in line with

their ideal self and ought-to self invested into the target language more, compared to the learners having only

instrumental motivation towards the target language.

Key Words: Motivation, identity, learner investment.

INTRODUCTION

For around 3 decades, the sociocultural theory has been regarded as one of the most respected philosophical

frameworks in education and in foreign language teaching besides many other fields such as medicine or

business management (Schoen, 2011). According to the sociocultural perspective, learning process can be

defined as a dynamic and complex social activity structured in and through the physical and social context;

therefore, highly affected from people, tools and activities (Johnson, 2009). In contrast to the behaviourist

theories of learning, Sociocultural theory (SCT) suggests that social life is the base of higher level of human

cognition, which, in return, encourages the researchers to study the relationship among human mental

functioning, culture, institutional and historical settings.

In SCT, individuals, their behaviours, former learning experiences and learner identities come forward in the

process of learning, which is perceived as the transformation of the self. Learning depends mostly on

individuals and their social context. In this respect, Johnson (2009) states the following:

How an individual learns something, what is learned, and how it is used will depend on the sum of the

individual’s prior experiences, the sociocultural context in which learning takes place, and what the individual

wants, needs, and/ or is expected to do with that knowledge.

(p.2)

Regarding Johnson’s (2009) claims, it can be argued that L2 identity and motivation can be used as a powerful

mean to explore the sociocultural context of learners and to examine language learning and discourse giving

power to speakers ( Miller, 2009). Although there are many terminologies used to discuss identity and its

implications; such as, social identity, ethnic identity, cultural identity and so on, this study aims to address L2

identity to explore the relationship among motivation, negotiation of learner identity and second language

acquisition.

Norton (2000) defines identity as “how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that

relationship is constructed across time and space, and how that person understands possibilities for the future”




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(p.5), while Johnson (2003) argues it as “relational, constructed and altered by how I see others and how they

see me in our shared experiences and negotiated interactions” (p.788). As it is seen, identity is a dynamic

construct negotiated by individuals in a social setting rather than a state attained or reached. In this sense, L2

can be seen as a social formation necessary to negotiate meaning about self within a social context used as a

tool to organize one’s former and current experiences for knowledge. For this reason, the concept potentially

can serve researchers and educators to further explore how internalization process of knowledge takes place in

relation to individual’s participation in the social interaction (Falsafi, 2010).

Motivation

The role of motivation in second language acquisition field has been a topic studied vastly by many researchers,

since understanding of motivational characteristic helps teachers to better address diverse individual learner

needs, and enables educators to adopt strategies to motivate learners (Salili & Hoosain, 2007). However, over

time, the theoretical framework examining the nature of learner motivation has changed. Especially, with the

globalization of the world, and the new status of English as an international language affected the learners’

motivation to learn a new language along with their needs (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2009). For this reason, the

concept of L2 motivation has been in the process of reconceptualization by embracing other concepts such as

self and identity, in which motivation is seen as a part of learners’ identity.

Motivation has been regarded as a key element of language learning since the last three decades. While some

researchers questioned the importance of motivation in learning a language (Clement & Kruidenier, 1983),

some of them even argued that it is impossible for a motivated language learner not to learn the target

language with enough exposure to it (Corder, 1967). After this first recognition, the importance of L2

motivation attracted more attention especially after the early works of Gardner (Rubrecht & Ishikawa, 2012)

and, as a result, the concepts that attracted the widest attention in motivation research was put forward by

Gardner (1959). The first of these concepts was integrative orientation towards language learning, which is

defined as “reflecting a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other group”

(Gardner & Lambert, 1972, p.132). To put it simply, a learner with integrative motivation ultimately desires

himself/herself to be regarded as a member of the community that has the target language as its native

tongue. For the validity of this process of social identification, the L2 learner “must be willing to identify with

members of another ethnolinguistic group and take on very subtle aspect of their behaviour” (Gardner &

Lambert, 1972, p.135). However, especially towards the end of the 20th

century a debate about the relevance

of integrative motivation in L2 teaching after the spread of English as a global language (Dörnyei & Ushioda,

2009). After this new status of English language as a lingua franca, the number of people who used English for

communicative purposes even though none of them is a native speaker of English, increased considerably

(Graddol, 2006). That being the case, a lot of linguists started to question whether it is possible to accept the

existence of the concept of integrative motivation when there is no reference group to target (Dörnyei &

Ushioda, 2009). As a result, more than forty years after its introduction, Gardner (2001) re-characterised the

concept of integrative motivation as follows:

“Integrativeness reflects a genuine interest in learning the second language in order to come closer to the

other language community. At one level, this implies an openness to, and respect for other cultural groups and

ways of life. In the extreme, this might involve complete identification with the community (and possibly even

withdrawal from one’s original group), but more commonly it might well involve integration within both

communities.”(p. 5)

The other concept introduced by Gardner was the instrumental orientation towards learning a language, which

can be defined as learning a target language for practical reasons (Gardner & Lambert 1972). As Schmidt,

Boraie and Kassabgy (1996) put it “an instrumental orientation results from recognition of the practical

advantages of learning and is identified when learners say that they want to learn the target language to pass

examinations or for economic or social advancement (p. 10)”. While these two concepts of motivation are

sometimes regarded as mutually exclusive, this is not necessarily the case since it is possible for a learner of a

particular target language to have both integrative and instrumental orientations (Dörnyei, 1991).




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Identity and Learner Identity

Norton (2006) claims that the relationship between identity and language learning has been drawing attention

from the researchers since 1970s and 1980s. Drawing upon the distinction between “social identity” and

“cultural identity, which were seen as “the relationship between the individual and the larger social as

mediated through institutions such as families, schools, workplaces” and “ the relationship between an

individual and members of a particular ethnic group who are considered to share a common history, a common

language and similar ways of understanding the world”; respectively, Norton (2006) finds the diverse research

findings problematic (p.2). However, this distinction has been vaguer, since the concept of “sociocultural

identity” intertwined the similarities belonging to both concepts. In understanding identity, institutional and

contextual practices have outshined which shape language learners meaning construction socially and

dynamically. In this respect, a number of characteristics of sociocultural identity are put forward by Norton

(2006) by synthesizing the conceptualization of identity examined in various research designs. First of all,

identity is a dynamic construct changing across time and space constantly; therefore, it is complex and

multifaceted. It constructs and is constructed by language. Finally, it is affected by the social processes and

classroom practices (p.3).

Similarly, Dörnyei & Ushioda (2009) assert that with the rise of technology and globalisation, the characteristics

and motivations of second language learners have changed. Sociocultural diversity and communication

patterns encouraged researchers in examining self and identity, and notions like social identification and

ethnolinguistic identity come along with “the integrative concept”. Dörnyei (2005) explained the integrative

concept by drawing on the theory of “possible selves”. Possible selves consist of the “ideal self” and “ought-to

self” in “L2 Motivational Self System”. Ideal self is referred as “the representation of the attributes of someone

would ideally like to possess (i.e. a presentation of personal hopes, aspirations or wishes)”, while ought-to self

embodies “the attributes that one believes one ought to possess (i.e. a presentation of someone else’s sense of

duty, obligations or responsibilities)” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009, pp.3-4). In this regard, if the learners

accommodate the idea to be proficient in L2 in their ideal and ought-to self, they will be more motivated

towards the targeted language.

In a like manner, with regard to motivation and L2 identity, Norton (2000) refers to the term “learner

investment” explained as “socially and historically constructed relationship of learners to the target language,

and their often ambivalent desire to practice it” (p.10). As it is claimed, the more learners invest in a language,

the more opportunities they will have to construct cultural concepts and L2 identity. Nevertheless, she further

argues that it is not easy to distinguish the motivated and unmotivated features with clear L2 identities due to

the changing and contradictory nature of identity and motivation. In other words, even if learners invest in the

target language with different type of motivations in different amounts, depending on their ideal and ought-to

self, it can be still problematic to draw generalized and clear-cut conclusions about L2 identity. For these

reason, by referring on Dörnyei & Ushioda (2009) and Norton (2000), this study explored the context-

dependent relationship of motivation and L2 identity in the given context.

