INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM GNOSIS: CHAPTER 4: NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS AND CREATION

Chapter 4 QUANTUM ASTROPHYSICS & CREATION

4.1 THE BIG BANG UNIVERSE

To nuclear and particle physicists, the earlyuniverse, as far as we as humans can observe,represents the ultimate particle accelerator,in which energies and densities of particleswere beyond what we can ever hope to achievewith artificially constructed accelerators.Reactions occurred with rates and varietiesalmost incomprehensible, but (perhapssurprisingly) by studying the end products ofthose reactions, we can infer many details ofthe reaction processes that cannot be measuredon Earth. Essential to the understanding ofthese evolutionary reactions are known details(cross-sections, etc.) of reactions that can bemeasured in our laboratories. What is nowcalled the STANDARD MODEL of the Hot Big Bangcosmology includes an “overall” framework basedon the General theory of Relativity, nuclearand particle properties directly measured,inferences from the standard model ofelementary particles in particle physics, andsome extrapolations based on observations, theprimary ones being the relative amounts ofvarious light isotopes produced during theearliest epoch of element formation. Theobserved abundances can then put severe


constraints on the fundamental processes thatoccurred during the formation epoch.

In the qualitative context of the complexspacetime, the severity in constraint on thefundamental processes that occurred, and whichwe shall study here as we are mere humans, isevident in that a plot of energy versus ho andquantum numbers n as demanded in the Semi-Numerical Witwatersrand Hypothesis shows thatwe are only on one plane of existence in theuniverse (whatever that is), this plane beingspecified by ho=ħ and discrete quantum numbersn and consequently the energy of systemsvarying from ground state energy to ∞∧−∞. Wethus have the means by quantum mechanics totransit from one plane of existence to anotherby varying the value of ho and by theHeisenberg uncertainty principle we thereforecan exceed the speed of light in vacuum c andstill remain “material” objects.

A much more difficult task is to understand theformation of the heavier elements followingfusion reactions and neutron captures instellar interiors. Not only is the nuclearphysics more complicated (and the reactionsmore difficult to duplicate in the laboratory),


but the mechanics and thermodynamics are lesswell understood. Here the observationalevidence consists primarily of astronomicalobservations, not only with conventionaloptical telescopes, but more recently withparticle and γ−ray spectrometers carried inorbiting spacecraft. In this case also, nucleardecays and reactions observed in Earth-boundlaboratories can determine fundamental limitson the nature and especially the duration ofnuclear reactions in stars.

The evolution of the universe can, from ourearthly and human perspective, be divided intofour stages: primordial nucleosynthesis andatomic formation, galactic condensation,stellar nucleosynthesis, and evolution of theSolar System. What we call the age of theuniverse is merely the sum of the durations ofthese four sequential periods. The first stagelasts from the Big Bang (t=0) to the formationof stable atomic hydrogen and helium (plus avery small concentration of other products).Although there are many uncertainties aboutthis era (resulting from uncertainties in humanknowledge of fundamental nuclear and particleproperties), they presumably have very littleeffect on estimates of the duration of this


era, and moreover its duration is so small(about 106years¿ that uncertainties arerelatively unimportant in the domain Dn, not sothe case in the higher domains: Dm∧Dz. Galacticcondensation occurs under the influence ofgravitational forces alone, and nuclear andparticle properties presumably have noinfluence on this epoch, which has beenestimated to last from 1 to 2 Gy (1gigayear=109y¿.The era of stellar nucleosynthesis contributesthe greatest uncertainty, perhaps±2Gy, but wewill see how recent nuclear reaction studieshave given results for this era in excellentagreement with independent astronomicdeductions. Finally, the duration of theevolution of the Solar System is well known,with little uncertainty.

4.1.1 DARK MATTER AND THE COMPLEX SPACE TIME

The infinite sequence of energy levels given bythe equation:

En=(n+12

)ħω, n=0,1,2,…

(4.1)

-has the equal spacing postulated in 1900 byMax Plank, which is in agreement with thequantization rules of the old quantum theory.


However, the finite value of the ground stateenergy, n=0, which is called the Zero-PointEnergy, is characteristic of the quantummechanics and is the finite lowest energy levelfor the square-well with perfectly rigid walls.The total energy is of order:

(∆p)2

m +K(∆x)2

(4.2)

Where ∆p∧∆x are measures of the spreads inmomentum and position. If this is minimised,taking account of the uncertainty principle, itis easily seen that the minimum ∆pisoforder ¿, sothat the minimum total energy is of the orderħ(Km )

1/2∨ħω. K is the force constant of the

restoring force of the oscillating mass m.

The SNW approximation gives a more concretedescription of Zero Point Energies at themacroscopic level in the complex spacetime. Thethird fundamental demonstration yielded thetotal energy expression as:

En,T=3NKBT+3N(n+12

)hoω

(4.3)


At the Zero Point or absolute zero Kelvintemperature, we obtain from the above equationthe energy of a system of N particlescomprising dark matter in the complex spacetime and noting that the measurableuncertainties are described by ho and notnecessarily ħ. Dark matter will be investigatedfurther in chapter 9 on astronomy andastrobiology.

4.1.2 THE BIG BANG AND THE COMPLEX SPACE TIME

We begin with some qualitative remarks aboutthe primordial pre-big bang “egg” from whichcontemporary scientists proposed we emergedfrom and draw inference as to what was insidethis infinitely dense singularity using thequantum mechanical context. We have fromquantum mechanics the wave particle duality andin our complex spacetime context, the modifiedde Broglie hypothesis equation taking on theform:

|Ψm(r ,t)|cosθγv=ho /λ

(4.4)

The arguments of relativity (from which wavemechanics originate) will suggest that energyin the singularity was ∞, because all the mass


of the universe was contained within the egg-like singularity. Further, the time fromrelativity given by:

t=toγ−1

(4.5)

-suggests that at the time of the big bang t=0,then either to=0 and the basic physicaldimension of time does not exist oralternatively γ−1=0. This alternative hypothesisis what possibly saves us from the obviousreality that science alone is not sufficient tocomprehend what existed before the big bangsave for the matter symmetries proposed asrepresenting the Christian Trinity in thepreliminary concepts of chapter 2. We come upwith an energy expression:

1−1c2 ( ∆E∆p )

2

=0

(4.6)

-and thus the energy and momentum changesthat must have occurred in order for S. Hawkingand other scientists to exist and make thebackward extrapolation to time t=0 when theprimordial singularity exploded into the“vacuum space”, was the energy from a wave-


packet with no mass (OMA equal to (n+12 )π radians

as demanded by the superposition of vectorsprinciple). Thus our earlier statement that thesingularity was of infinite mass density andconsequently infinite rest mass energy is againfalsified. This is because earth boundlaboratories and solar systems and galaxiespresumably do not move with the speed of lightin vacuum. Thus the only alternative to havezero mass in the singularity is that there wereequal amounts of positive mass and negativemass which added up to a zero mass as demandedby equation (4.6).

Clearly, we see the necessity of the existenceof an OMA and we postulate the existence ofHigher Order Domains, higher than the complexspace time Dm. We shall thus simplify our studyof the Big Bang Cosmology from the humanperspective of S. Hawking and his instructorSciama of Cambridge University, A. Einstein andGeneral Relativity, Heisenberg and theuncertainty principle, Hubble and the expandinguniverse and many other contemporaryscientists, but bearing in mind that we are ona plane of existence that is severelyconstrained and falls short of the theological


explanation of the origins of life-and indeedthe definition of life. To understand andappreciate what life and the universe entailsabout the existence of God, it is prudent tostudy God in the Bible. In this way we can geta glimpse of his nature, methods of solvingproblems, which -we will not interpret asbizarre, his behaviour and attitude and mostimportantly his relationship with humans andindeed his entire creation.

THE HOT BIG BANG COSMOLOGY

One of the most significant discoveries oftwentieth-century physics is the expansion ofthe universe. This deduction was made by EdwinHubble following many observations of theabsorption line spectra of distant galaxies.Hubble discovered that the spectra are red-shifted (a fractional increase in wavelength ofthe light from the galaxies); that is, theabsorption lines appear closer to the longwavelength (red) end of the visible spectrumthan they do at an earlier time of observation.This red shift is similar to the Doppler shiftof electromagnetic radiation, and from thedegree of the red shift Hubble was able todeduce the velocities of recession of the


galaxies relative to the earth. Fromindependent observations, he knew the distanceto the galaxy, and he observed that there was alinear relationship between the distance d andthe speed of recession v:

v=Hd

(4.7)

-where

H is called the Hubble parameter.

Fig 4.1 illustrates the linear Hubblerelationship. The present best value of theHubble parameter is about:

H=67 km /sMpc

(4.8)

-where:

One mega parsec (Mpc) is about 3.26×106 lightyears.

The uncertainty in this value is large; thepermitted range is about 50-100 km/s/Mpc.

Observation:

The restrictions due to range on uncertaintyagain confines our philosophical reality to


what was observed by Hubble and his colleagues.With improved measurement techniques, such asthose describing ho when we discussed the SNWapproximation show that human perception andcognition of time and space is indeed verylimited and there is immediate need to gobeyond the standard model.

Insert Fig 4.1 Velocity-distance relationship for groups andclusters of galaxies. The straight line demonstrates the Hubblerelationship. From M. Rowan-Robinson, The CosmologicalDistance Ladder (New York: Freeman, 1985).

According to the present model, this expansionis a general property of the universe, but onethat is likely to vary with time, owing to theeffect of gravity. The recession of thegalaxies is a result of the general expansionof the universe, but if the universe isinfinite we cannot define a radius. Instead, wedefine a scale factor R(t), which gives the timedependence of any typical length (between twopoints in the universe that we are interestedin). The distance between galaxies, forinstance, increases in proportion to theincrease of the scale factor. In terms of thescale factor, the Hubble parameter can bewritten as:


H=1RdRdt

(4.9)

We observe that equation (4.9) is adifferential equation in time whose boundaryconditions are not yet specified. Continuing,if the universe is expanding at a constantrate, then H is a constant, but the mutualgravitational attraction (analogous to themutual potential of attraction for a system ofvan der Waals particles when we discussed thesecond fundamental demonstration of the SNWapproximation) of the galaxies means that therecessional speed will decrease, in which caseH is a function of time.

As in the case of any mechanical system, thetime evolution of the behaviour can be obtainedby solving the dynamical equations, in thiscase the tensor equations of the General Theoryof Relativity. The mechanics of the theory,which prescribe the Schwarzschild solution tothe Einstein field equation and the eventualarrival at the Freidman-Robertson-Walker (FRW)models of the universe, yield a result for theHubble parameter as:


H2=(dRdt )

2

R2 =8πG3

ρ (t )−kc2

R2 +Γ3

(4.10)

-where

G is the gravitational constant of Newton (6.67×10−11N.m2/kg2 ¿ and ρ(t) is the mean mass andenergy density of the universe.

The geometrical factor k is determined by thefundamental geometry of space-time: k=0 for a“flat” universe, in which the laws of geometryare Euclidian; k=+1 for a “closed” sphericaluniverse (corresponding to positive curvature);and k=-1 for a “curved” universe with a shapeanalogous to a saddle (hyperbolic geometry-auniverse of three hyperboloids).Thecosmological constant Γ is assumed to vanishfor the present discussion.

In these calculations, the age of the universeis operationally defined as the time since R=0;that is, the expansion of the universe suggeststhat if we look far enough back into time, wefind the galaxies so close together that theyoccupy a state of enormous energy and matterdensity. Extrapolating further back to t=0, we


come to a mathematical singularity, the BigBang.

Before we examine the state of the universejust after the big bang, we should look at theform of solutions of equation (4.10). We assumek=0, a Euclidian (flat space or Cartesiangeometry space), allowing us to neglect what isbasically an uninteresting term in theequation, but also narrowing our scope ofphysical reality. Following the Big Bang, theuniverse was dominated by radiation (or bymatter moving at such high speed that theradiation-like relationship E=pc=hc /λ wasobeyed), and the radiation energy density is:

ρR=energyvolume

=energyperquantum×quantapervolume

∝ 1R× 1R3

-where the R−1 comes from the λ−1 factor in theenergy quantum and the R−3 factor comes from thevolume. We can thus take ρR=C /R4 (the constant Cwill disappear in the calculation) and equation(4.10) becomes:

1RdRdt

=√8πGC31R2

(4.11)


-which integrates to give the age of theuniverse t relative to the Big Bang as:

t=√ 332πGρR

(4.12)

If we base ρR on the radiation energy densityu(T) of blackbody radiation for a radiatingsystem at temperature T:

u (T)=σT4

(4.13)

-where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, thenwe have an important fundamental relationshipbetween age t (in seconds) and temperatureT (inKelvin) during the radiation-dominated era:

T=1.5×1010

t1/2

(4.14)

The temperature is an important macroscopicparameter to describe the early universe. Ifthe temperature is high enough, matter andradiation are in equilibrium, and particle-antiparticle creation occurs as often asannihilation; in the case of electrons, forexample:


e+ ¿+e−¿↔2γ¿ ¿

(4.15)

For 2γ→e+¿+e−¿¿ ¿ to occur, the radiant photons (fromthe singularity) must have an energy of atleast 0.511 MeV; if on the average the photonshave energy of kBT (here kB is the Boltzmannconstant of thermodynamics), the energy for the‘creation’ to occur corresponds to atemperature of T=6×109K. That is, when T≤6×109K(corresponding to t>6s), the radiation field isno longer energetic enough to balance thecreation process (4.15) with the annihilationprocess e+¿+e−¿→2γ¿¿, the former reaction (creation)begins to dominate.

This is then the overall scheme of the big-bangcosmology: The present universe is created froma space-time singularity at essentiallyinfinite temperature and density. It consistsof a mixture of the most fundamental particlesand their antiparticles plus radiation. As theuniverse expands and cools, each species ofparticles in turn goes out of equilibrium withthe radiation. We observe today the relics ofthe particle interactions plus residualradiation which has had negligible interactions


with matter since the final decoupling withinthe first 106y.

The experimental discovery which, along withHubble’s expansion, provided dramaticconfirmation of the big bang theory was theuniversal microwave background radiation,immediately associated with the residualradiation from the big bang. Residual radiationis the ‘singularity fossil’ radiation. Theoriginal discovery was made by Arno Penzias andRobert Wilson in 1964. They were attempting touse a radio receiver, tuned to 7.35 cmwavelength, which had been built for contactwith an early communications satellite. In theprocess, they observed a background ‘noise’that, despite their best efforts, could not beeliminated from the system. They finallyidentified the noise as a ‘real signal’, anddiscovered that it came uniformly from alldirections and at all times of the day andnight. By measuring the energy density of theradiation at λ=7.35cm, they were able to deducethe blackbody temperature of the source at3.1±1.0K. Other measurements subsequently madeat different wavelengths demonstrate that theradiation does indeed have the expected


blackbody spectrum (Fig 4.2); the temperaturein 1988 was 2.7±0.1K.

The essential features of the big bangcosmology are thus confirmed, but many detailsremain to be filled in. The exact mechanismthat triggers galaxy condensation from whatmust have originated as a homogeneous mixtureof particles is not clear, perhaps now, thevariations in OMA will explain this phenomenon.Also, the mechanism that guarantees thatopposite sides of our observable universe,though not causally connected (i.e. a lightbeam could not have travelled from one end ofthe universe to the other within their presentage), appear to have similar properties. Exoticparticles may have been available at the largeenergies and densities of the early universe,and this has been confirmed with the discoveryof the Higgs Boson at CERN in 2012. An earlierdiscovery of the Higgs Boson was made inDecember 2011 in the U.S.A, though thisdiscovery was not revered by their Europeancounterparts and did not receive muchpublicity. These new concepts draw a very darkshadow on big bang cosmology and other theoriesthat were developed as it’s by products.Problems with FRW models, and hence big bang


theory will be discussed in detail in chapter9, but for now we present the rest of the bigband theory to give the reader a feel of itsunsatisfactory nature.

4.2 PARTICLE AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS IN EARLY UNIVERSE

Although we do not yet understand how toextrapolate back to the earliest instants afterthe Big Bang, many of the fine details of thestructure of the universe in that era areirrelevant for the particular part of the storyin which we are interested.

For example, we consider the times aroundt=10−12s. At that point the temperature is, fromequation (4.14), about 1016K, corresponding to amean energy quantum kBT=1000GeV. With thepossible exception of free quarks, whose masseswe do not know (and which may not be permittedto exist in a free state), all particles can bereadily created at this energy. All species ofparticles must exist in equilibriumconcentrations, for example, the lepton-production reactions

γ+γ→e+¿+e−¿¿ ¿

γ+γ→μ+¿+μ−¿¿ ¿

γ+γ→τ+¿+τ−¿¿ ¿


-will occur with a probability determined bythe density of states available for the finalparticles, but since the rest energies of allparticles are far below 1000 GeV, the availablemomentum is about the same for each and thebirth rates are identical. If there areadditional generations of leptons, these alsowould be produced in equilibrium with thephotons.

The number density of photons can be found fromthe basic expressions for blackbody radiation.The energy density is:

u (E )dE=8πE3

(hc)31

eE/kBT−1dE

(4.16)

-and the number per energy interval is:

n (E )dE=u(E)E dE=

8πE2

(hc)31

eE/kBT−1dE

(4.17)

Integrating equations (4.16) and (4.17) overall energies and evaluating the constants givesthe total energy density and number density ofphotons at temperature T:

ργ=4.7×103T4eV /m3

(4.18)


Nγ=2.0×107T3photons/m3

(4.19)

-where: T is in Kelvin. At the presenttemperature of 2.7 K, the number density is4× 10

3

m3=400 /cm3. These photons have a present mean

energy of less than 0.001 eV, which is thereason we do not detect them under ordinarycircumstances; each cubic centimetre has a massenergy of about 0.25 eV in primordial photons.

The present matter density of the universe isdifficult to estimate. The best estimates forvisible (luminous) matter suggests ρo 3×10−31g/cm3;clusters of galaxies, however, seem to be boundby additional nonluminous (dark) matter, andthe matter density may be uncertain by as muchas one order of magnitude. We will arbitrarilyincrease the value by a factor of 2 to accountfor nonluminous matter and take:

ρo 6×10−31g/cm3

0.4nucleon/m3

The present density of nucleons is only about10−9 the present density of photons. Becausethere is no mechanism by which nucleons can bedestroyed on a time scale of the age of theuniverse, our cosmological model must account


for the great imbalance of photons overnucleons.

We also believe that the universe is madealmost exclusively of matter, rather thanantimatter. This is a difficult assumption totest, for galaxies made of antimatter woulddiffer in no observable way from galaxies madeof matter. If there were a rough balance ofmatter and antimatter, we might expectoccasional encounters between one and the otherin interstellar dust and gas, resulting inannihilation reactions with the emission ofhigh-energy photons. Observational limits onsuch photons are very low, suggesting littleantimatter-matter annihilation. We willtherefore assume our universe to be composed ofordinary matter.

If we look back to the time when T>1013K(t<10−6s),photons had enough energy to create nucleon-antinucleon pairs, as:

photons↔p+p,n+n

We would therefore expect exactly equal numbersof nucleons and antinucleons. Even if freequarks could have been created in a muchearlier epoch, we would still expect a balance:

photons↔q+q


The balance between matter and antimatter isupset by CP-violation decays, which do favourone type over the other. For example, a K-mesonK0 produced at some arbitrary time t=0 can laterbe observed as a K0; the spontaneous conversionof a particle into its antiparticle isforbidden for all particles except theK0∧thesimilarD0∧B0. The understanding of a newproperty called the OMA opens up spontaneousconversion of a particle to its antiparticlewhen it rotates through 180°. Nuclear β−decay

violates both the symmetries of parity P(conservation of a particle wavefunction whenreflected across a symmetry plane) and chargeconjugation (particle →antiparticle) C, but itdoes so in such a way that the combined CPsymmetry remains valid. The era of massive Xparticles, associated with the Grand UnifiedTheories, GUT’s, distinguishes between matterand antimatter and the relative rates of:

X→q+q

-and:X→q+q

-may not be equal. If this is the case, therewill be a slight imbalance of matter overantimatter; after 10−6s, when nucleons and


antinucleons can no longer be created by theradiation field, the antimatter will annihilatewith an equal quantity of matter, and theremaining matter is what we observe today. Theimbalance must have been very small, about 1part in 109, for us to observe the present 10−9

nucleon to photon ratio. With the unificationmass estimated to be 1015GeV, the temperature atwhich this imbalance becomes established mustbe about 1028K, corresponding to an age of about10−36s.

Let’s now jump to the era of t>10−6s, whereT≤1013K (E≤1GeV¿. Nucleon-antinucleon annihilationoccurs, but no longer in equilibrium with thereverse creation process. An abundance ofleptons and neutrinos is present, so weakinteractions can occur to convert protons toneutrons:

p+νe↔n+e+¿ ¿

n+νe↔p+e−¿¿

If e± and νe,νe are plentiful, these reactionswill go in either direction, and at this earlytime the number of neutrons and protons shouldbe equal.

