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ISBN:978-184831-774-1

Textcopyright©1994ZiauddinSardarIllustrationscopyright©1994ZafarAbbasMalik

Theauthorandartisthaveassertedtheirmoralrights.

Originatingeditor:RichardAppignanesi

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Contents

CoverTitlePageCopyright

TheLifeofMuhammadThePledgeMuhammad’sWisdomMarriageTheRevelationTheNightJourneyTheHijratoMadinaTheBattleofBadrTheBattleofUhadTheTreatyofHudaybiaMakkahFallsTheFarewellSermonDeathoftheProphetALifeofHistoryTheHadithTheScienceofHadithTheSunnahSomeSayingsofProphetMuhammadTheQur’anTheAuthenticQur’anWhatistheQur’an?TheUniquenessoftheQur’anPurposesoftheQur’anEssenceoftheQur’anQur’anicGuidanceTheCommentariesInterpretingtheQur’anTranslationsoftheQur’anImpactoftheQur’anTawheedThePillarsofIslam

KhalifaIlmTheTrueMeaningofJihadShariahTheAimsofShariahFiqhTheClassicalSchoolsofFiqhPermanenceandChange‘Thereshallbenocoercioninmattersoffaith’FormativeHistoryofIslamTheSeedsofDiscordTheRightlyGuidedTheExpansionofIslamTheRiseoftheShiaTheShiaConceptofImamsTheMuslimCivilizationTheKnowledgeIndustryTheWarraqeenInstitutionsofLearningArgumentsandDebatesSufism(Mysticism)LiteratureScienceTechnologyMedicineSocialSciencesGeographyandTravelArchitectureandTownPlanningArtMusicSpreadofMuslimLearningtoEuropeDeclineColonialismManufacturingColonialismIsIamandtheWest1.Denunciation2.TheCrusades3.OrientalismReformandRevival

TheMuslimWorldMuslimMinoritiesImmigrationBlackMuslimsOrganizationofIslamicConferenceTheIranianRevolutionIslamicFundamentalismTheIslamicstateWomenReconstructionIslamizationofknowledgeTodayand……Tomorrow

TheAuthorsFurtherReadingIndexandLittleDictionary

AsSalamalaykum:peacebeuponyou.IamFezand,inshaAllah(Godwilling),Iwillmakesurethattheauthorskeeptothestraightpath.Staytuned.

Muhammad,peacebeuponhim*,isthemostinfluentialmaninhistory.Butheisnotanordinaryman.HeisaProphet–thelast

ProphetofGod.

ProphetMuhammaddidnotstartanewreligion.HeconveyedthesamemessageasalltheotherprophetsofGod–includingAdam,Noah,Ibrahim,MosesandJesus.

TheeternalmessagethatMuhammadpreachedisnotnamedafterhim.ItiscalledIslamwhichmeanspeaceandsubmissiontoGod.ThetermIslamalsosignifiesthenaturalinclinationofhumanbeings,aGod-centredworldview,acivilizationwithoverfourteenhundredyearsofhistoryandanuniversalistworldculture.

ThefollowersofMuhammadarenotcalledMuhammadan,thisisaninsultingtermthatfirstemergedduringthecrusades.ThosewhobelieveinthemessageofMuhammadandthatheisthelastMessengerofGodarecalledMuslims.

TheLifeofMuhammad

570CE:ProphetMuhammadwasborninMakkah(akaMecca),intheArabianpeninsulanowcalledSaudiArabia.Hisfather,Abdullah,haddieda

fewweeksbeforehisbirth.Hisgrandfatherentrustedhimtoafoster-mother,Halima,wholookedafterhimduringhisinfantyears.Whenhewassix,hismotherdied.Twoyearslater,hisgrandfatheralsodied.TheyoungMuhammadwasnowlookedafterbyAbuTalib,hispaternaluncle.AbuTalibwasagenerousbutpoorman.SoMuhammadhadtoearnhislivelihoodfromatenderage–hewasthusunabletolearnhowtoreadorwrite.

Makkahwasadesertcity.ItsmaindistinctionwastheKa’aba,thehousededicatedtotheOneGodandbuiltunderdivineinspirationbyProphetAbraham.ThemajorityofMakkah’sinhabitantswereidolworshippers.Makkahfunctionedasacity-state,governedbyacounciloftenhereditarytribalchiefswithcleardivisionofpower.ThemostpowerfulofMakkantribeswastheQuraysh–thetribeofMuhammad.Thecity’sinhabitantswerepoorbut

generouspeople,theylovedpoetryandwar,andwerefiercelyloyaltotheirtribesandtheirgods.Whileithadnonaturalresourcesofitsown,itwasanactivecommercialcentre.Foreigntradersbroughttheirgoodstobesoldinthelocalmarket.MuhammadbecameatraderandaccompaniedAbuTalibonbusinesstripstoPalestineandSyria.

Heisnotoneofuswhoproclaimsthecauseofnationalismandheisnotoneofuswhofightsthecauseofnationalismandheisnotoneofuswhodiesinthecauseofnationalism.Nationalismmeanshelpingyourpeopleinanunjustcause.ProphetMuhammad

ThePledge

neday,atraderfromYemenwascheatedofhisgoodsbyagroupofMakkans.Whenthetraderaskedforhelp,noonecametohissupport.Sohe

wroteasatiricalpoemandreciteditaloudforalltohear.WhenZubair,oneofMuhammad’suncles,heardthepoemhefeltgreatremorse.Hecalledameetingofcity’seldersandestablishedanorderofchivalrywiththedeclaredaimofprotectingtheoppressedofthecity,localinhabitantsorforeignvisitors.YoungMuhammadbecameanenthusiasticmemberofthisorganizationwhichwascalledHilfal-fudul.Laterhewouldsay:‘Iamnotpreparedtogiveuptheprivilege(ofbeingamember)evenagainstaherdofcamels;ifsomebodyshouldappealtomeeventoday,byvirtueofthatpledge,Ishallhurrytohishelp.’

Muhammad’sWisdom

uhammadoftenhelpedtheinhabitantsofMakkahtosettletheirdisputes.Once,theKa’abacaughtfireandwasburnttotheground.Whenitwas

rebuilt,allthetribesofMakkahtookpartinitsconstruction.ButwhenitcametofixingthesacredBlackStoneinthewall,aquarrelaroseamongsttheMakkanleaders–allwantedtohavethehonouroffixingthestone.Finally,theyagreedtoselectajudgefromamongstthemandabidebyhisruling.ThejudgewasMuhammad;andhissolutiontotheproblemsavedthehonourofallconcerned.Hespreadawhitesheetontheground,placedtheBlackStoneinthemiddle,andaskedthetriballeadersofMakkahtoholdthesheetandcarrythestonetoitssite.Muhammadthanfixedthestoneinitsplace.Itwashisintegrity,honestyandwisdomthatearnedMuhammadthetitleofAlAmin–‘thetrustworthy’.

Marriage

neday,whenMuhammadwas25,hisuncleAbuTalibsaidtohim:‘Iam,asyouknow,amanofscantymeans,andtrulythetimesarehard.Nowthereis

acaravanofyourowntribeabouttostartforSyria,andKhadijah,daughterofKhuwaylid,isinneedoftheservicesofmenofourtribetotakecareofhermerchandise.Ifyouofferyourselffortheenterprise,shewouldreadilyacceptit.’Muhammadreplied:‘Beitasyousay.’

Muhammad’scourtesy,honestyanddevotiontohiswork,earnedtheadmirationofthewidowedKhadija.Soimpressedwasshewiththeyoung

Muhammadthatsheproposedmarriage.Muhammadaccepted.At40,shewas15yearsolderthanhim.

Tobringaboutajustreconciliationbetweentwocontestantsischarity,helpingapersonmounthisanimalortoloadhisbaggageontoitischarity,agoodwordischarity,toremoveobstaclesinthestreetischarity,smiling

uponthefaceofyourbrotherischarity…sexualrelationswithyourspousesischarity.

ProphetMuhammad

TheRevelation

27Ramadan,611CE:MuhammadwasinthecaveofHira,afewmilesfromMakkah.Itwashispracticetoretiretothiscaveregularlyforprayer,

meditationandreflectiononthequestionsofcreation,purposeoflifeanddeath,thestrugglebetweengoodandevil.Whileinastateofinnerreflection,Muhammadheardacommandingvoiceaddressinghim.Frightened,andwithtremblingvoice,heasked:‘Whoisit?’‘Read!’saidthevoice.‘Iamnotofthosewhoread,’Muhammadreplied.Hewasgrabbed,huggedvehementlyandthenreleased.‘Read!’saidthevoice.‘Iamnotofthosewhoread.’Hewashuggedagain;andagainforthethirdtime.‘Read!’‘WhatshallIread?’‘Read!InthenameofyourLordwhocreates,createsmanfromaclot!Read,foryourLordismostGenerous,whoteachesbymeansofpen,teachesmanwhathedoesnotknow.’Hedid.AndMuhammadbecametheMessengerofGod.

MuhammadreturnedtoKhadijaandtoldherwhathadhappened.Shecoveredhimwithblanketsasheshiveredwithfear.‘OKhadija!’,heasked,‘whatisthematterwithme?’InKhadija’smindtherewasnodoubtwhathadhappenedonMountHira.Hehadexperiencedarevelation.AndshebecamethefirstconverttoIslam.

Muhammadfirstcommunicatedhismessagetohisintimatefriends,andsecretly,tothemembersofhisowntribes.Ashisfollowersgrew,hepreachedopenlyinthecityandnearbycommunities.TheMakkansdidnotcareforsomeonewhodenouncedtheirgodsandancestralbeliefs.Theylaunchedavigorouscampaign

topersecutetheProphetandhissmallbandoffollowers.MakkanswouldforceMuslimstolieonburningsand,placehugebouldersontheirchests,pourred-hotironoverthem.ManyearlyconvertstoIslamdiedunderthistorture–butnonerenouncedtheirnewfaith.Whentheoppressionbecametoogreat,theProphetadvisedhisfollowerstoleaveMakkahandgotoAbyssinia.Manydid.

TheMakkanstriedachangeoftactic.DidMuhammadwantwealth?Washeinterestedinbecomingachief?‘Hecanhaveanythinghedesires,ifherecantsandstopspreaching.’Muhammadrepliedwithhischaracteristicfortitude:‘ByGod,iftheyputthesunonmyrighthandandthemoononmylefthandandaskmetogiveupmymission,Iwillnotdoit.’Afterseveralotherattemptsatcompromise,theMakkansdemandedthatAbuTalibhandoverhisnephewtobe

killed.Whenthedemandwasnotmet,thecity’schiefsdecidedtoimposeacompleteboycottonMuhammad,hisfollowersandhistribe.Noonewastotalktothemorhaveanydealingswiththem.ThetribeslivingaroundMakkahalsojoinedintheboycott.

MuhammadenduredthepersecutionoftheMakkansfor13years.ThehardshipledtothedeathofhisbelovedKhadijaandhisuncleAbuTalib.Hewasconstantlyabused,sometimesstoned,thornsandrubbishwerethrownoverhim–always,alwayshewouldpray,‘GuidethemontherightpathGod,fortheyknownotwhattheydo.’

Thebestrichnessistherichnessofthesoul;thebestprovisionispiety;themostprofoundphilosophyisthefearofGod,theExalted,theGreat.

ProphetMuhammad

TheNightJourney

twasduringthemostagonizingperiodofhismissioninMakkahthatProphetMuhammadwasgrantedauniquefavourbyGod.Hehadavision

ofanaudiencewithGod.Themystical‘NightJourney’–isra–tookplacefromMakkahtoJerusalem,followedbythesubsequent‘Ascension’–miraj–toheaven.Ledbyhiscelestialguide,Muhammadascended,onebyone,thesevenHeavensofcreation.AteachHeavenhemetearlierprophetsofothernations–Moses,Jesus,AbrahamandAdam,thefirstoftheprophets.BeyondtheseventhHeaven,Muhammadpassedthroughtheveilscoveringthatwhichishidden,untilhereachedtheveilofUnityandlookeduponthatwhichtheeyescannotsee,mindscannotimagine.Ithappenedatthetwinkleofaneye.AndledtotheinstitutionoffivedailyprayersasanintegralpartofIslamicfaith.

AsolareclipseoccurredthedayMuhammad’sinfantson,Ibrahim,died.SomeArabtribeswereveryimpressedbythejointoccurrenceofthetwoevents.MuhammadmustbeatrueProphet,theythought,ifhislosswasmournedbytheheavenlybodies.Consequently,theyflockedinfrontofhishouseandaskedtobeconvertedtoIslam.Thephenomenon,Muhammadtoldthem,hadnothingtodowiththebirthorthedeathofamortal–ithadnoconnectionwiththedeathofhisson.Disappointed,thegatheredtribesdispersed.

TheHijratoMadina

622CE:Exactlyoneyearafterhis‘NightJourney’,MuhammadwaspersuadedbyagroupofMuslimsfromMadina,atown200milesnorthof

Makkah,tomigratetotheircity.AslifeinMakkahwasintolerable,Muhammadagreed.Meanwhile,theMakkanshadproducedanelaborateplantokillMuhammad.Ontheappointedday,theMakkansenteredhishousewiththeintentionofstabbinghimwhileheslept.Totheirastonishment,theydiscoveredthatMuhammad,accompaniedbyhiscompanionAbuBakr,hadalreadyleftforMadina.InhisbedlayAli,hisyoungcousin.TheMakkansformedaposseandgavechase.MuhammadandAbuBakrhidinacaveonMountThawrandeventuallyreachedMadinasafely.

TheMuslimcalendarisalunarcalendarbasedsolelyupontheMoon’schanges.TheMuslimyeartakesnoaccountofseasonalchanges.Inrelationtothesolaryear,itrecedesapproximatelyelevendayseachsolaryear,withtheresultthatineach32.5yearsitpassesthroughallthesolarseasons.Thus,ifinagivenyearthefastingmonthofRamadanoccursduringtheheatofthesummer,itwilloccurwithinthecoolseason16.25yearslater.

ThepeopleofMadinarejoicedatthearrivalofMuhammad.ThecityalsoplayedhosttohundredsofmigrantsfromMakkah.Muhammadsuggestedthateachworkingandwell-offindividualfromMadinashouldtakeamigrantfromMakkahashisbrother.‘FraternizeinAllah’,heannounced,‘youarebrothers.’Ashelpers,thefolksfromMedinaweretosharehalftheirpropertyandbelongingswiththeirmigrantbrothersfromMakkah.TheinhabitantsofMadinaacceptedMuhammad’ssuggestion.ButsomepeoplefromMakkahdidnotwishtoburdentheirbrothersfromMadina.

TheBattleofBadr

624CE:TheMakkanswerenottoopleasedbyMuhammad’ssafedepartureandtheestablishmentofthecity-stateofMadinaunderhisleadership.They

vowedtocrushhim.Afterthoroughpreparationlastingsometwoyears,aMakkanforceofathousandfullyarmedwarriors,manyonhorses,marchedonMadina.TheirobjectivewastotalannihilationofthesmallMuslimcommunityofMadina.Muhammaddecidedtofightthemoutsidethecity,nearthefieldofBadr.Andso313ill-equippedMuslims,withtwohorsesand70camelsbetweenthem,mettheMakkanbrigade.Thebattlewasfierceandswift.SeventyMakkanswerekilled;seventywerecaptured.TheMakkansfled,leavingmuchofwhattheyhadbroughtbehindthem.Afewdaysafterthebattle,MuhammadreleasedtheprisonerscapturedatBadr.

TheBattleofUhad

hehumiliatingdefeatatBadronlyincreasedtheMakkans’resolvetocrushtheMuslimcommunityofMadina.Theyreturnedayearlaterwiththree

thousandwellarmedmen.Thistimetheyweremetby700MuslimsatthebaseofMountUhad,justoutsideMadina.Onceagain,thebattlewasfierceandswift.Thelinesoftheenemywerebrokenandtheywererepulsed.AgroupofMuslimarchersontopofMountUhad,understrictordersnottomove,sensedeasyvictoryandabandonedtheirposition.ThisenabledtheMakkanstore-groupandcounter-attack.Theresultingconfusionturnedcertainvictorytoneardefeat.SeventyMuslimsdiedandMuhammadwaswounded.Buttheenemywasheldatthefootofthehill.Sotheycalleditadayandpromisedtoreturnthefollowingyear.

Muhammad’sinstructiontohistroopsgoinginbattle:Molestnottheharmlessinmatesorthosewhoareillinbed.Abstainfromdemolishingthedwellingsoftheunresistinginhabitants.Destroynotthemeansoftheirsubsistence,northeirfruittrees.IAndtouchnotthepalm.

626CE:TheMakkansspentmuchoftheyearplanningamega-campaignagainsttheMuslims.TheycombinedforceswithvariousJewishtribes,aswellastribesofthenorth,southandeastofMadinaandgatheredamightyallianceoftenthousandstrongagainsttheProphet.

MuhammadconsultedhiscompanionsforadviceonhowtodefendMadina.AtthesuggestionofSalmanal-Farsi,aPersianMuslim,hedecidedtodefendthecitybydiggingatrencharoundit.TheMuslimsworkeddayandnightfortwentydaystosurroundthecitywithahugetrench.

TheMakkanarmytriedforthirtydaysandthirtynightstocrossthetrench,butcouldnot.‘Byourgods,’sworethemightyMakkanforce,thisisatricktheArabsneverplay.’Andleftwithoutabattle.

TheTreatyofHudaybia

uhammadeventuallypersuadedtheMakkanstosignthefamoustreatyofHudaybia.

MuhammadnowdevotedtimetopreachinghismessageoutsideMadina.HesentemissariestotherulersoftheneighbouringcountriesinvitingthemtothefaithofIslam.SomeoftheserulersacceptedIslamandsufferedfortheirfaith.TheByzantinepriest,Dughatir,waslynchedbyamobforembracingIslam.TheprefectofPalestinewasdecapitatedandcrucifiedbyorderoftheemperor.ManyMuslimemissarieswerekilled.

MakkahFalls

anuary630CE:Afterrepeatedviolationsofthetreaty,MuhammadgavetheMakkansanultimatum:torespectthetreatyordeclarethetrucenulland

void.TheMakkanschosethelateroptionandthuswokeuponemorningtofindanarmyoftenthousandMuslimsmarchingontheircity.TheyofferednoresistanceandtheMuslimsoccupiedthecitywithoutabattle.

Theeldersofthecitystood,withtheirheadsbowed,infrontofMuhammad.WhatwouldMuhammaddoto‘these’men–theverymenwhotreatedhimsocruelly.TothelikesofHindwhocutopenthebodyofhisuncleHamzahandchewedhisheart?‘Whatkindoftreatmentdoyouexpectfromme?’askedMuhammadofthegatheredMakkans.Theydidnotanswer.SoMuhammadansweredforthem.‘MayGodpardonyou,’heannounced.‘Goinpeace.IsaytoyouasJosephsaidtohisbrothers.Thereshallbenoresponsibilityonyoutoday.Youarefree’.

TheFarewellSermon

631CE:OnthetenthyearaftertheHijra,andafterperformingthepilgrimagetoMakkah,Muhammadgavehis‘FarewellSermon’to124,000

MuslimswhohadgatheredinthevalleyofArafat.