Motivation and Learner Identity Research

The increasing role of motivation in second language acquisition attracted a lot of researchers. One of the most

notable examples of research on this subject was conducted by Dörnyei, Csizer, and Nemeth (2006) with

13,391 students learning five target languages (English, German, French, Italian, and Russian) in Hungary. First

of all, the study showed that the learners’ will to integrate themselves into the culture of the target language

was one of the most important components of motivation, which is a finding that is also supported by many

researchers including Gardner (1985) and Taguchi, Magid, and Papi (2009). Another important result was that,

the instrumentality of the target language was of crucial importance in motivating students into learning it. In

other words, if learners regard the target language as a means of reaching far better objectives such as finding

a better job, they are more likely be motivated. The effectiveness of integrative and instrumental factors is also

studied by Gardner and McIntyre (1991) in a research project in which they examined the impact of these

factors on learning new words. The results of the study showed that those with integrative and instrumental

motivation were much faster in learning new items. It is also mentioned in the Hungarian study that the




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learners’ attitudes toward the speakers and community of the second language is also quite important in

creating motivation. In addition to the attitude toward speakers of L2, Wesely (2009) found out that the

relationship between the teacher and peers are also quite influential in motivating students.

The works of Vygotsky and his theories of SCT (Sociocultural Theory) and AT (Activity Theory) have also been

influential in shedding more light on the importance of the relationship between motivation, language learning

and identity. Kim (2009) was particularly interested in finding answers for two main questions in her case

study: “(1) To what degree can the internalisation of the ought-to L2 self contribute to L2 learning motivation

and learning behaviour? (2) How does the learning goal influence the above two selves?” (p. 278) From the

perspective of Vygotskian theories. Within her study, she interviewed two Korean ESL students living in

Toronto. Even though, they were both male, almost at the same age and had similar educational backgrounds

they had different motivating factors for learning English and also differed considerably in their ideal L2 selves

and ought-to L2 selves. One of the most important findings of this study was that instrumentality of the

language learnt can be regarded both within the ideal L2 self or the ought-to L2 self with internalisation being

the differentiating factor. In other words, the more the learner internalizes the L2, the instrumental role of

language becomes a part of ought-to L2 self, but if s/he fails to internalize it, the instrumental factors will exist

within ideal L2 self. Another notable finding was that in order to envisage a positive and instrumental L2 self

the learner needs to form a bridge between his/her ideal L2 self and “life experiences in a variety of

communities” (p. 291).

With regard to the above discussion, this study aims to explore the dynamic and context-based relationship

among motivation, learner identity and second language acquisition. In this sense, this exploration may help

teachers to have a better understanding on how individual dynamics and constructs, motivation and identity,

influences the language learning. By this way, teachers can address the individual learner needs better. Finally,

the study can be of great help for educators to design or improve language learning programs supporting the

developments of individuals in all manners targeted, while enhancing our understanding of learning as a

socially constructed activity (Anwaruddin, 2012).

METHODOLOGY

Research Questions

Given the discussion and studies presented above, it can be seen clearly that motivation and identity have a

crucial role in second language acquisition. For this reason, we aim to answer the following questions:

1. What is the relationship between motivation and learner identity?

2. Do different types of motivation have an influence on learner identity negotiation?

3. What is the relationship between learner identity and second language acquisition?

Research Setting

The University and English Preparatory Program

This study was conducted in an elementary-level EFL classroom in an English Preparatory Program. The

program is designed for providing the students of the university with foreign language education at

contemporary level. It is one of the biggest and well- known public universities in Turkey and is located in

central Anatolia. Almost 40.000 students are enrolled to the university for undergraduate and graduate studies.

The medium of the instruction is Turkish; however, students enrolled to certain departments are required to

pass a proficiency exam by attending to the classes offered in the School of Foreign Languages. On the other

hand, for some students, the program is selective and the proficiency exam is not compulsory, as long as they

attend the classes. The classes usually requires two semesters of study. If the students, who are required to

receive a successful grade, fail to attain a certain proficiency level, it is compulsory to repeat the program until

receiving a satisfactory grade.




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The School of Foreign Languages provides classes in English approximately to 2000 students each year. The

students take a “placement test” to be grouped according to their test results based on the Common European

Framework of References for Languages 1

The program has five achievement criteria; namely, first semester achievement score, second semester

achievement score, coursework achievement score, spring semester proficiency exam score in addition to the

year-end achievement score mentioned above. Progress tests, quizzes, oral exams, oral presentations, reading

presentations, portfolios and class reports are used to calculate the first and second semester achievement

scores.

The A2 (Elementary) Class

The class took part in this study was one of the A2 (elementary) level classes in the School of Foreign

Languages. The main goal of the class was to provide the students with general English education along with

the four main language skills. There were 24 students (13 female, 11 male) in the classroom, and only for two

of them the year-end achievement test was optional. The students met in the same classroom every day. The

technological devices such as a projector, a speaker and a laptop computer with internet connection were

available to integrate communicative activities for active use. The classroom activities were gathered around

individual and group projects, oral presentations and quizzes besides the lectures. Like each A2 level class, the

context class had a standard curriculum and a book with 24 hours of classroom meeting per week for two

semesters.

Two main teachers were assigned to the class for the second semester. The first main teacher instructed for 11

hours per week, while the second teacher, the researcher, taught for 13 hours. In this respect, knowing the

students personally and observing the participants engagement to the classes provided valuable insight to the

researchers in interpreting the qualitative data.

Participants

This case study conducted with 9 students (6 female-3 male). They were chosen in relation to the highest and

lowest scores in the survey given to 24 students, who shared certain characteristics in terms of age,

educational background and the type of language education they receive. The 9 participants were grouped

under the three main criteria; general motivation, instrumental motivation and integrative motivation, and

some of them were placed under more than one group due to their scores. The pseudonyms and the groups of

the participants are as follows:

Table 1: The participants of the study for each group.

The Highests Means General Motivation Instrumental Motivation Integrative Motivation

H1 Aslı Gamze Aslı

H2 Gamze Melike Kevser

H3 Kevser Kevser Gamze

The Lowest Means

L1 Ali Bengü Salih

L2 Başak Başak Ali

L3 Alper Alper Alper

1 http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/en/resources/european-language-levels-cefr




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Table 2: Demographic information of the participants having the highest means from the survey

Pseudonyms Age Gender Compulsory proficiency

test

Aslı 18 Female Yes

Gamze 18 Female Yes

Kevser 18 Female Yes

Melike 18 Female Yes

Table 3: Demographic information of the participants having the lowest means from the survey

Pseudonyms Age Gender Compulsory proficiency

test

Ali 18 Male Yes

Başak 18 Female Yes

Alper 18 Male Yes

Bengü 18 Female No

Data Collection Tools

The data collection tools of this study included a survey adapted from Gardner’s (2004) Attitude/ Motivation

Battery Test and individual interviews with the 9 participants. Based on the highest and lowest means in the

test in relation to the 3 main criteria, the participants were chosen for the interview. The data was gathered

through a mixed-method within this study in order to benefit from the best of both paradigms, quantitative

and qualitative methods, as Dörnyei (2007) suggests. By this way the bias and constraints researchers face in

selecting participants in qualitative and longitudinal studies, and with qualitative data collection methods; such

as observations, reflections and diaries, were tried to be overcome (Dörnyei, 2007).

The Survey

In order to reach the interviewees needed, the researchers applied a questionnaire to 24 participants studying

in the preparatory English program, after piloting the adapted survey to 5 students from a different class

sharing similar backgrounds. The questionnaire survey was used in order to elicit demographic information and

to find out the current types of motivation participants have toward second language learning. The

questionnaire items were adapted from Gardner’s (2004) Attitude/Motivation Battery Test in accordance with

the needs of the study. The items were translated into Turkish in order to prevent participants' language

proficiency from having any influence on the results.

The Interviews

9 of the participants were interviewed in order to have an understanding about the relationship between their

current types of motivation toward language learning and the L2 identities they construct. The interview

questions were prepared by the researchers and additional questions were directed when it was necessary for

further information (See appendix 6.2). The semi-structured interviews were conducted individually and in the

participants’ native language, Turkish, to encourage them to express themselves comfortably. All of the

interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed before the analysis by the researchers to be able master

everything stated. Denaturalized method was used for the transcriptions, because the main purpose of the




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researchers was to explore the participants’ feelings and perspectives towards motivation and L2 identity,

rather than a discourse analysis.

Data Analysis

Quantitative Data Analysis

After the administration of the survey, the data collected through questionnaires were coded in SPSS. Next, the

questionnaire items were reverse coded in SPSS so that a strongly agree would indicate high motivation for

each item. First of all, the answers by the participants of the study were analysed under the categories of

general motivation towards the target language (included all the items), instrumental motivation towards the

target language (included items only about instrumental motivation), and integrative motivation towards the

target language (included items only about instrumental integrative) by calculating the arithmetic means for

every item in each category. According to the results of mean comparison, three of the participants with the

highest mean and another three with the lowest mean for each category were grouped together. After the

exclusion of overlaps, nine participants were identified for the interview.