At t=10−2s, T=1011K (E=10MeV ). Now electrons are theonly remaining charged leptons;


μ (mc2=105MeV )∧τ(mc2=1784MeV) are no longer produced(and have long since decayed to electrons orannihilated to photons), but through neutralweak interactions, all species of neutrinos canbe made:

e+¿+e¿↔νe+νe ¿¿

e+¿+e−¿↔Z0↔νμ+νμ ¿¿

e+¿+e−¿↔Z0↔ντ+ντ ¿¿

If the neutrinos are massless (or if theirmasses are small compared with 10 MeV), thenthese reactions will be at equilibrium, and therelative numbers of neutrino species willremain constant. Associated with each kind ofparticle is a statistical weight gi¿, whichessentially gives the permitted number of spinor polarization states. For convenience wegroup together e+¿∧e−¿ (ase ) ¿¿ and each νi,νi pair (as νi),so that:

ge=4(2spinstatesforeachoftheelectron∧positron)

gνi=2(νi∧νistatesfori=e,μ,τ,…)

(4.20)

The number and energy densities associated witheach species are governed by the Fermi-Diracdistribution:


u (E )dE=gi4πE3(hc)3

1eE /kBT+1

dE

(4.21)

-with an analogous result for the numberdensity n(E) given in equation (4.17).

Carrying out the required integrals gives thetotal volume density of particles and energyfor electrons as:

Ne=32Nγ

(4.22)

ρν=74Nγ

(4.23)

-where: Nγ∧ργ are the photon total number andenergy densities given in equations (4.18) and(4.19). The corresponding contribution fromneutrinos will be:

Nν=34nνNγ

(4.24)

ρν=78nνργ

(4.25)


-where nν is the number of different neutrinospecies (nν=3fore,μ,τonly).

Neutrons are slightly more massive thanprotons, so there are slightly fewer of them inan equilibrium mixture at temperature T, owingto the Boltzmann factor:

NnNp

=e−(mn−mp)c2/kBT

(4.26)

The mass difference is about 1.3 MeV, and atkBT=10MeV(att 0.01s), Nn/Np≅0.88. maintaining anequilibrium condition requires the presence ofsufficient e±∧νe,νe to allow the n↔p conversion.

At t=1s(T=1010K;E=1MeV), neutrino interactions areno longer important; neither the charged northe neutral interactions of neutrinoscontribute to the reactions. This is the era ofneutrino decoupling, from which time theneutrinos expand freely with the universe,virtually unaffected by nuclear reactions.

Immediately following the decoupling, e+¿+e−¿→2γ¿¿ ispossible, but not the reverse. The photonenergy density therefore increases somewhat,and in effect the temperature of photonsdecreases less rapidly than that of the freely


expanding neutrinos. The effect can be shown tobe:

TνTγ

=(114 )1/3

≅1.4

(4.27)

Following the annihilation of the positron andelectrons, we are left with a large collectionof photons, about 10−9 as many electrons andprotons (equal numbers), to keep the netelectric charge zero), and a slightly smallernumber of neutrons (from the Boltzmann factor).This ends the era of particle interactions andbegins the time of nuclear reactions. After thestable, light nuclei have formed ( H, H, Li❑

7❑3

❑2 ), the

universe continues to expand and cool until thephotons decouple; that is, neutral atoms canform when the photons lack the energy necessaryto ionize them. This occurs at a temperature ofperhaps 3000 K and an age of about 700,000 y.With the continuing expansion of the universe,the photons continue to cool, independent ofthe interactions of matter (which arerestricted to gravity since the otherinteractions can no longer operate on the largescale) until they reach the presently (as of1988) observed temperature of 2.7 K.


4.3 PRIMORDIAL NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

To begin production of heavy nuclei, the first reaction that must occur is:

n+p→d+γ

At high temperatures, the reverse reactionoccurs as quickly as deuterium production, andthere is no accumulation of deuterium nuclei.The photon energy necessary forphotodissociation is 2.225 MeV (the bindingenergy of deuterium), but it must be rememberedthat there are about 109 times as many photonsas protons and neutrons (nucleons). The photonshave a blackbody spectrum given by equation(4.17), which of course extends to very large E(but n(E) reduces exponentially with the E-axisas asymptote), Fig. 4.2

Insert Fig 4.2 The number of blackbody photons at energy E fora temperature of T=9×109K.

When the number of photons in the high-energytail above 2.225 MeV is less than the number ofnucleons participating in deuterium formation,there will be too few photons to inhibitdeuterium production. We can establish thetemperature at which this will occur byapproximating the tail as an exponential:


n (E )dE≅8πE2

(hc)3e−E /kBTdE

(4.28)

-and integrating for energies above Eo gives:

Nγ (E>Eo)=8π

(hc)3(kBT)3e−Eo/kBT[( Eo

kBT )2

+2(EokB )+2](4.29)

Dividing by the total number density gives thefraction faboveEo:

f (E>Eo )=0.42e−Eo /kBT[( Eo

kBT)2

+2(EokB )+2 ](4.30)

The number of nucleons available for deuteriumformation is determined by the number ofneutrons because there are fewer neutrons thanprotons. The ratio Nn/Np decreases withdecreasing temperature, according to equation(4.26), only as long as e± are sufficientlyplentiful and react quickly enough for n↔pconversion to take place. At a certaintemperature T¿ the ratio Nn/Np becomes “frozen”when the rate of weak interactions becomes toosmall. Based on the known cross sections forweak interactions, we can estimate this


temperature as T¿=9×109K, corresponding to NnNp

=0.2;

this occurs at the time of about 3s.

Neutrons therefore originally constitute afraction of the total number of nucleons equalto 0.2. If the nucleon-to-photon ratio is 10−9,then the critical fraction of high-energyphotons necessary to prevent deuteriumformation will be 0.2×10−9, corresponding toT=9×108K from equation (4.30) and thus to t=250s.This estimate is very insensitive to the valueof f and thus to the Nn/Np ratio.

Once we have formed deuterium in sufficientquantity, other nuclear reactions becomepossible. We can form the mass-3 nuclei:

d+n→ H❑3 +γ

d+p→ He+γ❑3

Or by:d+d→ H+p❑

3

d+d→ He+n❑3

Finally, He❑4 can be formed:

H+p→ He+γ❑4

❑3

He+n→ He+γ❑4

❑3

The binding energies of all these reactionproducts are greater than that of deuterium;


thus if the photons are cool enough to permitdeuterium to form, they will certainly permitthe remaining reactions.

Because there is no stable mass-5 nucleus, He❑4

is the primary end product of this process.Also Be❑

8 is unstable, so two He❑4 cannot combine

directly. There will be a small production ofmass-7 nuclei:

He❑4 + H❑

3 → Li❑7 +γ

He❑4 + He❑

3 → Be❑7 +γ

-but the Coulomb barriers for these reactionsare about 1 MeV, and the nuclei are well belowthat value in energy (in equilibrium atT=9×108K, the mean kinetic energy loss is lessthan 0.1 MeV). Therefore essentially all of theneutrons end as part of He❑

4 nuclei, which has a

relative abundance NHeNp

=0.081 (calculated from the

“frozen” Nn/Np ratio after correcting for theradioactive β decays of the neutrons betweent=3s and t=250s). The relative primordialabundances of He❑

4 by weight, Yp, is thus about0.24, and except for additional burning of Hand He in stars, this relative abundancesshould have remained constant in the universefrom t=250s until today.


The observed abundances (by weight) ofHeisaboutYp=0.24±0.01,❑

4

- based on observations from a variety of astronomical systems, including: gaseous nebulae, planetary nebulae, and stars (including the Sun).

This excellent agreement between the calculatedabundance and that observed should not be takenas a confirmation of the theory, for the finalHe❑

4 abundance is very sensitive to the assumedfrozen Nn/Np ratio, which in turn is sensitive tothe calculated temperature at which the freeze-out occurs. This calculation depends criticallyon the half-life of neutron decay (which is notextremely well known, t1/2=10.6±0.2 min) and onthe assumed number of species of leptons.Dependence of Yp on the number massless speciesof neutrinos (at least three according to thestandard model) and on the nucleon-to-photonratio is plotted in Figure. 4.3.

Insert Fig. 4.3 Dependence of primordial helium abundance Yp

on the nucleon-to-photon ratio. The expected dependence isshown for 2, 3, or 4 types of massless neutrino.

It is observed that the He❑4 abundance allows an

additional species of neutrinos (anothergeneration of leptons and presumably also


quarks) only for a nucleon-to-photon ratiobelow 2×10−10. It permits only two masslessneutrinos (allowing, for instance, the τneutrino to be massive, which is contrary tothe standard model but not disallowed by thepresently rather poor experimental limits onits mass) for correspondingly large nucleon-to-photon ratios (¿6×10−10).

In addition to He❑4 , there will be a small

concentration of primordial H❑

2 , He❑3 ∧ Li❑

7

-in the present universe. Deuterium inparticular is critical for a determination ofthe nucleon-photon ratio-at large nucleonabundances, H❑

2 . The observed value is subjectto uncertainties arising from the destructionof primordial H❑

2 in the evolution of galaxies,

but the best current value is NdNp

1−3×10−5.

The isotope Heis,like H❑2

❑3 , a result of incomplete

primordial processes, and the abundance of He❑3

decreases as the primordial nucleon densityincreases. Here again, observed present-dayabundances may not reflect primordial values,for “new” He❑

3 can be produced, in particularfrom deuterium. The He❑

3 abundance observed


presently is therefore possibly a measure ofthe primordial combined He❑

3 + H❑2 abundance. Based

on observed solar abundances, it is suggestedthat (N H❑

2 +N He❑3 ) /Np<6×10

−5.

Calculated abundances using the standard model(three varieties of massless neutrinos) showthat it is quite clear that the deuterium andHe❑

3 abundances constrain the nucleon-to-photonratio to be greater than about 4×10−10, and it isfurther seen that this value is inconsistentwith a fourth neutrino. Although much work,both theoretical and experimental, remains tobe done to solidify these conclusions, it“appears” that these cosmological arguments“may indicate” that there are no fundamentalparticles beyond the present three generationsof leptons and quarks. However, more recently,this restricted view has been proved inaccurateand S. Hawking lost a US$100 bet that the HiggsBoson will not be discovered.

4.4 STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS (A≤60)

The dominant process in the formation of theelements with A≤60 is charged particlereactions, primarily those induced by protonsand α−¿particles. The probability for thesereactions to occur will depend on the overlap


between the thermal distribution of particleenergies and the Coulomb barrier penetrationprobability, exactly as in the case of fusionreactions.

Stars begin life as a mixture of hydrogen and24% (by weight) helium. As the original gascloud collapses, the individual atoms exchangetheir gravitational potential energy forkinetic energy, thereby increasing thetemperature of the cloud. Eventually, thetemperature is high enough that the protons canovercome the repulsive Coulomb energy, andfusion reactions can begin. The outwardpressure from the radiation released in fusioneffectively halts the gravitational collapse,and the star enters an equilibrium phase (likeour sun) that may last 1010year.

The basic reactions of the proton-proton fusioncycle are well understood. When a star’shydrogen fuel is depleted, gravitationalcollapse can begin again, and eventually ahigher temperature is reached (perhaps 1−2×108K,compared with 107K for the present sun) wherethe Coulomb barrier for He❑

4 − He❑4 fusion can be

overcome. The increased ignition temperatureresults in a larger radiation pressure, which


expands the outer envelope of the star’ssurface by a large factor, perhaps by a factorof 100 or 1000. The apparent energy density ofthe surface decreases, and the star appears ata lower effective surface temperature. This isthe red giant stage.

As there is no stable mass-8 nucleus, there areno observable end products of the reaction:

He❑4 + He❑

4 → Be❑8

-for Be❑8 breaks apart (into two He❑

4 again) in atime of the order of 10−16. The Q value is 91.9keV, and so even at 2×108 K (mean thermal energyof 17 keV) there will be a fair number ofenergetic α's in the high energy end of thetail of the thermal distribution to form Be❑

8 .There will be a small equilibrium concentrationof Be❑

8 , of the order of the Boltzmann factore−91.9 /17=4×10−3, and the reaction rate can becalculated, exactly as for the D-D or D-T(deuterium-tritium) reactions.

We know that C❑12 is plentiful in the universe,

but the calculated rates of 2α→ Be∧ Be+α→ C❑12

❑8

❑8 are

not sufficient to produce the observed largeabundances of carbon-12, as was first realizedby Fred Hoyle in the early 1950’s. The Q valuefor Be+α→ C❑

12❑8 is 7.45 MeV, and Hoyle argued that


the large production of carbon-12 requires thisreaction to occur readily, which in turnrequires a resonance to account for what mustbe an increase in the cross section at thisenergy. He made this suggestion to W.A Fowler,whose research group at Cal Tech began in the1950’s an extended program concerning the studyof nuclear reactions of astrophysicalimportance. The Cal Tech group discovered thecarbon-12 resonance corresponding to an excitedstate at 7.65 MeV, just above the energypredicted by Hoyle, but well within thecapability of being reached at temperatures of1−2×108K. Subsequently, Fowler and hiscolleagues were able to populate the 7.65 MeVexcited state in carbon-12 following βdecay ofB❑

12 .

Once carbon-12 is formed, other alpha particlereactions become possible. As the Coulombbarrier increases for heavier nuclei, itbecomes decreasingly likely to continue thissequence of reactions. The calculated meanlifetime for nuclei participating in thesereactions as a function of temperature wastaken from the classic work on nucleosynthesisby Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler, and Hoyle. Thereaction rate is the inverse of the lifetime.


Of particular importance is that the carbon-12resonance effectively increases the reactionrate by about 8 orders of magnitude.

When the helium fuel begins to be exhausted,gravitational collapse sets in again (only ifthe star is sufficiently massive-otherwise thegravitational force is not strong enough tooppose “degeneracy pressure” of the electronsthat are reluctant to have overlapping wavefunctions-as they are fermions). The star thenheats up enough to ignite carbon-12 and oxygen-16 burning, which in turn permits otherreactions at temperatures of the order of 109 K,where the Coulomb barrier can be more easilypenetrated. In addition to these reactions,other alpha particle and nucleon capturereactions can occur as well.

The final stage in the production of nucleinear mass 60 is silicon burning, which is inactuality a complex sequence of reactions thattake place rapidly but under nearly equilibriumconditions deep in the hot stellar interiors.The Coulomb barrier is too high to permitdirect formation by such reactions, instead,what occurs are combinations ofphotodissociation reactions followed by capture


of the dissociated nucleons and many othersimilar reactions. In the equilibrium process,the Si (Silicon) that resulted from oxygenburning is partly “melted” into lighter nucleiand partly “cooked” into heavier nuclei. Theend products of chains of such reactions arethe mass-56 nuclei (Nickel-56, Cobalt-56, Iron-56). At this point there is no longer energyreleased in the capture reactions, and theprocess is halted.

4.5 STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS (A¿60¿

Fusion reactions are not energetically favouredabove about A=60. For these nuclei, neutroncapture is the primary production mechanism.For example, iron-56, which is the mostabundant stable isotope of the most abundantelement formed near the end of the chain offusion reactions, will, after addition of aflux of neutrons in a sequence of neutron-capture reactions, form iron-59 and gammaphotons.

The next step in the process depends on theintensity of the neutron flux. The isotopeiron-59 is radioactive, with a half-life of 45days. If the neutron flux is so low that the


probability of neutron capture is far smallerthan once per 45 days, then iron-59 will beta-decay to stable cobalt-59, which can thenundergo neutron capture leading to radioactivecobalt-60. If on the other hand, theprobability of neutron capture is so great thatthe average time necessary to capture a neutronis small (seconds or less), then the sequenceof neutron-capture reactions can continue toiron-60 and beyond.

When we finally reach an isotope that is soneutron rich that its half-life becomes shorterthan the mean life before neutron capture, itwill beta-decay to an isotope with one higheratomic number. The sequence of neutron captureswill begin again, until an extremely unstableisotope of this new sequence is reached, atwhich time beta-decay increases the atomicnumber by one step again. These two processesare responsible for the formation of the vastmajority of the stable isotopes of the nucleibeyond A=60. The first process, in whichneutron capture occurs only on a long timescale, leaving time for all intervening betadecays to occur, is called the s (for slow)process. The second process, which does notleave time for any but the most short-lived


decays, is called the r (for rapid) process.Because of the many uncertainties indetermining the magnitude of r-and s-processcontributions in nuclei that can be producedthrough both processes, we choose for thisprocedure nuclei whose production isexclusively through only one process.

4.6 NUCLEAR COSMOCHRONOLGY

Radioactive dating methods are used todetermine the age of the earth (and other solidobjects in the solar system). The fundamentalassumption of the method is that the“ingredients” of the earth were thoroughlymixed before condensation, so that the previousdecay products of a given species would beunlikely to be found close to a collection ofatoms of that species. Since condensation,there was little opportunity for migration orloss of decay products and we can, withsuitable care account for the possibility ofsuch losses, measure the ratio of parent anddaughter nuclei and deduce the length of timethat the daughters have been accumulating inthat particular site. We shall have a moredetailed discussion of radioactive dating laterin this chapter, but for now, we can summarize


the sequence of events leading to the presentday (from the big bang perspective) as follows:

1. Big Bang, leading to formation of naturalatoms ( 106y).

2. Condensation of galaxies and first-generation stars (time interval of 1-2 Gy).

3. Nucleosynthesis in stars and supernovae,leading to the formation of the presentchemical elements.

4. Condensation of Solar Systems from debris ofearlier stars (time interval of 4.6 Gy).

Planetary formation in a particular solarsystem is believed in Darwinian concepts suchas hot big bang cosmology to be a result ofchunks of “plasma” breaking away from the starsuch as our sun and then beginning to cool downand forming planets such as our earth. Waterand eventually Life is believed to have beenintroduced on the earth by comets, asteroidsand meteorites which bombarded the earth in itsearly formation epoch. However, no explanationhas been given as to how life from other solarsystems was able to form from an amino-acidgalactic soup and survive the very perilousradiation intense journey and be deposited on


earth and consequently for the evolutionaryprocesses to commence.

4.7 THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ON THE BIG BANG REALITY

A fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics isuncertainty, the other tenet beingdiscreteness. We already have emphasised thathuman reality from the scientific perspectiveis inadequate and severely constrained andlimited. The failures of the classical theory,namely, Black Body Radiation, PhotoelectricEffect, Compton Scattering, Atomic Spectra andThermodynamics, Bonding between ChemicalSpecies etc. led to the development of quantummechanics at the beginning of the twentiethcentury. This constituted a reality shift andquantum mechanics today has an infinite numberof technological applications which havegreatly improved the standard of living of manypopulations and indeed human existence.Similarly, the discussion of nuclearastrophysics above thus had many holespunctuating it and the reader would want asatisfactory construct of what life is. Lifeonly on earth as according to Darwiniandoctrine is fallacy, which excludes the


existence of God. Prior to Darwinian doctrines,the Catholic Church and the Vatican governmentsfelt threatened in the 15th and 16th centuriesand astronomers and philosophers such asGiordano Bruno were burnt at the steak for whatthe Catholics termed as crimes against thechurch. The main problem they had with Bruno’steachings is that he claimed that the earth wasnot the centre of the universe, and that theuniverse was full of life on extraterrestrialplanets and the church thus had no control oversuch technologically and religiously advancedbeings.

The religious advancement of theseextraterrestrial biological entities inparticular is what the Catholics feltundermined their earthly authority, but modernday scholars have observed that to suggest thatif extraterrestrials exist, then God doesn’texist is total nonsense. Truth is as Jesusdescribed himself: “I am the Way, the Truth andthe Life”. Thus we have a concept of theexistence of God the father, Jesus the truthand the Holy Spirit as life. Thus our humanreality of the concept of the universe isalways accompanied by a residual reality, whichcan be added or removed. For example, string


theory predicts the existence of 10 or elevenadditional dimensions; but, they exist at asubatomic scale so we are humanly incognisantof them. Mathematically, string theory suggeststhat there are “universes” within our universe,provided also that we are in a domain Dn wherevelocities cannot exceed the speed of light invacuum c and the uncertainty principle isstrictly adhered to. The complex spacetimeextends this argument to an inclusion of aninfinite number of dimensions and withadditional complex components for numbers inthese spaces. Thus there are an infinite numberof possibilities and realities in the universe.

From a microscopic quantum perspective, we canintegrate the energy in the universe from atime t=−∞,¿thebigbangas:

∫−∞

0

dE=E (t=0)=Eo.

From the quantum mechanical uncertaintyprinciple:

Eo≥ħ /∆t

-and in our present reality, time will extendto positive infinity, thus, in the very farfuture, the energy contained in the Big Bangsingularity Eo→0. This suggests then that: “in


the quantum reality of scientists of the farfuture, the Big Bang did not happen.”