Opeople,lendmeanattentiveear,beganMuhammad.Iknownotwhether,afterthisyear,Ishalleverbeamongstyouagain.Opeople,justasyouregardthismonth,thisday,thiscityassacred,soregardthelifeandpropertyofeveryMuslimasasacredtrust.Returnthegoodsentrustedtoyoutotheirrightfulowners.Hurtnoonesothatnoonemayhurtyou.Donottakeusury;thisisforbiddentoyou.Aidthepoorandclothethemasyouwouldclotheyourselves.Remember!OnedayyouwillappearbeforeAllahandanswerforyourdeeds.So,beware!DonotstrayfromthepathofrighteousnessafterIamgone.Opeople!NoprophetorApostlewillcomeaftermeandnonewfaithwillbeborn…Itistruethatyouhavecertainrightswithregardtoyourwomen,buttheyalsohaverightsoveryou.Treatthemwellfortheyareyoursupport.Reflectonmywords.Ileavebehindtwothings,theQur’anandmyexample,andifyoufollowtheseguidesyouwillnotfail.Listentomeinearnest.WorshipGod,sayyourprayers,fastduringthemonthsofRamadan,andgiveyourwealthincharity.Allthebelieversarebrothers,allhavethesamerightsandsameresponsibilities.Nooneisallowedtotakefromanotherwhathedoesnotallowhimofhisownfreewill.Noneishigherthantheotherunlessheishigherinvirtue.Allthosewholistentomeshallpassonmywordstoothers,andthosetoothersagain;andmaythelastonesunderstandmywordsbetterthanthosewholistentomedirectly.Muhammadthenturnedhisfacetowardstheheavensandsaid:‘Bemywitness,OAllah,thatIhaveconveyedyourmessagetoyourpeople.’‘MyLord,surelyyouhave,’resoundedthevalley.

DeathoftheProphet

fewmonthsafterhislastsermon,Muhammadfellill.HecontinuedleadingtheprayersinthemosqueinMadinauntilhefelttooweaktostand.On

Monday,theseconddayoftheIslamicmonthofRabial-Awwal,andelevenyearsafterthehijra(632),Muhammadwhisperedthewords,‘OhAllah,withtheCompassionateonHigh,’andtookhislastbreath.Hewas63.

OutsidethemosqueinMadina,thegatheringcrowdcouldnotbelievethattheProphethaddied.Then,AbuBakr,hislife-longcompanionemergedfromMuhammad’sapartmentwithtearsinhiseyesandcalmlyascendedthestepsoftheProphet’sMosque.‘Opeople,’AbuBakraddressedthecrowd,‘verily,whosoeverworshippedMuhammadknowthatMuhammadisdead.ButwhosoeverworshippedAllah,knowthatAllahisalive.’

ALifeofHistory

helifeofMuhammadisknownastheSiraandwaslivedinthefulllightofhistory.Everythinghedidandsaidwasrecorded.Becausehecouldnotread

andwritehimself,hewasconstantlyservedbyagroupof45scribeswhowrotedownhissayings,instructionsandhisactivities.Muhammadhimselfinsistedondocumentinghisimportantdecisions.Nearlythreehundredofhisdocumentshavecomedowntous,includingpoliticaltreaties,militaryenlistments,assignmentsofofficialsandstatecorrespondencewrittenontannedleather.Wethusknowhislifetotheminutestdetails:howhespoke,sat,sleeped,dressed,walked;hisbehaviourasahusband,father,nephew;hisattitudestowardswomen,children,animals;hisbusinesstransactionsandstancetowardsthepoorandtheoppressed;hisengagementincampsandcantonments,hisbehaviourinbattle;hisexerciseofpoliticalauthorityandstandonpower;hispersonalhabits,likesanddislikes–evenhisprivatedealingswithhiswives.Withinafewdecadesofhisdeath,accountsofthelifeofMuhammadwereavailabletotheMuslimcommunityinwrittenform.OneoftheearliestandthemostfamousbiographiesofMuhammad,writtenlessthanhundredyearsafterhisdeath,isSiratRasulAllahbyibnIshaq.

TheHadith

hedailyutterancesanddiscoursesofMuhammad,fromthedayhereceivedthefirstrevelationtillhisdeath,areknownasthehadith.Hadithliterally

means‘statement’:thehadith,then,arethesayingsortraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.

Duringhislife,thehadithwerewrittendownbyMuhammad’sscribesandcompanionsonvariousmedia–papyrus,palmfibres,bonetablets,hides,whitestonesandparchment–aswellasmemorized.Afterhisdeath,Muslimsdevelopedaspecialscienceconcernedwiththetransmitting,validatingandauthenticatingofhadith.ThismethodofhadithcriticismbecameahallmarkofMuslimcivilizationandgeneratedavastcorpusofliterature.

Bytheageoften,Anashadlearnedtoreadandwrite.HisparentsaskedMuhammadtoappointhimashispersonalscribeandattendant.Muhammadaccepted;andtheyoungAnasjoinedhisbandofscribesandaccompaniedMuhammadnightandday.AfterthedeathofMuhammad,Anasbecamefamousasareporterofhadith.Heusedtounrollhissheetsofdocumentsandsay:‘ThesearethesayingsoftheProphet,whichIhavenotedandthenalsoreadouttohimtocorrectmymistakes.’

TheScienceofHadith

hescienceofhadithcollection,criticismandtransmissioninvolved

1.textualanalysis2.biographicalanalysisofnarrators3.examinationofchronologicalaccuracy4.scrutinyoflinguisticandgeographicalparameters5.authenticationoforalandwrittenrecords.

Eachsayingwastracedthroughachainofauthoritativetransmitters,righttothelipsoftheMuhammadhimself.Thesystemoftracingnarratorstothesourcewascalledisnador‘backing’.Themethodofcheckingthequalityofthetransmittercametobeknownasilmar-Rijal(ScienceofBiography).ThusatraditionoftheProphetalwayscontainsan‘isnad’whichtakestheform:‘so-and-sosaidthatso-and-sosaidthatso-and-sosaidthattheProphetsaid…’

Aspecialgroupofscholarsemergedwhodevotedtheirwholelivestocheckingeachlinkinthechain.

Aretheindividualsconcernedreliablereporters?Isitchronologicallyandgeographicalfeasiblethattheindividualsinthechainactuallymet?Aretheindividualsofsoundmorals,notmotivatedbypoliticalorsectarianconcern?Isthereportedtraditionlogicallyandrationallyconsistent?DoesitlinguisticallyreflectthewordsoftheProphet?DoesthereportedtraditionagreewiththeteachingsoftheQur’an?AndisitthekindofthingthatitisreasonableforustobelievethattheProphetwouldhavesaid?

Eachtraditionwasanalyzedonthebasisoftheseandotherquestionsandclassifiedintocategoriesrangingfromauthentic,agreeable,weak,narratedbyaweaknarrator,onewithmissingtransmitter,downrightfabricatedandsoon.

Usingthiselaboratesystemofcategorization,earlyMuslimscholarssiftedthroughliterallymillionsofhadith.ImamBukhari(d.870),thefamouscompilerofhadith,collectedareportedsixmillionhadith;butaftercriticism,acceptedonly7,275traditionsasauthentic.Thesearecollectedinhisfamousbook,SahihBukhari.ImamMuslim(d.875)collectedoverthreemillion;butrejectedallexcept9,200whichwefindinhisSahihMuslim.Therearesixwellknownandwidelyusedauthenticcollectionsofhadith,eachknownafteritscompiler.Apart

fromMuslimandBukhari,theyare:Trimidhi,ibnMajah,AbuDawudandAn-Nisai.

TheSunnah

ogethertheSiraandtheHadithconstitutetheSunnah.ThewordSunnahmeansmethod,example,orpath.TheSunnah,deedsandsayingof

Muhammad,theenactmentofMuhammad’sDivineMissionintheworld,isanintegralpartofhismessage.Assuch,itistakenasamodelofidealbehaviourbyeveryMuslim.ItisthroughtheSunnahthatMuslimsknowandlearntheritualandspiritualaspectsoftheirfaith–howtopray,fastandperformthepilgrimagetoMakkah.ButtheSunnahisalsotheguideinmoralandsocialmatters.ThusaMuslimseekingapiouslifesimplyfollowsthenormsandpatternsestablishedbythelifeandtraditionsoftheProphet–theSunnahisthewayofIslamiclife.

TherearetemporalandabsolutepartsoftheSunnah.Muslimsarerequiredtodistinguishbetweenthese.Forexample,justbecauseMuhammadworeaturbanandrodeacamel,doesnotmeanthatallMuslimsmustwearaturbanorrideacamel.Itishisinsistencethattheclothesthatapersonwearsmustbecleanandmustcovercertainpartsofthebody,orthatwemustfeed,water,restandtreatanimalswithkindness,thatistheSunnahtobefollowed.However,thisisacontentiousissuewithsomemoretradition-orientatedMuslimgroups:theyinsistthatallaspectsofthesunnahmustbefollowedineverydetail.

SomeSayingsofProphetMuhammad

TheworldisgreenandbeautifulandGodhasappointedyouhisstewardoverit.

Omankind:GodisOne,yourancestorisone.YouareallfromtheseedofAdam,Adamwasfromclay.ThemosthonourableamongyoubeforeGodisthemostGod-fearing.

Thewholeearthhasbeencreatedasaplaceofworship,pureandclean.

Little,butsufficient,isbetterthantheabundantandthealluring.

ThevalueoftheworldincomparisontotheHereafterislikeadropletintheocean.

Thesuperiorityofalearnedmanoveronewhoonlyworshipsislikethesuperiorityofthemoonwhenitisfull,coveringthestars.ThelearnedaretheheirsoftheProphetswhodonotleavealegacyofdirhamsanddinarsbutonlyofknowledge.

ThesearchforknowledgeisasacreddutyimposeduponeveryMuslim.Goinsearchofknowledge,eventoChina.

Godhasnotcreatedanythingbetterthanreason,oranythingmoreperfectormorebeautifulthanreason.ThebenefitswhichGodgivesareonitsaccount;andunderstandingisbyit,andGod’swrathiscausedbyit,andbyitarerewardsandpunishment.

Povertymaysometimesleadtodisbelief.

Godisgentleandlovesgentlenessinallthings.

Hastentodogoodbeforeyouareovertakenbyperplexingadversity,corruptingprosperity,disablingdisease,babblingdotageandsuddendeath.

EveryreligionhasaspecialcharacterandthecharacteristicofIslamismodesty.

Modestyandfaitharejoinedcloselytogetherandifeitherofthemislosttheothergoesalso.

Bewareofenvyforenvydevoursgoodworkslikethefiredevoursfuel.

Goddoesnotlookuponyourbodiesandappearances,Helooksuponyourheartsandyourdeeds.

Bewareofsuspicionforsuspicionisagreatfalsehood.

Donotsearchforfaultsineachothernoryearnafterthatwhichotherspossess,norenvy,norentertainmalice,orindifference;andbetheservantsofGod.

Lettheyoungeronesalutetheelderly,lettheonewhoiswalkingsalutetheonesittingandletthosewhoaresmallinnumbersalutethosewhoarelargeinnumber.

Themostexcellentjihadisthatfortheconquestoftheself.

Wereitnotforfearoftroublingmyfollowers,Iwouldorderthemtocleantheirteethbeforeeveryprayer.

Amanshouldaccompanyhisguesttothedoorofhishouse.

Whenyougotovisitthesick,comfortthemintheirgriefbysaying,‘Youwillgetwellandlivelong.’

TheQur’an

iterallytheQur’anmeansthe‘reading’orthatwhichshouldberead.ItistheWordofGodrevealedin‘clearArabicspeech’toMuhammadthroughthe

agencyofarchangelGabriel.ThelanguageoftheQur’anisradicallydifferentfromthelanguageusedbyMuhammadinhiseverydayspeech–itcannotbeconfused,forexample,withthelanguageofthetraditionsoftheProphet.Essentially,IslamistheQur’an.

MuhammadreceivedthefirstQur’anicrevelationattheageof40intheyear610.Therevelationscontinuedtocomeforthenext23years,infragmentsand‘atintervals’,ending81/82daysbeforethedeathofMuhammadin632,withthefollowingverse:“TodayhaveIperfectedyourreligiouslawforyou,andhavebestoweduponyouthefullmeasureofMyblessings,andwilledthatself-surrenderuntoMe(Islam)shallbeyourreligion.”(5:3)

Muslimscholarsknowexactlywhen,whereandunderwhatcircumstanceseachversewasrevealed.However,theversesoftheQur’anarenotarrangedchronologically.Whenaversewasrevealed,MuhammadhimselfwouldindicatethepreciseplaceofthenewrevelationintotaltextoftheQur’an.TheProphetfrequentlyrecitedtheportionsofQur’antillthenrevealed;andduringthefastingmonthofRamadan,shortlybeforehisdeath,herecitedthewholeQur’anduringspecialeveningprayers.AtthedeathoftheProphet,numerousmenandwomenknewtheQur’anbyheart;andthewholetextalsoexistedinwrittenform.

TheopeningchapteroftheQur’an–fromaNigerianmanuscript.

TheAuthenticQur’an

ffortstocompileasingle,unifiedwrittentextstartedimmediatelyafterthedeathoftheProphet.AbuBakr,thefirstCaliphofIslam,instructedZaydbin

Thabit,theprinciplescribeofMuhammad,tocollectallwrittenfragmentsoftheQur’an.ThecompliedtextremainedinthecustodyofAbuBakrand,afterhisdeathin634,waspassedontoUmar,thesecondCaliph,whoentrustedittohisdaughterHafsa(oneofthewivesofMuhammad).AfterthedeathofUmarin644,Othman,thethirdCaliph,entrustedacommission,chairedbyZaydbinThabit,tomakesixcopiesfromAbuBakr’smastercopy.Whenthetaskwascompleted–thecopiespainstakinglywrittendownonparchmentbyhand–OthmangatheredthecompanionsoftheProphetandhadapublicreadingofthe‘authentic’edition.Hethenorderedthedestructionofallothercopiesandsentthecopiesofthe‘authentic’editiontodifferentcentresofthevastMuslimworld.ThetextoftheQur’anusedtodayisexactlythesameasthatofOthman’s‘authentic’edition.

TheopeningchapteroftheQur’an–fromanIndianmanuscript.

WhatistheQur’an?

heQur’ancannotbecomparedtootherreligioustexts,forexampletheTorahortheBibleorTheMahabharataandtheRamayana,becauseitis

notabookofnarrativerecordsofancientpeoples–althoughitdoescontainsomestoriesofprophetsandearliernations.Itisnota‘linear’textwithachronologicalorderora‘logical’beginning,middleandanend.Itisrhythmicprose,epicpoemandsymphonyallrolledintoonesublimetext.Thewholetext,containing114chaptersorsurahs,withatotalof6,236verses,thushasalatticestructurewhichconnectseverywordwitheveryotherwordbyrhythm,rhymeandmeaning.ThestructureoftheQur’anensuresthatnotasingledotofitstextcanbechanged,foreventheminutestchangesimplythrowsthetextoutofsync.

TheUniquenessoftheQur’an

tisbecauseofitsspecialstructure,theinterlockingcharacterofeachwordandverse,theeloquenceandbeautyofitslanguageandtheprecision,

economyandsubtletyofitsstyle,thattheQur’anissaidtobe‘inimitable’.Itisnotonlyphysicallyimpossibletochangeorcorruptit,butalsobeyondhumancapabilitytoproduceasingleverseofsimilarliterarymeritasthatoftheQur’an.TheQur’anitselfchallengesitsreaderstoproduceasinglesurahthatcouldbedeemedequaltoanypartofit:“AndifyoudoubtanypartofwhatWehavebestowedfromonhigh,stepbystep,uponourservant(Muhammad),thenproduceasurahofsimilarmerit,andcalluponanyotherthanGodtobearwitnessforyou–ifwhatyousayistrue!andifyoucannotdoit–andmostcertainlyyoucannotdoit–thenbeconsciousofthefirewhosefuelishumanbeingsandstoneswhichawaitsallwhodenythetruth.”(2:23-24)

The special language and structure of the Qur’an makes itrelativelyeasytomemorize.Thelanguagecarriesthereciterfromwordtoword,thestructureguidesfromversetoverse,propelledbyimageryandpicturesquestyle.Therecitationofthe Qur’an is a highly developed art form. It has twogenerallyacceptedtechniques:amusicallybeautifulreading,tajwid; and a slow,deliberately simple chant, tartil.YoungMuslimsaretaughtrecitationoftheQur’anfromatenderagewhentheyalsomemorizetheentiretext.TheQur’anisthustheonlybookinthehistoryofmankindwhichismemorizedfrom cover to cover. At any given time, there are literallymillionsofpeoplewhoarehafiz–whoknowtheQur’anbyheart.

PurposesoftheQur’an

heQur’anisaddressedtoallhumanitywithoutdistinctionofrace,regionortime.ItsmajorthemesareGod,humanbeings,society,nature,reason,

prophethoodandrevelation.TheQur’anspeaksofthetranscendenceofGod,thefactthatHeisbeyondallperceptionofhumanbeings–andhencebeyondconfinesofgender,describesHisattributesandcontainstheappropriatemodesforpraisingHim.ItdescribestheresponsibilityofpersonsasindividualsandinsocietyasthetrusteeofGodonearth.TheQur’anmakesfrequentandrepeatedstatementsaboutnatureinwhichthemagnitude,stabilityandregularityofnaturalphenomenaarestressed.Some750verses,almostone-eighthoftheQur’an,aredevotedtoextollingthevirtuesofreason.Thereare250legislativeversesthatprovidetherulesrelatingtosocialandeconomiclifeandpenalandinternationallaw.

EssenceoftheQur’an

hecontentandmessageoftheQur’anissummedupbytheOpeningchapter,Surahal-Fatiha,whichisknownastheUmmal-KitaborMotherofthe

Book.ThisshortsurahofsevenversesformsthefirstpartofeveryMuslimprayerandisrepeatedatleast17timesadaywhenMuslimssaytheirobligatoryfivedailyprayers.

TheOpening.InthenameofGod,themostGracious,theDispenserofGrace:AllpraiseisduetoGodalone,theSustainerofalltheworlds,theMostGracious,LordoftheDayofJudgement!Theealonedoweworship;anduntoTheealoneweturnforaid.Guideustothestraightway–ThewayofthoseuponwhomThouhastbestowedThyblessings,notofthosewhohavebeencondemned(byThee),norofthosewhogoastray.(1:1-7)

(ThisisoneofthemostcalligraphedchapteroftheQur’an–sampleabove,andonseehere,here,hereandhere.)

Qur’anicGuidance

heQur’angivesguidancebyprovidingcertainbasicethicalprinciplesandattitudes,fundamentalvaluesandnorms,andbymarkingoutsignposts

whichareknownashududorlimitsofhumanbehaviour.Thesegeneralprinciplesandguidelinesaretobetranslatedintoactualpracticebytheintellectualandphysicaleffortsofthebelievers.Forexample,theQur’antellsMuslimstobemodestinallaspectsoftheirlives.ItisforMuslimcommunitiestodiscoverwhatthisgeneralprinciplemeansintermsofdressorconsumption.TheQur’anasksbelieverstoavoidallformsofusury.Muslimsthushavearesponsibilitytodevelopausuryfreesociety.TheQur’anaskeditsreaderstotemperjusticealwayswithmercy.Muslimjuristshavetotranslatethisgeneralinstructionintoalegalframework.Thus,generalQur’anicprinciplesandinjunctionsaregivenpracticalshapebyMuslimsthemselvesaccordingtotheirphysicalneedsandabilitiesandconstantlyreadandre-read,re-understood,interpretedandre-interpreted.

