PublishedbyIconBooksLtd.,OmnibusBusinessCentre,39–41NorthRoad,LondonN79DPemail:[email protected]
ISBN:978-184831-774-1
Textcopyright©1994ZiauddinSardarIllustrationscopyright©1994ZafarAbbasMalik
Theauthorandartisthaveassertedtheirmoralrights.
Originatingeditor:RichardAppignanesi
Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyform,orbyanymeans,withoutpriorpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
Contents
CoverTitlePageCopyright
TheLifeofMuhammadThePledgeMuhammad’sWisdomMarriageTheRevelationTheNightJourneyTheHijratoMadinaTheBattleofBadrTheBattleofUhadTheTreatyofHudaybiaMakkahFallsTheFarewellSermonDeathoftheProphetALifeofHistoryTheHadithTheScienceofHadithTheSunnahSomeSayingsofProphetMuhammadTheQur’anTheAuthenticQur’anWhatistheQur’an?TheUniquenessoftheQur’anPurposesoftheQur’anEssenceoftheQur’anQur’anicGuidanceTheCommentariesInterpretingtheQur’anTranslationsoftheQur’anImpactoftheQur’anTawheedThePillarsofIslam
KhalifaIlmTheTrueMeaningofJihadShariahTheAimsofShariahFiqhTheClassicalSchoolsofFiqhPermanenceandChange‘Thereshallbenocoercioninmattersoffaith’FormativeHistoryofIslamTheSeedsofDiscordTheRightlyGuidedTheExpansionofIslamTheRiseoftheShiaTheShiaConceptofImamsTheMuslimCivilizationTheKnowledgeIndustryTheWarraqeenInstitutionsofLearningArgumentsandDebatesSufism(Mysticism)LiteratureScienceTechnologyMedicineSocialSciencesGeographyandTravelArchitectureandTownPlanningArtMusicSpreadofMuslimLearningtoEuropeDeclineColonialismManufacturingColonialismIsIamandtheWest1.Denunciation2.TheCrusades3.OrientalismReformandRevival
TheMuslimWorldMuslimMinoritiesImmigrationBlackMuslimsOrganizationofIslamicConferenceTheIranianRevolutionIslamicFundamentalismTheIslamicstateWomenReconstructionIslamizationofknowledgeTodayand……Tomorrow
TheAuthorsFurtherReadingIndexandLittleDictionary
AsSalamalaykum:peacebeuponyou.IamFezand,inshaAllah(Godwilling),Iwillmakesurethattheauthorskeeptothestraightpath.Staytuned.
Muhammad,peacebeuponhim*,isthemostinfluentialmaninhistory.Butheisnotanordinaryman.HeisaProphet–thelast
ProphetofGod.
ProphetMuhammaddidnotstartanewreligion.HeconveyedthesamemessageasalltheotherprophetsofGod–includingAdam,Noah,Ibrahim,MosesandJesus.
TheeternalmessagethatMuhammadpreachedisnotnamedafterhim.ItiscalledIslamwhichmeanspeaceandsubmissiontoGod.ThetermIslamalsosignifiesthenaturalinclinationofhumanbeings,aGod-centredworldview,acivilizationwithoverfourteenhundredyearsofhistoryandanuniversalistworldculture.
ThefollowersofMuhammadarenotcalledMuhammadan,thisisaninsultingtermthatfirstemergedduringthecrusades.ThosewhobelieveinthemessageofMuhammadandthatheisthelastMessengerofGodarecalledMuslims.
TheLifeofMuhammad
570CE:ProphetMuhammadwasborninMakkah(akaMecca),intheArabianpeninsulanowcalledSaudiArabia.Hisfather,Abdullah,haddieda
fewweeksbeforehisbirth.Hisgrandfatherentrustedhimtoafoster-mother,Halima,wholookedafterhimduringhisinfantyears.Whenhewassix,hismotherdied.Twoyearslater,hisgrandfatheralsodied.TheyoungMuhammadwasnowlookedafterbyAbuTalib,hispaternaluncle.AbuTalibwasagenerousbutpoorman.SoMuhammadhadtoearnhislivelihoodfromatenderage–hewasthusunabletolearnhowtoreadorwrite.
Makkahwasadesertcity.ItsmaindistinctionwastheKa’aba,thehousededicatedtotheOneGodandbuiltunderdivineinspirationbyProphetAbraham.ThemajorityofMakkah’sinhabitantswereidolworshippers.Makkahfunctionedasacity-state,governedbyacounciloftenhereditarytribalchiefswithcleardivisionofpower.ThemostpowerfulofMakkantribeswastheQuraysh–thetribeofMuhammad.Thecity’sinhabitantswerepoorbut
generouspeople,theylovedpoetryandwar,andwerefiercelyloyaltotheirtribesandtheirgods.Whileithadnonaturalresourcesofitsown,itwasanactivecommercialcentre.Foreigntradersbroughttheirgoodstobesoldinthelocalmarket.MuhammadbecameatraderandaccompaniedAbuTalibonbusinesstripstoPalestineandSyria.
Heisnotoneofuswhoproclaimsthecauseofnationalismandheisnotoneofuswhofightsthecauseofnationalismandheisnotoneofuswhodiesinthecauseofnationalism.Nationalismmeanshelpingyourpeopleinanunjustcause.ProphetMuhammad
ThePledge
neday,atraderfromYemenwascheatedofhisgoodsbyagroupofMakkans.Whenthetraderaskedforhelp,noonecametohissupport.Sohe
wroteasatiricalpoemandreciteditaloudforalltohear.WhenZubair,oneofMuhammad’suncles,heardthepoemhefeltgreatremorse.Hecalledameetingofcity’seldersandestablishedanorderofchivalrywiththedeclaredaimofprotectingtheoppressedofthecity,localinhabitantsorforeignvisitors.YoungMuhammadbecameanenthusiasticmemberofthisorganizationwhichwascalledHilfal-fudul.Laterhewouldsay:‘Iamnotpreparedtogiveuptheprivilege(ofbeingamember)evenagainstaherdofcamels;ifsomebodyshouldappealtomeeventoday,byvirtueofthatpledge,Ishallhurrytohishelp.’
Muhammad’sWisdom
uhammadoftenhelpedtheinhabitantsofMakkahtosettletheirdisputes.Once,theKa’abacaughtfireandwasburnttotheground.Whenitwas
rebuilt,allthetribesofMakkahtookpartinitsconstruction.ButwhenitcametofixingthesacredBlackStoneinthewall,aquarrelaroseamongsttheMakkanleaders–allwantedtohavethehonouroffixingthestone.Finally,theyagreedtoselectajudgefromamongstthemandabidebyhisruling.ThejudgewasMuhammad;andhissolutiontotheproblemsavedthehonourofallconcerned.Hespreadawhitesheetontheground,placedtheBlackStoneinthemiddle,andaskedthetriballeadersofMakkahtoholdthesheetandcarrythestonetoitssite.Muhammadthanfixedthestoneinitsplace.Itwashisintegrity,honestyandwisdomthatearnedMuhammadthetitleofAlAmin–‘thetrustworthy’.
Marriage
neday,whenMuhammadwas25,hisuncleAbuTalibsaidtohim:‘Iam,asyouknow,amanofscantymeans,andtrulythetimesarehard.Nowthereis
acaravanofyourowntribeabouttostartforSyria,andKhadijah,daughterofKhuwaylid,isinneedoftheservicesofmenofourtribetotakecareofhermerchandise.Ifyouofferyourselffortheenterprise,shewouldreadilyacceptit.’Muhammadreplied:‘Beitasyousay.’