The OMA in the singularity however still formsa quantum basis of the above arguments. Thusthe quantum relationship between the Hawkingianuniverse of today and its accompanying anti-universe is

n=mnm=±1,±2,±3,…

-where m and n are integers but the m takesinto account the equal spacing of possiblestates between the matter and antimatteruniverses. A ground state of the matteruniverse, n=0, only satisfies the conditionthat there is a matter and antimatter universepossibly coexisting. The quantum ground stateof the exchange universe is:

k± 12k=0.

This explains why today CP-symmetry violationis observed in bubble chamber reactions andthus confirms that the OMA is a justifiedvariable in physics. Thus the singularity hadspin built into it; by who can only be GOD.

4.7.1 THE HIGGS BOSON


4.7.1.2 THE CERN-LARGE HADRON COLLIDER AND STOCHASTIC COOLING

4.7.1.3 THE GOD PARTICLE HAS OTHER PARTICLESACCOMPANYING IT!

4.8 LIFE IN RELATION TO CLIMATIC AND GEOLOGICALCHANGE

Thus, our big bang based reality is a failedreality and grossly inadequate in order toexplain what life is. Rebellion and totaldisregard to what has been taught by higherbeings is always construed as mysteries, andmyths and legends of old which are essentiallywhimsical attempts to sway the unsuspectingstudent from the obvious reality that Godexists. We always see order in nature, forinstance, all animals and plants have male andfemale phenotype, morphological similaritiesand characteristics which certainly could nothave occurred from a “galactic soup,”-and towhom this soup was served-nobody bothered tofind out. We now shift our attention to thetheological model of the creation of life andmake interpretations and inferences in ourdaily experiences, but before we do that, weshall present to the reader a Darwinianexplanation of Climatic and Geological


influences of the evolution of life forms.Glaring discrepancies and inadequacies andcontradictions will be highlighted in bold facetype set. The chapter then ends with ascientific approach on how to study “humanactivity” from a quantum perspective calledPSYCHOPHYSICAL ERROR AND SCORES.

DEFINITION OF LIFE:

Life is the condition of ability to be aliveand be able to grow, breathe, and reproduce.Life is living things and their “activity”.Life is a particularity or particular type oraspect of peoples’ existence. Life is vitalityor “energy”. Life is the existence of anindividual human, animal or plant. Life is a“period” during which something continues tofunction or be valid. This is an Englishdefinition of Life.

Having ended nuclear and particle physics witha discussion of the evolution of the universe,we can now discuss life studies in relation toclimatic and geological change. We rememberthat our plane of existence in the followingstudy will be severely constrained and veryuncertain.

4.8.1 THE NEED FOR GENERALITY IN LIFE STUDIES


The aim of any zoological or botanical study isto know about the life of the creaturesconcerned. Our objective in this section,therefore, is to help the reader to learn asmuch as possible about the origins of life fromthe geological and climatic perspective of theearth and from a scientific premise. Of course,the discussion to be presented first will beDarwinian and will form a basis for our nextdiscussion on creation, a theological (that isa doctrinal defence of the existence of God)construct of the origins of life on earth witha qualitative explanation and expansion of thestory of creation in the book of Genesis.

Thinking of the great numbers of types ofplants, vertebrates and invertebrates, onemight well be appalled by such a task: todescribe all these populations in detail wouldindeed demand a huge treatise. However, in awell developed science it should be possible toreduce the varied subject matter to order, toshow that all differences can be understood tohave arisen by the influence of specifiedfactors operating to modify an original scheme.Animal and plant life is so varied that it hasnot yet proved possible to systematize ourknowledge of it as thoroughly as we would wish.


To add to the complexity even further,genetically modified organisms are being addedto the population of animal and plant life andthis is not only due to human interventions butcould have occurred naturally for organismsexposed to radiation from natural sources.There is also now the additional aspect of thepossibility of extraterrestrial organisms thathave practical intellectual capabilities ofmodifying life forms on earth. In particular,it is our firm belief that God is anextraterrestrial who created the universe andconsequently all life forms in it.

Thinking again, of the variety of lives, it mayseem impossible to imagine any general schemeand simple set of factors that would include somany special circumstances. Yet nothing lessshould be the aim of a true life science. Toooften in the past we have been content toaccumulate unrelated facts. It is splendid tobe aware of many details, but only by thesynthesis of these can we obtain eitheradequate means for handling so many data orknowledge of the creations we are studying. Inorder to know life-what it is, what it hasbeen, and what it will be-we must look beyondthe details of individual lives and try to find


rules governing all. Perhaps we may find thetask less difficult than expected. Even anelementary anatomical and physiological studyshows that all life forms are built upon acommon plan and have certain similarities ofbehaviour. Our objective will be to come toknow the nature of this plan of life, ofstructure, and action, to show how it ismodified in special cases and how each specialcase is also an example of a general type ofmodification.

The processes of life draw materials into thelife system, organize them there, and then sendthem out again, all in such a way that thearrangement or pattern of the processes remainsalmost unchanged as the molecules pass throughit. We see analogies in the way that awaterfall or a human institution such as theCatholic Church remains the same, though itscomponents change. Our business, even today, isto try to describe this arrangement or patternof processes that is preserved. It is thispattern that we call the life of the species.

A wide range of activities goes to make up anyone type of life, and we shall only appreciatethese activities properly if we study that


whole life as it is normally lived in itsproper environment. The way to study plants,animals or men is, first and foremost, toexamine them whole, to see how their actionsserve to meet the conditions of the environmentand to allow preservation of the life of theindividual and the race. Then, with thisknowledge of how the animal ‘uses’ its parts wemay be able to make more detailed studies, downto the molecular level, and show how togetherthe activities form a single scheme of action.

A living animal is continually doing things.Even when it is asleep it is breathing, itsheart is beating and brain pulsing, whilecountless chemical changes go on throughout itstissues. The waking life, of course, shows thisrestless action even more clearly. Animals mayindeed sometimes be still, but they are neverwholly inactive. It is not difficult to seestartling glimpses of this activity if we watchanimals alive, especially when they are ingroups. If we are to see the interesting sideof life we have to study activity and not, asis more easy to do and so often done, to spendall our time examining the ‘structure’ or‘chemistry’ of the dead.


Animals and plants are able to take theseactions that tend to their own preservationbecause they contain stores of informationabout the conditions that are likely to be metwith and the means by which adverse changes maybe prevented. A fish is born with a body soshaped that it may swim, a gull can soar on aircurrents, and a monkey leaps from branch tobranch. Every type may thus be said torepresent the environment in which it lives,that is to say, it has a hereditary store ofinformation about it. Moreover, this hereditarystore provides it with receptor organs andbrain with which it can acquire furtherinformation during its lifetime. The study byengineers of the means by which information maybe coded, transmitted, and stored has providedbiologists with further means for study of theliving memory stores, which are comparable insome ways with those of machines.

4.8.2 CHANGES OF CLIMATE AND GEOLOGICAL PERIODS

Geological evidence shows that there have beenmany changes in climate and geography, some ofthem proceeding at very slow rates incomparison with the rhythms of individual plantand animal lives. It is very uncertain whether


evolutionary changes follow these slowgeological changes, or are evolutionary changesas a result of the “instability” imposed onliving things by climatic rhythms with shorterperiods, such as those of days, years and thesunspot cycles.

4.8.2.1 CHANGES OF THE LEVEL OF CONTINENTS

Changes of geography are mostly so slow thatthey cannot in themselves influence individuallives. On the other hand, nearly all livingthings must be suited to daily and annualcyclical changes, unless they live where nolight enters. There is indirect evidence offurther changes in climate and geography,occurring with such long periods that they arewithout appreciable effect on individualorganisms, but may greatly affect the historyof the race.

The idea of geographical change is madefamiliar by the fact that coast-lines and rivercourses have changed appreciably in historicaltimes. We are familiar with stories ofdestruction of some houses or a village by thesea, though it may come as a shock to learnthat the sea-level has changed so much thatEngland and France were connected by land 8,


000 years ago, and that man-made instrumentsfished up from the Dogger Bank show that it wasan inhabited peat bog 6, 000 years B.C. Thesechanges in height of the land are signs of‘diastrophic movements’, which are majorfeatures of long-period geological evolution.The earth forces that produce these movementsare still obscure but they lead to repeatedelevation and sinking of the land masses. Theaction of frost, wind, and rain continuallybreaks up and carries away the surface of theland, at the rate of the order of 1 ft per 4,000 years, the processes known as weatheringand denudation. The material carried away isdeposited in the river-beds and in the lakesand shallow seas around the river mouths(sedimentation). Here it builds the sedimentaryrocks, which may be many thousands of feet inthickness, the whole continental platformcontinuing to sink for long periods, perhapswith intervals during which it becomes raisedabove the water. Fossil remains are usually theresult of the preservation of the harder partsof animals in sedimentary deposits, and themost complete series of fossils are likely tobe those of animals living in the seas.


Insert Fig. 4.4 Curve showing the areas of the earth’s solidsurface in relation to the sea level. (From Holmes)

The surface crust of the earth is not a layerof uniform thickness and density but consistsof irregular masses of lighter material, richin silicon and aluminium (sial), forming thecontinents, and heavier material, rich inmagnesium (sima), under the ocean beds. Thereason for this non-uniform distribution isobscure, but it has the effect of making thecontinents stand higher, floating on theplastic denser medium beneath the crust. Theobscurity in reason is done away with if weaccept intelligent design of the earth’sgeological makeup. When material is removedfrom the continents by denudation they rise;conversely the addition of millions of tons ofice will depress them. The continents are thussaid to rest in stochastic equilibrium, andfollowing the small changes in level the sealeaves more or less of the continental shelfuncovered. Such upward and downward movementsprofoundly influence the climate. Oceanicclimatic influences tend to produce a damp,equable climate, with large areas of marsh andforest. When the land stands higher extremes of


climate develop, some parts being cold, othersforming large, dry interior plains.

Besides changes in the balance produced bydenudation and the advance of ice-caps thereare also from time to time marked movements ofuplifting or lowering of the land, which may becalled independent earth movements. Suchvertical movements of the continental massesare produced by internal forces of unknownorigin (unknown to the atheist). They aredoubtless related to a second series of majormovements of crustal deformation that are dueto tangential forces and lead to the formationof new mountain ranges (orogenesis) bycompression, or to fracturing by tension. Theupwelling of lava from the inside of the earthat these times makes the igneous rocks, usuallydevoid of fossils.

Changes in geography are, then, mainly changesin the height of land and the amount of it thatis above water. Where the continent issurrounded by a rather shallow continentalshelf, this leads to considerable changes inappearance of the land-masses. The generalopinion is that the main outline of thecontinental masses has remained much as at


present, at least since Cambrian times. Howeverthere have probably been considerable movementsof the land masses in relation to each other.Some hold that the continents of lightermaterial are continually expanding, at least incertain directions, having grown from smallcentres to their present size. According to thehypothesis of Wegener, the continents have allbeen formed by the splitting up of one or a fewland masses. There is indeed evidence from bothgeophysics and biology that the continents havebeen drifting apart (Bullard, 1959). Thedirection of magnetization of rocks, which isdetermined at the time of their formation,shows that the land-masses must have changedtheir positions greatly. For example, such datashow that during the Triassic period theBritish Isles lay in the tropics and inconfirmation of this we find that many saltdeposits (formed only in very warm climates)lie in the Triassic formation (Droitwich, Bath,Nantwich, &c).

4.8.2.2 CHANGES OF CLIMATE

Evidence of marked changes of climate is thefinding in England and other regions nowtemperate of animal and plant remains


appropriate to warmer or colder conditions(corals and woolly rhinoceros, for instance).There is thus every reason to think that therehave been great changes from hot to cold andwet to dry conditions, in conjunction with thechanges in latitude and in level of land. Thesefluctuations in geography and climate areobviously of great importance to the biologist.We can hardly expect to treat animals andplants as stable systems if the environmentaround them is changing. In order to be able toassess the influence of such changes on life wemust know more about the rates at which theyoccur, and careful study shows that some of theclimatic changes are rhythmic. Rhythmic changesof climate are, of course, very familiar to usin the cycles of days, months, and years, andthe immense importance of these short-periodchanges for animal and plant life must not beforgotten.

Here we are more concerned with changes oflonger periodicity, of which the best known arefluctuations of the amount of solar radiationreceived at any given part of the earth’ssurface. These are likely to be especiallyimportant since plants, and hence ultimatelyanimals, depend for their energy on sunlight.


The cycle of number of sunspots (11.4 years)involves a change in amount of radiation, andthis is associated with some biological cycles,for instance in the distribution of the ringsof growth made by trees. Longer-periodfluctuations in the amount of radiationreceived on any part of the earth’s surfacedepend on the perturbations of the earth’sorbit, particularly on changes in the obliquityof the ecliptic. The effect of theseperturbations can be calculated, and theresults show that at any one place there arerhythmical variations in the amount ofradiation received, and in its seasonaldistribution. The periodicity of thesecalculated changes is about 40 000 years, withconsiderable irregularities and variations inthe sizes of the maxima.

Insert Fig. 4.5 Curve of solar radiation received at 65°N.lat. insummer. The radiation is expressed in ‘canonic units’ (related tothe solar constant in calories). Time is in thousands of years.R.M. 25, &c., indicates the radiation minima. (From Zeuner,based on the tables of Milankovitch)

During the last million years (the Pleistoceneepoch) there has been a series of waves ofglaciations (ice ages); the ice-caps have


several times advanced towards the equator andthen retreated again. These changes are usuallyclassified into four periods of glaciations,separated by interglacial periods. However, thelast (fourth Pleistocene) glaciations, of whichwe know the most, certainly had three separateclimaxes of cold. The correspondence of thesewith especially marked minima in the curve ofsolar radiation is not perfect (Fig. 4.5), butit suggests that the basic periodicity may havebeen something like 40, 000 years, and that thedivision of the whole Pleistocene period intofour periods of glaciations obscures a changewith much shorter periodicity. From about 120,000 to 180, 000 years B.P. (Before Present)there were no marked minima in the solarradiation curve, and this agrees with otherevidence of a long interglacial period (thirdPleistocene interglacial). Two marked minimaagree with the other signs of penultimate(third Pleistocene) glaciations, and this waspreceded by a very long warmer period, thesecond inter-glacial. As we go farther back thestudy becomes more and more difficult, but theavailable evidence suggests that fluctuationsof climate considerable enough to alter theentire fauna and flora may have taken place at


a periodicity of something over 40, 000 years.It is a measure of the difficulty of geologicalscience that we cannot yet give a systematicaccount of the chronology or climatic changeseven of the relatively recent Pleistoceneperiod (variously estimated at 600, 000 to 1,800, 000 years) during which these glaciationsoccurred.

As we proceed to study times still more remoteour vision becomes increasingly blurred. We cannow only rarely distinguish periodicities asshort as 40, 000 years, though there isevidence that they existed, for instance fromvarved Cretaceous sediments. All we can see inthe study of geological deposits are the verymarked changes produced by the major movementsof orogenesis and the isostatic readjustments.The surprising thing is that these immenselyslow changes have been sufficiently regular toleave layered deposits, allowing thedevelopment of a system of geologicalclassification. The process of sedimentationwas interrupted by periods when the continentalshelf on which the rocks rest was raised abovethe water surface and underwent denudation fora while, before being again lowered below thesea and covered with a new deposit. During the


interval, while the shelf was raised above thewater, the animals and plants in the sea becamechanged; rather sharp breaks appear in theseries of fossils. The occurrence of thesebreaks has been used by geologists to definethe major geological periods, which thuscorrespond to cycles of elevation anddepression of the continents. By comparing thefossils contained in the rocks major geologicalperiods have been recognized in various partsof the world. The time of submergence anddetailed comparison is possible. It is easy toforget that climates and land levels do notalways change in the same direction indifferent parts of the world.

4.8.2.3 GEOLOGICAL TIME

Until recently most geologists assumed thatthere was a regular cycle of raising andlowering (diastrophism) and that comparableperiods could be recognized everywhere. It isnow widely doubted whether there has been anysuch ‘pulse of the earth’. The rock series arenot the same in all the continents. Forexample, in South Africa three long series,known as Cape, Karoo, and Cretaceousformations, occupy the time covered in Europe


by the many elevations and depressions betweenSilurian and Cretaceous times. Probably theconditions under which rocks were formed haveremained about the same throughout geologicaltime but have been interfered with by periodsof elevation, depression, and folding that arepeculiar to each region.

The study of fossils often establishes theorder in which the rocks were laid down, butother methods have to be used to discover theperiod of time covered by each stage. This isespecially important to the biologist, whowants to know the rate at which animals orplants have “evolved”. Reliable knowledge ofthe ages of the rocks has only begun toaccumulate since the discovery ofradioactivity. Uranium and thoriumdisintegrate, producing lead, at rates that areunaffected by any known conditions. The age ofany rock since its deposition can therefore becalculated if we can estimate the amount ofbreakdown products of these elements present init. The lead present in a rock is often not allderived from the uranium and thorium there, butseparation of the lead isotopes enables thoseof radioactive origin to be estimated, and theage of the deposit can then be determined,


assuming that the breakdown of uranium to leadbegan when the rock was crystallized in itspresent position. Other methods of estimatingthe ages of rocks from isotope ratios have beendeveloped. Especially promising is thedetermination of the ages of the deposition ofsedimentary rocks from the ratio of A40

K40∧Sr87 /Rb87

in deposits formed by erosion of micas orgranites.

The time at which the crust of the earthassumed its present form is now thought to havebeen 4, 500 million years ago (Holmes 1959) butthe rocks laid down during the greater part ofthis long period contain no undoubted animal orplant remains. Cambrian rocks, when fossilsbecome readily discernable, were laid downabout 600 million years ago.

Insert Fig 4.6 The maximum thickness of sediment in eachperiod plotted against estimates of the absolute date. The errorattached to these determinations is shown by the marginallines. Apparently the rate of sedimentation has not beenconstant (modified after Holmes)

Classical geology is based mainly on studies inEurope and North America. Although aterminology based on absolute time is beginning


to emerge, it is still necessary to use thatbased mainly on stratigraphic studies, begun byWilliam Smith in the British Isles early in thenineteenth century. In this system, the timesince the Cambrian is divided into eleven majorperiods, but several of these were double ortriple periods of advance and retreat of thesea. Even the most carefully compiledradioactivity data are not yet adequate toprovide us with definite estimates of thedurations of the periods, though there isagreement on a total period of about 600million years since the Cambrian Fig. 4.6 showsthe maximum thickness of sediment in eachperiod plotted against estimates of theabsolute dates. The error attached to thesedeterminations is shown. Apparently the rate ofsedimentation has not been constant.

It is conventional to postulate a series ofcrustal revolutions. The extent of themovements has not been equal throughout andsome of them, more marked than others, weretimes of building of great mountain chains suchas the Alps or Andes. There were also manylesser rises and falls and changes of climatewith shorter periods, such as those of about40, 000 years that we can detect in the latter


part of the Pleistocene. Many modern geologistsare sceptical about the existence of anyirregularities or rhythms in these changes[Herbert 1952, Gilluly 1940]. It is useful whentrying to adjust the mind to periods of 30million years to remember the frequent changesof level and climate that have occurred in thelast 100, 000 years. In spite of all that weknow about the history of the earth’s surface,it is necessary every time that we makestatements about the influence of presumedclimatic changes on organic evolution toremember how scanty our knowledge is.

4.8.2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL HISTORY

The period isolated as ‘Cambrian’ by geologistslasted 100 million years and almost certainlyincluded several inundations, perhaps three.The Ordovician lasted for 60 million years andincluded three floods in North America. Therewere powerful earth movements at the end ofthis period, at any rate in North America,known as the Taconian revolution. The Silurian,lasting for 40 million years, apparentlyincluded a single main cycle of inundation,ending in an elevation of the land, whichthough slight in America, was marked in Europe


as the Caledonian revolution, producing therange of mountains stretching acrossScandinavia to Scotland and Ireland.

Insert Fig. 4.7 Diagrams of main changes of areas of land andwater and in climatic conditions since the Cambrian. The chieftimes of mountain-building (orogenesis) in America are alsoshown. (Redrawn by permission from Textbook of generalZoology, 2nd ed. by W.C. Curtis and M.J. Guthrie, John Wiley &Sons, Inc. 1933.)

Throughout these early Palaeozoic periods thefossils are entirely those of aquatic animals,except for some traces of land plants andarthropods at the end of the Silurian. Theoldest remains of vertebrates are fish-scalesfrom the Ordovician. Details of the Palaeozoicclimatic changes are not clear, but the factthat corals, which can now live only in warmwater, were alive over a considerable part ofthe earth’s surface suggests that conditionswere warmer than at present at least at someearly Palaeozoic times.