Qualitative Data Analysis

For the analysis of the interviews, general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis was adopted on the

basis of the grounded theory by Strauss and Corbin (1990). In this process, recurring themes was defined by

analyzing the data gathered via the interviews by open coding. Using the constant comparison, common and

different patterns were identified in the data by moving back and forth, to categorize them under the recurrent

themes formed. Finally, an overall analysis was held among the themes to explore the relationship between

motivation and learner identity.

Limitations

This study accommodates two limitations within its body. First of all, generalization of the findings may not be

possible for bigger groups or contexts, since they are highly context-dependent dynamics under constant

change. However, the main goal of this study was to explore and shed light on the relevant context, in this

respect, the design and findings can be adapted for different settings. The second limitation arises due to the

time constraints that the study could not adopt a longitudinal approach. Because this study was conducted as a

requirement for a graduate course it had some limitations in terms of adequate time to collect the data and

analyse the findings in a much more detailed way.

FINDINGS

Participants with the Highest Motivation Scores as a Case

Aslı, Gamze, Kevser and Melike were the participants having the highest means in the questionnaire survey in

terms of general motivation, instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. They all had similar

educational backgrounds. Starting the L2 education during the 4th grade of the elementary school and

attending English classes since then, their programs were designed around proficiency in grammar without any

focus on communicative skills. English was able to serve them only as an instrument to pass exams with good

grades rather than a channel connecting them to the global world until the preparatory English program

started. In this respect, although they expressed some similar ideas in terms of their feelings towards English,

ideal selves, ought-to selves and learner investments, Aslı, Gamze and Kevser approached the target language

as a field they enjoyed to be involved socially in addition to the L2’s instrumental benefits, while Melike was

likely to invest in English as an instrument to achieve her ideal and ought-to selves.

Attitudes towards English and Learning English

For Aslı, who held the highest means in general motivation and integrative motivation, learning new languages

other than Turkish was a pursuit she had in her life. Since she was a little child, she liked foreign languages

quite a lot and preferred to attend a number of English classes even during the summer holidays. She stated

the following to underline her feelings towards English:




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“Dile ilgim çok fazla. Küçükken, 4 ya da 5. sınıftayken, ailem beni “Anadolu Ateşi” dans grubuna yazdırmışlar,

orada yetişeyim diye. Ben ne olursunuz beni alın, dil kursuna yazdırın diye yalvarmışım. Yani İngilizceyi çok

seviyorum. Fransızca’ya aşırı bir ilgim var. Dili çok çok çok seviyorum.”

Like Aslı, Gamze had a strong integrative motivation towards the language, since she believed that English is

the lingua franca of our age, and to be able to know about different cultures and be a part of the global culture,

she started investing in the L2. Similarly, Kevser believed that English should be an important part of her life to

improve herself socially and professionally. For her, English had integrative and instrumental purposes as well

to have a better quality of life. Having strong motivation and commitment to learn the target language was

important to her. To mention this point Kevser said the following:

“İngilizce her şey için gerekli. Sonuçta hayatın bir parçası. En basitinden yurt dışına gitmek istiyorsun, gezmek

istiyorsun görmek için ama dil olmadığı için yapamıyorsun. Mesela onun haricinde iş için gerekli. Artık İngilizce

olmadan hiç bir şey olmuyor. Kariyerin için.. Kendini geliştirmek için....İstersek olur, istemezsek öğrenemeyiz.

Çünkü bir süre sonra insan sıkılıyor istese de sıkılıyor, ama hani sonuna kadar gayret edersek öğreniriz. Biz de

bitiyor iş.”

However, Melike did not show such a personal interest in English as Aslı, Gamze and Kevser did, and she

employed an instrumental stand towards English. She agreed that learning English was a must to be a part of

this world, and for her English was more of a tool to benefit from to be the knowledgeable one in the society

and in her profession, rather than a part of her identity or a social connector to the English culture. In this

regard, Melike stated the following:

“İngilizceyi kesinlikle öğrenmem gereken bir dil gibi görüyorum, mesleğim açısından. Hatta İngilizce değil başka

diller de öğrenmek istiyorum ama, faaliyet yok. Pek heves yok........Dil öğrenmek farklı bir şeydir bence ama,

hani farklı dilden insanlarla, onların aksanlarıyla konuşmak çok farklı bir his uyandırır ama, şu an onu

yapamadığım için pek bir şey diyemeyeceğim.Ama mutlaka öğrenilmesi gereken bir dil olarak görüyorum. İşim

gereği ve insanlarla olan iletişi artırmak için İngilizce öğreniyorum. Kültürel açıdan değil de, işim için”

The Ideal Self and Ought-to Self

Aslı’s, Gamze’s and Kevser’s possible selves were in line with the types of motivation they have been

constructing. Integrative and instrumental motivations they possessed within their L2 selves were serving their

ideal and ought-to selves, respectively. In other words, Aslı, Gamze and Kevser were investing into the

language, because English would help them to be open-minded and sophisticated people as they ideally desire,

while helping them to be one of the best in their respected fields for their ought-to selves. Gamze’s statements

about the place of English in attaining her ideal “socially knowledgeable” self and her ought-to “professional”

self is the following:

“İngilizceyi çok akıcı konuşan insanları gördüğümde çok imreniyorum açıkcası. Oradan gelen bir heves var. Ben

de onlar gibi konuşabilsem, yapabilsem. Çünkü o insanlar bana çok çok farklı insanlarmış gibi geliyor. Sonuçta

aynı şeyi düşünsek de onlar daha farklı insanlarla bunu paylaşabiliyorlar.Ama ben paylaşamıyorum mesela. O

yüzden benim için çok çok önemli İngilizce.”

“Şu an ortak dil İngilizce ve diğer insanlarla en azından kendi alanımda iletişime geçebilmek için, yaptıkları

projeleri ve yahutta onlarla irtibatta olabilmek için öğrenmek zorundayım. Aslında hepsi gelecekteki planlarım

üzerine kurulu. Ama tabi bunun yanında arkadaş edinme olabilir, kendini geliştirme olabilir...En azından bir

ortama girdiğinde kendini birazcık daha rahat hisseder. En azından ben öyle düşünüyorum.”

Melike differed from Aslı, Gamze and Kevser in terms of her motivation type. She placed the instrumental

motivation in her ideal and ought-to selves, while the others combined integrative and instrumental motivation

within their possible selves. Although she expressed her desire to travel abroad and meet new people and

cultures, she did not refer to any particular integrative motivation. English was necessary to attain her goals in




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life and and carry out her possible selves which were built on being successful in professional terms. Melike

remarked this point by mentioning the following about her ideal self and ought-to self:

“Bir şirketin en vazgeçilmez işçisi olmak. Valgeçilmez yani. Her şey de bana sorulacak gibisinden. İngilizce’nin

büyük bir yeri var bence. Bana bakacak olursanız, ben işim için İngilizce öğrenmek istiyorum. Yoksa öğrensem

ne olur, öğrenmesem ne olur.”

“Toplum içinde iyi bir yer edinmiş ve saygınlık kazanmış kişi olmak. Ailem için özellikle. Öğrenmemi zaten çok

istiyorlar. Saygın bir kişi olmak toplumda. Bunda İngilizcenin yeri büyük, çünkü saygın olabilmem için bir şirkette

güzel işler yapabilmem lazım, ki bu da İngilizce öğrenmeden olmaz.”

Learner Investment

Parallel to the motivation types the participants integrate into their possible selves, their efforts, “the

investment”, they put in learning the language and culture changed. The participants having integrative

motivation together with the instrumental motivation, Aslı, Gamze and Kevser, expressed that they studied

English regularly, even when it was not a part of the school work. Upon finishing the assignments or projects

given, those participants were encouraged to read stories in English, watch movies, listen to songs, translate

online newspapers and try to make friends that they can practice the language. Aslı gave the following points

as an example:

“Listening çok yapıyorum evde. Çünkü dinlemede çok hatam çıkıyor. Ve hocamıza çok alıştığım için onun

söyledikleri çok anlaşılır geliyor artık bana. Ama başkasından dinlediğimde, başkası konuştuğunda anlamıyorum

hiç bir şey, hiç bir şekilde. Bol bol dinleme yapmaya çalışıyorum. Onun dışında makale ya da gazete açıyorum

internetten. Onları çevirmeye çalışıyorum, hani kendim okuduğumda ne kadar anlayabiliyorum, çevirdiğimde

ne kadar doğru çevirebiliyorum diye. Onun dışında (gives a name of a book)’dan çeviri yapıyorum günde bir ya

da iki tane. Onun dışında da (gives a name of a university) web sitesine giriyorum, online çalışmak için. Onların

geçmiş yıllarının sınavlarına bakıyorum.”