TheCommentaries

heneedforinterpretingtheQur’anaroseimmediatelyafterthedeathoftheProphet.EarlyinterpretationsoftheQur’anreliedonthecommentsand

analysisoftheCompanionsofMuhammadandtheirsuccessors.WrittencommentariesoftheQur’anbegantoappeartowardstheendofthe9thcentury.Amongsttheearliestandmostfrequentlycitedarethoseofal-Tabari(d.923),al-Wahid(d.1076),al-Zamakhshari(d.1144),al-Razi(d.1209),al-Qurtubi(d.1273),andibnKhathir(d.1373).TheseauthorsdevelopedQur’anicinterpretationintoanelaboratescience,withnumerousspecialistbranches,knownastafsir.

TheopeningchapteroftheQur’anwithcommentaryinthemargin.

InterpretingtheQur’an

llinterpretationsoftheQur’anhavetofollowcertainbasicrules.ThemostimportantsourcefortheinterpretationoftheQur’anistheQur’anitself.

WhenaQur’anicterm,phraseorverseisexplainedbyanother,norecoursetoanyothersourceisnecessary.AftertheQur’an,interpretationhastobesoughtwithintheframeworkofthelife,sayingsandactions(sunnah)oftheProphet–whichprovidealivingcommentaryontheQur’an.TherulesandnatureoftheArabiclanguagearealsoasourceofQur’anicinterpretation.Beyondthesebasicsources,theQur’anhasbeeninterpretatedintheological,literary,legalandrationalterms.Muslimmysticsseekthe‘hidden’meaningsofQur’anicverses.GiventhattheQur’anhasmanylevelsofmeaning,theopinionsandconcernsofindividualcommentatorsalsoplayanimportantpartinitsinterpretation.AsIslamspreadamongmanydifferentcultures,individualinterpretationsoftheQur’angainedagrowingacceptance.

TheopeningchapteroftheQur’ancalligraphedinSudanistyleMaghribiscript

TranslationsoftheQur’an

stheliteralWordofGod,theQur’anistheQur’anonlyintheoriginalrevealedtext.AtranslationcanneverbetheQur’an,thatinimitable

symphony,‘theverysoundofwhichmovesmenandwomentotears.’AtranslationcanonlybeanattempttogivethebarestsuggestionofthemeaningofwordscontainedintheQur’an.ThisiswhyallMuslims,whatevertheirmothertongue,alwaysrecitetheQur’aninitsoriginalArabic.

Throughouthistory,theQur’anhasbeentranslatedintoeveryconceivablelanguage.ButtranslationsoftheQur’anhavefrequentlybeenusedtosubvertorcynicallyfalsifyitsmessage.ThePenguintranslationoftheQur’anbyN.J.DawoodisthelatestinthelonglineofEuropeantranslationswhichpresentsadistortedinterpretationoftheQur’an.

Dawood:‘Idolatryisworsethancarnage.’Qur’anicmeaning:oppressionisworsethankilling.

Dawood:‘TheHordes.’Qur’anicmeaning:Thecrowds.

Dawood:mentobe‘weddedtochastevirgins.’Qur’anicmeaning:thereforthemshallbespousespurified.

ImpactoftheQur’an

heQur’anhashadanunparalleledimpactonhumanhistory.Itisundoubtedlythemostread,recited,memorized,debated,analyzedand

veneratedbookintheannalsofhistory–notexcludingtheBible.ListentoMuhammadAsad,oneofthemostrespectedtranslatorsandcommentatorsoftheQur’aninthe20thcentury:

TheQur’an,“morethananyothersinglephenomenonknownto us, has fundamentally affected the religious, social andpolitical history of theworld.No other sacred scripture haseverhadasimilarly immediate impactupon the livesof thepeoplewhofirsthearditsmessageand,throughthemandthegenerations that followed them, on the entire course ofcivilization. It shook Arabia, and made a nation out of itsperenniallywarringtribes;withinafewdecades,itspreaditsworld-viewfarbeyond theconfinesofArabiaandproducedthe first ideological society known to man; through itsinsistence on consciousness and knowledge, it engenderedamong its followers a spirit of intellectual curiosity andindependent inquiry,ultimatelyresultingin thatsplendideraof learning and scientific research which distinguished theworld of Islam at the height of its cultural vigour; and theculture thus fostered by the Qur’an penetrated in countlessways and by-ways into the mind of medieval Europe andgaverisetothatrevivalofWesternculturewhichwecalltheRenaissance, and thus became in the course of time largelyresponsible for thebirthofwhat is described as the ‘ageofscience’:theageinwhichwearenowliving.”

Thissimpledeclarationhasprofoundconsequences:

1.ItimpliesthattrueexistenceisthatofGodalone;personkindandtheentirecreationexistonlybecauseGodwillsthemtoexist.

2.SinceweexistbythewillandgraceofGod,wearetotallydependentonHim–ourrelationshiptoGodisthatbetweenservantandMaster.

3.Assuch,weareresponsibleforallourthoughtsandactionsbeforeGodtowhomwewillhavetorenderanaccountofourworldlydeedsontheDayofJudgementandWhowilldecideourfinaldestinationintheHereafter,ortheAkhra.

4.ToprepareourselvesfortheFinalJudgementwemustlivearesponsibleandvirtuouslifeaccordingtotheWillofGod.

5.TheWillofGodcanonlybeknownthroughHisMessengers;beliefinGodthereforerequiresbeliefinrevelation–theBooksofGod–andtheMessengersofGod.

6.OfalltheMessengers,senttoeverytribeandnation,MuhammadistheLast,beingthesealofprophethoodandcompletingtheprocessofrevelation.

7.SinceGodistranscendentandbeyondallhumanperception,HecommunicatesHismessagetoHisProphetsthroughHisfunctionaries–theangels.

Tawheed

‘Allah.’

hedeclarationthatThereisnogodbutAllahiscalledtawheed.TawheedrepresentstheIslamicoutlookonlife,theuniverseandeverything:itisthe

worldviewofMuslims.

TheunityofGodisreflectedintheunityofpersonkind.SinceweareallcreatedbyGod,weareallequalbeforeHim.Thereisnodifferencebetweenpeopleofoneraceandanother,betweenrichandpoor,betweenthepowerfulandthepowerless,betweenmenandwomen.Islamisuncompromisingonitsstanceon

humanequality.Moreover,sinceeverythingisownedbyGod,noonehasanexclusiverighttoanything.Allnaturalresourcesintheuniverse,landandcapitalbelongtothewholeofhumanrace,andallitsmembershaveequalshareandrightofaccesstothem.Nopersonhasarighttoclaimabiggershare,simplybecauseheorshedoesnotandcannotcreateorgeneratenaturalpowerindependently.

IslamestablishesacloseanddirectrelationshipbetweentheCreatorandHiscreation.InIslamnomediatingpowerofanykindexistsbetweentheCreatorandHiscreation:therearenochurches,priestsorsacraments.HisabsoluteUnityisreflectedintheunityofHiscreationinwhicheachindividualpartisinharmoniousorderwiththeremainder.

ThePillarsofIslam

romtawheedstemthe‘fourpillars’ofIslam.Muslimspiritualanddevotionalliferevolvesaroundthesepillars.

1.Salatorprayer,whichhastobeperformedfivetimesdaily:beforesunrise,betweenmid-dayandafternoon,justbeforedawn.PrayerinIslamisactuallyanensembleofinnerandouteractionsinvolvingablutions,intentionofreciting

theprayer,therequestforgraceandpardon,therecitationofappropriatephrases,recitationofversesoftheQur’anandbodilymovements.

2.Sawm,orfastingduringthelunarmonthofRamadan,isasublimespiritualexerciseandaprescriptionforself-assuranceandself-control.Physically,fastinginvolvesabstainingfromfood,drink,smokingandsex;spiritually,itinvolvesrefrainingfrombadthoughts,actionsandutterances.

3.Zakat,oftentranslatedas‘poordue’or‘charity’,shouldnotbemistakenforalms-givingoutofone’sgenerosity.Itisadutyandasocialobligation.SinceeverythingonepossessesbelongstoGod,theneedyhaveashareinone’spossessionsandincomeandhavearighttoclaimaportionofit.Normallyanannualamountisprescribedoutofone’sincomeandsavingsaszakat.

4.Hajj,orpilgrimage,atleastonceinalifetime,totheSacredCityofMakkah.Thehajjinvolvessuspendingone’sworldlyactivities,one’sprideandego,andsurrenderingone’swholebeingtoGod.ThehajjisaphysicaldemonstrationofMuslimnotionsofhumanequalityandunity–itisthepersonhoodofIslaminaction.

Everyyear,duringtheIslamicmonthofDhulHijjah,overtwomillionMuslimsfromallovertheworldgatherinMakkahfortheannualpilgrimage.Hajj,whichliterallymeanseffort,beginswiththedonningoftwounsewnsheetsofcloth(calledtheihram),totalabstentionfromdesireandinvolvescontinuousprayer,chanting,innerreflectionandmovement:pilgrimsmoveenmassefromtheSacredMosqueinMakkah–thesiteoftheKa’aba–tothehillsofMunatothevalleyofArafattothesiteofMuzdalifahandreturntoMuna.ItisatArafat–wherethetwomillionofferacongregationalprayer–thatthepilgrimsspendthesupremehoursoftheirlives.

Khalifa

uslimthoughtandactionisregulatedbyasetofconceptsandvaluesderivedfromtheQur’an.Aftertawheed,themostimportantconceptinIslamis

Khalifa,ortrusteeship.

MenandWomenarekhalifaortrusteesofGodonearth.ThisimpliesthatthecreationisasacredtrustfromGodandnotthepropertyofanyindividual,grouporgeneration.ItalsoimpliesthatweareresponsibleformaintainingandpreservingtheintegrityofGod’screation–theearth,theenvironment,thefloraandfauna.AndwewillbeheldaccountableforouruseorabuseofthistrustbothinthisworldandtheHereafter.

Adi

Islam,adl,orjustice,isasupremevalue.Indeed,Muslimscholarshavearguedthatthemainpurposeofrevelationandthebasictaskofprophetsis

toestablishjusticeonearth.AllsociallifeinIslamrevolvesaroundtheideaofjusticeandbelieversareenjoinedtobehavetowardseachotherinajustway.Justicebeginswithoneselfandinvolvesfulfillingtheneedsofone’sbody,mindandspirit.Familyrelationshavetobebasedonjustice:respecttowardsone’sparentsandelders,showingequalloveandaffectiontowardsallone’schildren,andhonestyandloyaltytowardsone’sspouseareallmanifestationsofjustfamilybehaviour.Atcommunallevel,justicedemandsthatonefulfilone’ssocialobligationsandresponsibilities.ItisadutyofaMuslimtostandupagainstallkindsofoppression,evenifthisinvolvesone’sownblood,societyorcountry.

Ilm

heestablishmentofjusticeinallspheresofhumanbehaviourrequiresacertaindegreeofknowledge,ilm.Islammakesthepursuitofknowledgean

obligationoneveryMuslim,maleorfemale.AMuslimsocietycanonlybejustwhenitisaknowledge-basedsociety.Thus,thepursuitofknowledgeisalsoasocialobligation.Muslimcommunitieseverywherehavetoensurethatexpertsincertainbranchesofknowledge–e.g.law,medicine,education,engineering–areadequatelyrepresentedinthecommunity.TheIslamictermforanexpertinaparticularfieldisalim.Itissignificantthatareligiousscholar,alawyer,aphysicist,asociologist,aphilosopher–allareknownasalims.InIslam,knowledgemustbesoughtwithmodestyandhumility,withtheaimofpromotingbeautyanddignity,freedomandjustice.Moreover,knowledgecanonlybesoughtbyjustmeans–thepursuitofnobleendsbyunjustmeansisnotpermitted.

TheTrueMeaningofJihad

onstantstruggleforjusticemanifestsitselfasjihad.JihadisoneofthemostabusedandmisusedIslamicconcepts.Itmeans‘directedstruggle’andcan

takeanumberofforms.AtraditionoftheProphetdeclaresthat‘thesupremejihadisagainstoneself’:thatis,againstone’sego,greedandinsatiabledesires.Jihadcouldalso,forexample,beaimedatthesocialdevelopmentofacommunity.Itcanalsobeintellectual–directedagainstoppressiveandtotalitarianthoughtortowardstheintellectualupliftingofasociety.Lastly,jihadcanalsotaketheformofphysicalstruggleagainstoppressionandaggression.Jihadisthusmuchmorethansimply‘holywar’.

Moreover,jihadcannotbedeclaredbyanybodyonanybody.Forexample,jihadcannotbedeclaredbyoneMuslimcountryonanother,oranoppressivedictatorcannotdeclarejihadoncountrieslinedupagainsthim.JihadrequiresconsensusofthewholeMuslimcommunityandaclearidentificationoftheenemyastheaggressorortheoppressorofhelplessvictims.

Shariah

hariahisnormallytranslatedas‘Islamiclaw’.Itis,however,not‘law’butasetofregulations,principlesandvaluesfromwhichlegislationandlaware

drawn.WhileShariahiseternal,Islamiclaw–likealllaw–evolvesandgrowsandcontinuestochangeastheMuslimsituationchanges.

ThebasicsourcesoftheShariaharetheQur’an,theSunnah,ijmaorconsensusoftheMuslimcommunity,andqiyasoranalogicalreasoning.MuslimjuristshavealsodevelopedanumberofsupplementarysourcesfortheShariahofwhichal-istislahorpublicinterest,andal-urforcustomandusageofaparticularsociety,arethemain.

TheAimsofShariah

heultimateaimofShariahistoestablishjusticeinsocietyonthebasisofcompassionbetweenhumanbeingsandbetweengovernmentandthepublic.

Itseeksthisaimbyemphasizingtherightsandresponsibilitiestowardseachotherofindividualsandsociety,thecommunityandthestate,therulersandtheruled.Themainaimisthecreationofamorallyresponsiblesociety,withtheaccentonsocial,economicandpoliticaljustice.

Shariahpresupposestotalfreedomforhumanbeings:freedomtoactaccordingtoShariahaswellasfreedomnottoactaccordingtoShariah.Thosewhowishtoordertheirsocietyaccordingtothedictatesoftheshariahdosowillinglyandconsciously.

Fiqh

slamicjurisprudencewasderivedfromtheShariahintheearlyyearsofIslamandiscommonlyknownasfiqh.Initswidestsense,fiqhcoversall

aspectsofreligious,politicalandcivillife.Inadditiontolawsrelatingtoworshipandothermattersofreligiousobservance,itincludesfamilylaw,thelawofinheritance,propertyandcontractuallaw,criminallawandlawrelatingtotheadministrationofstateandtheconductofwar.

Literally,fiqhmeans‘intelligence’and‘knowledge’.FiqhisthuswhatearlyMuslimjuristsderivedfromtheshariahwiththeirownintelligenceandknowledge–itisahumanconstruction.

TheClassicalSchoolsofFiqh

lassicaljuristswereunequivocalindeclaringtheirrulingstobetheirownopinionwhichshouldnotbeaccepteduncritically.Theyloathedtheideathat

a‘schoolofthought’shouldbeformedaroundtheirjuristicjudgements.

Butthisisexactlywhathappened.Overtime,anumberof‘schoolsofthought’basedonclassicaljurisprudenceappeared.Fiveoftheseschools,eachnamedafteraclassicaljurist,arenowpredominant:theHanafischoolintheIndiansubcontinent,WestAfricaandEgypt;theMalikiinNorthandWestAfrica;theShafiinMalaysiaandIndonesia;theHanbaliinArabia;andJaferiinIranandIraq.

Muchofwhatgoesundertherubricof‘Islamiclaw’isinfactclassicalfiqh:time-and-space-boundopinionandrulings–orfatwas–ofearlyjurists.WhatthisactuallymeansisthatIslamiclawhasbeenfrozeninhistoryandhasremainedossifiedforalmosteighthundredyears.

PermanenceandChange

heShariahprovidesIslamwithitspermanentbedrock.ButwhatispermanentinIslamislargelyethical:formsofworship,injunctionswhich

forbidcertainsocialevils,andprincipleswhichaimatpromotingsocial,economicandpoliticaljustice,andencouragingthepursuitofknowledgeandreason.Everythingelseissubjecttochange.Islamenvisagesadynamic,thrivingandprogressivesociety.

TheprincipleofchangeinIslamisknownasijtihad.Ijtihadisdefinedasexertingoneselftotheutmostdegreetoreachcomprehensiononaquestionofshariah.Theexertioncantaketheformofnewmethodsofreasoning,newsocialandintellectualinsights,newwaysofknowingandunderstanding.WhenthenewunderstandingoftheshariahacquiredthroughijtihadhastheijmaortheconsensusoftheMuslimummah,theglobalMuslimcommunity,itbecomesapartofIslamiclaw.

It is on the basis of ijtihad (all-around reasoning), ijma(consensus)shura(consultation)andistislah(publicinterest)that Muslim societies move forward, adjust to change, andIslamiclawevolvesandexpands.

‘Thereshallbenocoercioninmattersoffaith’

hileIslamisuncompromisinglyGod-centredanduniversalist,itdoesnotseeitselfassolerepositoryoftruth.Islamrecognizesthatallreligionsintheir

originalteachingsembodythesametruth–andcontainshadesoftruthevenintheircorruptforms.Thus,Muslimsrespectthebeliefs,teachingsandinstitutionsofotherreligions.WithinaterritoryruledbyMuslims,allnon-Muslimshavetherighttoliveaccordingtotheirownrulesandregulationsandasequalcitizenswithallrightsandresponsibilities.

Bothwithinandwithout,Islamabhorsallkindsofmonopoly–oftruth,power,wealth,knowledge–andauthoritarianism.Mostofitsgeneralprinciplesaredesignedtobreakdownmonopoliesandsubvertunquestioningauthority.Islamitselfcannotbeforcedonasociety;andtheShariahcannotbeintroducedbyauthoritarianmeans.EvenbeliefinIslamitselfcannotgounqualified,forIslamdoesnotappreciateblind,unquestioningfaith.

FormativeHistoryofIslam

heProphetMuhammadleftthedecisionofhistemporalsuccessiontohisfollowers.Afterhisdeath,aconstitutionalassemblyunanimouslyelected

AbuBakrSiddiq,oneofhisclosestcompanions,asrulerofMadina.AbuBakrwasahighlycompassionateandkindleader.Examplesofhishonestyinmattersofstatearelegion.HeconsolidatedandmanagedtherapidlygrowingMuslimcommunitywithunparalleledability.

AbuBakrdiedtwoyearsafterbecomingCaliph.Beforehisdeath,andafterconsultationwithothercompanionsofMuhammad,henominatedUmaral-Khattabashissuccessor.ThenominationwassubjecttotheapprovaloftheMuslimcommunitywhichwasreadilygranted.Umarwasahighlyskilledadministrator,acleverpoliticalleaderandmilitarygeneral.Hisselflessnessand

insistenceinfulfillingtherightsofthecitizensareheldinhighregard.Umarruledfortenyears,from634to644.

TheSeedsofDiscord

eforehisdeath,Umarestablishedanelectoralcouncilofsevenelderstodecideonhissuccessor.TheCouncilselectedOthmanbinAffanandAlibin

Talib,cousinandson-in-lawofMuhammad,andplacedtheirrecommendationsbeforetheMuslimcommunity.Thecommunitywassplit.Buteventually,OthmanwaselectedasthethirdCaliph.Othmanwasrenownedforhisgenerosity,entrepreneurialabilitiesandgentleness.Heruledfortwelveyearsandwasmurdered,asaresultofopenrebellion,in656.