The Devonian is considered by some to include asingle main period, about 50 million yearslong, with one flood at the middle and morearid conditions at the end, but otherauthorities divide it into several periods. The


first forests appeared at this time, and here,also, are found the first signs of vertebrateterrestrial life, in the form of fossil lung-fishes and amphibians. The period recognized asCarboniferous in Europe includes two majorperiods of about 40 million years each inAmerica, the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian.Throughout this long time conditions variedwidely in different parts of the world. In theearly Mississippian there were many swamps inprobably a time of warm, moist conditions, withno cold winters, covered with an ice-sheet. Thecoal measures show us the remains of theforests of spore-and seed bearing plants thatwere then produced, and the land conditionsevidently favoured the life of the Amphibians.

The Permian probably constitutes a single 45million year period, with very activeorogenesis, leading to a more arid climate,perhaps showing large seasonal changes, withdeserts in some parts of the world andglaciations in others. These conditionscontinued into the Triassic, when thecontinents lay high. The reptiles, first foundin the Permian, developed throughout theTriassic and flourished in the succeedingJurassic period, which probably lasted 45


million years. The Cretaceous period, duringwhich the thick chalk deposits were laid down,probably lasted for rather more than 60 millionyears, including two major cycles ofinundation. The lower Cretaceous certainlyincluded extensive periods of flooding, whenthere were large shallow seas. Then later,towards the end of the upper Cretaceous, therewere extensive orogenic movements, the laramiderevolution, producing the Rockies and theAndes. The temperature was warm until near theend of the Cretaceous, and we do not know whatcondition led to the break that is foundbetween the animals of the Cretaceous andEocene. Some groups of dinosaurian reptilesseem to have died out suddenly, but it isimportant to notice that not all disappeared atthe same time, for instance, the stegosaurs andpterodactyls disappeared well before the end ofthe Cretaceous. However, it is probable thatgreat changes went on at the end of thisperiod, and we may guess that a factor leadingto the development of the birds and mammals wasthe great rise of continents, perhapsaccompanied by a fall in temperature over wideareas that had enjoyed warmer weather. Asalways, when we look closely at such problems,


we are appalled by the vast lengths of timeinvolved and the scanty nature of our cluesabout them. The land lay very high at thistime, and apparent abruptness of the breakbetween Cretaceous and Eocene fauna may be anartefact due to the scarcity of fossils. InNorth America there is evidence fromterrestrial deposits of a long Paleocene periodbetween the Cretaceous and Eocene.

It is usual to divide the last main geologicalperiod, the Tertiary into epochs, Paleocene,Eocene, Oligocene, Milocene, Pilocene, andPleistocene, the names originally referring tothe percentage of fossil genera surviving tothe present. Probably the whole time since theend of the Cretaceous has been 70 millionyears. During the early part of the Tertiaryperiod the climate was cold, but as erosion ofthe mountains that had been produced at the endof the Cretaceous proceeded the conditionsbecame warmer, and throughout the Eocene andOligocene there were large forests and humidconditions. Then during the Milocene there weremarked earth movements, leading to elevation ofthe land and accompanied by more aridconditions, with wide areas of prairie and thewidespread appearance of important new food


plants-the grasses. The weather probably becamegradually colder through the Pliocene, no doubtwith many fluctuations, culminating in the iceages of the Pleistocene. Here we come back tothe period of which we have more detailedknowledge, and are reminded that the ice agewas not continuous, but interrupted by manywarmer periods.

This very brief survey of geological history inthe northern hemisphere can hardly do more thanremind us of the depths of our ignorance. Wesee enough to be sure that climatic conditionshave varied throughout the millions of years,but we cannot yet see sufficient details toallow us to discover whether there is anyrhythm of major cycles. It is easy to talkglibly of ‘Carboniferous forests’ or ‘aridconditions of the Permian,’ forgetting thatthese periods lasted for a time that we canonly roughly record in numbers and not properlyimagine in terms of our experience, although weare among the longest lived of animals. Theevidence suggests that conditions did notremain stable for such a vast length of time asa whole geological period, but fluctuatedmarkedly, either irregularly or withcomplicated rhythms and was of greater and


lesser magnitude. We must not forget that veryprofound climatic changes occur every day,others every year, and some every eleven years.It is not impossible that these shorter-periodchanges, necessitating continual readjustmentof animal and plant life, have been asimportant as the slower changes in producingevolution.

My experience of reading Darwinian texts, suchas the one above, is that they tend to beextremely elaborate with long technical termsand very much punctuated with declarations ofgenerality, uncertainty, and reasonableobscurity and not forgetting the obviousphysical reality which contradicts theirbaseless notions and end up conjecturing thereality as paradoxes. In short, Darwinism andideologies such as Atheism, Agnosticism,Marxism and Communism and Existentialism andmany other Secular Religions masquerading asphilosophical doctrines are collectively aconglomeration of well construed LIES, whichare a present day representation of the fall ofAdam in the garden of Eden once man hadingested and imbibed the forbidden fruit (amaterial source) of the Tree of Knowledge ofGood and Evil.


4.9 NATURE OF BONDING IN MATERIALS, RADIOACTIVEDATING AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

4.9.1 NATURE OF BONDING IN MATERIALS

We revert to the applications of quantummechanics to solid state physics. We brieflydiscuss the nature of bonding in materials inorder to understand why and how atoms bondtogether in a solid and to describe thedifferent types of solids.

IONIC BONDS

Ionic bonding occurs by means of electrontransfer from the conduction band of a ‘donor’atom to the valence band of a ‘receptor’ atom.Examples of ionic solids are alkali-halides.They are crystalline in nature. Ionic forcesare long range forces. Ionic materials arebrittle and are easy to break. They are used inbatteries and for luminescence.

COVALENT BONDS IN CRYSTALS AND MATERIALS

This type of bond occurs in materials such asthose with carbon-carbon bonds. This bond indiamond for instance is tetrahedral. In


diamond, 4 electrons are hybridised to 4equivalent “strong” covalent bonds. Binaryelements such as SiC etc. are used insemiconductors. They are called binary elementsbecause the constituent atoms are from the samegroup in the periodic table of elements. Ingraphite, 3 electrons are hybridised to formstrong bonds whilst the remaining electronforms a weak bond. Examples of graphite includefullerenes (Soot) and glutherites and buckey-balls. They are solids and are high temperaturesuperconductors. There are also what are callednano-tube rods, which are hard and are eitherinsulating or conducting depending on theirradius or on the number of atoms around thecross-sectional circumference.

METALLIC CRYSTAL BONDS

Metallic crystals are crystals that containfree electrons. The electrons seepseudopotentials and are not really associatedwith one particular atom. At a certainseparation distance between atoms, there is anoverlap in the outer k and l shells and acontinuous energy spectrum is created betweenthe atoms in the region in the vicinity of theregion where the respective outer shells


overlap. Metals are used in Metallurgicalengineering, metal fabrication, electricalpower generation and transmission, pipes andvalves and domestic utensils. They have goodconductivity and malleability properties.

MOLECULAR BONDING DUE TO VAN DER WAALS FORCES

These are very weak bonds which occur inmolecular crystals. In these crystals, chargeor electric fields in one grid (domain) inducean orientation or polarization electric fieldin domains similar to it. This is because themolecules in a particular grid have random axesof quantization. Incident light will causecertain domains to appear dark (will not emitphotons) whilst others will emit. Applicationswould be in jewellery and decorative artsapplications.

HYDROGEN BONDED CRYSTALS

Hydrogen bonds are very weak bonds that requirevery little energy to split the constituents.An example is the bonding that occurs in a DNAmolecule. The hydrogen bond couples two of thebases, A, G, C or T to form a base pair. Aproton ion maintains a bipolar interaction andquantum mechanics predicts a high probabilitythat the proton ion is associated with A or G.


The T-C bond is associated with a free radicalbath. The proton ion tunnelling across A and Gcan be greatly affected by large electricfields from electrons in the molecule. It couldthen attach incorrect base pairs and is acandidate hypothesis to explain evolution ofspecies. In general, high energy electricfields from ionizing radiations are dangerousand cause mutations. Again, it is noted thatthe proton ion transfer and DNA replication isvery time dependent. In hereditary terms,Mitochondrial DNA is inherited exclusively fromthe “mother” whilst Nuclear DNA is inheritedexclusively from the “father”.

4.9.2 RADIOACTIVE DATING

Although we cannot predict with certainty whenan individual nucleus will decay, we can bevery certain how long it will take for half ofa large number of nuclei to decay. These twostatements may seem inconsistent; theirconnection has to do with the statisticalinferences that we can make by studying randomprocesses. If we have a room containing asingle gas molecule, we cannot predict withcertainty whether it will be found in the lefthalf of the room or the right half. If however


we have a room containing a large number N ofmolecules (N 1024), then we expect to find onaverage N/2 molecules in each half.Furthermore, the fluctuations of the number ineach half about the value N/2 are of the orderof √N; thus the deviation of the fraction ineach half from the value 0.5 is about √N /N≅10−12.The fraction in each half is thus0.50000000000±0.0000000000001. This extreme (andunreasonable) precision comes about because Nis large and thus the fractional error N−1/2 issmall.

A similar situation occurs for radioactivedecay. If we had at t=0 a collection of a largenumber No of radioactive nuclei, then after atime equal to one half-life, we should findthat the remaining fraction is

12

(ofNo)±No−1 /2

Thus despite the apparently random nature ofthe decay process, the decay of radioactivenuclei gives us a very accurate and entirelyreliable clock for recording the passage oftime. That is if we know the decay constant λ,the exponential decrease in activity of asample can be used to measure time.


The difficulty in using this process occurswhen we try to apply it to decays that occurover geological times ( 109y) because in thiscase we do not measure the activity as afunction of time. Instead, we use the relativenumber of parent and daughter nuclei observedat time t1 (now) compared with the relativenumber at time to (when the ‘clock’ startedticking, usually when the material such as arock or material or mineral condensed, trappingthe parent nuclei in their present sites). Thedata indicate a common age of the Earth,∆t=4.5×109y. This good linear fit is especiallyimportant, for it justifies our humanassumptions of no loss of parent or daughternuclei.

Other similar methods of dating minerals fromthe Earth, Moon, and meteorites give a commonage of 4.5×109y.

These methods include the decay of:

K❑40 ¿ Ar❑

40 ,thedecayof U❑235 ∧ U❑

238 ¿ Pb❑207 ∧ Pb❑

206

-and the spontaneous fission of:U❑

238 ∧ Pu❑244

-which are analyzed either by chemicalseparation of the fission products or by


microscopic observation of the tracks left inthe minerals by the fission fragments.

For dating more recent samples of organicmatter, the C❑

14 dating method is used. The CO2

that is absorbed by organic matter consistsalmost entirely of stable C❑

12 (98.89%), with asmall mixture of stable C❑

13 (1.11%). RadioactiveC❑

14 is continuously formed in the upperatmosphere as a result of cosmic-raybombardment of atmospheric nitrogen, and thusall living matter is slightly radioactive owingto its C❑

14 content. Because the production rateof carbon-14 by cosmic rays has been relativelyconstant for thousands of years, living organicmaterial reaches equilibrium of its carbon withatmospheric carbon, with 1 atom of carbon-14for every 1012 atoms of carbon-12.The half-lifeof carbon-14 is 5730 y, and thus each gram ofcarbon shows an activity of about 15 decays perminute. When an organism dies, it goes out ofequilibrium with atmospheric carbon; it stopsacquiring new carbon-14 and its previouscontent of carbon-14 decreases according to theradioactive decay law:

N (t )=Noe−λt


We can therefore determine the age of thesamples by measuring the specific activity(activity per gram) of their carbon content.This method applies as long as we have enoughcarbon-14 intensity to determine activity; formatter that has decayed for 10 or more half-lives, the decay is so weak that the carbonmethod cannot be used. Recent techniques usingaccelerators as mass spectrometers have thepotential to exceed this limit by countingcarbon-14 atoms directly. Activity of a sampleis defined as: The measure of the number ofcounts ∆N in a time interval ∆t given∆t≪t1 /2=

0.693λ .

4.9.3 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

As we now transit from the extremelyconstrained human perspective of thequantitative arguments of the origins of lifeinto a qualitative description of quantumreality and existence of God and the universe,we present to the reader what the ScientificMethod is. We briefly mentioned that thescientific method is a repeatable method ofquantitative and qualitative deduction ofobservable facts which philosophicallycondenses into knowledge of a physical


phenomena; reality testing by desiring economicbenefit and psychological gratification of theobserved physical phenomena and mathematicalproof of the existence of God by emphasisingintelligent design of the physical phenomena,phenomena being a sequence of events.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Science is a framework for gaining andorganizing knowledge. Science is not simply aset of facts but is also a plan of action-aprocedure for processing and understandingcertain types of information. Scientificthinking is useful in all aspects of life, butin the specific cases of Natural and Socialsciences it is used to understand how thatsystem operates (functions). The process thatlies at the center of scientific inquiry iscalled the scientific method. There areactually many scientific methods, depending onthe nature of the specific problem under studyand on the particular investigator involved.However, it is useful to consider the followinggeneral framework for a generic scientificmethod.

STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD


1. Making observations: Observations may bequalitative (the sky is blue; water is liquid)or quantitative (water boils at 100℃; a certainbook weighs 2 kilograms). A qualitativeobservation does not involve a number. Aquantitative observation (called a measurement)involves both a number and a unit.

2. Formulating Hypotheses: A hypothesis is apossible explanation for an observation

3. Hypotheses Testing: The hypothesis is thenused to make a prediction that can be tested byperforming an experiment.

4. Performing Experiments: An experiment iscarried out to test the hypothesis. Thisinvolves gathering new information that enablesa scientist to decide whether the hypothesis iscorrect-that is, whether it is supported by thenew information learned from experiment.Experiments always produce new observations,and this brings the process back to thebeginning again.

To understand a given phenomenon, these stepsare repeated many times, gradually accumulatingthe knowledge necessary to provide a possibleexplanation of the phenomenon.


Once a set of hypotheses that agree with thevarious observations is obtained, thehypotheses are assembled into a theory. Atheory, which is often called a model, is a setof tested hypothesis that gives an overallexplanation of some natural phenomenon. It isvery important to distinguish betweenobservations and theories. An observation is aninterpretation-a possible explanation of whynature behaves in a particular way. Theoriesinevitably change as more information becomesavailable. For example, the motions of the sunand stars have remained virtually the same overthe thousands of years during which humans havebeen observing them, but our explanations-ourtheories-for these motions have changed greatlysince ancient times. The point is thatscientists do not stop asking questions justbecause a given theory seems to accountsatisfactorily for some aspect of naturalbehaviour. They continue doing experiments torefine or replace the existing theories. Thisis generally done by using the currentlyaccepted theory to make a prediction and thenperforming an experiment (making a newobservation) to see whether the results bearout this prediction.


Always remember that theories (models) arehuman inventions. They represent attempts toexplain observed natural behaviour in terms ofhuman experiences. A theory is actually aneducated guess. We must continue to doexperiments and to refine our theories (makingthem consistent with new knowledge) if we hopeto approach a more nearly completeunderstanding of nature.

As scientists observe nature, they often seethat the same observation applies to manydifferent systems. For example, studies ofinnumerable chemical changes have shown thatthe total observed mass of the materialsinvolved is the same before and after change.Such generally observed behaviour is formulatedinto a statement called a LAW. For example, theobservation that the total mass of materials isnot affected by a chemical change in thosematerials is called: a law of conservation ofmass. A law summarizes what happens; a theory (model)is an attempt to explain why it happens.

However, it is important to remember thatscience does not always progress smoothly andefficiently. For one thing, hypotheses andobservations are not totally independent of


each other, as we have assumed in thedescription of the idealized scientific method.We tend to see what we expect to see and oftenfail to notice things that we do not expect tosee. Thus the theory we are testing helps usbecause it focuses our questions. However, atthe very same time, this focussing process maylimit our ability to see other possibleexplanations.

It is also important to keep in mind thatscientists are human. They have prejudices;they misinterpret data, they become emotionallyattached to their theories and thus loseobjectivity, and they play politics. Science isaffected by profit motives, budgets, fads,wars, and religious beliefs. Galileo, forexample, was forced to recant his astronomicalobservations in the face of strong religiousresistance. Lavoisier, considered the father ofmodern chemistry, was beheaded because of hispolitical affiliations. And, great progress inthe chemistry of nitrogen fertilizers resultedfrom the desire to produce explosives forfighting wars. The progress of science is oftenaffected by the frailties of humans and theirinstitutions than by the limitations ofscientific measuring devices. The scientific


methods are only effective as the humans whouse them. They do not automatically lead toprogress.

4.10 CREATION

The scientific basis of creation is found inbiological cell structures and theirbiochemistry. The study of genetics, genes,chromosomes and DNA and amino acids whichconstitute proteins clearly shows intelligentdesign of animal and plant organisms. At themost fundamental physical level, the DNAmolecules are well ordered helical structuresand carry hereditary information from anorganism to its offspring. The final nail inthe Darwinian evolution coffin is the fact thatDNA molecules in a cell all rotate about anaxis in one uniform direction. If according toevolution and big-bang cosmology that, eventsof two possible outcomes should have 50% chanceof occurring if the sample source is completelyrandom and without prior intelligentintervention, then the molecules should rotateabout their axis in such a manner as 50%clockwise rotation and 50% anti-clockwise. Thisis in clear contradiction to observed physicalreality in which all DNA molecules rotate in


one “fixed” direction. I won’t even call it aparadox as by now the reader is fed up withatheistic and fanciful notions of the originsof life.

The theological basis of Life, in the “past”and “today” is contained in the Holy Scripturesof the Christian Bible. The Bible as somereligious scholars define it is: “BasicInstructions Before Leaving Earth.” I would nothave described it in a better way and I won’tattempt to draft a doctrine as I would ratherthe reader makes the effort to take time andread its contents out of their free will. TheKnowledge, Wisdom, Instructions on how to live,Remedies to social, political, economic,military and health problems are so numerousand time tested, the reader will not regretreading through it, time and time again.

The name Genesis means origin. The creation ofthe universe, the origin of the human race, thebeginning of sin and suffering in the world andGod’s way of dealing with humanity is containedin the Bible. The accounts of Adam and Eve,Cain and Abel, Noah and the flood, the tower ofBabylon form the core opening accounts of ourexistence as Homosapiens. What follows in the


Old Testament is the History of the Israelites.The first is Abraham, who was notable for hisfaith and his obedience to God. Then followsthe stories of his son Isaac, and grandsonJacob (also called Israel), and of Jacob’stwelve son’s, who were the founders of thetwelve tribes of Israel. Special attention isgiven to one of the sons, Joseph, and theevents that brought about Jacob and his othersons with their families to live in Egypt. Thebible first and foremost is an account of whatGod has done. The bible begins with theaffirmation that God created the universe, andin general the bible shows that God willcontinue to show his concern for his creation.Throughout our existence, the main character ofour lives is God, who judges and punishes thosewho do wrong, leads and helps his people, andshapes History.

In this presentation, we discuss the variousaspects of biblical philosophy. King Solomonwas most popularly known for his immense wealthand great wisdom which was given to him by God.He is also fondly remembered as the“Philosopher,” a man who reflected deeply onhow short and contradictory human life is, withits mysterious injustices and frustrations, and


concluded that: “Life is useless!” He could notunderstand the ways of God, who controls humandestiny. Yet in spite of this, he advisedpeople to work hard, and to enjoy the gifts ofGod as much and as long as they could. Many ofPhilosopher’s thoughts appear negative in thebook of Ecclesiastes and even depressing. Butthe fact that it is a biblical account recordedfor future generations to read, it shows thatbiblical faith is broad enough to take intoaccount such pessimism and doubt. Many havetaken comfort in seeing themselves in themirror of biblical examples of individuals inthe bible and have discovered that the biblewhich reflects their thoughts also offers hopein God that gives life its greater meaning.

The Gospel tells the good news that Jesus isthe promised Saviour. He is the one throughwhich God fulfilled the promises he made to hispeople in the Old Testament. This good news isnot only for the Jewish people, among whomJesus was born and lived, but for the wholeworld. The gospel is carefully arranged. Itbegins with the birth of Jesus, describes hisbaptism and temptation, and then takes up hisministry of preaching, teaching, and healing inGalilee. After this, the gospel records Jesus’


journey from Galilee to Jerusalem and theevents of his last week, culminating in hiscrucifixion and resurrection. The gospelpresents Jesus as the great Teacher, who hasthe authority to interpret the Law of God, andwho teaches about God’s kingdom. Much of histeaching is gathered by subject matter intofive collections: (1) the Sermon on the Mount,which concerns the character, duties,privileges, and destiny of the citizens of theKingdom of heaven, (2) instructions to thetwelve disciples for their mission, (3)parables about the Kingdom of heaven, (4)teaching on the meaning of discipleship and (5)teaching about the end of the present age andthe coming of the Kingdom of heaven.