Muhammad’scourtesy,honestyanddevotiontohiswork,earnedtheadmirationofthewidowedKhadija.Soimpressedwasshewiththeyoung
Muhammadthatsheproposedmarriage.Muhammadaccepted.At40,shewas15yearsolderthanhim.
Tobringaboutajustreconciliationbetweentwocontestantsischarity,helpingapersonmounthisanimalortoloadhisbaggageontoitischarity,agoodwordischarity,toremoveobstaclesinthestreetischarity,smiling
uponthefaceofyourbrotherischarity…sexualrelationswithyourspousesischarity.
ProphetMuhammad
TheRevelation
27Ramadan,611CE:MuhammadwasinthecaveofHira,afewmilesfromMakkah.Itwashispracticetoretiretothiscaveregularlyforprayer,
meditationandreflectiononthequestionsofcreation,purposeoflifeanddeath,thestrugglebetweengoodandevil.Whileinastateofinnerreflection,Muhammadheardacommandingvoiceaddressinghim.Frightened,andwithtremblingvoice,heasked:‘Whoisit?’‘Read!’saidthevoice.‘Iamnotofthosewhoread,’Muhammadreplied.Hewasgrabbed,huggedvehementlyandthenreleased.‘Read!’saidthevoice.‘Iamnotofthosewhoread.’Hewashuggedagain;andagainforthethirdtime.‘Read!’‘WhatshallIread?’‘Read!InthenameofyourLordwhocreates,createsmanfromaclot!Read,foryourLordismostGenerous,whoteachesbymeansofpen,teachesmanwhathedoesnotknow.’Hedid.AndMuhammadbecametheMessengerofGod.
MuhammadreturnedtoKhadijaandtoldherwhathadhappened.Shecoveredhimwithblanketsasheshiveredwithfear.‘OKhadija!’,heasked,‘whatisthematterwithme?’InKhadija’smindtherewasnodoubtwhathadhappenedonMountHira.Hehadexperiencedarevelation.AndshebecamethefirstconverttoIslam.
Muhammadfirstcommunicatedhismessagetohisintimatefriends,andsecretly,tothemembersofhisowntribes.Ashisfollowersgrew,hepreachedopenlyinthecityandnearbycommunities.TheMakkansdidnotcareforsomeonewhodenouncedtheirgodsandancestralbeliefs.Theylaunchedavigorouscampaign
topersecutetheProphetandhissmallbandoffollowers.MakkanswouldforceMuslimstolieonburningsand,placehugebouldersontheirchests,pourred-hotironoverthem.ManyearlyconvertstoIslamdiedunderthistorture–butnonerenouncedtheirnewfaith.Whentheoppressionbecametoogreat,theProphetadvisedhisfollowerstoleaveMakkahandgotoAbyssinia.Manydid.
TheMakkanstriedachangeoftactic.DidMuhammadwantwealth?Washeinterestedinbecomingachief?‘Hecanhaveanythinghedesires,ifherecantsandstopspreaching.’Muhammadrepliedwithhischaracteristicfortitude:‘ByGod,iftheyputthesunonmyrighthandandthemoononmylefthandandaskmetogiveupmymission,Iwillnotdoit.’Afterseveralotherattemptsatcompromise,theMakkansdemandedthatAbuTalibhandoverhisnephewtobe
killed.Whenthedemandwasnotmet,thecity’schiefsdecidedtoimposeacompleteboycottonMuhammad,hisfollowersandhistribe.Noonewastotalktothemorhaveanydealingswiththem.ThetribeslivingaroundMakkahalsojoinedintheboycott.
MuhammadenduredthepersecutionoftheMakkansfor13years.ThehardshipledtothedeathofhisbelovedKhadijaandhisuncleAbuTalib.Hewasconstantlyabused,sometimesstoned,thornsandrubbishwerethrownoverhim–always,alwayshewouldpray,‘GuidethemontherightpathGod,fortheyknownotwhattheydo.’
Thebestrichnessistherichnessofthesoul;thebestprovisionispiety;themostprofoundphilosophyisthefearofGod,theExalted,theGreat.
ProphetMuhammad
TheNightJourney
twasduringthemostagonizingperiodofhismissioninMakkahthatProphetMuhammadwasgrantedauniquefavourbyGod.Hehadavision
ofanaudiencewithGod.Themystical‘NightJourney’–isra–tookplacefromMakkahtoJerusalem,followedbythesubsequent‘Ascension’–miraj–toheaven.Ledbyhiscelestialguide,Muhammadascended,onebyone,thesevenHeavensofcreation.AteachHeavenhemetearlierprophetsofothernations–Moses,Jesus,AbrahamandAdam,thefirstoftheprophets.BeyondtheseventhHeaven,Muhammadpassedthroughtheveilscoveringthatwhichishidden,untilhereachedtheveilofUnityandlookeduponthatwhichtheeyescannotsee,mindscannotimagine.Ithappenedatthetwinkleofaneye.AndledtotheinstitutionoffivedailyprayersasanintegralpartofIslamicfaith.
AsolareclipseoccurredthedayMuhammad’sinfantson,Ibrahim,died.SomeArabtribeswereveryimpressedbythejointoccurrenceofthetwoevents.MuhammadmustbeatrueProphet,theythought,ifhislosswasmournedbytheheavenlybodies.Consequently,theyflockedinfrontofhishouseandaskedtobeconvertedtoIslam.Thephenomenon,Muhammadtoldthem,hadnothingtodowiththebirthorthedeathofamortal–ithadnoconnectionwiththedeathofhisson.Disappointed,thegatheredtribesdispersed.
TheHijratoMadina
622CE:Exactlyoneyearafterhis‘NightJourney’,MuhammadwaspersuadedbyagroupofMuslimsfromMadina,atown200milesnorthof
Makkah,tomigratetotheircity.AslifeinMakkahwasintolerable,Muhammadagreed.Meanwhile,theMakkanshadproducedanelaborateplantokillMuhammad.Ontheappointedday,theMakkansenteredhishousewiththeintentionofstabbinghimwhileheslept.Totheirastonishment,theydiscoveredthatMuhammad,accompaniedbyhiscompanionAbuBakr,hadalreadyleftforMadina.InhisbedlayAli,hisyoungcousin.TheMakkansformedaposseandgavechase.MuhammadandAbuBakrhidinacaveonMountThawrandeventuallyreachedMadinasafely.
TheMuslimcalendarisalunarcalendarbasedsolelyupontheMoon’schanges.TheMuslimyeartakesnoaccountofseasonalchanges.Inrelationtothesolaryear,itrecedesapproximatelyelevendayseachsolaryear,withtheresultthatineach32.5yearsitpassesthroughallthesolarseasons.Thus,ifinagivenyearthefastingmonthofRamadanoccursduringtheheatofthesummer,itwilloccurwithinthecoolseason16.25yearslater.