DuringOthman’sreignanumberofpoliticalgroupshademerged.Afterhisdeath,oneofthesegroupscampaignedforAli,putpressureonhim,andeventuallysucceededingettinghimelectedasthefourthCaliph.Aliisadmiredforhisbravery,humilityandunworldliness.Hewasalsoaveryliteraryperson.Hisspeeches,sermons,letters,administrativeordersareregardedasmodelsofliteraryexpression,andmanyofhiswittyaphorismsandepigramshavebeenpreserved.Aliwasmurderedin661.

TheRightlyGuided

hefirstfourcaliphsareknownas‘therightlyguided’todistinguishthemfromtheunelectedmonarchswholaterestablisheddynasties.Theirlivesand

workareasourceofinspiration.Theirruleislookeduponforguidanceinpoliticalandadministrativebehaviour.

Duringthe30yearsofthe‘rightlyguidedcaliphs’,Islamspreadtothefourcornersoftheworld.Thespeedandextentofthisexpansionistrulybreathtaking.

TheExpansionofIslam

henAbuBakrbecameCaliph,hediscoveredthattheyoungMuslimstatewasbeingeyedasajuicymorselbytworivalsuperpowers:Byzantiumand

Iran.HeorganizedanarmyandsentanambassadortoConstantinopleinordertoseekapeacefulsolution.ButByzantium’semperorHeracliushadotherideas.SofirstAbuBakr,thanUmar,capturedonecityafteranotherinIraqandSyria.Wherevertheywent,theMuslimarmieswerewelcomedasliberatorsandtreatedthevanquishedwithtotalrespect,leniencyandkindness.

Iranhadasimilarfate.WhenfacedwithMuslimarmies,EmperorYazdgridsoughtthehelpofChina,theKingofTurkistanandotherneighbouringmonarchs.Hewasdefeatedalongwithhisallies.

DuringthetimeofUmar,MuslimsruledfromLibyatoAfghanistanandfromArmeniatoSindandGujarat(inPakistanandIndia).Othman’sarmiesenteredSpainaswellasChina.HalfthethenknownworldwasunderMuslimrulewhenAliwasCaliph.

TheRiseoftheShia

hemurderofOthmanandAlihadsowedseedsofdissensioninthecommunity.Therewerethreecompetinggroups:thosewhowishedtoretain

theCaliphateintheProphet’sfamily,themajoritywhoarguedthattherulershouldbeelectedonthebasisofconsultationandconsensus,andatinyminoritywhohadthepoliticalambitionandmilitarymighttousurpauthority.

Thepoliticallyambitiouswon.AfterAli,Muawiyah,whohadbeengovernorofSyriaforsometwentyyears,becameCaliphandestablishedtheUmayyaddynasty.MuawiyahwassucceededbyhissonYazid.

ThesuccessionistsgatheredaroundAli’sson,Husain,andrebelledagainstYazid.Husain,hisentirefamily,andhissmallgroupoffollowers,wereallmassacredbyYazid’sarmyinthebattleofKarbalain680.

TheShiaConceptofImams

heShiasdifferfromthemajoritySunnisintheirparticularbeliefinImamah.InShiathought,trueauthoritybelongsonlytotheProphetandhis

household.Thisauthority,combiningbothtemporalandspiritualdimensionsinoneleader,ismanifestedintheImams(earlydescendentsoftheProphet)inwhomthereligiouslifeismarkedbyasenseoftragedyandmartyrdom.Ali,thefourthcaliph,wasthefirstImam;otherImamswerehissonsandgrandsons.TheImams–whoaremasumorfreefromerrorandsin–aretwelveinnumber;andthelastImam,theMahdi,issaidtobein‘occupation’orhidingandwillreappearatsomeapocalypticmomentinthefuture.IntheabsenceoftheImam,thereligiousandtemporalauthorityisexercisedbytheclergyandreligiousscholars.

TheMuslimCivilization

heessentiallydemocraticandaccountablecharacteroftheIslamicpoliticalorder,introducedbythePiousCaliphs,changedwhentheUmayyaddynasty

(661-750)establisheditspowerovertheMuslimcommunity.TheUmayyadswereneitherallthatpiousnordevotedtothecauseofjustice.Theywere,however,goodatbuildingindustry–andevenbetteratconquest.

The‘GoldenAge’ofMuslimcivilizationbeginswiththeriseoftheAbbasidsin750.ThefivecenturiesoftheAbbasidCaliphatesawthetruefloweringofIslamicgenius.ItalsosawthepoliticaldivisionoftheMuslimcommunity,firstintotwoparts,andlaterintosmallerandsmallerkingdoms.

TheAbbasids,whocamefromthefamilyofProphet’suncleal-Abbas,ruledfromBaghdad.Theyhadlittleinterestinconquestbutwerepassionateequallyaboutlearningandinternalfeuding.OnefeudledtotheestablishmentoftheUmayyaddynasty(756-1031)inAndalusia.

TheAbbasidruleestablishedanefficient,honestandvigorousadministration.Concernedaboutthewell-beingofthepopulation,therulerstookstepstoensurethattheirofficialsdidnotlevyextortionatetaxes,thatthebusinessclassdidnotfleecethecommonman,anddevotedgreatenergytobuildingindustry,commerceandinstitutionsofthoughtandlearning.

TheKnowledgeIndustry

ur’anicemphasisonilm,thepursuitofknowledge,becamethemaindrivingforceofMuslimsociety.Thisurge‘toknow’transformedIslamfromits

desertoriginsintoaworldcivilization.Atthezenithoftheclassicalperiod,over500definitionsofknowledgewerecompetingfortheattentionofthebelievers.

Initially,agreatdealofemphasiswasplacedontranslationsandabsorptionoflearningfromothercivilizations,includingEgypt,Babylonia,Greece,India,ChinaandPersia.Withinashortperiod,booksfromGreek,Syriac,Sanskrit,ChineseandPersianweretranslatedintoArabic–oneofthemostremarkableinstancesofculturaltransmissioninhumanhistory.

Aftertranslationcamethelongandarduoustaskofcriticallysifting,analyzingandacceptingorrejectingthelearningofothercivilizations.ThisiswhentheentireMuslimcivilizationbecameengulfedinintensedebate–andthebookbecamethekeyvehicleforcommunicationofideas.

Atthebeginningofthe8thcentury,booksweremadeofparchmentandpapyruswhichweredifficulttohandleandnoteasytoprocure.TheMuslimsacquiredtheartofpapermakingfromtheChinese,introducedanumberofvitalinnovationsandturneditintoanindustry.Thusbooksbecameaccessibleandrelativelycheap.Bythebeginningofthe9thcentury,paperhadbecomethestandardmediumforallwrittencommunication–andforwrappinggroceries!

TheWarraqeen

heknowledgeindustrygaverisetotheprofessionofwarraqeen(lit.thosewhohandlepaper).Thewarraqeenwerehumanphotocopymachines:they

copiedmanuscripts,accuratelyandrapidly.Abookofafewhundredpageswouldbecopiedwithinhours;longertomestookafewdays.Mostwarraqeenmadetheirownpaperandmanagedtheirownbookshops–anythingfromastreetstalltohugeshopsinpleasantupperchambersremovedfromthedustofthebazaar.

WhilewarraqstallsweretobefoundalloversuchcitiesasBaghdad,Damascus,Cairo,Granada,FezandSamarkand,thebookshopsthemselveswereusuallyconcentratedinaspecificquarterofthecity.Al-Yaqubi,thefamousMuslimscholarofthelate9thcentury,countedmorethanonehundredbookshopsintheWaddahsuburbofBaghdadalone.Thelargeandreputablebookshopsattractedscholarsfromconsiderabledistancesandactedasinformalclubsforacademicdiscussionsandmeetinggroundsforwritersandthinkerswithmutualinterests.

UndoubtedlythemostfamousbookshopinMuslimhistorybelongstothetenthcenturybibliophileal-Nadim(d.990).Al-Nadim’sbookshopinBaghdadwascrammedwiththousandsofmanuscriptsandbecamewellknownasameetingplacefornotablewriters,thinkersandmenoflettersofhistime.Theannotatedcatalogueofthecontentsofhisbookshop,al-Fihristal-Nadim,isrenownedasanencyclopediaofmedievalIslamicculture.

Thepublicationindustrypioneeredbythewarraqeenworkedonasystemofmutualcooperationbetweenwritersandtheirpublishers.Awriterwishingtopublishabookwouldannouncehisintentionspubliclyandwouldalsocontactoneortwowarraqeen.Thebookwouldbe‘published’inamosqueoranotedbookshopwheretheauthorwoulddictatehisbookeverydayduringanappointedtime.Anyonecouldattend,anditwasnotuncommonforalargenumberofstudentsandotherscholarstobepresentatpublicdictations.Thedictationwouldtakeconsiderabletime,severalmonthsperhaps,duringwhichtheappointedwarraqeenwouldalwaysbepresent.Whenthebookwasfinished,ahandwrittenmanuscriptwaspresentedtotheauthorforcheckingandcorrections.Onlywhentheauthorhadgivenhisfinalpermissionwouldthebook

beinthepublicdomainandothercopiesfreelymadefromtheoriginal.Theauthors,byagreementwiththewarraqeen,wouldreceivearoyalty.

ThepublicationindustrythatdominatedthelengthandbreadthoftheMuslimempire,fromthe8thtothe15thcenturies,wasofmind-bogglingcomplexity.Atitspeak,literallytensofthousandsofbookswouldbepublishedinasingleyear.TheoldestextantmanuscriptpublishedinArabicinthismannerisdated874.

Thehand-writtenmanuscriptswerethesizeofthemodernbook,withwritingonbothsidesofthepaper,boundtogetherbyleathercovers,androughlytwiceasbulkyastheircontemporaryprintedcounterpart.Forexample,thefamousKitabal-Aghani–acompendiumofpoeticandprosepassages,withmanystoriesaboutthecaliphs,poets,singinggirlsandpopularheroes–filled5,000leavesofhand-writtenmanuscript;themodernprintededitionfillsfivevolumes,eachofabout400pages,andoneshortervolumewith280pages.

InstitutionsofLearning

ntheearlydays,themosqueservedasthebasiceducationalinstitutionofthecommunity.However,asthedemandforlearninggrew,itbecame

inconvenienttoholdlecturesandlivelydiscussionsinthemosquewheresomanypeopleweretryingtoprayandmemorizetheQur’an.Muslimeducatorsthusdevelopedanewtypeofinstitution:theMadrassahorthecollege.AmongthefirstofthesecollegeswasNizamiyyah,builtbyNizamal-MulkinBaghdadin1067.

IntheMadrassah,theteacher(Shaikhorprofessor)wouldsitonalowchair,surroundedbystudentssittinginacircle.Thehonoraryheadofthecollegewasahighofficialwithadeputyorvice-chancellortoconducttheadministration.Eachprofessorhadanumberofteachingassistantsandsometimesaspecial‘Reader’forreadingaloudtexts.Therewasnoregularscheduleandthestudentswerefreetocontinuetheirstudiesaslongasboththestudentandtheprofessorthoughtitwisetodoso.Eachprofessorstartedhiscoursebygivinganoutlineofwhatwastobecovered,followedbyageneralexplanationofthesubjectandthewaystheauthoritiesdifferedaboutit.

Inparallelwiththeevolutionofcollegesemergedjamiaoruniversities.Theoldestuniversityintheworldisal-AzharinCairo,establishedin970.TheQarawiyinUniversityofFezinMoroccowasestablishedsoonafterwards.Apartfromreligioussciences,theuniversitystudentslearnedlogic,metaphysics,philosophy,mathematics,physics,astronomy,rhetoricandtool-making!

Theemergenceofcollegesandlibrariesraisedaafundamentalquestion:Howtoclassifyknowledgeforteachingpurposes,aswellasorganizingbooksonashelf?

Theclassificationsthemselvesledtotheproductionofnumerousgenresofreferenceandbibliographicalworks:thesauri,dictionaries,encyclopedias,biographical,historicalandcentennialdictionaries,genealogicaltables,geographicalguides,aswellasnarrativeandinterpretiveworksofreference.

ArgumentsandDebates

ntensedebates,withfierceargumentsstretchingovercenturies,werethehallmarkofMuslimcivilization.Allvarietyofintellectualgroups,with

remarkablydiversepositions,mushroomedeverywhere.ThesegroupshadnameslikePeopleoftheTent(whowereStoics)TheBrethrenofPurity(whowereneo-Platonists),PeopleofSubjectiveVision(whoweremystics),andPeopleoftheStraightWayandtheCommunity(whoweretheologicalrationalists).

“TheBookofDebate”–oneoftheearliestprintedhooks.

DuringthefirsttwohundredyearsofIslam,philosophystemmedfromtheQur’anwhichprovidedrationalgroundstodemonstratetheexistenceofacreative,uniqueandincorporealGod.ThisrationalphilosophywasfashionedbythetheologiansandwasknownasKalam.Kalammeansspeechorconversationandwasbasedontheideathattruthcanbefoundthroughaprocessofinterrogationinvolvingquestionsandanswers.

ThesituationchangedwhenMuslimsmasteredGreekphilosophy.ThechampionsofGreekphilosophybrokeawayfromrationalisttheologyandbecameknownastheMutazilites(Separatists).ThereactionagainstMutazilitephilosophyproducedanumberofmovementsconcernedsolelywiththerationaldemolitionofGreekphilosophy.ButthemajorchallengecamefromtheAshariteSchoolfoundedbythetheologianal-Ashari(d.945).

TheMutazilitesarguedthatwithreasonaloneonecouldknowofGod’snatureandexistenceandwhatitistoactmorallyandimmorally.Thusitwaspossibletoperceivethetruthwithoutprophecyandrevelationandmenwerefreetodoastheywished.TheAsharitesarguedthatthecomprehensionofuniquenatureand

characteristicsofGodwerebeyondhumancapability.Andthat,whilemanhadfreewill,hehadnopowertocreateanything.

Onbothsidesweresomeofthemostbrilliantmindsofthetime.OntheMutaziliteside:

Al-Kindi(d.866),knownas‘thephilosopheroftheArabs’,encyclopedicscientist,authorofsome270booksonmathematics,physics,music,medicine,pharmacyandgeography,commentatoronAristotle.

Al-Farabi(d.950),anauthorityonmusic,amystic,masterofGreekphilosophy(andhencecalled‘theSecondTeacher’,Aristotlebeingthefirst)andauthorofTheBezelsofPhilosophyandThePerfectState(freelyappropriatedbyStThomasAquinas).

IbnSina(d.1037),childprodigy,encyclopedist,physician,psychologist,authorofthestandardtextCanonsofMedicine,masterof,commentatoronandcorrectorof,Aristotle:‘themostfamousscientistofIslamandoneofthemostfamousofallraces,placesandtimes’(GeorgeSarton).

IbnRushd(d.1198),physician,scientist,linguistand‘TheCommentator’onAristotleandPlato:‘thegreatestMuslimphilosopheroftheWest’.

NottoforgetanassortmentofAbbasidCaliphs,whosawthemselvesasphilosopher-kings,andthoughtGreekphilosophyajollygoodidea.

OntheAshariteside:

Al-Ghazzali(d.1111),theologian,sceptic,believer,mystic,professoratNizamiyyahcollegeandtheauthorofthemonumentalTheRevivaloftheReligiousSciencesinIslam.

Fakhral-DinRazi(d.1209),mathematician,physicist,physician,philosopher,masterofKalam,authorofaninfluentialencyclopediaofscience:‘oneofthegreatestmastersinIslam’.

IbnKhaldun(d.1406),historian,philosopher,pedagogue,founderofthephilosophyofhistoryandsociology.

Whenalltheargumentshadbeendebatedandheard,al-Ghazzali’sdevastatingattack‘TheIncoherenceofthePhilosophers’gavetheAsharitesaclearvictory.Itwasavictorybasedonsuperiorargumentsandrigorouslogic.IbnRushd’scomeback,‘TheIncoherenceoftheIncoherence’,oneofthemostpowerfuldefencesofrationalismeverproduced,couldnotsavethedayfortheMutazilites.

Intime,al-Ghazzali’sideasbecamethedominantmodeofthoughtfortheMuslimcivilization.

Sufism(Mysticism)

hedebatebetweenphilosophersandtheologianstendedtoconfinereligiontodryrationality.Itledmanythinkerstoseekrefugeinthespiritualhavenof

mysticism.Theearlymysticsusedtotravelfreelywearingawoollendressfromwhichtheytooktheirname:theSufis.

SufismisbasedontheesotericversesoftheQur’anandanumberoftraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.Itskeyconceptistasawwufwhichisconcerned

withvirtueslikelove,awe,patience,trust,fear,humility,quietismandpracticeslikeremembranceandcontemplationofGod,hungerandabstinence.

ToacquiretheultimateexperienceoffanaonehastofollowastrictdisciplinebyjoiningatariqaorSufiorder.

ThefirstSufiissaidtobethegreatwomansaint,Rabiahal-Basri(d.801).Sheistheoriginatorofthedoctrineof‘disintrestedloveofGod’whichservedbothasamotiveandagoalofherlife.

ThemostcelebratedexperienceoffanainIslamichistoryisthatofthePersianmystical-Hallaj(d.922).Al-Hallajbecamerenownedduringhislifetimeformakingmysticalutterancesinthestreets.Oneday,inastateofmysticalfana,herepeatedlyutteredthefamouswords:‘IamtheTruth.’Afteranumberoflongtrialsandcounter-trials,al-Hallajwasfinallyexecuted.

ThemosttalkedaboutSufiinIslamichistoryisibnArabi(d.1240).IbnArabiwrotedeliberatelyimpenetrablebuthighlyinfluentialmysticaltomesandintroducedthenotionofthe‘UnityofallBeing’(wahdatal-wajud)toSufism,amonotheisticversionofpantheism,thusbecomingthesourceofperpetualcontroversy.

TheSufishaveproducedsomeofthefinestpoetryandproseinIslamichistory.TheMathnawiofJalaluddinRumi(d.1273),whichtook43yearstowrite,isconsideredaPersianmasterpiece.RumifoundedtheSufiorderknownastheWhirlingDervishes.OthermasterpiecesofSufipoetryincludeFaridalDinAttar’s(d.1229)TheConferenceoftheBirds,Firdawsi’s(d.1020)Shahanamawhichcontains60,000versesandSadiShahrazi’s(d.1194)Gulistan(TheRoseGarden)andBustan(TheFruitGarden).

Literature

arrativeliteratureevolvedintoanumberofsophisticatedgenres.Theseincludedinstructionalnarrativescontainingreligiousstories,glorioustales

andmoralstoriesandanecdotes.PopularromancesweredevelopedbystorytellerswiththeaccentonchivalryandtragedysuchastheRomanceofAntarahbinShadad,RomanceofBaniHilalandStoryofBakrandTaghlib.Linguisticnarratives,designedtoshowofflanguage,playedonthebeautyandeleganceofArabiclikeal-Hariri’s(d.1122)TheAssemblies.Andphilosophicalnarrativeswhichexploreideasbyplacingtheirprotagonistinethical,religiousormetaphysicaldilemmassuchasibnShahid’s(d.1075)al-TawabiandalMaari’sRisalahal-Ghufran.

TheThousandandOneNights,popularbawdytales,notaliterarymasterpiece.ButmuchusedandabusedbyWesternwriters.

IbnTufayl(d.1185),physician,philosopherandauthorofoneoftheearliestphilosophicalnovels,TheLifeofHayy.Muchplagiarisedbutseldomacknowledged.Defoe’sRobinsonCrusoeisaracistreplicaofthesublimeHayy.