In a similar manner, Gamze expressed that:

“Dile hakim olmak için genelde yabancı dizi ya da sinemalar, yani elimde olduğunca izlemeye çalışıyorum. En

azından İngilizce alt yazılı ve yahutta eğer gerçekten çok önceden beri izlediğim bir diziyse..Şu an mesela Türkçe

alt yazılı bir de İngilizce alt yazılı. Aslında karşılaştırma yaptığım da oluyor, hani nerede kaçırmışım, nerede

duymuşum. Ve yahutta hikaye kitapları, onları çevirmeye çalışıyorum.

Compared to Aslı, Gamze and Kevser, although getting one of the highest means in the motivation survey

under the instrumental motivation category, Melike said that she did not put any extra effort other in acquiring

the language and her inadequate vocabulary knowledge was the main reason behind this problem. About this

issue Melike mentioned the following:

“İngilizce öğrenmek için bir kaç kitap aldım ama, sadece aldım yani. Hiç bir şey yapmıyorum da denebilir. Ama

dersleri dinliyorum sadece. Sıkılıyorum işte, sözlüğe bakma sıkıntısı. Ve bir çok bilmediğim kelime olduğu için

artık sözlüğe bakmak beni yoruyor.”

Participants with the Lowest Motivation Scores as a Case

Salih, Bengü, Ali, Başak and Alper were the participants getting the lowest means from the questionnaire

survey in relation to the general, integrative and instrumental motivation criteria. Like the other participants of

the study, they started studying English starting from the 4th grade of elementary school and received an

education based on grammar. They never had the chance to practice the language neither with the native

speakers of English, nor with non-native speakers of English. For this reason, English was perceived as another

class they need to pass with good grades rather than an opportunity helping them to meet new cultures or

people. In this regard, especially for Başak and Alper who were quite unmotivated to learn English, it was




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nothing but a tool they have to possess to survive in the global world, while Bengü was the only one having

both instrumental and integrative motives in her perception.

Attitudes towards English and Learning English

Salih and Ali presented a similar attitude towards English with Melike, who was the only participant with the

instrumental motivation-only among the the highest-scored participants. English was crucial to them in terms

of its usefulness in finding a good job and being aware of the current dynamics of the world. They did not

express any personal interest towards the target culture or to the language itself. Salih said the following while

talking about his feelings and perception of English:

“Ülke sınırları dışına çıkacağım zaman beni Dünya’ya bağlayacak olan bir araç İngilizce. İngilizce öğrenmek ve

İngilizce konuşmak dünyaya açılan bir kapı. Ve benim için, ilerisi için, yani mezuniyet sonrası için, meslek ve

mesleğin ötesine kendimi yükseltebilmem için, bir yerlere gelebilmek için bir basamak olarak görüyorum.

Konuşurken şu an sıkılıyorum, ama bunun, hani, Türkiye’ye gelen yabancılardan gördüğüm kadarıyla, onlar

Türkçe’yi bu kadar hızlı öğrenebiliyor ve konuşabiliyorsa, dışarı çıktığımda da ben de sıkılmadan

konuşabileceğimi düşünüyorum.”

Likewise, Ali thought that he needed English just for finding a job but nothing else. However, when Başak and

Alper were talking about the matter, they underlined the fact that they were quite indifferent to English, to the

culture and learning the target language as well. Başak said that she felt “nothing” about English since she

started learning it and, currently, because she still had four more years until she graduated, she neither

thought nor cared about learning it. Like Başak, for Alper, the problem was not only his feelings about English,

but also his beliefs about the instrumentality of English for his profession.

Alper emphasized his thoughts about the issue as the following:

“Sevmedim İngilizce’yi hiç bir zaman. Çok yakın gelmedi, güzel de gelmedi. Grameri de güzel gelmedi,

ezberlemesi de zor geldi. Ezberi hiç bir zaman sevmedim, ben sevmediğim şeyi hiç bir zaman öğrenemedim.

Benim bir şeyi ilk başta sevmem gerek. Çok fazla kural var, anlatma şekilleri çok ezberci. Sırf gramere dayalı

yıllarca eğitim aldık. Hiç bir pratik yapma şansımız, olanağımız olmadı. Sadece işte haftada 10 saat gibi böyle

fazla saatli ders aldık o kadar. Yani İngilizce öğrenmek bu devirde gerekli olabilir ama yani Dünya çapında bize

çok da fazla bir şey kazandıracak diye de düşünmüyorum. Çünkü Dünya’da bir ön yargı var, hani nasıl

diyeyim...Eğer gazeteciyseniz, yurt dışındaki gazetelerde çalışma şansınız, istediğiniz kadar İngilizce bilginiz

olsun, çok fazla olduğunu düşünmüyorum. Çünkü hiç bir Türk gazeteci New York Times’da yazmıyor. Çünkü

Dünya’da belirli ön yargılar var. Eğer Müslümansanız, Müslüman bir ülkede yaşıyorsanız, size en başta herkes

terörist gözüyle bakıyor. Bu böyle olduğu içinde bizim çalışma olanaklarımızın çok fazla olduğunu

düşünmüyorum. Kitlemizin de zaten İngilizce bilen bir kitle, piyasa olduğunu düşünmüyorum. Bu yüzden, evet,

gazeteciliğin temellerini öğrenme konusunda İngilizce’nin gerekli olduğunu düşünüyorum, çünkü çoğu kitabın

çevirisi çok daha sonra geliyor Türkiye’ye, ama bu da biraz sistemin yanlışı.”

Compared to the other participants in this group, Bengü was the only one having a more integrative stand

towards the language. She liked learning the language because she wanted to go abroad and wanted to

communicate people from different countries. However, she stated that no matter how much she tried, she

was not able to master English fully.

The Ideal Self and Ought-to Self

Participants’ ideal and ought-to selves, except for Alper’s, directed them to the same point: finding a well-paid

job and having a comfortable life allowing them to attain their desires. In doing so, Ali confirmed his stand one

more time emphasizing that English was another step for him to take. The instrumentality of English was

obvious for him. Even though Başak agreed that she desired a wealthy life and knowing English would help her

to reach this goal, she put forward her apathetic character and stated that she was not sure about her ideals in

life, her “ideal self” and “ought-to self”.




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For Bengü, integrative motivation along with instrumental motivation came forward. In addition to getting a

good job, being financially independent and having an important position in her profession, Bengü was

encouraged to be culturally and socially knowledgeable. She mentioned that she wanted to meet new people

and know about their cultures which she found quite appealing. Salih’s motivation, on the other hand, for

travelling abroad and learning about cultures was different from Bengü’s. Although it seemed like he had an

integrative stand at this point, it was not a desire for him to be a part of the target culture, but to decide which

culture had better qualities, the Turkish culture or “the others”. In this regard, again, English was an instrument

for him to be able to judge the life styles of “the other”. He stated the following to explain his perspective as

the following:

“Eğer imkanım olsaydı, farklı ülkeleri görmek isterdim. Farklı insanlarla tanışmak isterdim. Çevremdeki yakın

insanları, Türkiye’deki insanları zaten biliyoruz, kültürlerini zaten biliyoruz. Onun dışında insanlar nasıl

düşünüyor. Biz mi doğru düşünüyoruz, yoksa dışarı mı, bizim garipsediğimiz insanlar mı doğru düşünüyor bir

araştırmak isterdim................Dediğim gibi insanları tanıyabilmek adına İngilizce bir basamak”

Alper differed from the other participants at this point. Alper questioned instrumental benefits of knowing

English in his profession and concluded that he could still be successful in his field. He explained his point as the

following:

“Ulusal anlamda bence çok da bir önemi yok. Eğer bir insan bilgiliyse ve Dünya’yı takip ediyorsa, evet

İngilizce’nin muhakkak ki büyük artıları olur, ama hiç takip etmeyen bir insana göre sadece Türkçe’yle de çok iyi

yerlere gelebilirsiniz........... Günümüz sosyo-ekonomik gerçekleri açısından benim İngilizce bilmem gerektiği

gerçeği var. Ama bunun çok uğraşılırsa aşılabilir olduğunu düşünüyorum. Gelmek istediğim yerlerde, benden

kaynaklı değil, sektörden kaynaklı olarak İngilizce’nin öneminin fazla olduğunu düşünüyorum.”

Learner Investment

The participants’ investment into the target language was in line with the motivation types they possessed

towards English and learning English along with their possible selves. Similar to the findings of the first case, in

the second case the participant motivated to learn the language with instrumental and integrative motives due

to their ideal and ought-to selves, such as Bengü, were investing into the language relatively more compared to

the participants having only instrumental motivation, such as Ali, Başak, Salih and Alper. Because Bengü was

willing to be a part of the target culture and global culture, she stated that she tried to make friends on campus

coming abroad in addition to the time she spent on studying for the proficiency exam. On the other hand, Ali,

Başak, Salih and Alper mentioned that they have been studying English, mostly grammar, to be successful in

the coming exam.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to explore the dynamic context-based relationship between motivation, L2

identity and second language acquisition with the participants chosen from an EFL classroom. The following

research questions were explored:

1. What is the relationship between motivation and learner identity?

2. Do different types of motivation have an influence on learner identity negotiation?

3. What is the relationship between learner identity and second language acquisition?

In this chapter of the study, summary of the findings, discussion of the findings, implications and suggestions

for future research are provided.