ThepeopleofMadinarejoicedatthearrivalofMuhammad.ThecityalsoplayedhosttohundredsofmigrantsfromMakkah.Muhammadsuggestedthateachworkingandwell-offindividualfromMadinashouldtakeamigrantfromMakkahashisbrother.‘FraternizeinAllah’,heannounced,‘youarebrothers.’Ashelpers,thefolksfromMedinaweretosharehalftheirpropertyandbelongingswiththeirmigrantbrothersfromMakkah.TheinhabitantsofMadinaacceptedMuhammad’ssuggestion.ButsomepeoplefromMakkahdidnotwishtoburdentheirbrothersfromMadina.
TheBattleofBadr
624CE:TheMakkanswerenottoopleasedbyMuhammad’ssafedepartureandtheestablishmentofthecity-stateofMadinaunderhisleadership.They
vowedtocrushhim.Afterthoroughpreparationlastingsometwoyears,aMakkanforceofathousandfullyarmedwarriors,manyonhorses,marchedonMadina.TheirobjectivewastotalannihilationofthesmallMuslimcommunityofMadina.Muhammaddecidedtofightthemoutsidethecity,nearthefieldofBadr.Andso313ill-equippedMuslims,withtwohorsesand70camelsbetweenthem,mettheMakkanbrigade.Thebattlewasfierceandswift.SeventyMakkanswerekilled;seventywerecaptured.TheMakkansfled,leavingmuchofwhattheyhadbroughtbehindthem.Afewdaysafterthebattle,MuhammadreleasedtheprisonerscapturedatBadr.
TheBattleofUhad
hehumiliatingdefeatatBadronlyincreasedtheMakkans’resolvetocrushtheMuslimcommunityofMadina.Theyreturnedayearlaterwiththree
thousandwellarmedmen.Thistimetheyweremetby700MuslimsatthebaseofMountUhad,justoutsideMadina.Onceagain,thebattlewasfierceandswift.Thelinesoftheenemywerebrokenandtheywererepulsed.AgroupofMuslimarchersontopofMountUhad,understrictordersnottomove,sensedeasyvictoryandabandonedtheirposition.ThisenabledtheMakkanstore-groupandcounter-attack.Theresultingconfusionturnedcertainvictorytoneardefeat.SeventyMuslimsdiedandMuhammadwaswounded.Buttheenemywasheldatthefootofthehill.Sotheycalleditadayandpromisedtoreturnthefollowingyear.
Muhammad’sinstructiontohistroopsgoinginbattle:Molestnottheharmlessinmatesorthosewhoareillinbed.Abstainfromdemolishingthedwellingsoftheunresistinginhabitants.Destroynotthemeansoftheirsubsistence,northeirfruittrees.IAndtouchnotthepalm.
626CE:TheMakkansspentmuchoftheyearplanningamega-campaignagainsttheMuslims.TheycombinedforceswithvariousJewishtribes,aswellastribesofthenorth,southandeastofMadinaandgatheredamightyallianceoftenthousandstrongagainsttheProphet.
MuhammadconsultedhiscompanionsforadviceonhowtodefendMadina.AtthesuggestionofSalmanal-Farsi,aPersianMuslim,hedecidedtodefendthecitybydiggingatrencharoundit.TheMuslimsworkeddayandnightfortwentydaystosurroundthecitywithahugetrench.
TheMakkanarmytriedforthirtydaysandthirtynightstocrossthetrench,butcouldnot.‘Byourgods,’sworethemightyMakkanforce,thisisatricktheArabsneverplay.’Andleftwithoutabattle.
TheTreatyofHudaybia
uhammadeventuallypersuadedtheMakkanstosignthefamoustreatyofHudaybia.
MuhammadnowdevotedtimetopreachinghismessageoutsideMadina.HesentemissariestotherulersoftheneighbouringcountriesinvitingthemtothefaithofIslam.SomeoftheserulersacceptedIslamandsufferedfortheirfaith.TheByzantinepriest,Dughatir,waslynchedbyamobforembracingIslam.TheprefectofPalestinewasdecapitatedandcrucifiedbyorderoftheemperor.ManyMuslimemissarieswerekilled.
MakkahFalls
anuary630CE:Afterrepeatedviolationsofthetreaty,MuhammadgavetheMakkansanultimatum:torespectthetreatyordeclarethetrucenulland
void.TheMakkanschosethelateroptionandthuswokeuponemorningtofindanarmyoftenthousandMuslimsmarchingontheircity.TheyofferednoresistanceandtheMuslimsoccupiedthecitywithoutabattle.
Theeldersofthecitystood,withtheirheadsbowed,infrontofMuhammad.WhatwouldMuhammaddoto‘these’men–theverymenwhotreatedhimsocruelly.TothelikesofHindwhocutopenthebodyofhisuncleHamzahandchewedhisheart?‘Whatkindoftreatmentdoyouexpectfromme?’askedMuhammadofthegatheredMakkans.Theydidnotanswer.SoMuhammadansweredforthem.‘MayGodpardonyou,’heannounced.‘Goinpeace.IsaytoyouasJosephsaidtohisbrothers.Thereshallbenoresponsibilityonyoutoday.Youarefree’.
TheFarewellSermon
631CE:OnthetenthyearaftertheHijra,andafterperformingthepilgrimagetoMakkah,Muhammadgavehis‘FarewellSermon’to124,000
MuslimswhohadgatheredinthevalleyofArafat.
Opeople,lendmeanattentiveear,beganMuhammad.Iknownotwhether,afterthisyear,Ishalleverbeamongstyouagain.Opeople,justasyouregardthismonth,thisday,thiscityassacred,soregardthelifeandpropertyofeveryMuslimasasacredtrust.Returnthegoodsentrustedtoyoutotheirrightfulowners.Hurtnoonesothatnoonemayhurtyou.Donottakeusury;thisisforbiddentoyou.Aidthepoorandclothethemasyouwouldclotheyourselves.Remember!OnedayyouwillappearbeforeAllahandanswerforyourdeeds.So,beware!DonotstrayfromthepathofrighteousnessafterIamgone.Opeople!NoprophetorApostlewillcomeaftermeandnonewfaithwillbeborn…Itistruethatyouhavecertainrightswithregardtoyourwomen,buttheyalsohaverightsoveryou.Treatthemwellfortheyareyoursupport.Reflectonmywords.Ileavebehindtwothings,theQur’anandmyexample,andifyoufollowtheseguidesyouwillnotfail.Listentomeinearnest.WorshipGod,sayyourprayers,fastduringthemonthsofRamadan,andgiveyourwealthincharity.Allthebelieversarebrothers,allhavethesamerightsandsameresponsibilities.Nooneisallowedtotakefromanotherwhathedoesnotallowhimofhisownfreewill.Noneishigherthantheotherunlessheishigherinvirtue.Allthosewholistentomeshallpassonmywordstoothers,andthosetoothersagain;andmaythelastonesunderstandmywordsbetterthanthosewholistentomedirectly.Muhammadthenturnedhisfacetowardstheheavensandsaid:‘Bemywitness,OAllah,thatIhaveconveyedyourmessagetoyourpeople.’‘MyLord,surelyyouhave,’resoundedthevalley.
DeathoftheProphet
fewmonthsafterhislastsermon,Muhammadfellill.HecontinuedleadingtheprayersinthemosqueinMadinauntilhefelttooweaktostand.On
Monday,theseconddayoftheIslamicmonthofRabial-Awwal,andelevenyearsafterthehijra(632),Muhammadwhisperedthewords,‘OhAllah,withtheCompassionateonHigh,’andtookhislastbreath.Hewas63.