After the ascension of Christ into heaven, thescriptures’ chief purpose is to tell how Jesus’early followers, led by the Holy Spirit, spreadthe good news about Jesus. This was done inJerusalem, in all Judaea and Samaria and to theends of the earth. The story is told of theChristian movement as it began among the Jewishpeople and went on to become a worldwide faith.The early writers emphasised that theChristians were not a subversive politicalthreat to the Roman Empire, and that the


Christian faith was the fulfilment of theJewish religion. An important feature is theactivity of the Holy Spirit, who comes withpower upon the believers in Jerusalem on theday of Pentecost and continues to guide andstrengthen the church and its leaders eventoday.

The concluding scripture in the bible is thebook of revelation. This text is also calledArmageddon in Catholicism. It was written at atime when Christians were being persecutedbecause of their faith in Jesus Christ as Lord.The writer’s main concern is to give hisreaders hope and encouragement, and to urgethem to remain faithful during times ofsuffering and persecution. For the most partthe book consists of several series ofrevelations and visions presented in symboliclanguage that would have been understood byChristians of that day. As a recipient ofvisions from God, such as existence theory andexchange theory and the Semi NumericalWitwatersrand approximation and what will bepresented in later chapters, I can testify thatGod still uses symbolic language to communicatewith his followers in the present age. Itwould, however, have remained a mystery to all


others. As with the themes of a symphony, thethemes of the book of revelation are repeatedagain and again in different ways through thevarious series of visions. Although there aredifferences of opinion regarding the details ofinterpretation of the book the central theme isclear: through Christ the Lord, God willfinally and totally defeat all his enemies,including Satan, and will reward his faithfulpeople with the blessings of a new heaven and anew earth when his victory comes.

SEPTUAGINT READINGS

The writers of the New Testament generallyquoted or paraphrased the ancient Greektranslations of the Old Testament, commonlyknown as the Septuagint Version (LXX), madesome two hundred years before the time ofChrist. In a number of instances, this versiondiffers significantly in meaning from theMasoretic Hebrew Text. As a special help to thereader such occurrences of LXX quotations,paraphrases, or evident allusions are listed inmany modern day bibles. The translations of theLXX passages reflect in general the wording ofToday’s English Version of the New Testament.When, however, a LXX quotation occurs several


times in the New Testament, the TEV wording ofthe translations may vary because of evidentdifferences in meaning or emphasis reflected inthe different contexts.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLGY

1. THE BEGINNINGS: EVENTS IN PRE-HISTORY

Before 2000 B.C. events in the bible arereferred to as pre-history. The main conceptsare of creation, Adam and Eve in the Garden,Cain and Abel, Noah and the flood and the Towerof Babylon.

2. THE ANCESTORS OF THE ISRAEITES

The next period in biblical chronology is thatfrom 2000 B.C to about 1700 B.C. In thisperiod, the main events include, Abraham comingto Canaan c. 1900, Isaac is born to Abraham,Jacob is born to Isaac, Jacob has twelve sons,who become the ancestors of the twelve tribesof Israel. The most prominent of these sons isJoseph, who becomes advisor to the king ofEgypt.

3. THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT


The descendants of Jacob were then enslaved inEgypt c. 1700-c. 1250

4. THE EXODUS AND THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN

The prophet Moses was sent by God to set theIsraelites free from Egyptian slavery in c.1250. The Israelites wandered in the wildernessfrom c. 1250-c. 1210. During this time Mosesreceived the Law of God on Mount Sinai. Mosessuccessor, Joshua, lead the first stage of theinvasion of Canaan in c. 1250. Israel thenremained a loose confederation of tribes, andleadership was exercised by heroic figuresknown as the judges.

5. THE UNITED ISRAELITE KINGDOM

Reign of Saul c. 1030-c. 1010

Reign of David c. 1010-c. 970

Reign of Solomon c. 970-c. 931

6. THE TWO ISRAELITE KINGDOMS

The Israelite kingdom divided into twofollowing the reign of King Solomon. TheSouthern kingdom was called JUDAH and theNorthern kingdom was called Israel.


KINGS OF JUDAH

The first king of Judah was Rehoboam who ruledfrom c. 931-913. He was succeeded by Abijah913-911. Then it was the reign of Asa 911-870.Jehoshephat reigned from 870-848. Jehoramreigned from 848-841. Azahiah reigned from 841but was replaced by Athaliah 841-835. Joashreigned from 835 796. Then it was the reign ofAmaziah 796-781. Uzziah succeeded and ruledfrom 781-740. Prophets sent by God appearedaround 750 B.C. namely; Isaiah and later Micah.Jotham reigned as king from 740-736 and wassucceeded by Ahaz 736-716. Hezekiah thenreigned 716-687 and was considered as the lastruler of Judah before the period referred to asthe Last Years of the kingdom of Judah.

KINGS OF ISRAEL

The first of the kings of the northern kingdomof Israel was Jeroboam who reigned from 931-910. Nabab then reined 910-909. He wassucceeded by Baasha 909-886. Elah reigned 886-885. Zimri followed and reigned for 7 days in885. Omri became king and reigned 885-874. Atthis point, prophets from God appeared notablythe prophet Elijah, who was succeeded byElisha, then followed the prophet Amos and


Hosea was the last prophet to be sent to thekingdom of Israel in about 740-737 B.C. KingAhab, the husband of the infamous Queen Jezebelreigned from 874-853. Ahaziah then reigned from853-852. Joram reigned from 852-841. Jehubecame king and reigned from 841-814. Jehoahazreigned 814-798. Then it was the reign ofJehoash from 798-763. Jeroboam II reigned from783-743. Zechariah ruled for 6 months in 743and was succeeded by Shallum who ruled for 1month in 743. Manaheim reigned from 743-738 andwas followed by Pekahiah 738-737. Pekah thenreigned from 737-732. King Hoshea reigned from732-723. The fall of Samaria, the capital ofthe southern kingdom was in 722 B.C.

THE LAST YEARS OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH

King Benhadad of Syria attacked and conqueredthe Israelite kingdoms around the time theprophet Elijah had left and the prophet Elishahad succeeded him. The Syrians did eventuallyleave but God was upset and there was a periodof social-political uncertainty and strifewhich included war with the Moabites. About 700B.C. to 550 B.C, the period was known as thelast years of the kingdom of Judah. The kingwho ruled Judah after King Hezekiah was


Manasseh who reigned from 687-642. Amon reignedfrom 642-640 and was succeeded by Josiah 640-609. Joash reigned for 3 months in 609 and thenfollowed the reign of Jehoiakim from 609-598.Jehoican reigned for 3 months in 598 and wassucceeded by Zedekiah 598-587. The fall ofJerusalem was in July 587 or as some ashistorians put it in 586. The prophets appearedaround 640 to about 600 B.C. They were namely,Zephaniah, Nahum, Jeremiah, Habbakuk and lastlyEzekiel.

THE EXILE AND THE RESTORATION TO THE HOME LAND

The Jews were taken into exile in Babylon bythe Emperor Nebuchadnezzar after the fall ofJerusalem in 586 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar wassucceeded by his son but his dynasty was cutshort by Darius, who was a Persian Noble andwho subsequently replaced Babylonian rule withPersian rule, also known as the reign of thePersians and the Medes. Persian rule lastedfrom about 550-400 B.C, when Alexander theGreat established Greek rule in Israel in 333B.C. Of note during the Persian rule was theEdict of Cyrus which allowed the Jews to returnto their homeland in 538. Foundations of a newTemple of God were laid in 537. Notably, the


walls of Jerusalem were restored in the period445-443. The prophets sent by God in thisperiod of Persian rule were Haggai, Zechariah,Obadiah, Malachi and Joel.

THE TIME BETWEEN THE TESTAMENTS

When Greek rule was established by Alexanderthe great in 333 B.C, the Israelites were ruledat a later stage by the Ptolemies, descendantsof one of Alexander’s generals, who hadconquered Egypt 323-198. Around 200 B.C theIsraelis were ruled by the Seleucids,descendants of one of Alexander’s generals whohad conquered Syria from 198-166 B.C. A Jewishrevolt under Judas Maccabeus re-establishedJewish independence. The homeland was thenruled by Judas’ family and descendants, knownas the Hasmoneans from 166-63 B.C. The Romangeneral Pompey took Jerusalem in 63 B.C and theRomans ruled by puppet kings appointed by Rome,one of whom was Herod the Great who ruled from37 B.C to 4 B.C.

THE TIME OF THE NEW TESTAMENT


This period commenced from A.D 1 to the finalimprisonment of the Apostle Paul c. A.D 65.Notably in the period between the testaments,God did not send any prophets to the Jews buthe most certainly communicated through visionsand dreams as they slept. There were of coursea good number of faithful followers of theJewish religion who prayed and fasted and madetheir supplication to God and also offeredsacrifices through the priests at the Temple inJerusalem. In c. A.D 1, John the Baptist beganhis ministry, which, climaxed with the baptismof Jesus who in turn began his ministry in cA.D 27. The death and resurrection of Jesus wasin c. A.D 30. The conversion of Paul(previously known as Saul of Tarsus) was in c.A.D. 37. Paul’s ministry was from c. A.D 41-c.A.D 65, when his final imprisonment andsubsequent execution occurred.

THE CREATION CALLED MAN

Of interest to us today is the definition ofman. In the Hebrew the word “man” is in theplural, thus many human or God like “images”were created or Hominids-including “Adam”-or“first man” as the Jews were “concerned”. Manin these scriptures appears before the “woman”.


But before “woman” appears and the fall of manin the “garden of Eden” is recorded, we observea few essential characteristics that God givesman and is still prevalent today:

Man is made in the “Image” of “God”. A manneeds to have an image, “confidence” in Godthe father and not “prideful arrogance”towards him. Today, a man, rich or poorwants to acquire “image” in the clothesthey buy; i.e. brand names-or morespecifically “designer clothes”. Such menlack an image of themselves and God andhence have a desire to be associated with aparticular brand-which is an “image” of theclothes designer.

Man is in the “Garden of Eden”. In theHebrew Eden is a spot, a place of worship,a place where man has direct contact withthe almighty God. Eden is a portal toheaven (a place where God the father of allin the universe resides). Since man is a“living matter” being, we can communicateto God through, Teleportation devices,Spacecraft aided travel, and “Prayer”-whichis a mechanism by which the Hominid cancommunicate to the Supreme Being byhumility and confession and supplication,


and by receiving a reply via visions anddreams. The importance of receivingmessages from God via dreams wasdemonstrated by a European monarch whocarried out an infamous experiment in whichinfants who were deprived of sleep by thetechnique of ringing a bell each time thebabes’ slept-died-in totality! Sleep istherefore very important.

Man is made with an “occupation”. A manwithout “work” is not a man. Once “man” hasImage, Eden, and Work-then he is ready for“Woman”. Once man gets his woman, his“inbuilt” ability of “cultivator” sets in.Men who are strong in “character” are thefoundation of a home. A man is the“foundation” of a building and not the“roof”. The “True” head of a home is a manwho is “unnoticed”, just as “God” the“father” is the “invisible” God. One shouldnot forget that Adams “father” is God. Itis the foundation of any building thatremains after the sun radiates, after therain falls, after the storm comes, afterthe earthquake, after the volcanic larvae,after the divorce, after the debt, aftercriminals invade the home, after the death


in the family. A home is a representationof the state of a country. However, afoundation needs to be placed in a “rock”=“Christianity”. A rock in the biblicalsense is not “Dead Matter”.

Our Lord Jesus Christ is the “rock” of myChristian existence. A rock is the structure ofchoice on which a prudent builder builds hishouse. We all know too well the consequences ofleading a life of sin; indeed, the openingtheme in the book of proverbs observes that:“Robbery always claims the Life of the Robber.”

When one adopts a religion and conforms to therules in that religion, that person has toapply it to his coexistence with other humansand organisms on the earth. A contemporarymusician has observed: “there are 7 billionpeople on the earth just trying to cope.” Thediscussion on psychophysical error and scoresbelow gives direction to the reader on exactlyhow to cope in life from a Christianperspective and by quantum mechanical means.

4.11 PSYCHOPHYSICAL ERRORS AND SCORES

It is now apparent that we move fromquantitative philosophical arguments andtechniques to a study of applied qualitative


methods of survival and existence of the HumanBeing at the present day. We have not discussedin detail all the 613 Laws of God given to manbut all present day constitutions of States andTerritories and local communities arederivatives of the Ten Commandments, or morebriefly as Jesus summarised the laws into twoas:

1. Love God with all your heart, all your soul and yourentire mind;

2. Love your neighbour as you love yourself.

The following discussion will be a qualitativeapplication of quantum mechanics and is a veryexciting undertaking for young and activeindividuals. As the Almighty God advised theIsraelites the day they received the TenCommandments: “I have given you the choicebetween life and death (in today’s languagewould be; good and evil, gain or loss, score orerror)-choose life!”

PSYCHOPHYSICAL ERRORS AND SCORES

Knowledge of physical phenomenon is based onthe premise of acquiring intellectual substanceof someone or something, in what context, whenand where events occurred and how that


phenomena occurred. This substance isindivisible and knowledge will consist ofsatisfying these questions simultaneously andstoring it as an experience. Moral philosophywill provide us with Laws to govern our humanbehaviour and the scientific method will beused to gather the quantitative data in ourstudy of psychophysical errors and scores. Ouranalysis of qualitative characteristics ofactivity in a society is very dependent on thequality of leadership and a description of theleadership structure and ranking system in thesociety. According to Professor ClayborneCarson, in order to perform, one must have thequalities that will enable one to perform them.This is self evident.

At any political level in society,representatives must have certain personalqualities-honesty, truthfulness, integrity,generosity and reliability. One can add tothese qualities a real concern for people,kindness and personal courage. Carson observesthat good leadership starts by valuing andrespecting ideas, voices of the grassroots.Truly, if you do not have a good leader, thegrassroots movements will not yield positiveresults. There can be no effective politics


without politicians of high personal, moralstandards.

On a more general level, representatives needto be competent. Political life covers manyissues and involves a diverse field ofrelationships. In a society that is notdysfunctional, views, experiences, needs andexpectations should be exchanged, whilestrategies can be devised for the betterment ofthe community. Communication is thus paramountbetween the leadership and the subjects,whether at local level or national level orglobal level. Favouritism of people to begoverned whether by tribe, clan or religion atthe expense of others is the foundation ofNepotism, a minor component of the evil knownas corruption and is known as the mainingredient of wars, whether domestic, civil orinternational. A leader must be fully committedto the agreed upon programme or agenda ofaction and must not opt out or delegateresponsibility to junior leaders. Every humanperson who acts without discrimination oftribe, age, profession, religious beliefs orsocial economic and political position isunderstood to be a democrat. The moral teachingnecessary for a democrat to follow is that each


person is made in the image of God. ProfessorCarson concludes that: Every good leader wouldvalue the voices and respect ideas ofgrassroots. The leader leads and the peoplegovern, governance being defined by Voltaire asthe process of taking wealth from the rich andtransferring it to the poor. Economics is thebranch of knowledge concerned with theproduction, transfer and consumption of wealth.

What we shall discuss now is a synopsis, asummarised proposal for a joint research thesisof students and scholars and readers from thefaculties of science, education and humanities.The theory of psychophysical error and scoreshas applications in the fields of Games, sport,business, politics, judiciary, transport,biology, education, military, masscommunication, cinematography, religion and thedomicile (place of residence). A list of idealsituations will be given in the last section ofthis chapter which formalises our study andparticipation in these aspects of life whichare considered as being professional ratherthan academic means of survival. Themathematical framework for this study would bethe work of J. Nash and others in particulargame theory which enables the students to


interconnect events as observed on the field ofplay to other factors that arose in the otheraspects of one’s life. Time on this planet isspent either as a player in a situation (afield of play where there is activity takingplace) or as a spectator. In the process ofplaying, errors and scores are made which aremeasured by the psychophysicist, analysed (inorder to predict a player’s blood pressure andtemperature during course of play) and storedfor purposes of congruence and as a referenceon the subject. If for instance one has come ofage or has observed a considerable number ofsituations, be it a soccer match or a courtcase, one picks out very easily manoeuvreswhich are frequently used or used when aparticular type of opponent is encountered. Itis the interconnectivity of science, educationand humanities which gives us monotony inactivities that is to say there is nothing newon this planet. The objectives of these studiesand consequently the research findings would beto equip the uninitiated player with rules andregulations and strategies of how to overcomestereotyped opponents within the confines ofthese rules and regulations by means of aDESCRIPTOR.


We begin with an introduction to psychophysicsand illustrate how a descriptor is constructed.At the end of the first section, one realizesthat the study of psychophysical error andscores is actually a study of the physics ofcompeting systems. The different fields of playwill enable the reader to become a jack of alltrades. The last field of play of interest isthe Domicile or more generally the differenttypes of domestic systems which are aculmination of all other fields of play. Thisis because what happens in a home is as aresult of influences and opinions or statementsmade in the other twelve aspects and receivedinto the home by other players viatelecommunication devices, post, neighbours,newspapers, magazines, books, friends orrelatives (which are usually by verbal means)or the intruder.

We indeed make an inclusion which is extremelyvery important despite that those from thescientific faculty may object and that is theaspect of religion. We take a theological standpoint that is we defend a doctrine which stemsfrom a religion in our case Christianity whichaccounts for the largest number of believers inthe existence of a God and under gods (angelic


beings). The different sects (denominations ofChristianity) are in competition to winfollowers for Christ and in so doing theessential body of Christ is strengthened andcontinues to grow as a whole. Of course, thewily preacher looking for converts should knowones hunting grounds. For example it would beprudent for the Salvation Army to targetbarracks and military oriented institutions andcommunities for followers and the Jehovah’sWitnesses should target communities and homesthat prefer pacifism usually as a result oflosing a member of the domicile to warfare orviolence.

The aspect of religious systems now has a moregrim application because of itsinterconnectivity to military systems where nowin this age we have to understand whatterrorism is and how to defeat it. Invariablyuseful to our understanding of our societiesand how religion is present in every human andanimal psyche is the other manifestation ofreligion called worship. The communists,fascists, atheists, agnostics, existentialists,sceptics or any other secular religion withvarying degrees of extremism have beliefsystems which have implications on the other


aspects of psychophysical error and scores. Warusually settles the contest at global level andin the domicile it is the physically superiorhuman or organism that wins the day. Anotherbelief system that is on the increase is theissue of global warming and climatic change.This hypothesis which originates from theeducational systems has put on extremist attireand can be seen through the tone andtemperament of language used by these activistswho I would bet are extremely rebellious intheir own domestic set ups. The increase inglobal average temperature by 1 degree Celsiusover a period of a century (actually 0.6 degreeCelsius as scientifically observed by Colonbo)is still a topic in the news even though withinthe past 15 years since 1997A.D. thetemperature of the earth has been drasticallydeclining and is evident with the recentlyextremely cold winters being experienced in thenorthern hemisphere resulting in a considerableamount of deaths. It is a well proven fact thatthe Sun undergoes a period of increases intemperature every one thousand years henceleading to the minute increase in globaltemperature of the earth and is not due to the


so called global warming null hypothesis andits accompanying climatic change alternative.

The activists of course choose to ignore thescientific data and try to sway public opinionin their favour by these extreme acts such asprotests and demonstrations which fall underpolitical systems and end up in court and thenin prison or alternatively fined as they canafford these penalties. Courts, police andprisons are to be studied ideally as judicialsystems. Scientific systems are usually relatedto aspects of physics, staying for instance onthe issue of riotous youths, we had Green peacea few years ago protesting against the Frenchmilitary detonation of nuclear bombs as testingprocedures on some south pacific territorybelonging to France and another case ofprotests was when American activists opposedthe launch by NASA of a nuclear powered probeto Pluto, this despite them knowing that thesun’s rays are not energetic enough to power asolar panel at such great distances from thesun.

The philosophy behind strategy in whateversituation is that a competitor has anassortment of mechanisms of defending, blocking


and attacking the opponent based on reliableintelligence

4.11.1 PSYCHOPHYSICS AND THE DESCRIPTOR

As a result of advances made in experimentalphysiology, a new field known as psychophysicsdeveloped in the middle of the nineteenthcentury. Gustav Fechner defined the field asthe exact science of the functional relationsof dependency between body and mind. In anyexperiment, the experimenter measures theamount of change that must be made in thephysical stimulus to produce a psychologicalchange.

In physics we observe physical phenomena andmake a report (based on taught theory andhypothesis) so that another observer agreeswith your findings if that observer repeats theexperiment or had done it prior, and in theeventuality that both investigators (desirablymore than two) disagree with the taught theoryand hypothesis we then have grounds for thepossibility of a new theory or hypothesis beingdeveloped to explain away the anomaly.Psychologists observe the behaviour of a brainand produce a profile which ideally describes aperson and their actions in a situation.