Summary of the Findings

A questionnaire survey adapted from Gardner’s (2004) Attitude/ Motivation Battery Test was given to the

subject EFL class in order to determine the motivation types of the participants. The participants receiving the

highest and lowest means from the survey were grouped under 3 main categories: general motivation,

instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. Based on these groups, 9 participants were interviewed by




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the researchers to have further understanding about the relationship between the participants’ possible selves,

ideal self and ought-to self, motivation types and their investments into the language.

As it was presented, the motivation types of the students and their possible selves were closely

interdependent. In case one, the participants with the highest motivation means, Aslı, Gamze and Kevser,

showed the clues of integrative and instrumental motivation in combination. These motivations served to their

ideal and ought-to selves. They were not only interested in receiving good grades and being successful in their

respected fields, but also they were highly encouraged to be a part of the global culture by mastering English.

For this reason, they were investing their time and energy to learn the L2 on a regular base. Melike, on the

other hand, did not demonstrate such a personal interest to English and to the culture; therefore, her

instrumental motivation and possible selves needed to use the language as a tool. In this regard, she did not do

the necessary investment into learning them, although she had one of the highest means in the Motivation

Battery Test (Gardner, 2004).

Similarly, in case two, the participants with the lowest means, Ali, Başak, Salih and Alper demonstrated

instrumental motivation towards the target language. For them, English was a must to be carried out to

achieve their possible selves. They were not enthusiastic about learning or being a part of the target culture.

Accordingly, they did not feel the need to spend time on English to acquire it. Only Bengü, who had

instrumental and integrative motivations together invested into the language socially other than class

requirements. However, when compared to the participants from the case one, her investment was not regular

or exemplified by concrete instances.

Overall, the findings were parallel with the literature discussed. As Dörnyei & Ushioda (2009) suggested, the

participants accommodating the idea of being proficient in the target language in their ideal and ought-to self

were more motivated towards the target language. Once they had integrative orientations, defined by Gardner

& Lambert (1972) as “reflecting a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the

other group.” (p.132), they were investing into the language more in comparison with the participants having

instrumental orientations. For this reason, as Norton (2000) claims, those learners had more access to learning

opportunities to construct cultural concepts and L2 identity, which facilitated their second language acquisition

process.

Practical Implications

The findings of this study indicated that the learners embodying instrumental and integrative motivations in

direction of their possible selves invested into the language more than the learners with only instrumental

motivation or the ones who had a critical eye towards the instrumentality of L2. The more a learner invests in a

foreign language, the more opportunities s/he will have to acquire the targeted language and be involved with

the targeted culture. All in all, the findings indicated if the concept of learning a second language is a part of

learner identity, students will be more motivated to learn it. It was also understood that higher motivation will

make students invest more into learning the language, and more investment is quite likely to bring higher

levels of success. Therefore, in addition to teaching grammatical facts and developing language skills, language

teachers should also try very hard to make sure that their students’ will be fully aware of why they are learning

a foreign language and what advantages they may reach if they happen to acquire one.

Suggestions for Future Research

The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the relationship between motivation and L2 identity.

However, possible future studies are needed to explore the relationship further, since this it is highly context-

based and the findings cannot be generalize to bigger contexts. Moreover, designing a longitudinal study would

be of great help in exploring these changing dynamics in a more detailed way. Finally, studies concentrating on

the strategies to increase students’ motivation in terms of integrative orientations can raise teacher awareness

on the issue. By this way, motivation and L2 identity can be used as a facilitator in language classrooms in

second language acquisition process.




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Hakan TARHAN is an EFL instructor at TOBB University of Economics and Technology and a

post-graduate student in the department of English Language Teaching at Middle East

Technical University in Ankara, Turkey. After receiving his B.A. in Foreign Language

Education, Mr TARHAN taught in Finland between 2011 and 2012, under a grant awarded

by the European Commission’s Life Long Learning programme. His research interests

include identity in language learning, multilingualism, computer assisted language learning,

and sociology of education.

Hakan TARHAN

TOBB University of Economics

And Technology, Ankara, TURKEY


Sena BALBAN is an English Instructor at Ankara University, Turkey. Between August 2011

and May 2012, she served as the Fulbright Turkish Teaching Assistant at the University of

Texas at Austin, after she graduated from Middle East Technical University. She is having

her graduate degree in English Language Teaching at the Middle East Technical University,

Turkey. Her research interest is learner identity in EFL classrooms; motivation and second

language acquisition; professional teacher identity; mentoring for novice teachers; and

instructional technology.

Sena BALBAN

Ankara Üniversitesi, Gölbaşı,

Ankara, TURKEY


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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS’ PLACE

AND IMPORTANCE IN SOCIAL STUDIES LESSONS

Dr. Aslı AYTAÇ

İstanbul University

Hasan Ali Yücel Education Faculty

Social Sciences Education Dept.

Vefa, Fatih/İstanbul, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

In the general objectives of the social studies curriculum, in the seventh item “information is used , organized

and improved in appropriate formats and various forms(by map, graphic, table, sphere, diagram, time band

etc.)” and in the eleventh item “information and communication technologies are used and the process of

development of science and technology and its effects on social life are understood” are included. Based on

these statements, technologies and modern applications should be used in social studies lessons. Teacher

provides the information. Teacher candidates and teachers have to know the new applications to facilitate the

understanding of the lesson. They have to follow constantly renewed technology and should use it on their

area of expertise. In this study, geographical information systems will be introduced and some of the topics of

units’ visual applications in primary education at the sixth and seventh grades will be explained by means of

ArcGIS 9.2 software program. Thus, the importance of geographical information systems about the geography

applications in social studies lessons will be emphasized.

Key Words: Geographical information systems, social studies, technology usage, to do visual, ArcGIS 9.2

INTRODUCTION

Today, the technology must be used to benefit from knowledge effectively. Informations (data) should be

stored in a system and used for the aim. Especially it is important that related to the forming map applications.

Geographical information systems a technological vehicle to apply these targets. In Turkey, in the objectives of

social studies curriculum it is mentioned that the information is used visually(map, graphic, table, sphere,

diagram, time band etc.) and is developed( the seventh item), in the other one to utilize from the information

and communication technologies(the eleventh item)(Principle National Education Law, 2004, number:1739,

Bilgili, 2010 ). In this situation, to be employed the information technology as GIS(Geographical Information

Systems) in social science lessons in schools is necessary and important to reach its objectives of the

curriculum. To do social studies particularly the geography topics should be done more visually by means of

GIS. The applications which are done with geographical information technology(GIS) will obtain visuality during

the lessons and the subjects will be taught to the students permanently. Geography is a scientific branch which

examines the place. The map is rather important in geography science and the results of the geographical

researches are explained on the maps. Geographical informations are located on the maps and these are

interpreted. Geography investigates the relationships between different locations. Because of it, geographical

information technology is one of the important and useful tools while the geographical subjects are examined

and interpreted. The teacher who knows , applies the geographical information technology can run and record

data that is prepared by him/her by means of GIS software programs for the lesson unit. In consequence the

teacher can present knowledges to the students visually.

In this study geographical information system was introduced. The purpose of the study is to call attention to

geographical information systems which is useful especially for the geography lessons’ learnings and teachings

in social studies lessons and to the applications which are prepared by means of GIS technology, so the




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students can learn easily the geographical topics in social studies lessons. To render conscious to the social

science teacher candidates and teachers about geographical information systems and to inform them of

applications about GIS were aimed.

What is Geographical Information Systems?

There are a lot of definitations had been made about GIS. Some of them are in below:

“It is a geography applications that it covers the gathering information, storage and analyze about the natural

environment and human, time properties and relationships and it has methodology and has computer

setting(Turoğlu, 2000, p.228).

“GIS is an computer system that can collect, store in computer environment, modernize, control, analyze and

do visualization of the earth knowledges for the special target”(Tecim, 2008, p.51).

“GIS is an vehicle that it stores and analyze the geographical informations in computer setting”(ESRI, 1987).

In general GIS is the preparation of a study which is about the earth properties in computer environment, in

the other words a computer system that can transfer and analyze the geographical informations.