OutsidethemosqueinMadina,thegatheringcrowdcouldnotbelievethattheProphethaddied.Then,AbuBakr,hislife-longcompanionemergedfromMuhammad’sapartmentwithtearsinhiseyesandcalmlyascendedthestepsoftheProphet’sMosque.‘Opeople,’AbuBakraddressedthecrowd,‘verily,whosoeverworshippedMuhammadknowthatMuhammadisdead.ButwhosoeverworshippedAllah,knowthatAllahisalive.’
ALifeofHistory
helifeofMuhammadisknownastheSiraandwaslivedinthefulllightofhistory.Everythinghedidandsaidwasrecorded.Becausehecouldnotread
andwritehimself,hewasconstantlyservedbyagroupof45scribeswhowrotedownhissayings,instructionsandhisactivities.Muhammadhimselfinsistedondocumentinghisimportantdecisions.Nearlythreehundredofhisdocumentshavecomedowntous,includingpoliticaltreaties,militaryenlistments,assignmentsofofficialsandstatecorrespondencewrittenontannedleather.Wethusknowhislifetotheminutestdetails:howhespoke,sat,sleeped,dressed,walked;hisbehaviourasahusband,father,nephew;hisattitudestowardswomen,children,animals;hisbusinesstransactionsandstancetowardsthepoorandtheoppressed;hisengagementincampsandcantonments,hisbehaviourinbattle;hisexerciseofpoliticalauthorityandstandonpower;hispersonalhabits,likesanddislikes–evenhisprivatedealingswithhiswives.Withinafewdecadesofhisdeath,accountsofthelifeofMuhammadwereavailabletotheMuslimcommunityinwrittenform.OneoftheearliestandthemostfamousbiographiesofMuhammad,writtenlessthanhundredyearsafterhisdeath,isSiratRasulAllahbyibnIshaq.
TheHadith
hedailyutterancesanddiscoursesofMuhammad,fromthedayhereceivedthefirstrevelationtillhisdeath,areknownasthehadith.Hadithliterally
means‘statement’:thehadith,then,arethesayingsortraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.
Duringhislife,thehadithwerewrittendownbyMuhammad’sscribesandcompanionsonvariousmedia–papyrus,palmfibres,bonetablets,hides,whitestonesandparchment–aswellasmemorized.Afterhisdeath,Muslimsdevelopedaspecialscienceconcernedwiththetransmitting,validatingandauthenticatingofhadith.ThismethodofhadithcriticismbecameahallmarkofMuslimcivilizationandgeneratedavastcorpusofliterature.
Bytheageoften,Anashadlearnedtoreadandwrite.HisparentsaskedMuhammadtoappointhimashispersonalscribeandattendant.Muhammadaccepted;andtheyoungAnasjoinedhisbandofscribesandaccompaniedMuhammadnightandday.AfterthedeathofMuhammad,Anasbecamefamousasareporterofhadith.Heusedtounrollhissheetsofdocumentsandsay:‘ThesearethesayingsoftheProphet,whichIhavenotedandthenalsoreadouttohimtocorrectmymistakes.’
TheScienceofHadith
hescienceofhadithcollection,criticismandtransmissioninvolved
1.textualanalysis2.biographicalanalysisofnarrators3.examinationofchronologicalaccuracy4.scrutinyoflinguisticandgeographicalparameters5.authenticationoforalandwrittenrecords.
Eachsayingwastracedthroughachainofauthoritativetransmitters,righttothelipsoftheMuhammadhimself.Thesystemoftracingnarratorstothesourcewascalledisnador‘backing’.Themethodofcheckingthequalityofthetransmittercametobeknownasilmar-Rijal(ScienceofBiography).ThusatraditionoftheProphetalwayscontainsan‘isnad’whichtakestheform:‘so-and-sosaidthatso-and-sosaidthatso-and-sosaidthattheProphetsaid…’
Aspecialgroupofscholarsemergedwhodevotedtheirwholelivestocheckingeachlinkinthechain.
Aretheindividualsconcernedreliablereporters?Isitchronologicallyandgeographicalfeasiblethattheindividualsinthechainactuallymet?Aretheindividualsofsoundmorals,notmotivatedbypoliticalorsectarianconcern?Isthereportedtraditionlogicallyandrationallyconsistent?DoesitlinguisticallyreflectthewordsoftheProphet?DoesthereportedtraditionagreewiththeteachingsoftheQur’an?AndisitthekindofthingthatitisreasonableforustobelievethattheProphetwouldhavesaid?
Eachtraditionwasanalyzedonthebasisoftheseandotherquestionsandclassifiedintocategoriesrangingfromauthentic,agreeable,weak,narratedbyaweaknarrator,onewithmissingtransmitter,downrightfabricatedandsoon.
Usingthiselaboratesystemofcategorization,earlyMuslimscholarssiftedthroughliterallymillionsofhadith.ImamBukhari(d.870),thefamouscompilerofhadith,collectedareportedsixmillionhadith;butaftercriticism,acceptedonly7,275traditionsasauthentic.Thesearecollectedinhisfamousbook,SahihBukhari.ImamMuslim(d.875)collectedoverthreemillion;butrejectedallexcept9,200whichwefindinhisSahihMuslim.Therearesixwellknownandwidelyusedauthenticcollectionsofhadith,eachknownafteritscompiler.Apart
TheSunnah
ogethertheSiraandtheHadithconstitutetheSunnah.ThewordSunnahmeansmethod,example,orpath.TheSunnah,deedsandsayingof
Muhammad,theenactmentofMuhammad’sDivineMissionintheworld,isanintegralpartofhismessage.Assuch,itistakenasamodelofidealbehaviourbyeveryMuslim.ItisthroughtheSunnahthatMuslimsknowandlearntheritualandspiritualaspectsoftheirfaith–howtopray,fastandperformthepilgrimagetoMakkah.ButtheSunnahisalsotheguideinmoralandsocialmatters.ThusaMuslimseekingapiouslifesimplyfollowsthenormsandpatternsestablishedbythelifeandtraditionsoftheProphet–theSunnahisthewayofIslamiclife.
TherearetemporalandabsolutepartsoftheSunnah.Muslimsarerequiredtodistinguishbetweenthese.Forexample,justbecauseMuhammadworeaturbanandrodeacamel,doesnotmeanthatallMuslimsmustwearaturbanorrideacamel.Itishisinsistencethattheclothesthatapersonwearsmustbecleanandmustcovercertainpartsofthebody,orthatwemustfeed,water,restandtreatanimalswithkindness,thatistheSunnahtobefollowed.However,thisisacontentiousissuewithsomemoretradition-orientatedMuslimgroups:theyinsistthatallaspectsofthesunnahmustbefollowedineverydetail.
SomeSayingsofProphetMuhammad
TheworldisgreenandbeautifulandGodhasappointedyouhisstewardoverit.
Omankind:GodisOne,yourancestorisone.YouareallfromtheseedofAdam,Adamwasfromclay.ThemosthonourableamongyoubeforeGodisthemostGod-fearing.
Thewholeearthhasbeencreatedasaplaceofworship,pureandclean.
Little,butsufficient,isbetterthantheabundantandthealluring.
ThevalueoftheworldincomparisontotheHereafterislikeadropletintheocean.
Thesuperiorityofalearnedmanoveronewhoonlyworshipsislikethesuperiorityofthemoonwhenitisfull,coveringthestars.ThelearnedaretheheirsoftheProphetswhodonotleavealegacyofdirhamsanddinarsbutonlyofknowledge.