However, in both physics and psychology thereare errors which occur. These errors do notonly occur because of the measuringinstruments, but also because the brain of theinvestigator generates them. The brain alsogenerates what we can call a score; forinstance, a good deed. A bad deed is an errorand both good and bad deeds are traceable to asource. This is to say that errors and scoresmove and influence other brains to behave in aparticular manner in response to this priorerror or score.

Our job as physicists is to report on thephenomena which are a series of events. Thedescriptors are databases whose structure weshall develop by assigning a descriptor numberto a particular brain, before and after theevents which constitute the phenomena occur. Inliteral terms, we are simply counting thenumber of errors and scores that a playermakes. With the advancement of computers, wecan graphically illustrate the behaviour of theuniverse which must contain an infinite numberof brains. It will be shown that the net effectof phenomena in time is to produce promotionand demotion. A promotion is when a brain (or acollection of brains called a team) moves up on


a log of players (or teams) and a demotion iswhen a brain moves further away from the top ofthis ranking system.

Essentially we compare the descriptor number ofa particular player (brain) before and after anactivity and derive a technical report. Thereport is a summary of events that took placein a given time period. An event is a flash oflight and time is the duration between events.A system is any part of the universe we areinterested in and the universe is infinite insize. The fact that the universe is infinitemeans that there is an inexhaustible supply ofbrains or measurable intelligence. Thedescriptor number is a measure of thisintelligence and the descriptor containsadditional information. In particular thepsychological report gives logical reasons asto why an error or score occurred.

The concept of promotion and demotion is theend result of an activity (a series of events)in a time period T. We shall see that the studyof errors and scores is a study of competingsystems.

HYPOTHESIS


Every system in the universe is in competitionwith at least one or more systems in theuniverse. A system consists of a brain and acoordinate system in which laws of physicsapply.

4.11.2 PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

Behaviour is determined by a complex of factorsthat are biological, partly anthropological,partly sociological and partly psychological. Aformer president of the American PsychologicalAssociation has said,” But despite the factthere is a great deal of necessary and evendesirable overlapping among various areas ofscience to which psychology is related, eachretains its own particular emphasis.”

Biology-the science of life is the study of howliving organisms grow, repair their bodies,reproduce their kind and carry on the lifeprocesses. The biological processes mostclosely related to psychology are physiology,the study of the functioning of livingorganisms and their parts, neurology, thespecialized scientific study of the brain andthe nervous system and diseases thereof,genetics-the study of hereditary processes; andembryology. Embryology is the study of growth


and development of organisms prior to birth.The biophysics of phototropism, geotropism andother complex tropisms suggests to thepsychophysicist that plants have measurableintelligence; especially more so that they haveenough sense to procreate with their own kind.

Anthropology is the study of the physicalevolution of mankind, the origins of racialgroups and the development of civilizations.Its examination of widely divergent cultures-particularly the so called primitive ones-hasprovided psychology with much significant datafor understanding the influence of culturalfactors on human behaviour patterns.

Sociology studies the laws underlying thedevelopment and functioning of groups of allkinds-social, political, economic, andreligious. Both informal groups and formalinstitutions are studied with emphasis on theobservable characteristics of the groups’structure and functioning rather than theindividual motives or experience of themembers. Sociology has helped psychology tounderstand not only group behaviour but alsothe social influences upon the behaviour ofindividuals.


Psychologists, sociologists and anthropologistshave found that they can contribute verysignificantly to each other’s efforts. Indeedthe study of psychophysical error and scoresends with the study of domestic systems inwhich all other types of systems have directbearing.

4.11.3 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOPHYSICS

A career in psychophysics can never beseparated from experimental work. Thecharacteristics of the investigators are theconviction that nobody knows the answer; it isto be found only by experiment. The mostimportant element in the training of ascientist is the first hand practical andpersonal contact with the fundamentals of thesubject, together with all the possibilities ofdifficulties, errors and misinterpretation thatsuch contact can provide. One can receiveexperience equally from an old experimentcarried out with the true research attitude asfrom a new one, with the added advantage thatthe old experiment will reinforce andilluminate some basic principle in your courseof study.


Many a principle learnt in the lecture room orstudy lies uncombined on the surface of themind until actual experience in the laboratorybrings about some subtle reaction that makesknowledge permanent. For many people experiencein the laboratory (field of play) is the onlymedium through which the full implications of aphysical concept are grasped. The repetition ofthe actions of thinking, doing, observing andrethinking are no doubt responsible for thegreat certainty that field (laboratory) workcan give.

The first principle of experimenting is toapproach the job experimentally. Anexperimental approach to anything involvestrying out the parts first and changing onestactics if necessary, or even starting again ina different way. The seasoned experimenter isalways ready for snags and develops thistentative approach even to the extent ofrunning through the full ranges of allvariables to be used to check that nothing isgoing to burn out, break down or otherwise failin the middle of a set of readings.

A second important principle of experimentingis the embodiment of the spirit of enquiry. It


is to take steps to verify the correspondencebetween your experimental assembly and theunderlying theoretical ideas. The differencebetween psychophysics and theoretical physicsis that in psychological experiments, we do notnecessarily repeat the experiment to drawconclusions. One experiment is necessary forthe psychologist to assign a descriptor numberafter the experiment (exercise) is done.

With the apparatus and methods assembled,adjusted and working, the temptation to dashdown the readings on a scrap of paper isirresistible. The result is that what seemed someaningful in the laboratory becomes far fromclear a few days later. Sometimes one istempted to write notes on paper and copy theminto a book later. This must be avoided;copying up notes wastes time and inviteserrors. For purposes of the psychologicalreport however, the investigator is allowed tomake notes from which he/she can come up with areport. Petty issues are not to be ignored inthe build up to the game as they certainlyaffect the players’ performance. An importantrule is to enter readings exactly as they come.This is achievable today with the aid ofcomputer interfacing and in so doing we do not


make corrections. The main difficulty inexperiment is to think of all details whichought to be included, a record spoilt byapparently trivial omissions; the laboratorytemperature, the direction of the earth’smagnetic field etc. Always remember thatwhatever may seem abundantly clear at the timeof doing the experiment may become hazy after afew days have passed.

4.11.4 THE DESCRIPTOR

The descriptor is a technical report whichillustrates events that occurred in aparticular competition. In this section we lookat the structure of a descriptor and explainwhat symbols and shapes in the descriptor mean.It should be mentioned here that the descriptorfor a particular player in a particular gameforms part of a database (a store ofinformation) and hence we require a lot ofcomputer applications; ideally software that isof a visual nature. The parts of a descriptorare now discussed below.

4.11.4.1 INTRODUCTION SECTION

This part is the same for every player in ateam. If it is a two play game such as a gameof chess, both competitors get the same


introduction. What is an introduction? Before acompetition, there is a discussion by what onecan call experts of what is to be expected inthe game. The introduction is a case study andmust contain the history of the game and theplayers. In a typical situation such as asoccer match, there is what is called a soccerchat. Preferably, the players in the changeroom should not be exposed to the soccer chatas it might affect them psychologically andcause them to stray from the coaches’ gameplan. The introduction is meant for thespectators (in the stands) who can haveportable radios and TV’s and other gadgets tohelp them monitor the game.

The introduction also contains the objectivesof the game. The desired points from a victoryor draw are there to change the overallstanding of the player (or team) on a leaguetable. Details are usually made available bythe commentators and the end result is eitherpromotion or demotion of the player (or team).This is further explained in the last part ofthe report which is the conclusion.

Another aspect of the introduction is theranking of the players. In most competitions we


have star players and what one can refer to as“Oxen”. These are players who are supposedlynot very talented but are effective in theimplementation of the coaches’ game plan. Thisapplies typically to team play or a computerplaying a star chess player. We of courseobserve that the computer has zero IQ and istherefore Oxen.

4.11.4.1.1 LIST OF RULES

The last and most important part of theintroduction is a list of rules of the game.The purpose of listing the rules andunderstanding them is to enable not only theplayers to enjoy the game but also to allow thespectators to appreciate the game. There is nopoint in watching or participating in a game ifone does not know the rules.

4.11.4.2 TYPE OF PLAY

The next thing to specify on a descriptor isthe type of play. A game can be of any formdepending on the creators’ imagination and assuch the number of winners and constitution ofcompeting players (teams) can be defined in anyformat. We consider more obvious formats ofmodern age competitions.


If the winner of a game is a single player weuse the capital letters SI followed by thenumber 1. If the winners of the contest is ateam we use the letters TI followed by thenumber of players in the team. When the playeror players are in competition with a machinei.e. a slot machine in gambling we use theletters AI followed by the number 1.

The number of players competing, n, isspecified below the type of play. For exampleif we are specifying a game of draughts wewould have

SI 1

2-play

When there are six players’ playing a game ofmonopoly we would write

SI 1

6-play

When it is a game of soccer we would have

TI 11

22-play

For a slot machine, we would have

AI 1


2-play

In team play, when a substitute is used weindicate below the n-play the number ofsubstitutions made. Here we use the symbol SBfollowed by the number of substitutesintroduced. SB 0 would indicate that nosubstitutions were made. SB 3 would indicatethat three substitutions were made and so on.

Lastly, when we have multiple winners such asin the Olympics where we have first, second andthird places in a competition, we indicate thisby using the symbol MI 3 instead of SI 1. Whenthere are eight places we would have MI 8. N-play is specified in the normal way below MI #.Most competitions however are of the type SI 1.When there are two first prizes we indicate thetype as SI 2. In game shows where all thecontestants get a prize we indicate the type ofplay as PR 20 if it is 20-play. This hasapplications in marketing. In othercompetitions however such as a raffle weindicate the type of play using the symbol PRfollowed by the number of lucky winners. The n-play however runs into thousands or evenmillions of players. In team play, thecompetitor being measured plays a virtual


player-a collective representation of theopposing team.

4.11.4.3 THE GAME PLAN

The next section in a descriptor is the gameplan. The game plan is the competitors guide onhow he or she is going to conduct play. Itconsists of three parts, namely; intelligence,manoeuvres and counter manoeuvres. It isassumed that the competitors are professionalsand are expected to employ manoeuvres(strategy) of some sort. A competitor without agame plan will lose the contest to aprofessional competitor who has the advantageof not only a strategy but also experience.However, a competitor without a game plan cancompete with another player who also doesn’thave a game plan in what is termed an amateurcontest. Such competitions are usually friendly(that is there is no financial factor attachedto the descriptor number). Amateur competitionsare usually in the last type of systems calleddomestic systems. It is in a domestic systemwhere all kinds of games are played and thenumber of games in a domestic set up isinfinite. The number of rules in domesticsystems is infinite and change abruptly


depending on decisions made by parents orguardians.

4.11.4.3.1 INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is information gathered about thecompetitor (enemy in military systems). Theinformation gathered should include both thecompetitors’ weaknesses and strengths. As aresult the opposing competitor should predictand anticipate what kind of manoeuvres theenemy is going to employ. During the gamehowever, we employ a number of manoeuvres andone must be qualified enough to alter theirgame plans. In principle one employs an attack,blocking and defence strategy during the courseof play in response to the intelligenceavailable.

4.11.4.3.2 PROBABILITY AND MANOEUVRES

In the study of psychophysical errors andscores we encounter a situation where a playercan either make an error or a score. In termsof probability, this means we have a chance ofdoing what is right and a chance of doing whatis wrong. The way these probabilities aredetermined will be discussed when we reach thesection on error and score biasing. Theregister of errors and scores only counts the


number of errors and scores made by the playerwhen it is his/her turn to play. These numbersare used to determine probabilities and theeventual manoeuvres of preference.

In team play, the field of play is divided intoareas of influence. A player is assigned aspace in which he or she is expected to playthe object. The player can make an error by sayloosing possession of the object to an opponentor can make a score by passing the object tohis team mate who is then subject toprobability of making an error or score. Eachplayer however is described by the descriptornumber as the game progresses.

4.11.4.3.2.1 TYPES OF MANOEUVRES

There are two types of manoeuvres; DESCRIPTIVEand LOGIC ROUTE MANOUEVRES. Descriptivemanoeuvres are divided into board descriptiveand object descriptive manoeuvres. Logicalroute manoeuvres are comprised of logicalposition routes and logical option routes.

I.BOARD DESCRIPTIVE

This consists of a set of instructions tofollow with respect to a diagram. It is usedprimarily for board games such as draughts and


chess. Let’s have an example of manoeuvres fora game of x and o’s. Each step takes intoconsideration the probabilities of how theopponent is going to play. The aspect ofprobabilities appears in all types ofmanoeuvres but their respective forms depend onthe type of game system.

TITLE OF MANOUEVRE: THE CORNER MANOUVRE

Consider the board illustrated below and youhave won the toss of the coin to start play.

Insert Fig. 4.8 The field of play for the game of x and o’s

Suppose you are the competitor designated x andyour opponent is designated o.

1. Your first move should be into a cornerposition i.e. you mark x either inpositions 1, 3 ,7 or 9.Let’s mark position3.

Insert Fig. 4.9 “x” marked in position 3

Your opponent has a 1/5 probability of notmarking one of the corners. Suppose theopponent marks an o in the central position;position 5.

Insert Fig.4.10 “o” marked in position 5


2. You now have a 1/3 chance of playing acorner position. Suppose we mark position 7with an x.


Your opponent has a ¼ chance (probability)of not marking the remaining two cornerpositions 1 and 9. The catch here is thatyou haven’t made it obvious to the opponentthat you want to connect three positions.Suppose now that the opponent marksposition 1 with an o.

Insert Fig. 4.42 “o” marked in position 1

Quite clearly your opponent wants toconnect a score with the diagonal fromposition 1, through position 5 to 9.

3. Your third move is the clincher. Notonly are you preventing your opponent fromwinning you’ll have forced an inescapableerror on the opponent by marking position 9with an x.


No matter where your opponent makes his move,you will score by connecting from position 3


through 6 to 9 or from position 7 through 8 to9. The probability of you doing this is ½because you can make the error of markingeither position 2 or 4. A probability of having½ a chance to win is pretty high but we expectyou to win on the second attempt.

II.OBJECT DESCRIPTIVE

These types of manoeuvres apply to games wherethe object of play is the competitor. Forinstance in a game of wrestling, the ring isthe field of play and the opponent is theobject of play. This is to say that in contactsports we play the man (or woman). Again eachstep takes into consideration the probabilitiesof how the opponent is going to play.

TITLE OF MANOEUVRE: THE TOMBSTONE

This manoeuvre is a wrestling manoeuvre. Theobjective in wrestling is to pin the opponentflat on his back for a count of three. Thewrestlers have a whole range of manoeuvre whoseaim is to inflict pain on the opponent and thusmake him/her weaker. The opponent also allowshim/herself to absorb the pain. This not onlyentertains the crowd but allows the opponent torest and regain strength. This concept ofsacrifice is discussed further when we look at


counter manoeuvres. For now let’s “illustrate”the tombstone manoeuvre.

The opponent’s physical appearance is dividedinto segments of play for both the front andthe back of the opponent. The parts arelabelled below.

FRONT PARTLABEL FACE1F NECK2F CHEST3F ABDOMEN4F GENITALSFORBIDDEN AREA LEFTAND RIGHT HANDS6FA, 6FB LEFT AND RIGHT LOWER ARMS7FA, 7FB LEFT AND RIGHT UPPER ARMS8FA, 8FB LEFT AND RIGHT THIGHS9FA, 9FB LEFT AND RIGHT SHIN10FA, 10FB LEFT AND RIGHT FOOT11FA, 11FB

REAR PARTLABEL

BACK OF HEAD1R


BACK OF NECK2R

SHOULDER BLADES3R

LOWER BACK4R

BUTTOCKS5R

BACK OF HANDS6R

BACK OF LEFT AND RIGHT LOWER ARMS7RA, 7RB

BACK OF LEFT AND RIGHT UPPER ARMS8RA, 8RB

LEFT AND RIGHT BACK THIGHS9RA, 9RB

BACK OF LEFT AND RIGHT CALFS10RA, 10RB

LEFT AND RIGHT SOLE OF FEET11RA, 11RB

In wrestling, these are the allowed areas ofattack. Notice that in boxing the allowed areas


of attack start from 1F and 1R and ends at 4Fand 4R. The tombstone manoeuvre is executed asfollows, preferably by a seasoned wrestler whenopportunity presents itself.

1. With your 6FA and 6FB, grabthe opponents 10FA and 10FB as easily andas quickly as possible.

2. By pulling back with your4R and 4F, knock the opponent off balanceuntil he/she has 3R lying flat on the mat.

3. Using 7FA, 7FB, 7RA, 7RB,8FA, 8FB, 8RA, 8RB, hoist the opponents 1FAND 1R INTO 9RA AND 9RB and keep theopponents 1F and 1R LOCKED in between 9FAand 9FB.

4. Next, using your entireanatomical make up, jump to a suitableheight with the opponents 1F and 1R stilllocked in between the thighs and letgravity do the rest.

5. Release the opponent andlet him/her lie flat on his/her 3R.

6. Put your 3F across theopponents 3F and wait for a count of threefrom the referee.

7. You can then celebrate yourvictory as your opponent recuperates.


The probability of grabbing 10FA AND 10FBinstead of any other part of the opponents bodyis 1/33 multiplied by 1/32 to give a combinedprobability of 1/1056. This is because we havedivided the opponent (object of play) into 33parts. Clearly we see that in order to performthe tombstone manoeuvre properly we need aseasoned professional wrestler who is able toweaken the opponent considerably beforeexecuting the tombstone. The ring and ropes arealso tools for the wrestler to use in othermanoeuvres.

The other types of manoeuvres to be consideredother than descriptive ones are called logicalroute manoeuvres. They are divided into two;namely: LOGICAL POSITION ROUTES and LOGICALOPTION ROUTES.

III. LOGICAL POSITION ROUTES

These types of manoeuvres make use of the fieldof play which is divided into areas (spaces) ofinfluence. These regions of influence arenumbered and ideally these space numbers shouldcoincide with the numbers on the players’shirt. We apply logical position routes to teamplay and we write them down from left to right.Each team is designated a shape in which are


written the player number and the space number.We observe that some regions of influence of aparticular player can overlap with that ofanother player in the same team.

The formula (manoeuvres) usually starts withthe goal keeper illustrated as say for atriangular team. When the ball (or whatevertype of projectile) moves from the goalkeeperto another player in the team we connect thetwo triangles by a weighted line as shown infigure 4.43.

The number 0.653 is the probability that theplayer P2S6 (player 2 in space 6) will receivethe ball, trap it and control it according tothe coaches game plan. The US$500 is theplayers wage after the game and the weight ofthe pass is 0.653×US$500=US$326.50 . Of course thispass can be interrupted by a player on theopposing team who is in that position, theplayer from the opposing team being designatedas a square when we look at counterattacks.

0.653(US$500)


G1K1

P2S6

Fig.4.44 A weighted pass from goalkeeper in position 1 toplayer 2 in position 6. This is assumed to be a pass from thegoalkeeper who is in position 1; the goal keeper’s 18 yard boxor penalty box.

Our manoeuvre doesn’t usually consider theopponent but in a counter manoeuvre theopponent is included. Once the ball or objectof play (such as in tag team wrestling) is inthe desired space region then a score isregistered or if the chance is fluffed up anerror is registered. The registered scores anderrors in a previous contest are then used forscore and error biasing for the next encounter.

The coach has many other manoeuvres at hisdisposal but the logical route that one takesin a team is always the most lucrative one interms of weighted totals. This is becauseplayers with different abilities and talentsare valued differently.

IV. LOGICAL OPTION ROUTES

In business studies, the study of strategyfalls under quantitative methods. Decisiontrees in particular are what are of maininterest to this application called


psychophysical error and scores. Theprobabilities in this case are based onestimations (a well-informed guess) as to how aparticular decision is going to be made. Forinstance, the weather forecast will determinewhether a flight carrying precious cargo shouldbe allowed to take off from the airport or in amore religious context, an American womanwishing to buy a house will rely on “advice”given her by her Fung Shoi (whatever that is)instructor. The manager handling the situationsupposedly will opt for the most lucrativeoutcome and the other options can be used asplan B manoeuvres.

The manoeuvres discussed thus far are the maintypes used in this text but minor adjustmentsand additional types of manoeuvres will begiven, such as in the study of musicology whichfalls under cinematography; the aspect ofcrochets and other music symbols constitute astrategy. Notice again that music plays animportant role in religious systems such ashymns and in the domicile where the teenagerwho has just fallen in love has an inclinationto play the same song the whole day, in somecases to such an extent that they refuse to eatand sleep. The etiquette to follow when eating


a meal whether at home or in a restaurant or ina ship constitutes a manoeuvre and getting achild to sleep by reading the bed time story isa strategy of inducing sleep in the young one.Counsellors trying to get information fromclients who are reluctant to open up also usepsychiatric manoeuvres. Another situation wouldbe a recipe in a hotel kitchen and this isinterconnected to business systems such assupermarkets and retail stores and farms wherethe food comes from as well as the domesticsystem where the recipe can also be used.Farmers follow laid down procedures in feedinganimals and growing crops and accountants alsofollow procedures in their tasks. Computerscientists instruct their machines using code(programs) to perform specific engineeringtasks or calculations.