The geographical information systems is a general name that provides to collect, storage, update, process of

the geographical information and it keeps hardware, software and personnel (Uyguçgil, 2011, p.134).

Geographical information is a concept which specifies that the location of the object on the earth or what kind

of things there are. For example, where am I?, who are our country’s neigbours?(Uyguçgil, 2011, p.133).

Yomralıoğlu and Çelik (1994) mentioned that to obtain the information, a way in the other words a system is

needed. According to them the system is a methods sheme to get results and there should be a system for

gathering and processing the information. The system that is used for this purpose is called “information

systems”.

The stages of Geographical Information Systems

1-Collection data

2-Retention data

3-Processing data

4-Presentation

Geographical information systems is formed as five master components(Uyguçgil, 2011):

-Human(user)

-Method(the procedures about reaching data, collection, storage, presentation)

-Hardware(computer systems, for example computer, scanner, digitizer)

-Software(GIS software packages)

-Data

Turoğlu (2000) implied that data structures are divided into two groups as spatial data (graphic data) and non

spatial data (text data). Spatial data cover digital data for the view. All of the science branches and occupational

groups that the subject of the study about place, human, time can benefit from geographical information

systems (Turoğlu, 2000).

How does GIS Works?

Geographical information systems works by layer logic. Data about worked case are run into computer,

analyzed by GIS software programs, the results are projected as map, graphic, table or aore shown as printout.

According to geographical information systems’ working logic, data are very important and according to the

aim of the matter, data are processed into the system and are displayed in GIS.

GIS is a system technology that provides to transfer the information to the computer program and does it by

means of software programs. Today some of the main software programs which are used are in below:

ERDAS




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ARC/INFO

Arc/GIS

Arc/View

MapInfo

IDRISI

NETCAD…etc.

METHOD

In this study, some of the topics of units which are teached in primary education at the sixth and seventh

grades will be done visual by using ArcGIS 9.2 program which is a GIS software program with some model

applications.

Lesson Applications

In below there are some model applications about the sixth and seventh grades social studies lessons. This

model applications are formed by ArcGIS 9.2 software. Layer maps obtained from ESRI Education Applications

in Demirci(2008) ‘s book and the ArcGIS 9.2 CD is found in it.

This is a course application about the sixth grade social studies lesson.

Unit: Life on the Earth

Topic: Understanding the maps.

Map’s scale changes for using aim. While the scale denominator is decreasing, in other words scale is

increasing, the detail of the map increases.

To display it:

It is open in ArcMap “Countries Layer” in ESRI Applications in ArcGIS 9.2 CD (Figure 1). Then follow the steps.

Step 1:

Open C/ESRI/Education_Applications_1(Figure 1).

Step 2:

It is open a world map in Education Application 1. You can see the scale on standart tool bar as

1/146.000.000(Figure 2).

Step 3:

The scale can be changed as 1/10.000.000(Figure 3).




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Figure 1: Step 1 is ArcMap application page about topic “understanding the maps” in the sixth grade social

studies lesson(Esri licenced CD in Demirci, 2008).






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The other course application about the sixth grade social studies lesson.

Unit: Life on the Earth

Topic: World of coordinates.

It is open in ArcMap “Countries Layer” in ESRI Applications in ArcGIS 9.2 CD (Figure 4). Then follow the steps.

Step 4:

Open C/ESRI/Education_Applications_3(Figure 4).

Step 5:

It is open a World map in Education Application 3. You can see the World map(Figure 5).

Step 6:

On tool bar “go to xy” icon is found. When you click with mouse, a “ go to xy”window is opened. Then you can

write the longitute and latitute values and click to enter. On the map, the point is showed(Figure 6).




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Figure 4: Step 4 is ArcMap application page about topic “World of coordinates” in the sixth grade social studies

lesson (Esri licenced CD in Demirci, 2008).






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Another course application about the seventh grade social studies lesson.

Unit: Population in our country

Topic: Life in places.

It is open in ArcMap “Türkiye Layer” in ESRI Applications in ArcGIS 9.2 CD (Figure 7). Then follow the steps.

Step 7:

Open C/ESRI/Education_Applications_2.

Step 8:

To add some picture files, press by mouse the i(identify) icon on tool bar and go to the place of city on the map.

The window is open that its name “ i( identify)”(Figure 7).

Step 9:

Go to the city’s name and click by mouse as right touch, then click to add Hiperlink icon(Figure 8).

Step 10:

When the window open, add the picture file and click to “hyperlink” icon on the tool bar(Figure 9).

Step 11:

Click to the city’s place on the map with mouse, the picture file is displayed(Figure 10).




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Figure 7: Step 8 is ArcMap application page about topic “Life in places” in the seventh grade social studies







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lesson (www.vikimapia.org).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

GIS-oriented applications have not been found in the lesson aquisitions in social studies curriculum. However in

secondary education lesson aquisitions the applications about GIS are existing. Taş et al. (2007) said that in

Turkey the first formal beginning about the using of GIS in high schools has been done in 2005. According to it,




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in 2005 GIS has been located in new geography curriculum of nineth grade. Taş et al., 2007 mentioned that a

survey had been applied to a hundred geography teachers in Turkey. According to the results eleven percent of

geography teachers know software programs as ArcGIS and MapInfo, twenty two percent of them know and do

not use, sixty seven percent of them do not know GIS software programs. About the advantages of GIS Wanner

and Kersler (1999) said that “GIS accelerates the geographical interrogation in classroom environment”.

Bednarz and Van der Schee (2006) explained that “it encourages geography learning and teaching”(Demirci,

2008, p.67). GIS should take part in social studies curriculum as assistant compenent to teach lessons especially

related to geography. That social studies teacher candidates and teachers should be conscious of geographical

information systems and that they should be educated about GIS are very important. In conclusion, teaching of

the topics especially related to geography in social studies lessons can be improved by using GIS technology.

Thus, the courses will be transferred to the students visually and permanently.




BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR

Aslı AYTAC is a geographer and has bachelor’s degree, master’s and doctorate degrees

from Istanbul University Geography Department. Her areas of interest are geography

(geomorphology, coastal geomorphology), geographical information systems and its

applications in geography and social science education. She has a lot of national and

international fieldwork experiences and studies. She is currently working in Social Science

Education Department in Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Education Faculty.

Dr. Aslı AYTAC

Istanbul University

Hasan Ali Yücel Education Faculty

Müşküle Street No.1 Vefa, Fatih/İstanbul, TURKEY


REFERENCES

Bednarz, S. V., & Van der Schee, J. (2006). Europe and United States: The implementation of geographic

information systems in secondary education in two contexts. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 15(2), 191-

205.

Bilgili, A.S. (Ed.) . (2010). Sosyal Bilgilerin Temelleri. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.

Demirci, A. (2008). CBS. İstanbul: Fatih Üniversitesi.

ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute). (1987). Arc/Info programmers manual. Redlands: California.

Taş, H.İ., Özel, A., & Demirci, A. (2007). Coğrafya öğretmenlerinin teknolojiye bakış açıları ve teknolojiden

yararlanma seviyeleri. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 19, 31-51.

Tecim, V. (2008). Coğrafi bilgi sistemleri. Ankara: Renk Form Matbaacılık.

Turoğlu, H. (2000). Coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin temel esasları. İstanbul: Acar Matbaacılık.

Uyguçgil, H. (2011). Coğrafi bilgi sistemlerine ilişkin temel kavramlar. In A.Çabuk (Ed.), Coğrafi bilgi sistemlerine

giriş (pp. 132-145). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi.




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Wanner, S. & Kerski, J. (1999). The effectiveness of GIS in high school education. Proceedings of the 1999 ESRI

User Conference.

Yomralıoğlu, T., & Çelik, K. (1994). GIS?. I.Ulusal Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Sempozyumu. Karadeniz Teknik

Üniversitesi, 21-32.