AbuNawas(d.810),masterpoet,scoundrel,companionandcourtjesterof‘goodHarounAlraschid’intheArabianNights,andloverofwine:

Ho!Acupandfillitup,andtellmeitiswine,ForneverwillIdrinkinshadeifIcandrinkinshine.CurstandpooriseveryhourthatsoberImustgo,ButrichamIwhene’erwilldrunkIstaggertoandfro.Speak, for shame, the loved one’s name, let vain disguisesfall,Goodfornaughtarepleasureshidbehindacurtain-wall.

AuniqueinstitutionofMuslimcivilizationwasAdaborliteratureofmannersandaphorisms.Thisofferedthecreamofwhathadbeensaidinverse,prose,

aphorismandpithyanecdoteoneveryconceivablesubject.Oneofthefirstadabworkswasibnal-Muqaffa’s(d.757)moralizinganimalfablesofBidpai,Kalilawa-Dimna.Thearchetypalrepresentativeofadabliteratureisal-Jahiz(d.868)‘thegoggleeyed’.HismasterpieceTheBookofAnimalsisstillwidelyread.

Science

hescientificachievementsofMuslimcivilizationaretrulystaggering.Indeed,scientificmethod,asgenerallyunderstoodtoday,wasintroducedby

thegreatMuslimempiricistsandexperimenters.Inthelabreportsofal-Battani(d.929),al-Baruni(d.1048)andibnHaytham(d.1039)wefindthismethoddescribedandused.TheMuslimsalsoturnedmathematicsintothelanguageofscience.Withthesetwoinnovationsthereseemednolimittotheirresearchanddiscoveries.

Theearliestbreakthroughstookplaceinmathematicsandastronomy.Al-Khwarizmi(d.850)inventedlogarithmsandalgebrawhichcomesfromthetitleofbookKitabal-jabrwa’muqabala(TheBookofInheritance).Throughthisbook,300yearlater,theWesternworldwouldbeintroducedtothezeroandadoptArabicnumerals.InTheShapeoftheEarth,al-Khwarizmileftnoonein

doubt.AbdulWafa(d.997/8)developedtrigonometryandsphericalgeometry,cameupwithsineandtangenttables,anddiscoveredvariationsinthemoon’smotion.OmarKhayyam(d.1123)solvedthirdandfourth-degreeequationsbyintersectingconics–thehighestalgebraicachievementofmodernmathematics.

SoaccuratewereMuslimscientiststhatal-Battani,consideredtobethegreatestIslamicastronomer,wasoutonlyby24secondsfromtoday’sacceptedvalueinhiscalculationofthelengthofthesolaryear.Al-Baruni’smeasurementsofspecificgravitiesofvariousmetalsandpreciousstonesandoflongitudeandlatitudesofeartharecorrecttothreedecimalplaces.

Ibnal-Haytham(d.1039)wasatrailblazerInoptics.Experimentingwith27differenttypesofsphericallenses,hediscoveredthelawsofreflectionandrefraction,explainedtheapparentincreaseinthesizeofthestarsnearthezenith,anddiscoveredthattheeyedoesnotsendoutrays(asEuclidandPtolemybelieved)butreflectsthem.HisOpticalThesaurusisoneofthemostplagiarisedtextsinthehistoryofscience.GuiltypartiesincludeRogerBacon,daVinci,Kepler;evenNewtonisunderscholarlysuspicion.

AtthenumerousobservatoriesthroughouttheMuslimworld,astronomicaltableswerepreparedandpublishedbycountlessastronomers,eachchecking,correctingandimprovingthetablesofhispredecessor.Someofthempublishedreferencebooksonstars,evendifferentiatingbetweenstarsandnebulae.TheobservatoriesatMaraga,Damascus,al-Rayy,SevilleandSamarkandwereamongstthemostfamous.AtMaraga,wherethespecialattractionwasaquadrantoftenfeetradius,thefamousastronomeral-Tusi(d.1274)workedonplanetarymotion.Hisworkwascontinuedbyibnash-Shatir(d.1375)atDamascus.

HistoriansofsciencehavenoticedthesimilaritybetweentheplanetarymodelsproducedatMaragaandDamascuswiththoseofCopernicus.Amerecoincidence?

Astronomy comes immediately after religion as the mostnoble and perfect science. It adorns themind and sharpens

the intellect, it makes man recognize God’s oneness. – Al-BattaniinOpusAstronomicium.

ThabitbinQurra’s(d.901)theoryof‘trepidation’:superimposedontheuniformrecession,thezeropointoftheeclipticdescribesasmallcircleof4degreesradiusin4000years.

Chemistrytooreceivedagroundinginexperimentalmethod.JabiribnHayyan(d.813)inventednumeroustypesoflaboratoryapparatus,introduceddistillationforthepurificationofwater,identifiednumerousalkalis,acids,salts,preparedsulphuricacid,causticsodaandnitrohydrochloricacidfordissolvingmetalsand

discoveredmercury.AbuBakrAl-Razi(d.935)dividedchemicalsubstancesintocategoriesofmineral,vegetableandanimalanddeclaredthatthefunctionsofthehumanbodywerebasedoncomplexchemicalreactions.

Al-Majriti(d.1007)provedtheprincipleofchemicalconservationofmass–900yearslaterLavoisiertookthecredit.

Similaradvancesweremadeinbotany,zoologyandothernaturalsciences.Al-Jahiz(d.869)wrotethefirstcomprehensivezoologicalstudy:TheAnimals.Kamalad-Dinad-Damiri(d.1405)developedtheideaofzoologicaltaxonomyinhisTheLifeofAnimals.AbuBakral-Baytar(d.1340)producedonethemostcomprehensiveworksonveterinarymedicineinKamilas-Sina’atayn.

In1121,Al-KhazinipublishedhisBookoftheBalanceofWisdom.Apartfromadetaileddiscussionoftechniquesofmeasurementandconstructionofbalances,lawsofmechanics,hydrostaticsandphysics,thebookalsocontainsanumberoftheories–atheoryofsolids,atheoryofthebehaviourofleversandatheorythatidentifiesauniversalcentralforcedirectedtowardsthecentreoftheearth.Newton’sapplewouldfall566yearslater!

AfewArabicwordsincommonscientificparlance:azimuth,zenith,nadirstarnames:likeBetelgeose(baital-Jauzah)andAlgol(ra’sal-ghul)chemistry–al-kimiyaalcohol–al-kuholalkaline–al-qalawiarsenic–al-zirnich.

Al-Farghani’s(d.870),TheElementsofAstronomy,whichdealsmainlywithcelestialmotion,wasfreelyusedbyDanteinhisVitaNuova,ConvivioandTheDivineComedy.

Threeperpetual-motionmachinesdescribedinachapteronwater-wheelswrittensometimebetweentheninthandtwelfthcenturiesAD.

Technology

hedevelopmentoftechnologyintheMuslimcivilizationwasintimatelyconnectedwithcraftsandprofessionalindustries.Thedistillationofrose-

water,perfumes,andthescentedoilsinplantsandflowers–the‘essentialoils’–wasagiganticindustry.Technologyforproducinganddistillingcrudepetroleumwasdevelopedasearlyastheninthcenturyastheexcellentdescriptioninal-Razi’sBookoftheSecretofSecretsshowssoclearly.Alsodevelopedbythistimeweretechnologiesforextractionofindustrialoilsandfats,preparationofacids,manufactureofsoapandglass,ceramics,inks,pigments,dyes,paperandleathergoods.Thehistoryofwaterpower,includingtheconstructionofdamsandwindmills,beginswithIslamicculture.

TheBookofIngeniousDevicesbythethreeBanuMusabrothers,whoflourishedinBaghdadduringtheninthcentury,describesonehundredworking

machines,75beingtheirowninventions.

Aself-replenishingvesseldescribedinKitabal-hiyalbyBanuMusabrothers.

AnumberofinnovativeirrigationtechnologieswereintroducedbytheMuslims,includingthewater-wheelandthetechniquefortheutilizationofsubterraneanwaterbymeansofundergroundconduitscalledqanats.Countlessmachines,usinggears,cranksandpistonsforraisingwaterfromthegroundforirrigation,drinkinganddomesticuses,wereinvented.

Muslimsalsodevelopedsurveyingtechniques,undergroundmining(completewithminer’slamp)andtechnologiesformanufacturingalloysandsteel.

InhistwelfthcenturyCompendiumoftheTheoryandPracticeoftheMechanicalArts,al-Jazarisaysthatanyindustrialsciencewhichisnotverifiedbyexperimentsisadoubtfulscience,andgivescarefuldescriptionsofcalibrationprocedures.

Scoopwheelbytheriver.

Aminer’slampwithapivotedsheild,describedbytheMusabrothers.Thesheildwasdesignedsoitwouldbeturnedbythewindtothepositionwhereitwouldprotectthelamp.

Muslimsexcelledinmakingaccurateinstruments.Theplanisphericastrolabe,theearliestanaloguecomputer,isapurelyIslamicinvention.Itwasthemostpowerfultoolavailabletoastronomersbeforetheadventofmoderninstruments.Withit,onecoulddeterminethetimesofrising,settingandculminationoftheSunandstars,findthepositionofacelestialbodyatagiventime,aswellassolveanumberofotherastronomicalproblems.InTaqial-Din’sTheBrightestStarsfortheConstructionofMechanicalClocks,writtenin1565,wefindadetaileddescriptionfortheconstructionofaclockwithverge-and-foliotescapement,astrikingtrainofgears,analarm,andarepresentationofthemoon’sphases.Alsointhesamemanualisadescriptionofaspring-drivenclock.

ThefirstplanisphericastrolabewasconstructedbyAl-Fazari(d.790?).

Medicine

edicinewasdevelopedtoanastonishinglyhighdegreebyMuslims.ThefirstorganizedhospitalwasbuiltforlepersinDamascus.Soonafterwardsevery

Muslimcityhaditsowncentralhospital.Baghdadalonehad60hospitals.Thesehospitalswereremarkablyadvancedindesignandcontainedpharmarcies,libraries,lecture-roomsformedicalstudents,separatewardsformenandwomenandfacilitiesforout-patients.

ThegreatestMuslimphysicianwasundoubtedlyal-Razi(d.925).Hisdescriptionsoftheclinicalsignsofmanyillnessesareunsurpassed.Heinvestigatedwomen’sdiseasesandestablishedmidwifery,wroteonhereditary

diseases,eyediseasesandgavethefirstaccountofsmallpoxandmeasles.Manyoftheideasandconceptscontainedinhis24volumeencyclopediaonmedicine,al-Hawi–TheContinence–arestillvalidtoday!

IbnSina’s(d.1037)TheCanonsofMedicine,in14volumes,wasastandardmedicaltextintheWestfor700years!Itdealswithdiseases,theirclassification,description,andcauses,withtherapeuticsanddescriptionsofsimpleandcompoundmedicines,withhygiene,thefunctionsofpartsofthebodyandnumerousothertopics.IbnSinanotedthattuberculosiswascontagiousanddescribedthesymptomsandcomplicationsofdiabetes.Hewasveryinterestedintheeffectofthemindonthebodyandwroteagreatdealonpsychology.

ADrawingsofsurgicalinstruments,fromatreatiseonexternalpathologybyaz-Zahrawi.SixteenthcenturymanuscriptfromMorocco.

OneofthemorefamousmanualsonsurgerywaswrittenbyAl-Zahra(b.939).Apartfromdescriptionsofhowtoperformawholevarietyofoperations,Al-Tasrifincludesdetaileddescriptionsofoverahundredsurgicalinstruments–manyal-Zahra’sowninventions.Healsodevelopeddentistryandperformedcosmeticoperationstocorrectdentalirregularities.

SocialSciences

heMuslimsalsoinfusedthecriticalspiritofinquiryintosocialsciences.History,includingarchaeologyandethnology,wasaMuslimvocationabove

allothers.Themonumentalworksofuniversalhistorybyal-Tabri,al-Masudi,al-AthirandibnKhaldunshowthequantumleapthathistoryreceivedfromMuslimcivilization.

Allrecords,bytheirverynature,areliabletoerror…

thefirstoftheseispartisanshiptowardsacreedoropinion…

thesecondfactor…isover-confidenceinone’ssources…

thethirdisthefailuretounderstandwhatisintended…

thefourthisamistakenbeliefinthetruth…

thefifthistheinabilitytoplaceaneventinitsrealcontext…

thesixthisthecommondesiretogainfavourofthoseofhighranks,bypraisingthem,byspreadingtheirfame…

theseventh,andthemostimportant,istheignoranceofthelawsgoverningthetransformationsofhumansociety.

IbnKhalduninTheMuqadimmah

Psychologywasawell-establisheddisciplineintheMuslimcivilizationwithsucheminentpsychologistsasibnSinaandibnTufayl.ButthegreatestMuslimpsychologististheSufiphilosopher,poetandmusician,ibnBajjah(d.1138)whoseTheBookofEgoinfluencedcountlessMuslimauthors.

Al-Mawardi(d.1058)introducedanoriginaltheoryofthestateinhisBookonthePrinciplesofGovernmentandibnTaymiyya’s(d.1317)numerouswritingsonpoliticaltheoryestablishedthebasisforaMuslimpoliticalscience.IbnTaymiyya’srigorousworksoncomparativereligionwerenotalwayspleasingtotheShiaortheChristians.

GeographyandTravel

ravelwasabigbusinessintheMuslimcivilization.MuslimshipssailedtoeverypartoftheknownworldandMuslimscientistsdevelopedchartsand

mapsoftheseaareasdividedintosquaresoflongitudeandlatitudecontainingdirectionsofprevailingwindsanddataabouttidalconditions.Asophisticatedsystemofpostalserviceswasintroducedasearlyasthetenthcentury.TheadventuresofSindbadtheSailorreflecttherealitiesofcommerceandcommunicationsduringtheAbbasidperiod.

TheswashbucklingadventuresintheVolga-Caspianregionsofthe10thcenturytravelleribnFadlanmakerivetingreadingandprovideoneoftheearliestaccountsofthisarea.

OneoftheearliestgeographicalworksisRoutesandKingdomsbyibnKhuradadhbihpublishedin848.ApartfromtheMuslimempire,itprovidesdescriptionsofsuchdistantareasasChina,KoreaandJapan.Exactlyahundredyearslater,al-Masudipublishedhisfamousgeographicalencyclopedia,MeadowsofGoldandMinesofPreciousStones.

…whichamongstotherthings,discussesearthquakes,geologicalformationsandthenatureoftheDeadSea.

Al-Masudi’slaterworksdiscussgeologicalevolution.In1154,al-ldris,oneofthemostrenownedMuslimgeographersandcartographers,publishedthefirstspherical,accurateand‘modern’mapoftheworldanddescribedtheuseofthecompassinhisbookAmusementforhimwhoDesirestoTravelRoundtheWorld.YaqutHamawi’s(d.1229)GeographicalDictionarylists,inalphabeticalorder,almosteveryknowntownandplaceandprovidesremarkablyaccurateinformationonthesizeoftheearth,climaticzonesandphysical,mathematicalandpoliticalgeography.

ArchitectureandTownPlanning

ownplanningwasasophisticatedscienceintheMuslimcivilization.Townswereusuallybuiltnearariverwhichsupplieddrinkinganddomesticwater

(upstream)aswellascarryingawaywasteandsewage(downstreamandunderground).Muslimsintroducedtheideaofcarryingcapacityandbuilttownsforacalculatednumberoffamilies.Theyalsointroducedtheideaofharam,inviolatezones–outsidetowns,nearwater-coursesandotherareas–wheredevelopmentwasforbidden.

Architectswiththeirinstruments.

Asthebasicformation,thecourtyarddeterminedtheshapeandsizeofeachhouse,whichinturninterrelatedwiththegroupingofhousestoformaneighbourhood.Theresultantcompactandcontinuouslayoutofbuildingsreducedlandwastetoaminimumandprovidedanetworkofcoolalleywaysandsquares.Differentprofessions,craftsmenandartisansweregroupedindifferentlocationsandasenseofcommunitywasmaintainedthroughanetworkofcompactandhighlydenseneighbourhoods.Themosquesandcollegeswerebothphysicallyandspirituallyatthecentreofthetown,withthesuqsasthecentreofcommercialandsociallife.Thenarrowandsteepalleywaysandcoveredpassagesmadeitpossibletowalkeverywhereinthetown.

TheMuslimsalsointroducedhima,asecondkindofinviolatezone,solelyfortheconservationofwildlifeandforests.Therewerefivetypesofhimazones:

1.reservesinwhichgrazingwasprohibited;

2.reservesforforestsinwhichcuttingoftreeswasforbidden;

3.reservesinwhichgrazingwasrestrictedtocertainseasons;

4.reservesforbeekeepinginwhichgrazingwasforbiddenduringflowering;and

5.reservesmanagedforthewelfareofaparticularvillage,townortribe.

Ibnabdas-Salam,whoflourishedduringthethirteenthcentury,formulatedthefirststatementofanimalrights.

Muslimarchitecturespeaksforitself.JustlookattheskylineofIstanbul,theTajMahal,al-HamrainGranada,themosqueinCordoba,themulti-storeymudhousesofSana,thewholecityofFez(almostintactasitwasbuiltcirca800),the

FridaymosqueinLarabanga,thewindtowerhousesinDubai…thelistisendless.

Art

slamicartisoneofthefinestmanifestationsofMuslimcivilization.Itsmostoutstandingfeatureistheemphasisoncalligraphyanddecorativearts.Even

today,calligraphyisthedominantMuslimartform.Quitenaturally,itistheversesfromtheQur’anthatareusedonreligiousaswellasnon-religiousobjects.

Theemphasisondecorativeartledtothedevelopmentofpottery,tilemaking,metalwork,glass-cuttingandenameling,ivorycarving,bookbinding–allreachedthehighestartisticpeaks.Economically,themostimportantwerethetextilecraftssuchascloth-making,carpetknottingandtapestryweaving.Bookillustration,illuminationandminiaturepaintingswerepopularamongsttheeducatedclasses.Notalltheartsflourishedatthesametimeorinthesameplace–theyspanavastgeographicalaswellashistoricrange.

Music

uslimsclassifiedmusicasamathematicalscience,andnumerousmathematicians,philosophersandmysticswrotetreatisesonmusic.Butthe

mostfamousworkonthetheoryofmusicisbySafial-Din(1294).

The‘classical’systemofmusicwaschampionedbyal-Mawsili(d.850).Hisstudent,themastermusicianZiryab,introducedthissystemtoSpainin822.ThemostoutstandingcontributionoftheMuslimtheoristswasthedevelopmentofmensuralmusic,introducedtoEuropeinthetwelfthcentury,beforewhichmeasuredsongwasunknowntotheWest.Equallyimportantwastheconceptofglossoradornmentofamelody.Itwasatypeofglossknownasthetarkib,thestrikingofanotesimultaneouslywithitsfourthorfifthoctavethatgaveEuropetheideaofharmony.

Thedevelopmentofthetheoryandpracticeofmusicproducednumerousinstruments.Awholefamilyofstringedinstrumentsofthelute,pendoreandguitargroup,andthebowedinstrumentofvarioustypes,originatedintheMuslimcivilizationandwerepassedontotheWestviaSpain.Withthestringedinstrumentscametheplacesofthenotesfixedonthefinger-boardbymeansoffietorfaridawhichweredeterminedbymeasurement.–Beforethat,Europeanminstralsonlyhadcitharaandharpsamongtheirinstrumentsandwereguidedmerelybytheirearsintuning.