ThesearchforknowledgeisasacreddutyimposeduponeveryMuslim.Goinsearchofknowledge,eventoChina.
Godhasnotcreatedanythingbetterthanreason,oranythingmoreperfectormorebeautifulthanreason.ThebenefitswhichGodgivesareonitsaccount;andunderstandingisbyit,andGod’swrathiscausedbyit,andbyitarerewardsandpunishment.
Povertymaysometimesleadtodisbelief.
Godisgentleandlovesgentlenessinallthings.
Hastentodogoodbeforeyouareovertakenbyperplexingadversity,corruptingprosperity,disablingdisease,babblingdotageandsuddendeath.
EveryreligionhasaspecialcharacterandthecharacteristicofIslamismodesty.
Modestyandfaitharejoinedcloselytogetherandifeitherofthemislosttheothergoesalso.
Bewareofenvyforenvydevoursgoodworkslikethefiredevoursfuel.
Goddoesnotlookuponyourbodiesandappearances,Helooksuponyourheartsandyourdeeds.
Bewareofsuspicionforsuspicionisagreatfalsehood.
Donotsearchforfaultsineachothernoryearnafterthatwhichotherspossess,norenvy,norentertainmalice,orindifference;andbetheservantsofGod.
Lettheyoungeronesalutetheelderly,lettheonewhoiswalkingsalutetheonesittingandletthosewhoaresmallinnumbersalutethosewhoarelargeinnumber.
Themostexcellentjihadisthatfortheconquestoftheself.
Wereitnotforfearoftroublingmyfollowers,Iwouldorderthemtocleantheirteethbeforeeveryprayer.
Amanshouldaccompanyhisguesttothedoorofhishouse.
Whenyougotovisitthesick,comfortthemintheirgriefbysaying,‘Youwillgetwellandlivelong.’
TheQur’an
iterallytheQur’anmeansthe‘reading’orthatwhichshouldberead.ItistheWordofGodrevealedin‘clearArabicspeech’toMuhammadthroughthe
agencyofarchangelGabriel.ThelanguageoftheQur’anisradicallydifferentfromthelanguageusedbyMuhammadinhiseverydayspeech–itcannotbeconfused,forexample,withthelanguageofthetraditionsoftheProphet.Essentially,IslamistheQur’an.
MuhammadreceivedthefirstQur’anicrevelationattheageof40intheyear610.Therevelationscontinuedtocomeforthenext23years,infragmentsand‘atintervals’,ending81/82daysbeforethedeathofMuhammadin632,withthefollowingverse:“TodayhaveIperfectedyourreligiouslawforyou,andhavebestoweduponyouthefullmeasureofMyblessings,andwilledthatself-surrenderuntoMe(Islam)shallbeyourreligion.”(5:3)
Muslimscholarsknowexactlywhen,whereandunderwhatcircumstanceseachversewasrevealed.However,theversesoftheQur’anarenotarrangedchronologically.Whenaversewasrevealed,MuhammadhimselfwouldindicatethepreciseplaceofthenewrevelationintotaltextoftheQur’an.TheProphetfrequentlyrecitedtheportionsofQur’antillthenrevealed;andduringthefastingmonthofRamadan,shortlybeforehisdeath,herecitedthewholeQur’anduringspecialeveningprayers.AtthedeathoftheProphet,numerousmenandwomenknewtheQur’anbyheart;andthewholetextalsoexistedinwrittenform.
TheAuthenticQur’an
ffortstocompileasingle,unifiedwrittentextstartedimmediatelyafterthedeathoftheProphet.AbuBakr,thefirstCaliphofIslam,instructedZaydbin
Thabit,theprinciplescribeofMuhammad,tocollectallwrittenfragmentsoftheQur’an.ThecompliedtextremainedinthecustodyofAbuBakrand,afterhisdeathin634,waspassedontoUmar,thesecondCaliph,whoentrustedittohisdaughterHafsa(oneofthewivesofMuhammad).AfterthedeathofUmarin644,Othman,thethirdCaliph,entrustedacommission,chairedbyZaydbinThabit,tomakesixcopiesfromAbuBakr’smastercopy.Whenthetaskwascompleted–thecopiespainstakinglywrittendownonparchmentbyhand–OthmangatheredthecompanionsoftheProphetandhadapublicreadingofthe‘authentic’edition.Hethenorderedthedestructionofallothercopiesandsentthecopiesofthe‘authentic’editiontodifferentcentresofthevastMuslimworld.ThetextoftheQur’anusedtodayisexactlythesameasthatofOthman’s‘authentic’edition.
WhatistheQur’an?
heQur’ancannotbecomparedtootherreligioustexts,forexampletheTorahortheBibleorTheMahabharataandtheRamayana,becauseitis
notabookofnarrativerecordsofancientpeoples–althoughitdoescontainsomestoriesofprophetsandearliernations.Itisnota‘linear’textwithachronologicalorderora‘logical’beginning,middleandanend.Itisrhythmicprose,epicpoemandsymphonyallrolledintoonesublimetext.Thewholetext,containing114chaptersorsurahs,withatotalof6,236verses,thushasalatticestructurewhichconnectseverywordwitheveryotherwordbyrhythm,rhymeandmeaning.ThestructureoftheQur’anensuresthatnotasingledotofitstextcanbechanged,foreventheminutestchangesimplythrowsthetextoutofsync.
TheUniquenessoftheQur’an
tisbecauseofitsspecialstructure,theinterlockingcharacterofeachwordandverse,theeloquenceandbeautyofitslanguageandtheprecision,
economyandsubtletyofitsstyle,thattheQur’anissaidtobe‘inimitable’.Itisnotonlyphysicallyimpossibletochangeorcorruptit,butalsobeyondhumancapabilitytoproduceasingleverseofsimilarliterarymeritasthatoftheQur’an.TheQur’anitselfchallengesitsreaderstoproduceasinglesurahthatcouldbedeemedequaltoanypartofit:“AndifyoudoubtanypartofwhatWehavebestowedfromonhigh,stepbystep,uponourservant(Muhammad),thenproduceasurahofsimilarmerit,andcalluponanyotherthanGodtobearwitnessforyou–ifwhatyousayistrue!andifyoucannotdoit–andmostcertainlyyoucannotdoit–thenbeconsciousofthefirewhosefuelishumanbeingsandstoneswhichawaitsallwhodenythetruth.”(2:23-24)
The special language and structure of the Qur’an makes itrelativelyeasytomemorize.Thelanguagecarriesthereciterfromwordtoword,thestructureguidesfromversetoverse,propelledbyimageryandpicturesquestyle.Therecitationofthe Qur’an is a highly developed art form. It has twogenerallyacceptedtechniques:amusicallybeautifulreading,tajwid; and a slow,deliberately simple chant, tartil.YoungMuslimsaretaughtrecitationoftheQur’anfromatenderagewhentheyalsomemorizetheentiretext.TheQur’anisthustheonlybookinthehistoryofmankindwhichismemorizedfrom cover to cover. At any given time, there are literallymillionsofpeoplewhoarehafiz–whoknowtheQur’anbyheart.