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MY OWN PAST: AN EXAMPLE OF FAMILY INVOLVEMENT PROJECT APPLIED

TO IMPROVE 48 – 54 MONTHS OLD CHILDREN’S PERCEPTION OF THE PAST

Prof. Dr. Rengin ZEMBAT

Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Department of Primary Education

Preschool Teacher Education İstanbul, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Fatma Özge ÜNSAL

Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Department of Primary Education

Preschool Teacher Education İstanbul, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Fatih YAZICI

Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Department of Social Science Education

İstanbul, TURKEY

Inst. Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


İstanbul, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


İstanbul, TURKEY

Res. Assist. Hilal İlknur TUNÇELI Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty


İstanbul, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

Preschool period is highly important in the sense that children generate their individual identity and perceptions related to their own past. In addition, based on the principle that learning experiences start from children’s close environment to far; considering “proofs” such as daily objects, clothes, photo album and verbal witnessing students have an opportunity to create their own past and constitute a historical narration. Built upon this theoretical framework, the study makes use of pretest – posttest without control group model. Teacher Observation Form was adopted as a pretest in order to determine 48 – 54 months old thirteen children’s the perception of the past, who constituted the research group of Prof. Dr. Ayla Oktay’s Application Unit at Atatürk Education Faculty at Marmara University during 2012 – 2013 Academic Year. As for the application of the study; within an hour allocated for them in the company of their families, students made presentations in front of their friends regarding their own past using things, clothes, photos, etc. from their




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infancy. Posttest which was based on Teacher Observation Form showed that consisting family involvement and project based application process resulted in significant changes in terms of students’ perception of the past. Key Words: Preschool, Perception of the Past, Historian Skills, Project Based Learning, Family Involvement

INTRODUCTION

Preschool education is of utmost importance for child development. During this period the child develops socially, emotionally, physically and mentally. The child who shows a great development process after birth is integrated into society as a successful individual when proper education is provided. Preschool education which constitutes the beginning of education process is described as the process of reinforcıng child’s development, providing children with educational opportunities their families are unable to bring in, and supporting and acquainting families with pedagogic knowledge (Oktay, 2007). Preschool period is an important period during which several concepts that the child will need in her future life are actively acquired. These concepts are products of an individual’s personal experiences. An individual constantly interacts with his environment and as a result of this, has experiences with the entities, events and situations around him and tries to make sense of them in their own right. The individual finds similarities between his/her experiences and categorizes them. After that, he/she names these categories. The cognitive structure that an individual attains by such abstraction is a concept. In the process of socialization, an individual generates, arranges or changes his/her concepts according to the society (Özçelik, 1989; Akt. Kol, 2012). Several researches have proven that for children, abstract concepts are relatively difficult to learn (Piaget, 1969; Block, 1989; Zakay, 1989; Akt. Kol, 2012). Time concept is one of the concepts that preschool child have great difficulty in learning. On the one hand time concept is abstract, the child has difficulties to make the right connection between past, present and future that are necessary to understand time concept. Time concept needs to be learned because like speech, it is a skill that the child is born with and that he/she needs to develop through social interaction. However, children have difficulties in understanding and comprehending time concept quickly since time by its nature is abstract (Naylor and Diem, 1987). For a child to understand time concept, it is essential to concretize the concept. The idea of teaching by personalizing and visualizing the time concept in other words concretizing is an important phase (Şen, 2004). For a child who uses concept of moment in her daily life easily, past and future concepts are more difficult to acquire and perceive. According to the Turkish Language Association (2013), the level of child’s memory, attention, perception and language development plays an important role in acquiring past concept which is described as the time that stays behind compared to concept of moment. In order to develop the perception of the past, a child needs to remember what happened in the past, to pay attention to specific details, and to express those verbally which is merely possible with the stimuli from his/her parents and teachers. Whilst performing activities related to perception of the past, it is necessary to start from children’s close environment to far. Therefore, it is indispensable to work on children’s perception of their own past first since all children have memories related to their own personal experiences and most of them are willing to recount those memories to listeners who are eager to give an ear (Reese and et al., 1993). Parents or adults are mostly listeners and as well as listening, they should support children regarding the consistency of the stories. Whilst talking about a child’s memories related to the past, filling out missing fragments or correcting wrongly remembered parts by an adult who witnessed or knows the event will gradually enable the child to recount his/her memory more elaborately and more consistently (Fivush, 1994). Children realize that their ideas and their parents’ ideas are unalike when they wonder why and how things happen. The situation is confusing as much as thrilling. As a result, some children stop wondering and believe in




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their own ideas while others stop wondering to believe in their parents’ ideas, and some others keep on wondering and try to gain new experiences about whys and hows. Many families would like their children to be creative thinking individuals. In addition, they want their youngsters to wonder and show interest to the past as well as the present. Provided that children’s perception of the past is reinforced by their families, children get more consistent in terms of the past (Wahler and Rowinski, 2009). By means of performing activities related to past, children become interested in changes in their lives and hold a view about concepts of change, reform and development. In this way, they can have a better understanding of the order of the events (Zembat and et al., 2013). In addition, preschool period is an important period in the sense that children step into history and develop historian skills in this period. Before answering the question “Who are we?” that history seeks to answer as a social science, children need to come up with an answer to the question “Who am I?”. So as to give an answer to the question “Who am I?”, students are supposed to constitute a narration. Narration, which appeared orally or in writing in the form of epics and chronicles during traditional level, is defined as “the most successful and effective way of re-creating the past” (Safran and Şimşek, 2011). Several proponents of postmodern theory of history approach history only as a way of narration. For this reason, skills that students gain while transforming their past into a narration are crucial in the sense that they become acquainted with the concepts of history and/or historiography and have their primary experiences in this regard. Additionally, whilst creating narrations related to their past, pupils benefit from concepts related to past and concepts that describe past, and they establish a former-latter (chronological) relationship between events. This process constitutes a significant factor in developing history skills. Students make use of concrete objects from daily life while creating narrations related to their past which in turn contribute to their first experiences to work on proofs – a skill they are going to use in their history classes in the ensuing years of education. Past time and historical time are two different concepts. Also, there are some who consider historical time as “a thing of the past, an element of past time which is used to describe the events that affected a society deeply and left a mark on it” (Safran and Şimşek, 2009). Nevertheless, postmodern theory of history shows us that besides macro narrations that deal with universal history, micro narrations that deal with daily lives of ordinary people have become a subject of history. In this context, students’ personal narrations about their own past gain meaning. When analyzed in terms of early childhood education, it should be noted that education at home or school is not sufficient to provide sustainability in education. Including children’s families into education at school is of utmost importance in the sense that it yields sustainability and retention in education (Temel and et al, 2010; Çağdaş & Şahin Seçer, 2011; Cömert& Erdem, 2011). In the view of such information, the purpose of this study is to help 48-54 months children develop “perception of the past” with a family involvement project named “my own past”. METHOD

Research Design

The design of this research will be experimental in nature. Experimental model is a study area in which the researcher generates necessary data to be observed in order to discover cause – effect relationship between the variables (Büyüköztürk, 2000; Karasar, 2005; Sencer, 1978). In this study, one group pretest – posttest model from pre-experimental models has been used. Research Group

The research group of the study consists of 13 children; 5 of which (38,46 %) are girls, 8 of which (61,54 %) are boys who attended Prof. Dr. Ayla Oktay’s Application Unit at Marmara University in Kadikoy, Istanbul during the Fall Term of 2012 – 2013 Academic Year. Mothers of 11 (84,61) and fathers of 13 children have a profession and work somewhere. At least a parent of 9 children is a personnel at Marmara University.




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Data Collecting Method

A list of 24 questions which was prepared by the researchers was adopted in order to determine what the children knew about their past. The questions were intended to evaluate the information children provide about themselves (name, surname, age, birthday, date of birth as moth-season-year, parents’ names), what they remember related to their past and time expressions used to convey those pieces of information. Application

The study is designed to improve 48 – 54 months children’s “perception of the past” with a family involvement project named “my own past”. In order to achieve that purpose, a 15 week project process was planned. Prior to the beginning of the project, a parents’ meeting was organized and parents were informed about the project and an application calendar was formed taking parents’ preferences into account. All of the parents received a written project application calendar. Besides the work calendar, families were enlightened about the application process. Families were asked to make a presentation along with their child on the date specified for them. The content of the presentation was comprised of; posters or PowerPoint presentations showing the child’s photos taken from the day the child was born to the day of presentation, video clips, their toys from different periods of time, and albums introducing the family members. Families were requested to make a presentation with the materials and objects they chose and prepare to share it in the classroom with their child. Families were provided with guidance during their preparation process. Following the first presentation, the children were administrated My Own Past Questionnaire and data of the pretest were gathered. In the first week, the class teacher carried out the presentation. In the following 13 weeks, presentations the children had prepared were made in the company of their families and My Own Past Corner was created in the class with the posters, belongings and photos they had brought. In the 15

th week, a conclusion meeting was held and the

project was completed with short presentations the children made with a photo they chose. At the end of project application process, posttest was administrated. FINDINGS

Before and after the application of the project, pretest and posttest were executed. The number of correct answers, arithmetic average, and standard deviation values were provided in Table 1 and Table 2. According to table 1, all children answered their names and their mothers’ names correctly; 12 of them provided their surnames and their fathers’ names straightly. 11 kids told their age; 7 children told the name of their favorite toy/book/thing. 6 students were able to tell 3 physical differences between then and their infancy; to construct regular sentences; and to expresses themselves in a group. 5 children told names of 3 close family members; told/explained things/behaviors/situation they could not carry out as a baby but then they could; and expressed themselves in various ways. Only 4 kids were able to tell an anecdote they remembered about their past; told 3 objects they used during infancy; and told their story about the past using their photographs. 3 of the children were able to tell/explain things/behaviors/situation they could not carry out at that time but later he/she might be able to; to use past expressions while speaking; and to use indicative past tense for events he/she personally remembered. 2 kids were capable of telling the month they were born and 1 child was able to tell the season he/she was born. None of the children was capable of telling the year they were born and using inferential past tense correctly for events they personally did not remember.