SpreadofMuslimLearningtoEurope

ptothe16thcentury,theflowofknowledgewasstrictlyfromIslamtoEurope.TheworksofMuslimscholarswereregularlytranslatedintoLatin

andotherEuropeanlanguages,usedastextbooksandpracticalmanuals.EuropeanscholarsandthinkerswereregularvisitorsatMuslimcentresoflearning.EuropeanstudentswenttoCardova,Fez,Cairo,Baghdad,Samarkandtostudyundergreatmasters’justasMuslimstudentsnowadayscometoEuropeandNorthAmericaforfurtherstudy.Arabicwasthelanguageofscienceandculture,andthosewhocaredforthoughtandlearningshowedtheirconcernbydressinglikeMuslimscholars.

TheEuropeanRenaissanceandalltheprogressinscience,technology,medicine,learningandhumanismthatitproduced,wasbuiltsquarelyontheshouldersofMuslimscholarsandthinkers.Indeed,theRenaissanceisinconceivablewithoutthecontributionofMuslimcivilization.Thisfactisseldomacknowledged.Onthecontrary,theachievementsofMuslimscholarsandscientistswerefrequentlyplagiarized,deliberatelyandsystematicallydowngraded,underminedandbrushedaside.

AfewthingsthattheWestfailedtolearnfromMuslims(andwhichtheMuslimsthemselveshaveforgotten)

ThatknowledgeandvaluescannotbeseparatedWhenitisnecessarytoleavetechnologyaloneTheimportanceofholisticthoughtandactionEnvironmentalhusbandry:thenotionoftrusteeship,inviolateenvironmental

zonesHowtoenjoysexwithoutfeelingguilty*Multiculturalism**

*Toohotforabeginner’sprimerlikethisone.ButseethemuchusedandabusedworksofShaikhMasumi’sThePerfumedGardenwritteninthefifteencenturyandibnSulayman’sHowanOldManCanBecomeYoungAgainpublishedtowardstheendofthefourteenthcentury.SeetheFahiristofal-Nadimforfurtherreferences.

**MuslimSpain(750-1492)wasthefirst,andtheonly,trulymultireligiousandmulticulturalsocietyinhistory;MuslimBosniaandMalaysiaarecontemporaryexamplesofIslamicmulticulturalisminaction.

Decline

hedeclineoftheMuslimcivilizationhasbeenattributedtoanumberoffactors.InternaldivisionsandfeudswithintheMuslimempire,thecorrupt

andluxuriantlifestylesoftherulers,thefallofBaghdadandthelossofSpainarecommonlycitedreasonsforthedownfalloftheMuslims.

WhentheMongolhordesarrivedatthegatesofBaghdadin1258,theAbbasidsweretooweaktodefendthecity.Itwasrazedtothegroundandeveryone,includingthecaliph,wasputtothesword.Theintellectuallosswasalsodevastating:theMongolsburntastronomicalnumbersofmanuscriptsanddestroyedallthelibrariessopainstakinglybuiltbyearlyAbbasidcaliphs.

ThesecondmajorblowcamewiththelossofSpain.HereeventsfollowedthesamecourseasinBaghdad:internalfeuds,divisions,corruptionofrulers…WhenBoadbil,theMoorishPrinceofGranada,kneltbeforeKingFerdinandon2January1492andhandedoverthekeystothecityofGranada,heended800gloriousandtrulyenlighteningyearsofMuslimruleinSpain.Boabdil’cmotherrebukedhersonwiththewordsthathavehauntedMuslimhistoryeversince.

Youweeplikeawomanforwhatyoucouldnotholdasaman.

Theintellectuallosswasequallygreat:countlessmanuscriptswereritualisticallyburntandcenturiesofMuslimlearningweresuppressed.

ButthesackofBaghdadandthefallofGranada,thoughturningpointsinMuslimhistory,cannotreallybeconsideredasthemaincausesforMuslimdecline.TheforcethatplacedMuslimcivilizationinreversegearwasaninternalandconceptualone.

Towardstheendofthe14thcentury,theulama(religiousscholars),who,thankstoal-Ghazzali,wereinapositionofdominance,begantoconceiveofthewrittenwordasanindependentrealmofrepresentationandtruthapartfromlife.Theproliferationofbookshadcreatedadistancebetweenauthorsandthewordsthatcarriedtheirideasacrossspaceandtime.Thetextwasopentoeveryvarietyofinterpretation,irrespectiveofrealfactsandtruth.

Sowhatifagiventextisopentoanumberofinterpretations?Theulamahadtwoconcerns.First,theywereconcernedthattheQur’anwasopentoallkindsofwildinterpretations,notjustbyuntutoredreaders,butalsobytheologicallyunqualifiedprofessionalwriters.Tosomeextent,thiswasagenuineconcerngiventhevarietyofirrationalandexploitativebehaviourthatwasbeingjustifiedonthebasisoftheQur’anandtradition.Butthiswasintimatelylinkedtothesecondandmoreimportantworry:theproliferationofwrittentextshadbeganto

underminetheauthorityandcontrolthattheulamaenjoyedoverboththeMuslimrulersandthemasses.

Ittooktheulamaoverahundredyearstorespondtotheproblem.Theirresponsewasthreefold:

1.Theyreducedtheconceptofilmfrommeaning‘allknowledge’tomeanonly‘religiousknowledge.’

2.Theytransformedtheconceptofijmafrommeaning‘theconsensusofthecommunity’tomean‘theconsensusofthelearned,’i.e.theconsensusoftheulamathemselves.

3.Andtheyclosed‘thegatesofijtihad’:independentreasoningonmattersofreligionwaseffectivelyoutlawed.

ThishadadevastatingeffectonMuslimsociety.Ijtihadthusgavewaytotaqlid(blindimitation);reasoning,speculationandinnovationwerereplacedbyimitation.TheinterpretationoftheQur’anwasfrozeninhistory.Intheabsenceofnewideas,reflectionandunderstandingofchangingcircumstances,Muslimthoughtossifiedandbecametotallyobscurantist.Consequently,Muslimculturelostitsdynamismanddegenerated,whiletheMuslimcommunitywastransformedfromanopentoaclosedsociety.

Thereligiousscholarsdefendedthehighlyprivilegedterritorytheycreatedforthemselveswithgreatvigour.InsharpcontrasttohowrapidlytheMuslimsacquiredpaperfromtheChineseandturneditintoanindustry,theulamamanagedtoresisttheintroductionofprintingpressesinMuslimcountriesfor

nearlythreecenturies.Theyarguedthatmassprintingofbookswouldleadnottotheunderstandingandappreciationofsacredandclassicaltextsbuttotheirmisrepresentationandmisunderstandinginuntutoredhands.By‘forbidding’printing,theulamadeprivedMuslimsocietyofacrucialsourceofoxygen.TheMuslimcountrieswerenowreadytobedevouredbyEuropeanpowers.

Colonialism

minorvariations,theEuropeanpowerswhichcolonizedtheMuslimworld–Britain,France,Holland–behavedaccordingtoasetpattern.‘Divideand

conquer’wasthepolicyofoccupation.Forexample,byplayingoffonerulerinIndiaagainstanothertillexhausted,theBritishcouldeasilydevourtheMughalempire.Thewarofindependencein1857wasthelasteffortonthepartoftheIndianmassestooverthrowtheBritish.Itfailedmiserably.BahadarShahZafar,thelastMughalEmperorofIndia,wasnotverykeenon‘freetrade’andwasreluctanttogivetheBritishtradingconcessionsashesuspectedtheirmotives.Hissuspicionsprovedtobecorrect.Asafirstgestureoftheirintentionstocivilizethenatives,theBritishpresentedhimwiththeheadsofhisentirefamilyonsilverplatters.ZafarwasexiledtoRangoonwherehediedinabjectpovertyandwrotesomeofthegreatestpoemsinUrduliterature.

Ontakingcontrol,colonialpowerssystematicallystrippedMuslimsocietyofallitslearningandexpertise.Oneofthefirstactsofcolonialrulerswastobanallintellectual,learnedandeducationalactivities.Forexample,whentheDutchtookoverIndonesiain1595,theyclosedallmadrasas,collegesandlibrariesandbannededucation.NativeswereforbiddenfromenteringthefewlibrariesthattheDutchestablishedfortheirownpurposes.In1850,theyallowedprimaryeducationforthenativesbutstillprohibitedsecondaryeducation.ThedestructionofIslamicmedicinecamenext.Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,aFrenchdoctorneededpermissiontopracticemedicineinTunisiafromtheMuslimChiefofPhysicians.Bytheendofthecentury,FrenchcolonialadministratorsclassedIslamicmedicineassecondrateandthenproceededruthlesslytosuppressit.Eventually,IslamicmedicinewasoutlawedallovertheMuslimworld.

ManufacturingColonialism

hecolonialpowerslootedeverythingtheycouldfromtheMuslimsocietiestheycolonized,andmostestablishedastructurefortransferringallthelocal

rawmaterialtothe‘mothercountry’.

TheEuropeanrulerscreatedaspecialclass,generallyofcivilservants,astheirlocalsurrogates.Macaulayechoedothercolonialrulerswhenhewrotein1835inhisMinutesofIndianEducation:‘Wemustatpresentdoourbesttoformaclasswhomaybeinterpretersbetweenusandthemillionswhomwegovern;aclassofpersons,Indianinbloodandcolour,butEnglishintaste,inopinion,inmorals,andinintellect.’

TheBritishEastIndiaCompanyandtheDutchEastIndiesCompanywerefreemarketventuresintheMuslimworld.TheyweregivenconcessionsbyvariousMuslimrulerstotradefreely.Buttheirtradeincludedconquestsandannexations.Today,EastIndiaCompanyT-shirtsmakeafashionstatement.

Muslimsocietiesbecameanexperimentalgroundwhereallsortsofideasof‘bravenewmodernists’,missionarieswithcivilizingzeal,believersinscience,

progressand‘WhiteMan’sburden’,testedoutnew,utopianandinnovativeeducational,socialandculturalpoliciesonMuslimsocieties.

ColonialismdismantledMuslimcivilizationbrickbybrick.Itoccupiednotonlythebodiesbutalsothe‘minds’ofMuslims.ItequatedanythingthatcouldremotelybedescribedasIslamicwithinferiorityandlowmoralworth.ItalteredtheculturalprioritiesofMuslimsocieties.ItdrainedtheMuslimcountriesofeverysourceofwealth.AnditreducedtheMuslimpeopletoabjectpoverty.

IsIamandtheWest

uslimsbecamea‘problem’forEuroperightfromthebirthofBailIslam.First,Islamwasatheologicalproblem.WhatwasthepurposeofanArabian

Prophetsome600yearsafterthecrucifixionandresurrectionofGod’sownson?Second,whenIslamarrived–withinafewdecadesofitsinception–atEurope’sborders,itbecameapoliticalproblem.Third,thescholarlyachievementsofMuslimcivilizationmadeIslamanintellectualproblemaswell.

EachaspectoftheproblemofIslamwastackledbyspecificmeans.Theologically,ChristianEuropecouldonlydenounceIslam,itsProphetanditsfollowers.Politically,EuropelaunchedaseriesofCrusadesagainstIslam.Whenthesefailed,itembarkedonfull-fledgedcolonizationoftheMuslimworld.Intellectually,itcreatedaseriesofdisciplinestocontainMuslimthoughtandhistory.

1.Denunciation

enunciationofIslamanditsProphetbeganearlyon.PaulAlvarus(d.859)usedtheBookofDanieltodiscoverthatMuhammadfittedthedescription

oftheAntichrist,completewiththesignofthebeast666,whichwassupposedtobetheyearoftheProphet’sdeath.ThisdefamatorypictureoftheProphetwasincorporatedinthecycleofpopularperformanceliteratureknownaschansonsdegeste–wheretheProphetisgiventheDevil’ssynonym,Mahound–andtheepicromancesthatlaterdevelopedoutofthem.Throughoutthemiddleages,theyexertedtremendousinfluenceonItalian,German,Spanish,FrenchandEnglishliterature,survivingrightuptothe17thcenturyindifferentforms.Thegenremadeacomebackinthe19thand20thcenturies.ThemostrecentexampleofthegenreisSalmanRushdie’sTheSatanicVerseswhichrewritesthelifeofProphetMuhammadinthedefamatorystyleofchansonsliterature.

Theterms“Muslim”and“fanatic”haveoftenbeensynonymousintheEuropeanmind.Illustratedabovealithographof1880.

2.TheCrusades

nceIslamwascastinthepermanentroleofdemonicinfidelenemy,perpetualwaragainstitwasrelativelyeasytojustify.Atthefamous‘Peace

ofGod’CouncilofClermondinNovember1095,PopeUrbanIIlaunchedthecrusades.TheCouncilcalledfora‘WarofGod’againstIslamandtheliberationofJerusalem.

WhenOmar,theSecondCaliph,capturedJerusalemin638,hetreatedtheChristiansandJewswithutmostrespect.Noonewasharmed.WhenOmarmettheChristianPatriarch,heassuredhimthatthelifeandpropertyofthecity’s inhabitant’s would be respected and then asked to be taken toChristianholyplaces.Duringthevisit,thetimeofprayerarrivedwhentheywere in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Omar asked the Patriarch’spermission to pray. The Patriarch invited Omar to do so right where hestood.Omaranswered:‘IfIdo,theMuslimswouldwanttoappropriatethissite, saying “Omar prayed here”. Then,with his prayermat in his hand,Omarwalkedoutsideandprayedonnakedground.

ThecrusadesbeganwiththeslaughteroftheJewsinEurope.ThecrusadersenteredJerusalem,aftera40daysiege,on15July1099.Theykilledsome70,000men,womenandchildrenaccordingtotheMuslimhistorianibnal-Athir.ListentoRaymundAguiles,aneye-witnessreporter

TheJewsofJerusalemfacedthesamefate.AndalsotheirfellowChristians:Greeks,Copts,Syrians,ArmeniansandGeorgiansweretakenoutoftheChurch

oftheHolySepulchre,roundedupandtortured.ElsewhereintheHolyLand,thecrusadersboiledMuslimsincookingpots,roastedchildrenonspitsandroamedthecountrysidehuntingfor‘paganSaracens’.

TheMuslimsrecapturedJerusalemon2October1187.WhentheAyyubidCaliphSalah-ad-Din(Saladin)enteredthecity,hegavestrictorderstohistroopthatnoChristianshallbetouched.HeannouncedthatChristianholyplaceswouldbeprotectedandthatanyonewhowishedtostaycouldstayandanyonewhowishedtoleavecouldleave.Manyleftandtooktheir(looted)wealthwiththem.ThepatriarchofJerusalemhimselfraidedtheChurchoftheHolySepulchreanddroveoutofthecitywithnumerouschariotsfilledwithgold,carpetsandallvarietiesofpreciousgoods.ThecompanionsofSalah-ad-Dinwerescandalized.Imamal-Dinal-Asfahani,Salah-ad-Din’streasurer,wasbesidehimselfwithrage

ThecrusadershavehadatremendousinfluenceonEurope’sperceptionofIslam.ThecrusadesprojectedIslamastheevil,darksideofEurope.ThisstereotypepictureofMuslimsasbarbaric,licentious,depraved,fanatical,ignorant,stupid,uncleanandinferior,becameanintegralpartofEuropeanthought,literatureandoutlook.Itwassustainedanddevelopedundercolonialismandisperiodicallyrecycledinourtime.

3.Orientalism

specialdisciplinesevolvedtoprovideacademicjustificationforfalseimagesofIslam.Anthropologyemergedtostudyallnon-Westernculturesasthe

imperfectandprimitiveversionsofWesternsociety.Islamreceivedtheexpectedracisttreatmentatthehandsofmanycolonialanthropologists.OrientalismwasdevelopedspecificallytocastthefearandloathingofIslamintoanacceptableobjectiveandacademicframework.

Orientalistwriters,whohaveoftentendedtobepriests,havesincethe15thcenturybeenrewritingIslamichistory,presentingperverselygrotesquedescriptionsofIslamicsources,attributingwickedandinnatelyevilcharacteristicstoMuslimsocieties.TheQur’anwasrepeatedlyanalysedasaincoherent,repetitious,violentbookoflittleconsequence.Muhammadwasconstantlypresentedasamoralandlicentious.Muslimthoughtandlearningwassuppressedandwrittenoutofthehistoryofscience!

Orientalismwas/isnotjustanacademicpursuit–itwas/isalsoanoutlooktowardsIslam.Europeantravellers,novelistsandartistshaveproducedavastcorpusofliteratureandpaintingsdepictingIslamasabarbaricfusionofsexandviolence,atreasurehouseofmagic,superstition,drugsanddeformations.Manyofthesewriters–suchasRichardBurton(d.1890),IsabelleEberhardt(d.1904),TELawrence(d.1935)–wenttotheMuslimworldeitherasspiesortoseeksexualgratificationdeniedtheminEurope.

SensualityandsexoozefromthislanguorousAlgerianodalisquebyRenoir.Theharemanditsdelightswereafrequentresortfortheimaginationof19thcenturypaintersandwriters.Renoirpaintedthisin1870,nineyearsbeforehevisitedAlgiers.

TheWesternattemptstosolvethe‘problem’ofIslamhaveproducedacatalogueofcrimesandinjusticesagainstMuslimsthatdefiesdescription.

IthasledtoaninstitutionalizationofIslamandMuslimsastheDemonisedOtherinEuropeanthoughtandhistory.

IthaspervertedWesternscholarshiponIslamandtheexplorationofMuslimsocietiesinliteratureandtravel.

ButbeyondthestereotypesandclichésofEuropeanhistory,Muslimsareworkingtorebuildtheirransackedcivilization.

ReformandRevival

uslimstrugglesagainstEuropeanimperialismbeganalmostimmediatelywiththedawnofcolonialism.Buttraditionalrevoltswhichhadprovedso

effectiveinearlyMuslimhistorywerenomatchforEuropeanmilitarytechnologyandadministrativecapabilities.MuslimthinkersthussoughttofightcolonialismbyrevitalizingIslamandunitingtheMuslimworld.

OneoftheearliestattemptstoreversethedeclineofIslamwasundertakenintheArabianpeninsulabyMohammadibnAbdal-Wahhab(d.1787).Abdal-WahhabunitedthewarringArabiantribesandestablishedamodernstateinArabia.HepreachedasimplereturntofaithandobediencetothefundamentalteachingsofIslamcombinedwithdiscipline,pietyandasenseofsacrifice.Hisson-in-law,MohammadibnSaud,gavehisnametomodernSaudiArabia.

IntheIndiansubcontinent,theSufischolar,ShahWaliAllah(d.1763),madethefirstattempttorethinktheentiresystemofIslaminaspiritofobjectivity.Hisemphasisonsocialjusticecombinedwithpopularmysticism,gainedhimanenormousfollowing.ShahWaliAllahstressedtheessentialunityofallreligionsandtriedtodevelopamodernIslamicphilosophyofhistory.

Similarreformsandanti-imperialistmovementsemergedthroughouttheMuslimworld.IntheSudan,MohammadAhmad,knowntohisfollowersastheMahdi(d.1885),foughttheBritishinaseriesofbattlesandsucceededinsettingupanIslamicstateintheSudan.InLibya,MuhammadAlial-Sanusi(1859)foundedtheSanusiOrderfortherejuvenationandreformofIslam.InAlgeria,AmirAbdal-Qadir(1884),establishedtheUlamaMovementwhichfoughtbothforreformofMuslimsocietyandagainsttheFrenchcolonists.InNigeria,OsmandanFadio(d.1817)ledarevolutionarymovementandsucceededinestablishingtheSukotoCaliphate.InBritishIndia,SirSayyidAhmadKhan(d.1898)emphasizedselectiveadaptationofwesternpoliticalideasandtechnicalinnovationsandestablishedthecelebratedAligarhMuslimUniversity.