In general manoeuvres will also include thingslike medical protocols and procedures inradiobiology and nuclear medicine,architectural plans and instruction manuals forvehicle and aircraft repair and use and so manyother manoeuvres, even scripts in cinema and asyllabus in an academy. The bookwork or markingkey for an exam also constitutes a guideline ofhow to allocate marks (scores and errors).


Military and Judicial systems have used loudmusic played from speakers to interrogatesuspects or to smoke out the enemy such as inthe case when the US Army played loud music toforce General Noriega of Panama out of theVatican embassy. In a more scientific approach,highly intense sonic waves have been used bythe military to break down walls and to wardoff Somali pirates from ships.

The key behind successful execution of amanoeuvre is to do one thing at a timeespecially if the manoeuvre has severalcomponents, preferably in a sequential mannerto avoid confusion and to concentrate on thetask or game during time of play. Thisinterconnectivity of psycho physical error andscores is mathematically described by gametheory as mentioned earlier and as such readingthe works of J. Nash will give themathematically inclined reader a deeperunderstanding of this application ofinterconnectivity and mathematical psychology.

4.11.4.3.3 COUNTER MANOEUVRES

These are manoeuvres employed in response tothe opponents’ strategies. They involvesacrifice, repossession and set pieces.


4.11.4.3.3.1 SACRIFICE

This is deliberate play designed to entice theopponent from a defensive manoeuvre intoattack. Sacrifice can only work if ourdefensive manoeuvre is adequate in containingthe opponents attack. The idea is to repossessthe object of play and attack at a faster ratethan the opponents recovery manoeuvre.

4.11.4.3.3.2 REPOSSESSION

When our opponent attacks our defensivemanoeuvre recovers the object of play andconverts it into a scoring opportunity. Therepossession follows the sacrifice and if notproperly executed can lead to a fatal error(score for the opponent). The sacrifice is theerror and the repossession is measured as ascore.

4.11.4.3.3.3 SET PIECES

These manoeuvres are as a result of an attackbeing thwarted. They are also as a result ofviolation of the rules listed in theintroduction. In soccer, we have corner kicks,free kicks and throw ins. These manoeuvreshave to be worked on in training, ideally weassign particular players to execute these


manoeuvres. Penalties are also an example ofthis type of manoeuvre and in soccertournaments penalties are used to determine theeventual winner after a stalemate duringregulation and extra time.

4.11.4.4 THE DESCRIPTOR NUMBER

A player in a game, match, bout etc. isassigned a descriptor number, which changesduring the course of the competition.Supposedly it contains all the necessaryinformation about the player whilst otherfactors about the player are mentioned in thepsychological report. The descriptor number isenclosed in a rectangle as shown below.

B#C#T# 1. HulkHogan (age)M#E#S#

B#C#T# 2. BritishBulldog (age)M#E#S#

The players name and age are included in thecell that represents the player. The aboveillustration would represent a wrestling tag


team of Hulk Hogan and British Bulldog. Theopponents would have their own performancechart. The charts give the coach (trainer)instant information on the players performance.The information is gathered by pundits in thestands who use error sticks to register errors(E) and scores (S). The symbols B, C, T, M, E,and S are now discussed below.

4.11.4.4.1 BRAIN NUMBER B#

This number is an indication of a players IQ.We determine this number on the basis of aplayer going round a given problem. This brainnumber has got nothing to do with a playerstalent. Some very talented players can have onaverage low IQ but this shouldn’t be an excuseto leave the player out of the starting line-up. This number is determined by thepsychologist before the game. For our purposes,the brain number ranges from 1 to 10. An oxenplayer can be rated 1 in one game and 8 inanother game. The number is also subject tochange during the game as human behaviour isnot only very complex but is alsounpredictable. In most cases however, theplayers “mood” will remain the same throughoutthe encounter.


4.11.4.4.2 CONSTRAINT NUMBER C#

This is the number of rules of the game. Therules are listed in the introduction and the #doesn’t change during the course of thecontest.

4.11.4.4.3 TIME NUMBER T#

This number gives the duration of the contestplayed since start. It is the time played inseconds. For purposes of analysis, we candivide the time into segments of say minutesand observe the state of the players on theperformance chart. Time outs (or half time insoccer for instance or lunch in cricket) don’tcontribute to this number. This is becauseduring this time the players are not playing.Time can also be counted in days, years (suchas in court cases), ages (such as in thereligious systems) etc. so long as they areintegers.

4.11.4.4.4 FINANCIAL MOTIVATION NUMBER M#

This is the amount of money (in US$) that aparticular player is expected to earn forplaying in the game. If the players are notgoing to be rewarded we indicate by having thenumber #=0. This is the basic salary and


bonuses are a matter for the administrators towork out. We also assume that there is “FairPlay”. This is to say that the match (contest)is not fixed and no bribes have been made toinfluence the outcome of the encounter.

NOTE: Referees and judges are monitored bytheir own regulatory bodies.

4.11.4.4.5 ERROR AND SCORE REGISTERS E#, S#

These numbers are as a result of the errors andscores made by the player and are monitored bythe pundit in the stands. The pundit isspecific to a player and can be one of thereserves in the team. We make use of thesereserves by putting them in the stands andassigning them the task to register errors andscores using an error stick which is anelectronic device interfaced with a CentralProcessing unit of a computer. The pundit isnot supposed to show favouritism and should bean honest character. It is advisable that thepundits for particular players in a team arerotated on a game by game basis.

4.11.4.5 ERROR AND SCORE BIASING

This is the process of determiningprobabilities in order to construct manoeuvres


of the logical position routes type. We seethat it applies primarily to team play. Theprobabilities for a particular game aredetermined from the players performance in aprevious game.

4.11.4.5.1 ERROR BIASING

If the player made more errors than scores inthe previous game i.e. E>S, then the player issaid to be error biased. The probability forwhich he/she will be weighted is p=S/(E+S).

4.11.4.5.2 SCORE BIASING

If the player made more scores than errors inthe previous game i.e. S>E, the player is saidto be score biased and the probability forwhich he/she will be weighted is p=E/(E+S).

These probabilities are based on the philosophyof financial minimization to be discussedlater.

4.11.4.6 PHYSICAL REPORT

There are three aspects to the physical reportwhich the psychophysicist has to measure andindicate.

4.11.4.6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS


The psychophysicist has to measure (usingappropriate tools) environmental factors whichinclude, temperature, humidity, wind speed,rainfall and so on.

4.11.4.6.2 PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND LIGHT

In various competitions, there are physicalproperties that contribute to the way the gameis played. In a game of draughts we considerthe coefficient of friction between the piecesand the board. Arnold Schwarzenegger had toconsider the viscosity of his gel in order toachieve a polished finish. He also had toconsider the lighting on the stage in order toimpress the judges. Further on lighting, weshall see how important it is in cinematographybut for natural light (day light), we can makemention of the cloud cover in the environmentalfactors as being clear, cloudy or very cloudyand rainy.

4.11.4.6.3 ELECTRONIC FACTORS

The psychophysicist has to illustrate in thereport circuits used and the accompanyingsoftware if computers are used.


These factors make a descriptor look technicalbut it must be understood that this is a fulltime occupation.

4.11.4.7 PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT

The psychological report is based on threeaspects of the human psyche, namely: the id,ego and super ego. The analysis is aninvestigation of how these three aspects areaffected by internal forces such as sexualityand external forces such as racism. It isinteresting to observe how a homosexual playerwould be affected in a soccer match because ofsay David Beckham playing for the opposingteam. Also, how is a Negro player affected byracist chants by spectators in the stands?Section 1.5 elaborates on how this section isconstructed from the theory of psychology.

4.11.4.8 MATCH STATISTICS

These are not to be confused with the detailson the descriptor number. The match statisticsare essentially a referee’s summary of thegame; things such as ball possession, yellowand red cards given, goals scored anddisallowed. The match statistics format areparticular to a game. A judges summary and


judgment after a court case is also equivalentto match statistics in other sports.

4.11.4.9 CONCLUSION AND PERMUTATIONS

There are two types of conclusion to adescriptor of a psychophysical contest.

4.11.4.9.1 ORDERED SLOT CONCLUSION

This type of conclusion is where a table orleague is used to illustrate the player (orteam) at the top of the standings. There is aknock out format and a league format.

4.11.4.9.1.1 KNOCK OUT FORMAT

This format is usually applied to 2-playsystems. The winner of the contest which can becomposed of several legs ascends to the top andis allowed to continue in the tournament untilthe competitor (s) is the supreme champion. Theloser is relegated out of the competition orinto a lower division.

4.11.4.9.1.2 LEAGUE FORMAT

This format applies usually to a number ofteams competing for one top slot. The Englishpremier league and the Italian serie A areexamples of league formats. The number ofrelegated (demoted) teams depends on the format


agreed upon by the association. In the nextseason of play, teams promoted from the lowerdivision are given a chance to compete with thechampions and the rest of the survivors.

4.11.4.9.2 COMPETITOR INDEX CONCLUSION

This is the second type of conclusion in whichplayers (teams) are ranked either according tothe number of points made or the financialgains made thus far by the players, orcompanies in business systems.

4.11.4.9.2.1 POINTS INDEX

This system ranks the players or teamsaccording to the number of points made. Itdepends on things like number of games played,goals scored and conceded. A typical examplewould be the FIFA world rankings. Other factorsalso contribute to the final points tallydecided upon by the governing body.

4.11.4.9.2.2 FINANCIAL INDEX

The two obvious examples that come to mindwould be in tennis and golf where players areseeded. The financial index is most common whenconcluding business at stock exchanges. Thisindex is determined by monitoring the


performance of say 30 representative companieson the stock exchange.

4.11.4.10 HIGHLIGHTS AND DECLERATION OF EVENTS

The contest comes to an end with a review byexperts or spectators of the events thatoccurred. Emotions come in and sometimes evenfights break out between opposing supporters.Worse still riots and hooliganism cancharacterize the end of a contest. Thedeclaration of events is a statement whichstates that the psychophysicist witnessed thoseevents on a particular day. The psychophysicistmust sign his/her name and signature. Thus thedescriptor is complete and can be published forpublic reading. The most part of thepsychophysicists work is analysing the gamesand making recommendations to management andplayers on how to avoid errors and improve onscores.

4.11.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT AND PSYCHOANALYSIS

The uninitiated reader will need to understandthe following sections of descriptorscomprehensively. The psychological report is ananalysis by the psychophysicist of the


player(s) behaviour during the contest with anunderstanding of psychological factors aboutthe player(s) before the game. Thepsychophysicist also plays the role ofcounsellor and psychiatrist for the players.

Our description of the structure of thedescriptor is incomplete if we do not discusssome basics of psycho analysis. We describepsychical institutions namely the id, ego andsuper ego as they will play an important rolein the next section when we look at descriptorphysics. We make the contribution to psychoanalysis by stating that in psychophysicalerrors and scores everything is sexual andfinancial. Recall also that in the chapter onunderlying principles, we discussed grey matterand stated that the three fundamentalproperties of the brain are the intellect,volition and emotion.

4.11.5.1 THE ID

In psychology, this is the part of theunconscious mind where many of a person’s basic


needs, feelings and desires are supposed toexist.

4.11.5.2 EGO

In layman terms, this is the sense of your ownvalue and importance. Psychologically this isthe part of the human mind that is responsiblefor your sense of who you are. It is your senseof identity.

4.11.5.3 SUPER EGO

Psychologically, this is the part of the mindthat makes you aware of right and wrong andmakes you feel guilty if you do somethingwrong.

For our purposes, the ego is the seat ofobservation. Theoretically the id is not underall conditions open to observation. Thesituation is of course different in the case ofthe super ego. Its contents are for the mostpart conscious and so can be directly arrivedat by endophysical perception. The proper fieldfor our observation is always the ego. It isthe medium through which we try to get apicture of other institutions i.e. id and superego.


When the relations between the two neighbouringpowers, ego and id are peaceful, the formerfulfils its role of observing the latter.Different instinctual impulses are perpetuallyforming their way from the id to the ego, wherethey gain access to the motor apparatus, bymeans of which they obtain gratification. Infavourable cases the ego does not object to theintruder but puts its own energies at theothers disposal and confines itself toperceiving, it notes the onset of theinstinctual impulse, the heightening of tensionand feelings of pain by which this isaccompanied and finally, the relief fromtension when gratification is experienced.Observation of the whole process gives us aclear and undistorted picture of theinstinctual impulse concerned, of the quantityof libido (sexual desire) with which it iscathected and the aim which it pursues. Theego, if it assents to the impulse, does notenter the picture at all.

Unfortunately, the passing of instinctualimpulses from one institution to the other maybe a signal for all manner of conflicts, withthe inevitable result that observation of theid is interrupted. On their way to


gratification, the id impulses must passthrough the territory of the ego and here theyare in alien atmosphere. In the id, the socalled primary process prevails, there is nosynthesis of ideas, affects are liable todisplacement, opposites are not mutuallyexclusive and may even coincide andcondensation occurs as a matter of course. Thesovereign principle which governs the psychicprocess is that of obtaining pleasure. In allthis we are struck by the fact that theimpulses from either side of ego are equallyvaluable from the point of view of observation.All the defensive measures of the ego againstthe id are carried out silently and invisibly.

We end this section by observing that commonsense is the main psychical manoeuvre. Theplayer is free to make decisions that are notin the coaches’ game plan as and when it suitshim/her. This is to say that on the battlefield, the soldier doesn’t necessarily followthe generals’ commands to the latter,especially when his/her life is at stake.

4.12 DESCRIPTOR PHYSICS

Algebra as we know it is a methodology ofdetermining numerical unknowns given an


equation or relation between dependent andindependent variables. Mathematics is thereforethe mother of all sciences including the studyof psychophysical errors and scores. Physics isa branch of mathematics which states physicallaws i.e. it assigns equations to physicalphenomena which are proved physically in thelaboratory, in nature and in space. The proofconsists of making measurements of thedependent variable as a function of theindependent variables. Ours is not an exercisein the theory of equations but is an attempt tomake behaviour of competitors a mathematicalconcept. When we considered descriptor numbersof players we had constant terms namely; theBrain number B, constraint number C and thefinancial motivation number M. Time varies (infact only increases) as the game is played.However, even though the numbers B, C, M arenot changed during the course of play ( inordinary circumstances), they do contributegreatly to the number of errors and scores thatare made. As such we can call them pseudoconstants and they vary from game to game in aseason.

Graphically, we shall consider what are calledCartesian plots. These curves are plots of


errors versus time and scores versus time. Thecurves are plotted simultaneously as functionsof time and there is discreteness in not onlythe numbers of errors and scores but also inthe time measurements which are in seconds.Also plotted simultaneously on the Cartesianplots are discrete values of uncertainty. Theuncertainty measurement is registered by thepundit after entering a score or error which isnot deserved by the player. That is uncertaintyis a measure of the error made by the punditdue to imperfection of the human psyche andmeans of observation.

Calculus is not applied in the usual way but weshall introduce functions E(T) and S(T) whichdescribe the slopes and areas under the graphsin psychophysical errors and scores. Slopes arerelated to derivatives whilst areas undergraphs are related to integration. The sectionends with a discussion of the similarities ofpsychophysical error and scores and the physicsof states (quantum and statistical mechanics)and overall governing equation like theSchrödinger equation in quantum mechanicscalled the game function .In summary, we arestudying linear optimization problems with aquantum mechanical matrix treatment of the


results obtained during the research process.After discussing data analysis in descriptorphysics, we shall discuss descriptor biology.

4.12.1 POSTULATES OF PSYCHOPHYSICAL ERRORS ANDSCORES

1. There exist states (boundaries) of activityin which objects move under opposinginstruction (manoeuvres). These states can begeographical boundaries e.g. a country orbusiness premises. The final state to bestudied is the Domicile (place of residence).An object(s) in motion within a state definesactivity. The object(s) change positionrelative to a starting point at a time T=0. Theobjects can move individually or as groups(teams composed of distinct elements) .Thepositions of the object(s) relative to theconfines of the rules and time elapsedconstitutes change in physical stimulus whichproduces a psychological change in both playersand spectators. Motion in psychophysical errorsand scores studies is semi chaotic. This is tosay that activities repeat themselves over longperiods of time and not necessarily due to thesame players and spectators.


2. Probability calculations depend on asimulation of the main event (contest). Eachsystem to be considered has characteristicprobabilities but all probabilities that aredetermined lie between 0 and 1.

(a) Philosophy of Financial Minimization

When the simulation event (training contest)has been carried out and errors E, and scores Shave been counted, the philosophy of financialminimization states that if E>S, the player iserror biased and the probability for which theplayer is weighted is p=S/ (E+S) and if theplayer is score biased S>E then the player isweighted with a probability p=E/(E+S).

(b) Philosophy of Financial Maximization

In this philosophy the player is weighted aserror biased if E<S and the probability used isp=E/ (E+S). Consequently, the player is scorebiased if S<E and the probability to be used isp=S/ (E+S).

3. In the measurement of play there existuncertainty, error and score. An error isautomatically a score for the opponent.Uncertain play is when a score occurs due tomiscalculation on the part of the player or


when an error is registered by mistake by thepundit in the stands with an error stick.

4. Observer expectation value is defined asthe probability that the observer (spectator)will be satisfied with the promisedentertainment value, that is cost of the ticketof a game or cost of obtaining a degree ordiploma in Educational system or documentationof recognition of exceptional work and servicein a company.

5. Observer dissatisfaction value is defined asthe probability that the observer (spectator)will be disgruntled with the promisedentertainment value. NOTE: When disgruntledfans start fighting one another after or duringthe contest or a brawl with the referee forms asecondary contest which has errors and scoresof its own to be counted, and rules applied tothe situation are of the Judicial system.

6. The conclusion is the ranking (standing) ofthe competitors at the end of the competition.This leads to gratification and competitors aregiven reason to boast before the nextcompetition commences.

4.12.2 DATA ANALYSIS


The data obtained by measurement of play formsan active matrix which operates on the state ofaffairs. The operation is linear and introducesa multiplicative scalar function which dependson the position of the object(s) of play, thetime elapsed and the players performance (to bedefined later). The scalar function supposedlycontains all the information required about thegame and from which we can estimate a playersblood pressure and body temperature during thecourse of play. The game function defines allthe properties of a contest of any nature. Ittakes the typical form:

(g11 g12 g13…g1N−1 g1N

g21 g22 g23…g2N−1 g2N

g31 g32 g33…g3N−1 g3N)(A1

⋮AN

)≡G(r,T,θ)∅

(4.31)

In our study, all active matrices have 3 rowslabelled by integers 1, 2, 3 corresponding torow of errors first, row of scores second androw of uncertain play third. The column numbersrepresent the time elapsed in seconds, orminutes, or years, or decades or ages, so longas they are discrete entries. The elements ofthe active matrices are the number of errors,scores and uncertainties counted in a


particular time interval. The error stick isinterfaced to a central processing unit and theoutputs can be made available to the coach andinterested parties via a monitor. The columnvectors represent the state of affairs vectorand the game function G is not necessarily aneigenvalue but is hopefully a constant of theparticular game. The r represents the objectpositions in psychophysical space and the angletheta represents the performance to be definedunder Cartesian plots. The r is a measure ofthe sense of position of the object(s) withrespect to the position of players and timeplayed. It is a scalar and is impossible todescribe as a vector quantity or as a tensor ofhigher rank.

4.12.2.1 THE STATE OF AFFAIRS

The states of affairs are functions thatcontain information related to activity andinstruction. It is a combination of phase spaceand psychophysical space.

4.12.2.1.1 PHASE SPACE

This is analogous to classical phase space inwhich an object as a whole (the player) movesaccording to instruction from superiors. It canbe a geographical boundary such as a country,


business premises, soccer pitch, boxing ring, awar zone or any field of play imaginable. Asthe objects are moving they are described byquantum number n. The product of energy spentand time played is the ideal combination ofcomplimentary variables and is a negativequantity whose magnitude should not exceed alimit for specific players beyond which theplayer is dead due to exhaustion. In the caseof an eating competition, the energy change ispositive and the product of this energy gainedwith time elapsed shouldn’t exceed a particularlimit for a player, otherwise, death mightresult as well.

4.12.2.1.2 PSYCHOPHYSICAL SPACE

This space is composed of the physiologicalspace and the psychical institutions.

4.12.2.1.3 PHYSIOLOGICAL SPACE

This space is divided into the 33 components ofa wrestler in section one where we studied theobject descriptive manoeuvres. A missing fingeris not a reason for a player in a contest to bedeclared physically unfit. These 33 componentsin the physiological space receive instructionfrom the brain via the nervous system and theplayer performs a specified task during course


of play. When these objects are in motion,they are described by quantum number l.