PurposesoftheQur’an
heQur’anisaddressedtoallhumanitywithoutdistinctionofrace,regionortime.ItsmajorthemesareGod,humanbeings,society,nature,reason,
prophethoodandrevelation.TheQur’anspeaksofthetranscendenceofGod,thefactthatHeisbeyondallperceptionofhumanbeings–andhencebeyondconfinesofgender,describesHisattributesandcontainstheappropriatemodesforpraisingHim.ItdescribestheresponsibilityofpersonsasindividualsandinsocietyasthetrusteeofGodonearth.TheQur’anmakesfrequentandrepeatedstatementsaboutnatureinwhichthemagnitude,stabilityandregularityofnaturalphenomenaarestressed.Some750verses,almostone-eighthoftheQur’an,aredevotedtoextollingthevirtuesofreason.Thereare250legislativeversesthatprovidetherulesrelatingtosocialandeconomiclifeandpenalandinternationallaw.
EssenceoftheQur’an
hecontentandmessageoftheQur’anissummedupbytheOpeningchapter,Surahal-Fatiha,whichisknownastheUmmal-KitaborMotherofthe
Book.ThisshortsurahofsevenversesformsthefirstpartofeveryMuslimprayerandisrepeatedatleast17timesadaywhenMuslimssaytheirobligatoryfivedailyprayers.
TheOpening.InthenameofGod,themostGracious,theDispenserofGrace:AllpraiseisduetoGodalone,theSustainerofalltheworlds,theMostGracious,LordoftheDayofJudgement!Theealonedoweworship;anduntoTheealoneweturnforaid.Guideustothestraightway–ThewayofthoseuponwhomThouhastbestowedThyblessings,notofthosewhohavebeencondemned(byThee),norofthosewhogoastray.(1:1-7)
(ThisisoneofthemostcalligraphedchapteroftheQur’an–sampleabove,andonseehere,here,hereandhere.)
Qur’anicGuidance
heQur’angivesguidancebyprovidingcertainbasicethicalprinciplesandattitudes,fundamentalvaluesandnorms,andbymarkingoutsignposts
whichareknownashududorlimitsofhumanbehaviour.Thesegeneralprinciplesandguidelinesaretobetranslatedintoactualpracticebytheintellectualandphysicaleffortsofthebelievers.Forexample,theQur’antellsMuslimstobemodestinallaspectsoftheirlives.ItisforMuslimcommunitiestodiscoverwhatthisgeneralprinciplemeansintermsofdressorconsumption.TheQur’anasksbelieverstoavoidallformsofusury.Muslimsthushavearesponsibilitytodevelopausuryfreesociety.TheQur’anaskeditsreaderstotemperjusticealwayswithmercy.Muslimjuristshavetotranslatethisgeneralinstructionintoalegalframework.Thus,generalQur’anicprinciplesandinjunctionsaregivenpracticalshapebyMuslimsthemselvesaccordingtotheirphysicalneedsandabilitiesandconstantlyreadandre-read,re-understood,interpretedandre-interpreted.
TheCommentaries
heneedforinterpretingtheQur’anaroseimmediatelyafterthedeathoftheProphet.EarlyinterpretationsoftheQur’anreliedonthecommentsand
analysisoftheCompanionsofMuhammadandtheirsuccessors.WrittencommentariesoftheQur’anbegantoappeartowardstheendofthe9thcentury.Amongsttheearliestandmostfrequentlycitedarethoseofal-Tabari(d.923),al-Wahid(d.1076),al-Zamakhshari(d.1144),al-Razi(d.1209),al-Qurtubi(d.1273),andibnKhathir(d.1373).TheseauthorsdevelopedQur’anicinterpretationintoanelaboratescience,withnumerousspecialistbranches,knownastafsir.
InterpretingtheQur’an
llinterpretationsoftheQur’anhavetofollowcertainbasicrules.ThemostimportantsourcefortheinterpretationoftheQur’anistheQur’anitself.
WhenaQur’anicterm,phraseorverseisexplainedbyanother,norecoursetoanyothersourceisnecessary.AftertheQur’an,interpretationhastobesoughtwithintheframeworkofthelife,sayingsandactions(sunnah)oftheProphet–whichprovidealivingcommentaryontheQur’an.TherulesandnatureoftheArabiclanguagearealsoasourceofQur’anicinterpretation.Beyondthesebasicsources,theQur’anhasbeeninterpretatedintheological,literary,legalandrationalterms.Muslimmysticsseekthe‘hidden’meaningsofQur’anicverses.GiventhattheQur’anhasmanylevelsofmeaning,theopinionsandconcernsofindividualcommentatorsalsoplayanimportantpartinitsinterpretation.AsIslamspreadamongmanydifferentcultures,individualinterpretationsoftheQur’angainedagrowingacceptance.
TranslationsoftheQur’an
stheliteralWordofGod,theQur’anistheQur’anonlyintheoriginalrevealedtext.AtranslationcanneverbetheQur’an,thatinimitable
symphony,‘theverysoundofwhichmovesmenandwomentotears.’AtranslationcanonlybeanattempttogivethebarestsuggestionofthemeaningofwordscontainedintheQur’an.ThisiswhyallMuslims,whatevertheirmothertongue,alwaysrecitetheQur’aninitsoriginalArabic.
Throughouthistory,theQur’anhasbeentranslatedintoeveryconceivablelanguage.ButtranslationsoftheQur’anhavefrequentlybeenusedtosubvertorcynicallyfalsifyitsmessage.ThePenguintranslationoftheQur’anbyN.J.DawoodisthelatestinthelonglineofEuropeantranslationswhichpresentsadistortedinterpretationoftheQur’an.
Dawood:‘Idolatryisworsethancarnage.’Qur’anicmeaning:oppressionisworsethankilling.
Dawood:‘TheHordes.’Qur’anicmeaning:Thecrowds.
Dawood:mentobe‘weddedtochastevirgins.’Qur’anicmeaning:thereforthemshallbespousespurified.
ImpactoftheQur’an
heQur’anhashadanunparalleledimpactonhumanhistory.Itisundoubtedlythemostread,recited,memorized,debated,analyzedand
veneratedbookintheannalsofhistory–notexcludingtheBible.ListentoMuhammadAsad,oneofthemostrespectedtranslatorsandcommentatorsoftheQur’aninthe20thcentury:
TheQur’an,“morethananyothersinglephenomenonknownto us, has fundamentally affected the religious, social andpolitical history of theworld.No other sacred scripture haseverhadasimilarly immediate impactupon the livesof thepeoplewhofirsthearditsmessageand,throughthemandthegenerations that followed them, on the entire course ofcivilization. It shook Arabia, and made a nation out of itsperenniallywarringtribes;withinafewdecades,itspreaditsworld-viewfarbeyond theconfinesofArabiaandproducedthe first ideological society known to man; through itsinsistence on consciousness and knowledge, it engenderedamong its followers a spirit of intellectual curiosity andindependent inquiry,ultimatelyresultingin thatsplendideraof learning and scientific research which distinguished theworld of Islam at the height of its cultural vigour; and theculture thus fostered by the Qur’an penetrated in countlessways and by-ways into the mind of medieval Europe andgaverisetothatrevivalofWesternculturewhichwecalltheRenaissance, and thus became in the course of time largelyresponsible for thebirthofwhat is described as the ‘ageofscience’:theageinwhichwearenowliving.”
Thissimpledeclarationhasprofoundconsequences:
1.ItimpliesthattrueexistenceisthatofGodalone;personkindandtheentirecreationexistonlybecauseGodwillsthemtoexist.