Inthelate19thcentury,pan-lslamismemergedtocutacrossethnicandtribalaffiliationsandcombinetheeffortsoftheregionalmovementstocreateaninternationalIslamicforce.ItsmainproponentwasJalamuddinAfghani(d.1897).Dubbed‘thewildmanofgenius’,AfghanisoughttomodernizeIslamandexhortedMuslimseverywheretoriseagainstEuropeanimperialism.

AfghanicombinedhisreformworkwithMuhammadAbduh(d.1905),theGrandMuftiofEgypt,andtogethertheyeditedaninfluentialArabicweekly,Urwatal-Wuthqa(TheIndissolubleLink),whichshapedtheideasandidealsofawholegenerationofMuslimintellectuals.ThemovementthatemergedfromtheireffortstogiveamodernidentitytoIslam,andprovideMuslimsocietieswithpurposeanddirection,cametobeknownasSalafism.

Liberationmovementseverywherewereinspiredby‘thepoet-philosopheroftheEast’,MuhammadIqbal(d.1938).Hispoetry,philosophicgeniusandpassionatevisionofIslamicrevivalbasedonsocialjusticeandelevatedbelieversstruckachordwithMuslimsthroughouttheworld.IqbalarguedthatdogmatismhaddebasedIslam,territorialandracialnationalismhadsplitMuslimsintoaggressivegroups,andmaterialisticphilosophywastakingeveryonetowardsnihilism.Iqbal’svisionledtothecreationofPakistanandhisphilosophyhasbecomeabenchmarkforallreformistthoughtinmodernIslam.

ThethirtiessawtheemergenceoftwoofthemostinfluentialIslamicorganizationsintheMuslimworld.InEgypt,Hasanal-Banna(d.1949),aschoolteacher,establishedIkhwanalMusliminortheMuslimBrotherhood.Abu’lAlaMawdudi(d.1979),ajournalist,establishedtheJamaat-e-lslamiinIndia.

TheMuslimBrotherhoodiscommittedtoreligious,politicalandintellectualreformofIslam.ItsmessageofreturningtotheIslamicroots,re-establishingtheMadinastateoftheProphetMuhammadinourtime,foundfavourwithyoungMuslims.Butin1947,theBrotherhoodwasaccusedofpoliticalterrorismanddisbanded.TwoyearslaterHasanal-Bannahimselfwasmurdered.

In1952,JamalAbdulNasser,enlistedthesupportoftheMuslimBrotherhoodtooverthrowKingFarouk.Wheninpower,NasserturnedagainsttheBrotherhoodandpersecutedthemruthlessly.Hundredsofitsmemberswereimprisonedwithouttrialandtortured.

ItwasinprisonthatSyyedQutb,theintellectualleaderofthemovement,wrotemanyofhisinfluentialworks,suchasSocialJusticeinIslam.In1966,alongwithfiveotherleadingfiguresoftheBrotherhood,SyyedQutbwasexecutedbyPresidentNasser.Hewasaccusedofwritingaseditiouswork:Milestones.ThebookarguesthatMuslimsarelivinginanageofignoranceandtheirsalvation,inthisworldandtheHereafter,liesinreturningtotherootsofIslam.

AfterpartitionbetweenIndiaandPakistan,Jamaat-e-lslamiemergedasanIslamicpartydevotedtotheestablishmentofanIslamicstateinPakistan.ItfoughtseveralelectionsinPakistan,butithasnevergainedmorethanahandful

ofseatsintheparliament.ItcollaboratedwithGeneralZiaulHaqand,forashortperiod,wasapartnerinhisgovernment.

MawdudiisoneofthemostwidelyreadMuslimthinkerstodayandhasagurustatusamongstMuslimactivistsinmanycountries.ByfarthemostimportantofhisnumerousbooksisCaliphateandMonarchy,anoriginalandbraveattemptatareinterpretationoftheearlyhistoryofIslam.Conservativeandpuritan,Mawdudi’sthoughtiscomplex,oftenmovingbetweenflashesofbrilliancetostatementsofshallowpiety,betweenradicaldiagnosisofMuslimmalaisetonaivesolutions.

Afterthedeathoftheirfoundersandintellectualmentors,boththeJamaat-e-lslamiandtheMuslimBrotherhoodhavebecomeintellectuallysterile.Whiletheycommandtremendousallegiance,theyhavelostmuchoftheirintellectualcredibility.

TheMuslimWorld

uringthefortiesandfiftiesmanyMuslimcountriesgainedtheirindependence.ThecontemporaryMuslimworldstraddlestheglobalmiddle

belt:fromtheshoresofSenegalandMoroccotothePacificOceanandtheislandsofIndonesia,andnorthtosouthfromtheMediterraneancoastofTurkeytoSomalia.TheMuslimworldconsistsofsome52sovereignstatesatvariousstagesofdevelopment,incorporatingmorethan60languagesandwithethnicbackgroundsasdiverseasthoseoftheArabsandIndians,theTurksandthePathans,theChineseandtheMalays,theUzbekandtheHausa.

TheendofthecoldwargaveindependencetosixnewMuslimstatesinCentralAsia:Uzbekistan,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Turkmenistan,TajikistanandAzerbaijan.InEurope,AlbaniasheditsStalinistpastandBosnia-HerzegovinabrokeawayfromformerYugoslaviaandwasinvadedbytheSerbians.

MuslimMinorities

heglobalMuslimcommunity,ortheummah,ismuchmorethanjusttheMuslimworld.Itsasupranationalentitywithacommonreligiousculture

andhistoryandacertainconsciousnessofbelongingtogether.One-thirdoftheummahexistsasminoritiesinnon-Muslimcountries.

TheMuslimsofIndia–consistingofover120millionpeople–aretheworld’slargestminority.

Over60millionMuslimsliveinChina.AndtherearelargeMuslimminoritiesin

thePhilippines,Burma,ThailandandSriLanka.

Immigration

incethefifties,aftertheindependenceofmanyMuslimcountries,MuslimshavebeenmigratingtotheWest.InEurope,thismigrationtookplaceona

well-establishedroute.FamiliesfromallovertheMuslimworldsoughttomakenewhomesinthecountriesoftheirformercolonialmasters.Thus,MuslimsfromIndia,PakistanandBangladeshcametoBritain.Algerians,MorocconsandTunisianswenttoFrance.IndonesiansandSurinameswenttoHolland.TherelationshipbetweenTurkeyandGermanyduringthewarsledtotheestablishmentofasubstantialTurkishcommunityinGermany.Therearenowanestimatedover20millionMuslimslivinginEurope.

BlackMuslims

verthelastdecades,over6millionMuslimshavesettledintheUnitedStatesandCanada.ThereisalsoaverylargecommunityofBlackMuslims

intheUnitedStates.ThiscommunitywasestablishedinthesixtiesintheheydayofMalcolmX(AbdulMalikShabbazz)byElijahMuhammadastheNationofIslam.Intheeighties,mostBlackMuslimgroupsacceptedorthodoxIslamandwereproclaimedasanintegralpartoftheummah.

MalcolmXwastotallytransformedwhenhewentonapilgrimagetoMakkah

OrganizationofIslamicConference

uslimcountriescometogetherasasingleinternationalblocattheOrganizationofIslamicConference(OIC).TheOrganizationwassetsetup

attheinitiativeofKingFaisalofSaudiArabiainSeptember1969.FaisalcalledasummitofheadsofstateofMuslimcountriesasaresultoftheincidentofarsonattheal-AqsamosqueinJerusalemthatyear.TheSummitestablishedapermanentsecretariatinJeddahtocoordinateactivitiesofMuslimcountries.

TheOrganizationhasthreeprincipleorgans:

1TheIslamicSummitoftheHeadsoftheMuslimStateswhichmeetseverythreeyearstodiscussmajorissuesfacingtheMuslimworld;

2theConferenceofForeignMinisterswhichmeetsyearlytoimplementgeneralpolicyandreviewprogressonresolutions;and

3theGeneralSecretariatwhichpromotescooperationandcoordinatesactivitiesbetweenMuslimcountries.

NumerousinstitutionsfunctionundertheumbrellaofOIC,including:theIslamicDevelopmentBankwhichfinancesprojectsthroughouttheMuslimworld,theRedCrescent,theIslamicScienceFoundation,theIslamicCentreforDevelopmentandTradeandIslamicReliefAgency.

TheOIChasdevelopedjointMuslimstandsonanumberofpoliticalissues,suchassupportforthepeopleofPalestine,oppressedMuslimminoritiesaswellasanumberofThirdWorldmovementsandissues.IthashadsomesuccessinpromotingeconomicandculturalcooperationbetweenMuslimstatesandsettlingdisputesbetweenMuslimcountries.

TheIranianRevolution

nitsearlyphase,theIranianrevolutionwasamajorsourceofinspirationforMuslimseverywhere.Itwasconsideredthefirstseriousvictoryofthe

traditionalistsovertheWesternizedéliteswhowerethemainbeneficiariesofthedepartingcolonialpowers.However,therevolution’sexcessesandinjusticeshaveturnedmostMuslimsagainstit.

Yetjustice,mercyandcompassionareacornerstoneofthethoughtoftherevolution’sforemostintellectual,AliShariati(d.1977).Shariaticombined

radicalthoughtwithsociallyconscioustraditionalism.HewaskilledbytheShahandhisworksarebannedinIran.ButhisideascontinuetoinspireMuslimseverywhere.

TheIranian‘Islamicstate’isuniquelyShia.TheforemostauthorityistheWaliFaqihortherulingjurist.Inhimresidesallreligious,politicalandlegalauthority:heisthusanabsoluteruler.TheWaliFaqihisassistedbya

RevolutionaryCouncilmadeupofthecountry’stopreligiousauthoritieswhoarecommittedtotheobjectivesoftherevolution.AyatollahKhomeiniassumedtheroleofWaliFaqihaftertherevolution.HisbookTheWilayat-e-Faqih(RuleoftheTheologian)soughttoestablishthelegitimacyoftheoffice.

Thereisalsoanelectedparliament(majlis)whichiscontrolledbyaSpeakerwhoisaleadingmemberoftheShiaclergy.Boththepresident(headofstate)andtheprimeminister(headofgovernment)aresubordinatestotheWaliFaqih.

Iranthusfunctionsasanabsolutetheocracy.SunnischolarshaveunanimouslyrejectedtheocracyasaformofIslamicgovernment.TheIranian‘model’thereforecannotbeexportedtootherMuslimcountries.

IslamicFundamentalism

nonerespect,allMuslimsarefundamentalistsastheybelievetheQur’antobetheliteralWordofGod.Assuch,thetendencytolabelanyonewho

speaksforIslamas‘fundamentalist’isnotjustmeaningless,itisalsodangerouslywrong.TheMuslimsarenotamonolithicentity.Theyincludepeoplewithallshadesofpoliticalopinions,positionsandinterpretationsofIslam.

However,thelastdecadeshaveseenariseinfanaticismandintoleranceamongstcertaintypesoftraditionalMuslims.Thishighlyvisibleandvocalgroupcanbedescribedas‘fundamentalist’inthatitinsistsonasingleinterpretationofIslamwhichcanonlybemanifestedintermsofan‘Islamicstate’.Inthisframework,theintegrated,holisticandGod-centredworldviewofIslamistransformedintoatotalitarian,theocraticworldorderandapersuasivemoralGodisreplacedbyacoercive,politicalone.

Fundamentalismhasemergedforanumberofreasons:

1.TheexcessesofmodernistleaderswhohavemaintainedtheirpowerinMuslimsocietieslargelybycoercivemeansandhaveruthlesslypersecutedthetraditionalleadership,includingimprisonment,tortureandexecutionofreligiousleadersandthinkers.

2.Thespectacularfailureoftheeconomicanddevelopmentpoliciesofthemodernistleaderswhichhaveledtotheaccumulationofwealthinfewerandfewerhands.

3.Thecontinuousabuseandridiculesincethe50softraditionalthought,lifestyleandeverythingassociatedwithit.

4.ThepoliciesofWesternpowerstodeliberatelyundermineIslamicoppositionsinMuslimcountries,demonizeIslamicleaders,propupoppressivewesternisedregimes,andreduceMuslimstatestoeconomicpaupersanddebt-riddensocieties.

TheIslamicstate

inceindependence,IslamicmovementsallovertheMuslimworldhavebeenworkingforthecreationofanIslamicstateintheirrespectivecountries.By

anIslamicstateismeantastatewheretheShariah,or‘Islamiclaw’,isestablishedandthereligiousscholars,ortheleadersofthenationalIslamicmovement,eitherhavesomesayinthegovernmentorhavetotalcontrolofpoliticalpower.

Women

raditionalMuslimthoughthasbeenveryunkindandoppressivetowomen.Whilereligiousscholarsconstantlyrecitethelistofwomen’srightsinIslam,

theyhavebeensystematicallyunderminingtheseveryrightsforcenturies.WhiletheQur’anicinjunctionsarealwaysdirectedtowards‘thebelievingmen’and‘thebelievingwomen’,theirinterpretationsconvenientlyforgetthemenandplacealltheburdenonwomen.

Forexample,theQur’anicadviceaboutmodestyinbehaviour,‘tellthebelievingmentolowertheirgazeandtobemindfuloftheirchastity…andtellthebelievingwomentolowertheirgazeandtobemindfuloftheirchastity…’(24:30-31),hasbeeninterpretatedexclusivelyintermsofthebehaviourofwomen.‘Modest’and‘decent’behaviourforwomeninpublichasbeeninterpretedasarigiddresscodedespitetheopennessandmuchwidersignificanceoftheQur’anicversesandtheirdeliberatevaguenesswhicharemeanttoallowallthetime-boundchangesthatarenecessaryforsocialandmoralgrowthofasociety.InatotalperversionoftheQur’anicadvice,dressingmodestlyhasthusbeeninterpretedtomeandressinglikeanun,coveredfromheadtofoot,showingonlyawoman’sface(insomecirclesonlytheeyes),wristsandfeet.Aninjunctionmeanttoliberatefromtheoppressionsof‘beauty’and‘fashion’endsasaninstrumentofoppression.

Invertedandgender-biasedinterpretationsoftheteachingsoftheQur’anandtheProphetMuhammadhaveledtoacanonizedjurisprudencewhichisaggressivelyanti-women.Forexample,whileIslaminsiststhatwomenhavetherighttodivorce,Islamicjurisprudencehasbeenformulatedinsuchawaythatitallbuttakesawaythisright.JudicialsleightsofhandshavebeenusedthroughoutMuslimhistorytodenywomenapartindecisionmaking,inplayingtheirfullpartinsocietyandgenerallytoproduceathoroughlymisogynistculture.

InsomeMuslimsocieties,womenaredoublyoppressedbygrievousethniccustomswhichareoftenjustifiedintermsofIslam.WhileIslamexplicitlyforbidsfemalecircumcision,thisbrutalityismaintainedintheSudanandEgyptinthenameofreligion.WhileIslaminsiststhatwomenmustchoosetheirownpartners,forcedmarriageisacommonpracticeamongsttheMuslimsinIndia,PakistanandBangladesh.

TheoriginalteachingsofIslamunderminepatriarchyandreplaceitwithareligiousbondwithinwhicheveryone–maleorfemale,blackorwhite,youngorold,richorpoor–isequal.Islamaimsatreplacing‘paternalbond,’tribalallegiancesandclassaffiliations,withallegiancesbasedsolelyonmoralandreligiousprinciplesandtotalequality.Buttraditionalthoughtandjurisprudence,

asithasevolved,hasunderminedthisgoalaswellasinstitutionalizedinjusticesagainstwomeninthenameofIslam.

Muslimwomenscholarshavenowbeguntoquestionthegender-biasedinterpretationsoftheQur’an,thetraditionsoftheProphetandtheearlyhistoryofIslam.WriterslikeAzizahal-Hibri,AminaWadud-Muhsin,FatimaMernissi,RiffatHassan,LailaAhmad,AishaAbdul-Rahman,MerrylWynDaviesandsomanyothers,whohavemorethanjustapassingfamiliaritywiththeclassicalsources,aresettointroducegenuineequalityinMuslimthoughtandaction.

Reconstruction

thadbeencustomaryforMuslimthinkerstoblamethepresentconditionofMuslimsocietiessolelyoncolonialism.Butinthe50sand60s,theAlgerian

socialphilosopherMalekBennabi(d.1973),knockedthissuggestionforsix.Bennabiintroducedthetheoryof‘colonizability.’Inessence,thetheoryholdsthattherealillsoftheMuslimworlddonotspringfromthefactofbeingcolonized,butfromastateprevioustothis,whichmadeitripeforcolonization.TherealliberationofMuslimpeople,Bennabiargued,willcomefromaddressingtheinjusticesintroducedinthethoughtandbody-politicofIslaminthelate13thcentury.BennabiforcedMuslimsocietytolookatitselfandre-examineitshistoryandsources.

OtherwritershaveofferedsimilaranalysesoftheMuslimpredicament.ThePakistanischolar,FazlurRahman(d.1988),consistentlyarguedforre-examinationoftheformativehistoryofIslam,afreshunderstandingoftheQur’anfromanethicalandsystematicratherthanatomisticperspective,andthegrowthofgenuine,originalandcontemporaryIslamicthought.Rahman’sassertionthatthedevelopmentofIslamiclawwasnotconsistentwiththeethicaloutlookoftheQur’anearnedhimasmanyfriendsasenemies.

TheoverallconsensusamongstMuslimscholarsisthattheMuslimworldisinurgentneedofnewthoughtwhich:

1.Liberatestraditionfromfossilizedhistoryandtransformsitfromasuffocatingintoalife-enhancingenterprise.

2.Formulatesanewfiqh–thatis,anewjurisprudenceandlaw, focussed on contemporary needs, requirements andissuesfacingMuslimsociety.

3. Re-opens ‘the gates of ijtihad’ and leads, throughreasonedandsustainedstruggle,toafreshunderstandingandanewcomprehensionoftheteachingsoftheQur’anandthelifeandtraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.

Islamizationofknowledge

hePalestinianthinker,Ismailal-Faruqi(d.1986),turnedthequestfornewthoughtintoaninternationalmovement.Hecapturedtheimaginationof

MuslimintellectualseverywherewithhisplansfortheIslamizationofknowledge.Al-FaruqiarguedthatMuslimsweretryingtosolvetheircurrentandhistoricproblemswithtools,categories,conceptsandmodesofanalysisthatwerenotjustirrelevanttotheirsituationbut,inmanycases,inimicaltotheethicalspiritofIslam.The‘malaiseoftheummah’,al-Faruqiasserted,canonlybetreatedbyworkingonasystematicplan,tobecarriedoutoveranumberofgenerations,thatsynthesizedthebestofclassicalIslamicknowledgeandideaswiththebestofcontemporarythought.Onlywhenmodernknowledgehasbeen‘Islamized’inthisway,imbibedwiththespiritandethicsofIslam,coulditbecomeaninstrumentforthementalandeconomicliberationofMuslimsocieties.

Whileal-Faruqi’stheorieshavebeenextensivelycriticized,notleastforbeingtoomechanical,hisworkunleashedtremendouspentupenergyamongstMuslimintellectuals,academics,professionals,writers,journalistsandthinkers.TheIslamizationofknowledgedebatehasnowbecomecentraltoanydiscussionofthenatureofMuslimidentity,theimpactofmodernityonMuslimsocietyandwaysofthinkingaboutthepresentandfutureMuslimreality.ThemovementhasgeneratedvastamountsofinnovativeliteratureandinducedaprocessofrethinkingrightacrosstheMuslimworld.