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Table 1: The correct answers given to Pretest questions

Answers expected to be given to pretest questions N

Number of correct answers X sd

Tells his/her name 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells his/her surname 13 12 ,92 ,28

Tells her age 13 11 ,85 ,38

Tells the day he/she was born 13 2 ,15 ,38

Tells the month he/she was born 13 2 ,15 ,38

Tells the year he/she was born 13 0 ,00 ,00

Tells the season he/she was born 13 1 ,08 ,28

Tells his/her mother’s name 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells his/her father’s name 13 12 ,92 ,28

Tells names of 3 close family members 13 5 ,39 ,51

Tells an anecdote he/she remembers about his/her past 13 4 ,31 ,48

Uses indicative past tense for events he/she personally remembers 13 3 ,23 ,44

Uses inferential past tense for events he/she personally does not remember

13 0 ,00 ,00

Tells/explains things/behaviors/situation he/she could not carry out as a baby but now he/she can

13 5 ,39 ,51

Tells/explains things/behaviors/situation he/she cannot carry out at that time but later he/she may be able to

13 3 ,23 ,44

Tells 3 physical differences between then and his/her infancy (teeth, hair, height)

13 6 ,46 ,52

Tells 3 objects he/she used during infancy 13 4 ,31 ,48

Tells what he/she uses now instead of those 3 objects 13 1 ,08 ,28

Tells the name of his/her favorite toy/book/thing 13 7 ,54 ,52

Uses past expressions while speaking 13 3 ,23 ,44

Constructs regular sentences 13 6 ,46 ,52

Expresses himself/herself in various ways 13 5 ,39 ,51

Tells his/her story about the past using his/her photographs 13 4 ,31 ,48

Expresses himself/herself in a group 13 6 ,46 ,52




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Table 2: The correct answers given to Posttest questions

Answers expected to be given to posttest questions N

Number of correct answers X sd

Tells his/her name 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells his/her surname 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells her age 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells the day he/she was born 13 4 ,31 ,48

Tells the month he/she was born 13 5 ,39 ,51

Tells the year he/she was born 13 0 ,00 ,00

Tells the season he/she was born 13 3 ,23 ,44

Tells his/her mother’s name 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells his/her father’s name 13 13 1,00 ,00

Tells names of 3 close family members 13 7 ,54 ,52

Tells an anecdote he/she remembers about his/her past 13 6 ,46 ,52

Uses indicative past tense for events he/she personally remembers 13 6 ,46 ,52

Uses inferential past tense for events he/she personally does not remember

13 3 ,23 ,44

Tells/explains things/behaviors/situation he/she could not carry out as a baby but now he/she can

13 7 ,54 ,52

Tells/explains things/behaviors/situation he/she cannot carry out at that time but later he/she may be able to

13 5 ,39 ,51

Tells 3 physical differences between then and his/her infancy (teeth, hair, height)

13 8 ,62 ,51

Tells 3 objects he/she used during infancy 13 8 ,62 ,51

Tells what he/she uses now instead of those 3 objects 13 4 ,31 ,48

Tells the name of his/her favorite toy/book/thing 13 11 ,85 ,38

Uses past expressions while speaking 13 5 ,39 ,51

Constructs regular sentences 13 7 ,54 ,52

Expresses himself/herself in various ways 13 6 ,46 ,52

Tells his/her story about the past using his/her photographs 13 6 ,46 ,52

Expresses himself/herself in a group 13 8 ,62 ,51

According to posttest results, after the application of the programme all of the children were able to correctly say their name, age, and their parents’ names. 11 of them told the name of their favorite toy/book/thing. 8 kids were able to tell 3 physical differences between then and his/her infancy; to tell 3 objects he/she used during infancy; and to express themselves in a group. 7 students were capable of telling the names of 3 close family members; telling/explaining things/behaviors/situation they could not carry out as a baby but then they could; and constructing regular sentences. 6 of the children were able to tell an anecdote they remembered about their past; to use indicative past tense for events they personally remembered; and to tell their story about the past using their photographs. 5 children told the month they were born correctly and used right past time expressions while speaking. 4 kids told the day they were born and 3 children told the season they were born correctly. However, none of the children was capable of telling the year they were born correctly.




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Table 3: Wilcoxon signed-rank test results for My Own Past Questionnaire pretest – posttest results

Pretest – Posttest N Rank Average Rank Total z p

Negative rank 0 ,00 ,00 -3,201* ,001

Positive rank 13 7,00 91,00

Equal 0

Total 13

* Results were organized based on negative ranks. According to the obtained results, a significant difference was found between the scores of pretest and posttest for the children of the research group (z=-3,201; p< ,01). Considering all the scores and the rank average of difference scores, it is understood that the difference observed here is for the benefit of positive ranks, namely posttest. In relation to these findings, it may be announced that the programme applied proved to be effective. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

According to the present study, it has been concluded that using activities inclusive of family education that aims at development of perception of the past regarding their own past among children in preschool period is beneficial for the child with regards to identification of differences between past, present, and future and improvement of perception of the past. It has been observed that in accordance with the findings above; 48-54 months children in preschool period were able to concretize the abstract past by recounting their own past and capable of successfully using concepts in daily life which are related to past. As Zembat and et al. (2010) mention in their study on perception of the past, introduction of history education among preschool children is considered to make a great contribution to develop a sense of history in older ages. Likewise, it has been concluded that implementing suitable preschool activities in accordance with children’s age, development level, and interest under proper conditions in order to introduce and improve perception of the past among 48-54 months children in preschool period is beneficial in developing targeted concepts. In accordance with studies carried out in national and international literature, it has been found that further research is indispensable within the field and researchers need to direct their attention towards the study area. In line with the literature review and experimental results, the following ideas have been offered.

• Increasing the number of history education studies with various age group children in preschool education period,

• Development and categorization of implicit learning and functions which are devoted to history education within the preschool education curriculum adopted in Turkey under the title of history education,

• Planning and implementing various kinds of activities in order to improve children’s perception of the past,

• Developing studies with various age groups in the field,

• Increasing the number of field trips and museum tours which can concretize abstract past and familiarize the cultural heritage that are oriented to acquisition of concept of time in preschool period.





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Rengin ZEMBAT has been working as a professor in Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She completed her master education in Department of Child Development and Education and doctorate education in Department of Pre-school Teaching. She specifically focuses on leadership in early childhood education, different approaches on early childhood education, special teaching methods in early childhood education.

Prof. Dr. Rengin ZEMBAT Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Department of Elementary School İstanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Fatma Özge ÜNSAL has been working as a research assistant in Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She completed her undergraduate and master education in Department of Pre-school Teaching and still registered to doctorate program therein. She specifically focuses on social-emotional development, behavioral problems, urban awareness and past percetion in early childhood.

Res.Assist. Fatma Özge ÜNSAL Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Department of Elementary School İstanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Fatih YAZICI has been working as a research assistant in Department of Social Science Education, History Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. He completed his undergraduate in history department and master education in Department of Social Studies Education and doctorate education in department of history education. He specifically focuses on multicultural education, citizenship education in history education.

Res.Assist. Fatih YAZICI Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Department of Social Science Education İstanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]




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Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU is a instructor in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She is in carge of managing the Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Unit. She completed her undergraduate and master education in Department of Pre-school Teaching and still registered to doctorate program therein. Her researh interest include early childhood education programme, visual and auditorial perception children, teaching tecnologies and material design in pre-school education.

Ins. Elif KURTULUŞ KÜÇÜKOĞLU Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit Istanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ has been working as a research assistant in the Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She is in carge of teaching the Prof.Dr. Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Unit. She specially focused on early childhood education programme and family involvement in early childhood.

Res.Assist. Tuba ÖZKABAK YILDIZ Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Prof.Dr.Ayla Oktay Preschool Education Implementation Unit İstanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Hilal İlknur TUNÇELİ has been working as a research assistant in Department of Primary Education, Pre-school Teaching Department at Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University. She completed her undergraduate and master education in Department of Pre-school Teaching and still registered to doctorate program therein. She specifically focuses on school readiness, concept development and cognitive development in early childhood.

Res.Assist. Hilal İlknur TUNÇELİ Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Department of Elementary School İstanbul, TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

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