2.SinceweexistbythewillandgraceofGod,wearetotallydependentonHim–ourrelationshiptoGodisthatbetweenservantandMaster.
3.Assuch,weareresponsibleforallourthoughtsandactionsbeforeGodtowhomwewillhavetorenderanaccountofourworldlydeedsontheDayofJudgementandWhowilldecideourfinaldestinationintheHereafter,ortheAkhra.
4.ToprepareourselvesfortheFinalJudgementwemustlivearesponsibleandvirtuouslifeaccordingtotheWillofGod.
5.TheWillofGodcanonlybeknownthroughHisMessengers;beliefinGodthereforerequiresbeliefinrevelation–theBooksofGod–andtheMessengersofGod.
6.OfalltheMessengers,senttoeverytribeandnation,MuhammadistheLast,beingthesealofprophethoodandcompletingtheprocessofrevelation.
7.SinceGodistranscendentandbeyondallhumanperception,HecommunicatesHismessagetoHisProphetsthroughHisfunctionaries–theangels.
Tawheed
‘Allah.’
hedeclarationthatThereisnogodbutAllahiscalledtawheed.TawheedrepresentstheIslamicoutlookonlife,theuniverseandeverything:itisthe
worldviewofMuslims.
TheunityofGodisreflectedintheunityofpersonkind.SinceweareallcreatedbyGod,weareallequalbeforeHim.Thereisnodifferencebetweenpeopleofoneraceandanother,betweenrichandpoor,betweenthepowerfulandthepowerless,betweenmenandwomen.Islamisuncompromisingonitsstanceon
humanequality.Moreover,sinceeverythingisownedbyGod,noonehasanexclusiverighttoanything.Allnaturalresourcesintheuniverse,landandcapitalbelongtothewholeofhumanrace,andallitsmembershaveequalshareandrightofaccesstothem.Nopersonhasarighttoclaimabiggershare,simplybecauseheorshedoesnotandcannotcreateorgeneratenaturalpowerindependently.
IslamestablishesacloseanddirectrelationshipbetweentheCreatorandHiscreation.InIslamnomediatingpowerofanykindexistsbetweentheCreatorandHiscreation:therearenochurches,priestsorsacraments.HisabsoluteUnityisreflectedintheunityofHiscreationinwhicheachindividualpartisinharmoniousorderwiththeremainder.
ThePillarsofIslam
romtawheedstemthe‘fourpillars’ofIslam.Muslimspiritualanddevotionalliferevolvesaroundthesepillars.
1.Salatorprayer,whichhastobeperformedfivetimesdaily:beforesunrise,betweenmid-dayandafternoon,justbeforedawn.PrayerinIslamisactuallyanensembleofinnerandouteractionsinvolvingablutions,intentionofreciting
theprayer,therequestforgraceandpardon,therecitationofappropriatephrases,recitationofversesoftheQur’anandbodilymovements.
2.Sawm,orfastingduringthelunarmonthofRamadan,isasublimespiritualexerciseandaprescriptionforself-assuranceandself-control.Physically,fastinginvolvesabstainingfromfood,drink,smokingandsex;spiritually,itinvolvesrefrainingfrombadthoughts,actionsandutterances.
3.Zakat,oftentranslatedas‘poordue’or‘charity’,shouldnotbemistakenforalms-givingoutofone’sgenerosity.Itisadutyandasocialobligation.SinceeverythingonepossessesbelongstoGod,theneedyhaveashareinone’spossessionsandincomeandhavearighttoclaimaportionofit.Normallyanannualamountisprescribedoutofone’sincomeandsavingsaszakat.
4.Hajj,orpilgrimage,atleastonceinalifetime,totheSacredCityofMakkah.Thehajjinvolvessuspendingone’sworldlyactivities,one’sprideandego,andsurrenderingone’swholebeingtoGod.ThehajjisaphysicaldemonstrationofMuslimnotionsofhumanequalityandunity–itisthepersonhoodofIslaminaction.
Everyyear,duringtheIslamicmonthofDhulHijjah,overtwomillionMuslimsfromallovertheworldgatherinMakkahfortheannualpilgrimage.Hajj,whichliterallymeanseffort,beginswiththedonningoftwounsewnsheetsofcloth(calledtheihram),totalabstentionfromdesireandinvolvescontinuousprayer,chanting,innerreflectionandmovement:pilgrimsmoveenmassefromtheSacredMosqueinMakkah–thesiteoftheKa’aba–tothehillsofMunatothevalleyofArafattothesiteofMuzdalifahandreturntoMuna.ItisatArafat–wherethetwomillionofferacongregationalprayer–thatthepilgrimsspendthesupremehoursoftheirlives.
Khalifa
uslimthoughtandactionisregulatedbyasetofconceptsandvaluesderivedfromtheQur’an.Aftertawheed,themostimportantconceptinIslamis
Khalifa,ortrusteeship.
MenandWomenarekhalifaortrusteesofGodonearth.ThisimpliesthatthecreationisasacredtrustfromGodandnotthepropertyofanyindividual,grouporgeneration.ItalsoimpliesthatweareresponsibleformaintainingandpreservingtheintegrityofGod’screation–theearth,theenvironment,thefloraandfauna.AndwewillbeheldaccountableforouruseorabuseofthistrustbothinthisworldandtheHereafter.
Adi
Islam,adl,orjustice,isasupremevalue.Indeed,Muslimscholarshavearguedthatthemainpurposeofrevelationandthebasictaskofprophetsis
toestablishjusticeonearth.AllsociallifeinIslamrevolvesaroundtheideaofjusticeandbelieversareenjoinedtobehavetowardseachotherinajustway.Justicebeginswithoneselfandinvolvesfulfillingtheneedsofone’sbody,mindandspirit.Familyrelationshavetobebasedonjustice:respecttowardsone’sparentsandelders,showingequalloveandaffectiontowardsallone’schildren,andhonestyandloyaltytowardsone’sspouseareallmanifestationsofjustfamilybehaviour.Atcommunallevel,justicedemandsthatonefulfilone’ssocialobligationsandresponsibilities.ItisadutyofaMuslimtostandupagainstallkindsofoppression,evenifthisinvolvesone’sownblood,societyorcountry.
Ilm
heestablishmentofjusticeinallspheresofhumanbehaviourrequiresacertaindegreeofknowledge,ilm.Islammakesthepursuitofknowledgean
obligationoneveryMuslim,maleorfemale.AMuslimsocietycanonlybejustwhenitisaknowledge-basedsociety.Thus,thepursuitofknowledgeisalsoasocialobligation.Muslimcommunitieseverywherehavetoensurethatexpertsincertainbranchesofknowledge–e.g.law,medicine,education,engineering–areadequatelyrepresentedinthecommunity.TheIslamictermforanexpertinaparticularfieldisalim.Itissignificantthatareligiousscholar,alawyer,aphysicist,asociologist,aphilosopher–allareknownasalims.InIslam,knowledgemustbesoughtwithmodestyandhumility,withtheaimofpromotingbeautyanddignity,freedomandjustice.Moreover,knowledgecanonlybesoughtbyjustmeans–thepursuitofnobleendsbyunjustmeansisnotpermitted.