4.12.2.2 MOTION IN THE PSYCHICAL INSTITUTIONS

These psychical institutions consist of the id,ego and super ego. In these institutions, theobjects in motion are the impulses. Theyoriginate in response to instructions from thesuperior player who it is assumed has anunderstanding of the rules of the game. Theinstructions come about as a result of thesituation in the domicile, a place ofresidence. In short, a head of state (orgovernment) also has superiors namelydependants and their respective financial andsexual desires and needs. The motion of theimpulses is described by quantum number m.

4.12.2.3 THE CARTESIAN PLOTS

Cartesian plots are plots of the error functionE(T) against time, the score function S(T)against time and the uncertainty function U(T)against time. They are plotted simultaneouslyand can be called compounded time series. Thescales on the axes can be agreed upon byconvention by psychophysicists. All


displacements plotted on the E, S, U axesshould equal 1 unit that is there cannot be aquarter or any fraction of an error or score oruncertain play. The values E, S and U can onlyincrease by integer values as time is elapsing.It is possible to make two or more errors orscores at an instant of play but uncertain playonly appears once as it is a correctionstatistic.

Displacements in time are also convenientlymeasured in discrete intervals. Time is theindependent variable and is always an integerthat progresses from an origin (start ofcontest). If the player is inactive, time stillprogresses and the value of E, T, U remainsconstant, i.e. a horizontal line. We noteagain that this data recorded is active i.e.measurement is made during course of play. Thereader concludes that the study ofpsychophysical errors and scores is acomputational physics application. The questionthat arises is whether we can develop a theorywhich has an equation which can predict anoutcome of a contest without a simulation (e.ga soccer match with reserves who have been toldto play in a certain manner (like actors in


cinematography) dependent on intelligence ofthe enemy (opponent)).

We believe such an equation exists because

1. We are considering motion of objects inclearly defined states. This confirms that itis a form of quantum mechanics, a theory ofphysics.

2. We are further convinced that this equationexists because of the equivalence of matrixmechanics and wave mechanics as shown by P.A.MDirac. Remember that we can according to deBroglie’s wave particle duality assign a wavelength (and consequently a wave function) toany moving object, be it subatomic or otherwiseas long as the object has mass and velocity.

4.12.2.4 THE DATABASE AND CONGRUENCE

After data from a particular contest isgathered, it has to be stored in a database.There are certain parameters in a contest thatwill reoccur and influence the outcome of acontest yet to be played. It comes in useful ifintelligence about the enemy (opponent orcompetitor) is not available. This gathereddata allows the strategist (the player whoissues instructions to subordinates) to make an


educated guess of what the enemy might employas strategy in the game to be played.

4.12.2.5 SIMULATED CONGRUENCE

This is the comparison of the agreement ofelements (in particular rows and columns) ofthe active matrix in the simulation contest andthe actual contest. It lies between 0 and 100%. Since the desire of an honest contestant isto win the simulation and actual contests, thecongruence should be of a high value, byconvention >66 %.

4.12.2.5.1 PAST CONGRUENCE

This is the comparison of the agreement ofelements in the active matrix of a past contestand the actual contest against a particularopponent. It also lies between 0 and 100 %.Since the desire of an honest contestant is towin the contest a second time the congruenceshould be of a high value, by convention >66 %.

4.12.2.5.2 EVEN CONGRUENCE

After a game, and an active matrix has beengenerated and then comparing it with either asimulation or past contest’s active matrix wesay that the game was of even congruence if itlies between 33 % and 66 %.


4.12.2.5.3 SAD CONGRUENCE

After a game, and an active matrix has beengenerated and then compared to either asimulation active matrix or past active matrixwe say that the game was of sad congruence ifit lies below 33 %.

4.12.2.6 THE LINEAR OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM ANDLUKE FORMS

Data analysis in psychophysical errors andscores is trivialised to a linear optimizationproblem. The product of the active matrix withthe state of affairs vector defines a domain ofconstraints given as:g11A1+g12A2+…+g1NAN=b1

g21A1+g22A2+…+g2NAN=b2

g31A1+g32A2+…+g3NAN=b3

(4.32)

Determining the objective functions f(c1A1,…,cNAN)

and the game constants b1,b2,b3 is the maincomponent of work to be done by research. Theobjective function f is specific to aparticular type of system and is called thepolicy statement. The game constants are also


specific to a type of system and are agreedupon by convention and this is done via thescientific method by the researchers. Thesefunctions and constants vary also depending onwhich country the activity is taking place.They are derived on the premise that theentries for errors (first row) are minimalentries and the entries for scores (second row)are maximum entries. This is just to say thatthe players “Obeyed Instruction” and followedthe rules of the game. We then find basicfeasible solutions to this linear optimization(programming) method via the Simplex methodintroduced by G.B. Dantzig in 1948.

4.12.2.6.1 REDUCTION OF THE ACTIVE MATRIX INTOTHE LUKE FORM

Well and well our data analysis is a linearprogramming (optimization) exercise carried outby the psychophysicist after the game has beenplayed. Recall that we want a Quantummechanical like analysis in order to determinea player’s blood pressure and body temperaturethroughout the course of play. We do this byfirstly obtaining the Luke form of the Activematrix that is; we divide the row of errors,row of scores and row of uncertain play into


three intervals and obtain a 3x3 matrix asfollows:

L11=g11+g12+…+g1a

L12=g1a+1+g1a+2+…+g1b−1

L13=g1b+g1b+1+…+g1N

And we do the same for the other two rows suchthat the last entry is of the form:

L33=g3b+g3b+1+…+g3N−1+g3N

The motivation is that we obtain a squarematrix without losing any information about thenumber of errors, scores and uncertain play inthe new time intervals, which are equalintervals of time. The state of affairs vectoris replaced by an Eigen vector and Eigen valuesare introduced. The Eigen values obtained areanalysed statistically and the last objectiveof the research findings is to see whethersymmetry is obeyed. Symmetry in dynamicalsystems implies conservation laws.

4.12.2.7 PERFORMANCE

In order to determine the performance of aplayer after a game, we measure the angle (tobe denoted as theta) between the resultant lineof E (T) and S (T). The resultant line is thestraight line from the origin to the last point


where E (T) intersects with the vertical linethat represents the end of the game andsimilarly for S (T). Taking the counterclockwise angular measure from E (T) to S (T)as positive we can say the player played well,otherwise it was a poor performance. From thenature of the Cartesian plots, performance is afirst quadrant angle.

4.13 DESCRIPTOR BIOLOGY

The psychologist and psychophysicist must havea thorough background in physiology. He/shemust know something about the organs ofadjustment, especially the brain and nervoussystem and the complex, interacting endocrinegland system. We study these systems so that wehave a firm understanding of many of thespecifics of human behaviour, for without thesestructures there could be no human behaviour orconscious experience.

For our purposes we consider man as anorganism-a living being made up ofinterdependent parts (organs) which workingtogether, enable it to meet demands made on it.In particular, the competitor desires to followinstructions which can be internally generatedor externally generated. In the study of


biological systems-a single celled organismsuch as an Amoeba is under internal andexternal instructions to survive. The religiousreader of course assumes that the amoeba isunder instruction from God whilst theevolutionist believes it is the survival of thefittest that enables organisms to compete fornecessities such as food, oxygen and favourabletemperatures.

Normally many activities are going on at oncein the human organism yet man behaves as awhole in the sense that even though he may bereacting to an intricate pattern of conditions,he does only one main thing at a time(Sherrington 1941). For example, as a persondrives along in a car he may at the same timebe mentally reviewing for an examination (examshave to do with the objective of employmentwhich satisfies the financial desire)orthinking about last night’s date (dates have todo with the objective of satisfying the sexualdesire). Other secondary activities such asbreathing, sweating and hearing surroundingnoises are also taking place. But still heobeys the traffic signals for he is doing onemain thing at a time-driving a car andconsidering traffic rules. The secondary


activities if they are to persist, must eithersupport the main thing (activity) being done orat least not interfere with it. If itinterferes then an error has been generated andis registered. In a competition however, it isdesirable that the opponent makes an errorwhich is registered as a score for the opposingcompetitor.

4.13.1 THE ORGANS OF ADJUSTMENT

The organs of the human body are classifiedinto two chief groups, according to whetherthey

1) Function internally tomaintain the individual’s health andgrowth.

2) Function in the individualsactivities in the environment as heovercomes obstacles to the satisfaction ofhis needs (gratification)

The first group called the organs ofmaintenance includes the heart and bloodvessels, the lungs, the alimentary canal andits digestive glands and the liver. The secondgroup known as the organs of adjustmentincludes the muscles, the skeleton and certainglands. The organs of adjustment enable the


organism to carry on such activities as findingfood, mating and working. Some occupations addfinancial motivation numbers to activities suchas mating, in particular prostitution. Weconsider this trade under business systems. Theorgans of maintenance and adjustment arecoordinated and regulated by the endocrineglands which work through the circulatorysystem and by the central nervous system.

Of primary interest to the study ofpsychophysical errors and scores is the issueof stimulus. A stimulus is regarded as someform of radiant, chemical, sound or otherenergy which, if sufficiently strong acts on aspecifically sensitive tissue in the eye, ear,skin or sense organ, setting off nerveimpulses. A motivated player responds to thefinancial stimulus but other aspects such asthe sound energy from the spectators in thestands can equally motivate or demotivate aplayer.

It is generally assumed that when a response(behaviour) is observed, there must have been astimulus to produce it. If no stimulus isapparent, an internal one has been postulated.In some cases an internal stimulus may be


applied directly to a nerve cell rather than toa sensory receptor cell. The organism is neverimmobile and passive in the absence of externalstimulation to arouse it to action. Instead itis constantly active, scanning itssurroundings, monitoring its own actions,seeking certain conditions and avoiding others.Such stimuli are not essential for action butare also a source of information to be used inimproving an ongoing action or stored for lateruse. The problem of slothfulness has twoapproaches of solution. The scientific solutionto the problem of slothfulness is electricalcharge stimulation of certain areas of thebrain that are not too well understood yet byneurologists. The other approach of solving theproblem of slothfulness falls under religioussystems where evangelical preachers command theevil spirit (demon) of slothfulness to departfrom the patient (in our case in Jesus’ name).

4.13.2 THE BASES OF NEURO FUNCTIONING

Psychologists and neurologists are certain thatunderlying every thought, every perception andevery action is a pattern of neural activity.As we encounter stimulus situations of allkinds, messages are received, evaluated,


integrated and stored, and other messages aresent out to the various organs of response.

Underlying every simple movement or complexact of the human organism is a chain of neuralstructures making such behaviour possible. Inits simplest form this chain is known as thesensory-motor arc and generally consists offine elements; (1) receptors (found below theskin), (2) sensory nerve fibres, (3) connectors(contained in the spinal column), (4) motornerve fibres and (5) effectors (muscles).

Response to a stimulus requires all five of thesteps except in rare cases where there is noconnecting neuron in the spinal cord. Noresponse will be able to take place if thestimulation is too weak or of a kind to whichreceptors are not sensitive, or if the neuralimpulse fails to cross any of the synapses inthe chain, or if the impulse finally reachingthe effectors is too weak to activate them, orif the effectors are unable to respond (perhapsdue to fatigue). A single chain consists of oneinterneuron. This simple arc is duplicated manytimes in a stimulus-response act, and typicallyinterneurons bring involvement of segments of


the spinal cord above and below the onecontaining the connectors.

4.13.2.1 THE NEURON AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A single nerve cell, which is the structuralunit or building block of the nervous system iscalled a neuron. It has all the characteristicsof living cells in general and in addition isspecialized to receive and carry outelectrochemical messages (nerve impulses). Eachneuron has its own nucleus. The part of theneuron in which its nucleus is located isapproximately spherical in shape and is knownas the cell body. The cell bodies are mostlycollected in bunches (nuclei) within variousparts of the central nervous system, but somecell bodies are gathered in small clusters(ganglia) elsewhere in the body.

All neurons have two types of fibre likeextensions: various types of dendrites and oneaxon. Dendrites, which along with the cell bodyitself receive nerve impulses, are typicallyshort, multiple and branched. The axon may alsobe branched and may be either, like the patchcords on an old type switchboard, or quitelong. It transmits the nerve impulses to otherneurons or to muscles or body organs.


There are three types of neurons, a sensory (afferent)neuron with long dendrite and relatively short axon, aninterneuron with its many branches and a motor neuronwhich has collateral and a long axon ending at effectors. Ina sensory motor- arc all synapses are in the spinal cord.

A number of axons or nerve fibres as they aresometimes called are frequently gathered intobundles that have a common place of origin anddestination. Within the central nervous systemsuch bundles are known as nerve pathways ortracts, when the bundles connect the centralnervous system with the other parts of thebody, they are called nerve trunks or simplynerves. Some nerves in the body (but never inthe brain) contain both motor and sensoryfibres.

The receptor-connector-effector processoperates through the passage of electrochemicalnerve impulses along individual nerve fibres.At the point where a neuron contacts another(the synapse), the nerve impulses from one cellis capable of initiating an impulse in the nextneuron in line.

The sensory-motor arc is the simplestfunctional unit of the nervous system. Nervecells in such an arc are linked in chains of


two or more to connect receptor cells withcells in some organ of response. A basic chainconsists of a sensory or afferent neuronleading from a receptor, usually one or moreconnector cells, or interneuron, within thespinal cord or the brain and the efferentneuron, or motor neuron, leading outward tosome muscle. A sensory-motor arc is also calleda reflex arc because the impulse going to thecentral nervous system is reflected back to themuscles, often muscles near the sense organ.

In addition to the afferent fibres leading fromreceptors into the brain and the efferentfibres leading away from the brain to themuscles and glands there are special efferentfibres going down from the higher centres tolower relay points for incoming sensorymessages and even out to the receptors. Thesespecial efferent fibres have a “gating” effect,blocking off the incoming sensory messages orpermitting their passage, depending on theongoing activity and needs of the organism.This is one of the mechanisms that enable theorganism to do one thing at a time.

The vast majority of neurons connect two pointswithin the central nervous system and are


called inter neurons or connector neurons. Someinter neurons with a short, multiple-branchedaxon provide a distinguishing system throughwhich, for example, incoming sensoryinformation can be shunted eventually to manymotor neurons and muscles. Other connectorneurons, with long axons, carry messages fromthe spinal cord up to the brain for correlationat “Head quarters”.

The nervous system as a whole has two parts:the central and the peripheral. The centralnervous system is made up of the brain and thespinal cord. Its function is to correlate andintegrate- makes the various parts of the bodywork together. The peripheral nervous systemconsists of nerve fibres passing from thereceptors to the central nervous system and offibres passing from the central , nervoussystem to muscles and glands. These peripheralnerves connect the central nervous system withall the receptors and effectors throughout thebody.

Both the central and the peripheral nervoussystem have somatic components which controlthe skeletal muscles, and visceral componentswhich control the glands and the special kinds


of muscle in the heart, blood vessels, eyes,and internal organs, or viscera. In general thesomatic muscles can be controlled voluntarily,whereas the visceral ones cannot.

In the central nervous system, these somaticand visceral components are largelyintermingled, but in peripheral nervous systemsthey are more separate and often run indifferent nerve trunks. The visceral portion ofthe peripheral system is called the autonomicnervous system.

Some of the coordinating work of the autonomicsystem is done outside the central nervoussystem in the sympathetic chain, a chain ofganglia lying just outside the spinal cord, andin ganglia near or actually within the walls ofthe internal organs. The neurons running tothese ganglia, preganglionic fibres, arecomparable to inter neurons and constitute adistributing system. Fibres running from theganglia to glands or to the hollow organs,postganglionic fibres, are comparable to motorneurons. The two parts of the autonomic system-the sympathetic and the parasympatheticoriginate from different sections of the brain


stem and spinal cord and in general oppose eachother’s functions.

The nervous system functions at three levels ofcomplexity.

1. Simple, unconsciousprocesses, such as the reflexes, are madepossible for the most part throughconnections located in the spinal cord andan extension at the top of it known as thebrain.

2. More complex processes suchas the reflexes are made possible bystructures in the brain stem. Thecerebellum controls equilibrium and aidsthe motor systems of the brain in carryingout well-coordinated voluntary movements;the thalamus organizes and transmitssensory impulses to the cerebral cortex;and the hypothalamus plays an importantrole biological drives such as hunger andthirst, in emotion, and in the regulationof the visceral organs. These parts deepinside the cerebral hemispheres aresometimes collectively called the oldbrain. This is because evolutionistsbelieve these parts developed first in the


course of evolution. As we pass from thelower to the higher animals, there is moreand more “encephalization”-that is, thehigher parts of the brain particularly thecerebral cortex are proportionally largerand make possible greater precision andflexibility in adjustment.

3. The cerebral cortex, theouter covering of the cerebral hemispheres,is an extremely complex collection of cellbodies and interconnecting nerve fibres.Parts of it are organized to receivesensory information from the environmentand to help initiate voluntary movements.The cerebral cortex also contributescrucially to such complex processes aslearning and thinking, although it isproven that such higher mental processesare dependent on contributions from the oldbrain.

4.14 CONCLUSION AND PROVISIONAL LIST OF IDEALSYSTEMS IN PSYCHOPHYSICAL ERRORS AND SCORES (TOBE INVESTIGATED)

The reader observes that for this researchsynopsis to materialise one will require vastamounts of funding and extensive collaboration


between people involved in the followinginterconnected fields and endeavours: Casinoand hospitality industry, all sportsdisciplines, Business systems and economics,political systems, Judicial systems, Transporteconomics and engineering, biological systemsand medicine, Educational systems, Militarysystems, Mass Media and communications,Cinematography, Religious systems and lastlythe billions of types of Domicile. Thus theresearch team has to be comprised of a range ofpersonalities that can include a teenager aboutto enter college to study philosophy to amiddle aged female, divorced aeronauticsengineer and a widowed Las Vegas grandfather onpension.

Stereotyped examples would include a range ofdisasters and successes such as thetitanic ,Shipman murders, the 1993 Gabon aircrash of a Canadian manufactured militaryaircraft carrying Zambian soccer players, theresurrection of Christ, the discovery ofpenicillin, the end of the second world war andthe election of president Obama into the whitehouse.


The levels of degrees awarded would depend onthe contribution made by an individualparticipant to the dissertation as a whole. Theresearch outputs are also to be made availablein an encyclopaedic book format for those whohave no means to access electricity andelectronic databases.

As we conclude this chapter on QuantumAstrophysics and creation, we observe that ourphilosophical emphasis was on reality and themethodology used to understand our reality wassuch that, we reviewed all quantitative andqualitative knowledge to propound the existenceof God. Objectivity was to see whether we canhave a mathematical and physical construct ofreality, both with equations and graphicalrepresentations of our concept of reality.Numbers and shapes are used to definemathematical logic, and understanding a problemis the process of rearranging objects in apredetermined and prescribed manner to achievean outcome reality, and there exists a set ofoutcomes which allows us to make extrapolationsinto what we perceive as future and pastevents. Recall that we defined time as areligious quantity and our review of creation


from the bible highlights this definition oftime.

The ad-hoc physics space; the plot of energy ofa system against ho, is what is called a GODDOMINATED REALITY GDR. In the GDR, nosingularities exist as all points areanalytical and no discontinuities in measuredquantities occur. There is always a value ofenergy at any point in the universe as we havealso emphasised in this presentation theexistence of the ether. We have the GDRdivided into three regions as defined below:

1. A Sink Dominated Reality S−¿DR ¿ has values ofho such that:

−∞≤ho≤0.0

2. A Man Dominated Reality MDR has values of ho

such that:0.0≤ho≤ħ

3. A Source Dominated Reality S+¿DR ¿ whose valuesof ho are such that:

ħ≤ho≤∞

Quantitatively, we use the BASIC LAW OF REALITYwhich is given as:

Outcomereality=f(E (ho ))±Residualreality


The function f(E (ho )) is the Measured Reality.

We can for example say that the triggermechanism of the Hot Big Bang cosmology is selfimplied by the existence of modern daylaboratory and observatory observations whichare the measured reality and the residualreality is the noise detected by Penzias andWilson. Thus the Outcome reality is obvious,that is non-zero and the big bang was triggeredby a physical phenomenon relative to a ManDominated Reality MDR.

A reality shift occurs when there is a changein ho experimentally. For instance, thediscovery of the Higgs Boson recentlyconstitutes a reality shift from a MDR to theearly stages of an S+¿DR ¿. The interpretation ofthis is that as we continue to gather more andmore knowledge, we are shifting towards the“source” of “everything” quantitative andqualitative. A reality shift is not a Paradigmshift. A paradigm is a “world view”. We statedin chapter 2 that there are two groups ofpeople on the earth, those that are religiousand those that are scientific. I would suggestto the reader to adopt a religious attitude toguide their behaviour and use the scientific


method for quantitative analysis of matter andlight. In conclusion, Darwinian evolution was areality retardation-way back into the timebefore the big bang singularity.

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM GNOSIS: CHAPTER 4: NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS AND CREATION

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