Thisrethinkinghasgeneratedanumberofnewdebatesanddisciplines.Islamiceconomics,forexample,hasemergedinthelasttwodecadesasasophisticateddisciplinewithitsowncategories,concepts,analyticaltoolsandinstitutions.Operatingonthebasisofzerointerestandparticipatoryarrangementsinthelabour-capitalandland-labourrelationships,itaddressesthequestionsofsocialwelfare,unemployment,economicdevelopment,publicdebtandissuesofglobal

economicstructurefromtheperspectiveofIslamicnormsandvalues.IslamicbankshavemushroomedallovertheMuslimworld.

Amorerecentandlessconclusivedebateconcerns‘Islamicscience’.HerethefocusisondiscoveringastyleofdoingsciencethatreflectstheethicalteachingsofIslam.Similardebatesareragingabout‘Islamicanthropology’,‘Islamicsociology’andothersocialsciences.AnumberofnewIslamicuniversitieshavebeenestablishedtoresearchandteachtheemergingdisciplines.

Todayand…

Islamandterrorismhavebecomesynonymous.Aftertheeventsof11September2001,thiswouldseemtobeanaturalcoloration.Yetnothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.IslamcannotbeblamedfortheactionoftheterroristswhoattackedtheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkandthePentagoninWashington,anymorethanChristianitycanbeblamedforthegaschambers,orCatholicismfortheactivitiesofIrishterrorists.Terroristsfollowtheirowntwistedlogicandexistoutsidenormalityandbeyondreason.Theyaresenselessmenwhoseevilactsappalallpeopleofconscience.

TheIslamicconscience,theconscienceofthevastmajorityofMuslims,standsforjustice,truthandcommonhumanvalues.BypaintingallMuslimswiththesamebrush,weunderminetheirhumanityanddefameoverabillionpeople–oneinfiveofthosewhoinhabitourplanet–theirsocieties,theirhistories,asacaricatureofthedarkersideoftheWest.

Muslimsarerealpeoplewithrealhistories.Forovereighthundredyearstheircivilizationledtheworldinscienceandlearning,inthoughtandinnovation,inliteratureandtravel,inpoliticsandinternationalrelations.

Today,Muslimsaretryingtorediscovertheirhistoricidentity,liberatethemselvesfromthecrushingburdensofneo-colonialismandanoppressiveandunjustworldorder,andshapearesponsibleandviablefuture.

…Tomorrow

ehindtheturmoilandcontradictionswhicharepullingitinsomanydifferentdirections,theMuslimworldisreconstructingitselfasadynamic,

progressivecivilizationofthefuture.Awayfromtheclamourandslogansofahighlyvisibleminorityofextremists,itisbubblingwithideas,debates,anddiscussionsoncontemporaryandfuturesignificanceofthemessageofMuhammad.Manyofthesenewideas,theories,institutionsandoutlookswillnotonlytransformIslamandMuslimsocietiesfromwithin,butwillalsomakeagenuineandoriginalcontributiontotheevolutionofapluralisticworld.

Tobesure,thequestionsfacingtheMuslimworldhaveneithersimpleanswersnorareitsproblemsamenabletopalliativesolutions.Sometimesthesituationlookstrulyawesomeandhopeless.ButMuslims,byvirtueoftheirfaith,areeternaloptimists.Andtheyarebecomingincreasinglyawarethatonlysustainedandprolongedintellectual,socialandpoliticaleffort,combinedwitha

continuousprocessofrethinking,willyieldviableoptionsandalternativesforthefuture.Awareness,astheysay,ishalfthebattle!

THEAUTHORS

ZiauddinSardarisawriter,criticandbroadcasterlivinginLondon.HehasworkedforthesciencejournalsNatureandNewScientistandLondonWeekendTelevision.AuthorofoverthirtybooksoncontemporaryIslamicthought,scienceandtechnologyintheMuslimworld,informationscienceandthefuture,hehascontributedtonumerousnewspapersandmagazinesbothinBritainandotherpartsoftheworld.Currently,heiseditorofFuturesandcontributesregularlytotheNewStatesman.

ZafarAbbasMalikisagraphicdesignerlivinginLondon.HehasdesignednumerousbooksandjournalsbothforBritishandoverseaspublishers.Herunshisowndesigncompany,UmranDesign,andistheartdirectorofthequarterlyjournal,ArtsandTheIslamicWorld.

Nowthatwehavereachedtheend,hereisalittlesecret.Manyartistsandphotographers,Muslimandnon-Muslim,pastandpresent,havecontributedtothemélangethatisthisbook.Iamsuretheywillappreciatethatitisallforagoodcause.Wehaverunoutofpagestomentionallofthembyname.WasSalamualaykum:peacebeuponyouandmayyoursocksalwayskeep

youwarm.

HEALTHWARNINGAlthoughIhavetriedmybesttokeeptheauthorsonatightrope,Iamsurethatsomeofourbrothersandsisterswillfindsomethingtocomplainandwhingeabout.AllcomplaintstotheSpeakers’Corner–please!

FurtherReading

GENERAL

AbdulWahidHamid,IslamtheNaturalWay(MELS,London).ThebestcontemporaryintroductiontoIslam.

Abdur-RahmanAzzam,TheEternalMessageofMuhammad(Quartet).Acquiringaclassicstatus.

KhurshidAhmad(Ed),Islam:ItsMeaningandMessage(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).WeightyandworthyarticlesbynotedmodernMuslimthinkers.

SuzanneHaneef,WhatEveryoneShouldKnowaboutIslamandMuslims(KaziPublications,Chicago).Apopular,livelybook.

THEQUR’ANANDLIFEOFPROPHETMUHAMMAD

MuhammadAsad,TheMessageoftheQur’an(Daral-Andalus,Gibraltar).UndoubtedlythebestEnglishtranslationoftheQur’anwithaveryinformativeandenlightenedcommentary.

ArthurJ.Arberry,TheKoranInterpreted(Oxford).Abeautiful,poetictranslation.

MuhammadMarmadukePickthall,TheMeaningoftheQur’an(variouseditions).Widelyused.

Sahihal-Bukhari,translatedbyMuhammadMuhsinKhan(HilalYayinlari,Ankara).AnawkwardtranslationoftheclassiccollectionofthesayingsoftheProphetMuhammad.

Sahihal-Muslim,translatedbyAbdulHameedSiddiqui,(KitabBhavan,NewDelhi).Ditto.

MartinLings,Muhammad:HisLifeBasedonEarliestSources(AllenandUnwin,London).ConsideredtobethebestbiographyofMuhammad.

MuhammadHusaynHaykal,TheLifeofMuhammad(AmericanIslamicTrust,Indianapolis).TranslationofahighlyregardedArabicoriginal.

CULTUREANDCIVILIZATION

MarshallHodgson,TheVentureofIslam(UniversityofChicagoPress).AmagnificentthreevolumejourneythroughtheupsanddownsofMuslimcivilization.

IsmaelR.al-FaruqiandLoisLamyaal-Faruqi,TheCulturalAtlasofIslam(Macmillan).Comprehensive!

D.M.Dunlop,ArabCivilizationtoAD1500(Longman).Simplybrilliant!

MajirFakhry,AHistoryofIslamicPhilosophy(Longman).AwellknownintroductiontothedepthandsophisticationofIslamicphilosophy.

AhmadY.al-HassanandDonaldR.Hill,IslamicTechnology:AnIllustratedHistory(Cambridge).Highlyreadablestandardtext.

Hourani,Albert,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge(OxfordUniversityPress)andAHistoryoftheArabPeople(Faber).Scholarly,butaccessible.

GeorgeMakdisi,TheRiseofColleges:InstitutionsandLearninginIslamandtheWest(EdinburghUniversityPress).ShowsjusthowmuchwasborrowedfromIslam!

JohannesPederson,TheArabicBook(PrincetonUniversityPress).Theypublishedmorebooksin12thcenturyBaghdadthentheydotodayinLondon.Pedersonshowshowitwasdone.

F.Rosenthal,KnowledgeTriumphant(Brill,Leiden).ExploresthecentralimportanceofknowledgeinMuslimcivilization.

ISLAMANDTHEWEST

NormanDaniel,HeroesandSaracens:ARe-interpretationoftheChansonsdeGeste;IslamandtheWest:TheMakingofAnImageandIslam,Europeand

Empire(EdinburghUniversityPress)–sourcebooksforthehistoryofthedemonizationofIslam.

R.W.Southern,WesternViewsofIslamintheMiddleAges(HarvardUniversityPress).AtparwithDaniel.

AminMaalouf,TheCrusadesThroughArabEyes(AlSaqi,London).Whowasbarbarianandwhocivilized?Maaloufgiveseyewitnessaccounts.

EdwardSaid,Orientalism(Routledge,London).Muchmorewidelyreadanalysis.

RanaKabbani,Europe’sMythsoftheOrient(Macmillan).Verygoodonartistsandpainters.

ZiauddinSardarandMerrylWynDavies,DistortedImagination(GreySeal,London).ExpandsandupdatesSaidandbringsintheRushdieaffair.

ISLAMTODAY

MerrylWynDavies(Ed),BeyondFrontiers:IslamandContemporaryNeeds(Mansell).ExaminespracticalMuslimoptions.

MuhammadNijatullahSiddiqui,MuslimEconomicThinking(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).Anaward-winningsurvey.

SyedNawabHaiderNaqwi,EthicsandEconomics:AnIslamicSynthesis(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).EssentialforthoseinterestedinIslamiceconomics.

HamidEnyat,ModernIslamicPoliticalThought(Macmillan).Agroundbreakingsurvey.

MerrylWynDavies,KnowingOneAnother:ShapinganIslamicAnthropology(Mansell,London).AtourthroughIslamicanthropologydebate.

FatimaMernissi,WomenandIslam(Blackwell).ApowerfulfeministreinterpretationofMuslimtheology.

LeilaAhmed,WomenandGenderinIslam(YaleUniversityPress).Ditto.

THEFUTURE

Ismaelal-Faruqi,IslamizationofKnowledge(InternationalInstituteofIslamicThought,Washington).ThemasterdocumentofIslamizationdebate.

ZiauddinSardar,TheFutureofMuslimCivilizationandIslamicFutures:TheShapeofIdeastoCome(Mansell,London).Thetitlessayitall!

AlijaAliIzetbegovic,IslamBetweenEastandWest(AmericanTrustPublications,Indianapolis).AnintegratedanalysisofthehumanconditionfromanotedscholarandPresidentofBosnia-Herzegovina.

M.UmarChapra,IslamandtheEconomicChallenge(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).BrilliantanalysisofIslamiceconomicsasfuturealternativetocapitalism.

IndexandLittleDictionary

Abbasidsref1adl:justice,esp.distributivejusticeinallitsmanifestations:social,economic,political,environmental,intellectualandspiritual.ref1Afghani,Jalamuddinref1Akhra:theHereafter,lifeafterdeath,wheneveryoneisaskedtoaccountforhis/herdeeds.Referstoanotherexistenceafterthelifeoftheworld.ref1Allah:literally“TheGod”.ref1,ref2Allah,ShahWaliref1Arabi,ibnref1architectureref1,ref2artref1astronomyref1,ref2,ref3

Banna,Hasanal-ref1Baruni,al-ref1Basri,Rabiahal-ref1Battani,al-ref1Bennabi,Malekref1BlackStoneref1booksbannedref1classificationofref1demandforref1

bookshopsref1British,theref1,ref2Bukhari,Imamref1

chansonsdegesteref1colonizationref1,ref2,ref3Crusades,theref1

Dawood,N.J.ref1

EastIndiaCompanyref1ElementsofAstrology,Theref1

environmentref1,ref2,ref3equalityref1

Farabi,al-ref1Faruqi,Ismailal-ref1fastingseeRamadanfatwa:legalopinion,usuallygivenbyaqualifiedjuristandbindingonlyonhimandthosewhofollowhis“taqlid".ref1Fihristal-Nadim,al-ref1fiqh:Islamicjurisprudence.ref1French,theref1fundamentalismref1

Ghazzali,al-ref1,ref2GodseeAllah

hadith:sayingsortraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.ref1,ref2hajj:theannualpilgrimagetoMakkah.ref1halal:lawful,permitted,good,beneficialandpraiseworthyinthebroadestsense.Hamdis,ibnref1haram:unlawful,prohibited,bad,henceblameworthy.ref1Haytham,ibnal-ref1Hayyan,Jabiribnref1heavenref1hijra:MigrationoftheProphetMuhammadfromMakkahtoMadinainJune622;marksthebeginningoftheIslamiccalendar,whichisthusreferredtoashijracalendar.ref1Hilfal-Fudulref1hima:inviolatezone.ref1holywarseejihadHudaybia,treatyofref1hudud:normallyreferstotheinviolatelimitsplacedbyGodonman.Iftheyareviolated,punishmentishandedoutaccordingtofixedlawscalledhudud.ref1Hussain,Saddamref1

ibadah:worshipofeverythingthatexpressesservitudetoGod,suchasthepursuitofknowledge,livingapiouslife,helpingotherpeople,leadingone’scommunitywithhumilityandsoon.

ijma:consensusoftheMuslimcommunityingeneralandthelearnedinparticular.OneofthefourbasesofIslamiclaw.Moreparticularly;consensusaspoliticalprinciple.ref1,ref2,ref3ijtihad:exertingoneselftotheutmostdegreetoreachcomprehensionandformanopinion.ThebasicIslamicprincipleforadjustingtochange.ref1,ref2,ref3IkhwanalMusliminref1ilm:allvarietiesofknowledge,revealedaswellasacquired.ref1,ref2,ref3ilmar-Rijalref1imam:religiousleader;literallyanearlydescendantoftheProphet.ref1Iqbal,Muhammadref1Iranref1,ref2,ref3Islam:peace,submissiontoGod,thenaturalinclinationofhumanbeings.birthofref1denunciationofref1fourpillarsofref1fundamentalismref1futureofref1meaningref1modernizationofref1spreadofref1todayref1andtheWestref1

Islamiclawseefiqh;shariahstatedefinedref1

istislah:publicinterest;asourceofIslamiclaw.ref1,ref2

Jamaat-e-lslamiref1,ref2jamia:universities.ref1,ref2Jerusalemattackedref1Jews,slaughterofref2jihad:struggle;anyearneststrivinginthewayofGod,involvingpersonal,physical,intellectualormilitaryeffort,forrighteousnessandagainstoppressionandwrong-doing.ref1justiceseeadl

Ka’abaref1,ref2,ref3kalam:rationalphilosophyclaimingtodemonstratetheexistenceofGod.ref1Karbala,battleofref1Khaldun,ibnref1

khalifa:trusteeship.InIslam,theearthwithallitsfloraandfaunaisasacredtrustfromGodandweareresponsibleandaccountabletoGodforitscare.ref1Khattab,Umaral-ref1Khazini,al-ref1Khwarizmi,al-ref1Kindi,al-ref1Kitabal-Aghaniref1Khomeini,Ayatollahref1KoranseeQur’an

lawseefiqh;shariahlibrariesref1,ref2,ref3literatureref1,ref2,ref3

MadinaMuhammadgoestoref1attackedbyMakkansref1

madrassah:college.ref1,ref2mahdiref1majlis:parliament.ref1Majriti,al-ref1Makkahref1,ref2defenceofref1fallofref1hajjref1rulersref1

MalcolmXref1manufacturingindustryref1mathematicsref1Mawdudiref1Mawsili,al-ref1MeccaseeMakkahmedicineref1,ref2,ref3miraj:ascension.ref1Mongolsref1moon,Muslimcalendarref1mosqueref1Muawiyahref1mudarabah:profitsharing,oneoftheprinciplesofIslamiceconomics.

Muhammadbornref1deathref1deathofsonref1farewellsermonref1followerstorturedref1messageofref1parentsdiedref1persecutedinMakkaref1plottokillref1revelationref1sayingsseehadith

musharakah:partnership,oneoftheprinciplesofIslamiceconomics.musicref1,ref2MuslimBrotherhoodref1calendarref1civilization,declineofref1cooperationbetweenstatesref1minoritiesref1societyexperimentedonref1world,extentref1

Muslim,Imamref1Muslimsref1blackref1inEuroperef1persecutedref1

Mutazilitesref1

nafs:soul,desire;thecontrolofone’snafsis“thegreaterjihad”Nasser,JamalAbdulref1numbersref1,ref2

oppressionref1opticsref1,ref2,ref3OpusAstronomicumref1Orientalismref1

Pakistanref1,ref2

paperindustryref1,ref2philosophyref1,ref2pilgrimageseehajjpillarsofIslamref1politicaldiscordref1prayerseesalatpublishingref1,ref2

qiyas:analogy–afoundationofIslamicjurisprudence.ref1Qur’anref1artref1denouncedref1frozeninhistoryref1andwomenref1

Qurra,Thabitbinref1Qutb,Syyedref1

Rahman,Fazlurref1Ramadan:periodoffasting.ref1,ref2Razi,AbuBakral-ref1Razi,Fakhral-Dinref1religions,otherref1Renaissance,theref1,ref2revelation,theref1riba:usury,includinginterestandmakingmoneyfrommoney,oneofthefewexplicitlyforbiddenpracticesinIslam.Rumi,Jalaluddinref1Rushd,ibnref1Rushdie,Salmanref1

SahihBukhariref1Saladinref1Salafismref1Salam,ibnabdas-ref1salat:dailyobligatoryprayer,oneofthefourpillarsofIslam.ref1SatanicVerses,Theref1sawm:fastinginthemonthofRamadan,andoneofthefourpillarsofwisdom.ref1scienceref1,ref2,ref3

sexref1Shahaadah,theref1shariah:literallymeaningthepathtoawateringhole,thisistheeternal,ethicalandmoralcodeofIslambasedontheQur’anandtheSunnah.ref1,ref2,ref3Shariati,Aliref1Shias,theref1,ref2shura:cooperationandconsultationforthebenefitofthecommunity,particularlyconsultationasapoliticalprinciple.ref1SiddiqAbuBakrref1,ref2,ref3Sina,ibnref1,ref2sira:lifeoftheProphetMuhammad.ref1SiratRasulAllahref1solareclipseref1Sudanref1sufism:MuslimmysticismandanintegralpartofIslam.ref1,ref2Sunnah,the:literallypathorexample,particularlyapplyingtothepathoftheProphetMuhammad,andincludingwhathesaid,didandagreedto.ref1,ref2Sunnisref1

tafsir:exegesis,particularlytheexegesisandcommentaryontheQur’an.ref1Talib,Aburef1,ref2taqlid:blindimitation,normallyofajuristofthefiveclassicalschoolsofthought.ref1tawheed:beliefintheOnenessofGod,thefundamentalconceptofIslam.ref1Tasrif,al-ref1technologyref1toleranceref1trepidation,theoryofref1Tusi,al-ref1

Uhad,battleofref1ulama:religiousscholars.ref1,ref2Umayyaddynastyref1,ref2Ummal-Kitabref1ummah:theglobalMuslimcommunity;theinternationalpersonhoodofIslam.ref1,ref2“UnityofallBeing”ref1Urwatal-Wuthquref1

wahdatal-wajudref1Wahhab,MohammadibnAbdal-ref1WaliFaqihref1watertechnologyref1,ref2West,theimmigrationtoref1andIslamref1seealsoBritish,the;French,thewhirlingdervishesref1

Wilayat-e-Faqihref1womeninIslamref1

Yazidref1

zakat:ataxonwealth,oneofthefourpillarsofIslam.Itisareligiousdutyandsocialobligation.ref1Zubairref1

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