TheTrueMeaningofJihad
onstantstruggleforjusticemanifestsitselfasjihad.JihadisoneofthemostabusedandmisusedIslamicconcepts.Itmeans‘directedstruggle’andcan
takeanumberofforms.AtraditionoftheProphetdeclaresthat‘thesupremejihadisagainstoneself’:thatis,againstone’sego,greedandinsatiabledesires.Jihadcouldalso,forexample,beaimedatthesocialdevelopmentofacommunity.Itcanalsobeintellectual–directedagainstoppressiveandtotalitarianthoughtortowardstheintellectualupliftingofasociety.Lastly,jihadcanalsotaketheformofphysicalstruggleagainstoppressionandaggression.Jihadisthusmuchmorethansimply‘holywar’.
Moreover,jihadcannotbedeclaredbyanybodyonanybody.Forexample,jihadcannotbedeclaredbyoneMuslimcountryonanother,oranoppressivedictatorcannotdeclarejihadoncountrieslinedupagainsthim.JihadrequiresconsensusofthewholeMuslimcommunityandaclearidentificationoftheenemyastheaggressorortheoppressorofhelplessvictims.
Shariah
hariahisnormallytranslatedas‘Islamiclaw’.Itis,however,not‘law’butasetofregulations,principlesandvaluesfromwhichlegislationandlaware
drawn.WhileShariahiseternal,Islamiclaw–likealllaw–evolvesandgrowsandcontinuestochangeastheMuslimsituationchanges.
ThebasicsourcesoftheShariaharetheQur’an,theSunnah,ijmaorconsensusoftheMuslimcommunity,andqiyasoranalogicalreasoning.MuslimjuristshavealsodevelopedanumberofsupplementarysourcesfortheShariahofwhichal-istislahorpublicinterest,andal-urforcustomandusageofaparticularsociety,arethemain.
TheAimsofShariah
heultimateaimofShariahistoestablishjusticeinsocietyonthebasisofcompassionbetweenhumanbeingsandbetweengovernmentandthepublic.
Itseeksthisaimbyemphasizingtherightsandresponsibilitiestowardseachotherofindividualsandsociety,thecommunityandthestate,therulersandtheruled.Themainaimisthecreationofamorallyresponsiblesociety,withtheaccentonsocial,economicandpoliticaljustice.
Shariahpresupposestotalfreedomforhumanbeings:freedomtoactaccordingtoShariahaswellasfreedomnottoactaccordingtoShariah.Thosewhowishtoordertheirsocietyaccordingtothedictatesoftheshariahdosowillinglyandconsciously.
Fiqh
slamicjurisprudencewasderivedfromtheShariahintheearlyyearsofIslamandiscommonlyknownasfiqh.Initswidestsense,fiqhcoversall
aspectsofreligious,politicalandcivillife.Inadditiontolawsrelatingtoworshipandothermattersofreligiousobservance,itincludesfamilylaw,thelawofinheritance,propertyandcontractuallaw,criminallawandlawrelatingtotheadministrationofstateandtheconductofwar.
Literally,fiqhmeans‘intelligence’and‘knowledge’.FiqhisthuswhatearlyMuslimjuristsderivedfromtheshariahwiththeirownintelligenceandknowledge–itisahumanconstruction.
TheClassicalSchoolsofFiqh
lassicaljuristswereunequivocalindeclaringtheirrulingstobetheirownopinionwhichshouldnotbeaccepteduncritically.Theyloathedtheideathat
a‘schoolofthought’shouldbeformedaroundtheirjuristicjudgements.
Butthisisexactlywhathappened.Overtime,anumberof‘schoolsofthought’basedonclassicaljurisprudenceappeared.Fiveoftheseschools,eachnamedafteraclassicaljurist,arenowpredominant:theHanafischoolintheIndiansubcontinent,WestAfricaandEgypt;theMalikiinNorthandWestAfrica;theShafiinMalaysiaandIndonesia;theHanbaliinArabia;andJaferiinIranandIraq.
Muchofwhatgoesundertherubricof‘Islamiclaw’isinfactclassicalfiqh:time-and-space-boundopinionandrulings–orfatwas–ofearlyjurists.WhatthisactuallymeansisthatIslamiclawhasbeenfrozeninhistoryandhasremainedossifiedforalmosteighthundredyears.
PermanenceandChange
heShariahprovidesIslamwithitspermanentbedrock.ButwhatispermanentinIslamislargelyethical:formsofworship,injunctionswhich
forbidcertainsocialevils,andprincipleswhichaimatpromotingsocial,economicandpoliticaljustice,andencouragingthepursuitofknowledgeandreason.Everythingelseissubjecttochange.Islamenvisagesadynamic,thrivingandprogressivesociety.
TheprincipleofchangeinIslamisknownasijtihad.Ijtihadisdefinedasexertingoneselftotheutmostdegreetoreachcomprehensiononaquestionofshariah.Theexertioncantaketheformofnewmethodsofreasoning,newsocialandintellectualinsights,newwaysofknowingandunderstanding.WhenthenewunderstandingoftheshariahacquiredthroughijtihadhastheijmaortheconsensusoftheMuslimummah,theglobalMuslimcommunity,itbecomesapartofIslamiclaw.
It is on the basis of ijtihad (all-around reasoning), ijma(consensus)shura(consultation)andistislah(publicinterest)that Muslim societies move forward, adjust to change, andIslamiclawevolvesandexpands.
‘Thereshallbenocoercioninmattersoffaith’
hileIslamisuncompromisinglyGod-centredanduniversalist,itdoesnotseeitselfassolerepositoryoftruth.Islamrecognizesthatallreligionsintheir
originalteachingsembodythesametruth–andcontainshadesoftruthevenintheircorruptforms.Thus,Muslimsrespectthebeliefs,teachingsandinstitutionsofotherreligions.WithinaterritoryruledbyMuslims,allnon-Muslimshavetherighttoliveaccordingtotheirownrulesandregulationsandasequalcitizenswithallrightsandresponsibilities.
Bothwithinandwithout,Islamabhorsallkindsofmonopoly–oftruth,power,wealth,knowledge–andauthoritarianism.Mostofitsgeneralprinciplesaredesignedtobreakdownmonopoliesandsubvertunquestioningauthority.Islamitselfcannotbeforcedonasociety;andtheShariahcannotbeintroducedbyauthoritarianmeans.EvenbeliefinIslamitselfcannotgounqualified,forIslamdoesnotappreciateblind,unquestioningfaith.
FormativeHistoryofIslam
heProphetMuhammadleftthedecisionofhistemporalsuccessiontohisfollowers.Afterhisdeath,aconstitutionalassemblyunanimouslyelected
AbuBakrSiddiq,oneofhisclosestcompanions,asrulerofMadina.AbuBakrwasahighlycompassionateandkindleader.Examplesofhishonestyinmattersofstatearelegion.HeconsolidatedandmanagedtherapidlygrowingMuslimcommunitywithunparalleledability.
AbuBakrdiedtwoyearsafterbecomingCaliph.Beforehisdeath,andafterconsultationwithothercompanionsofMuhammad,henominatedUmaral-Khattabashissuccessor.ThenominationwassubjecttotheapprovaloftheMuslimcommunitywhichwasreadilygranted.Umarwasahighlyskilledadministrator,acleverpoliticalleaderandmilitarygeneral.Hisselflessnessand
TheSeedsofDiscord
eforehisdeath,Umarestablishedanelectoralcouncilofsevenelderstodecideonhissuccessor.TheCouncilselectedOthmanbinAffanandAlibin
Talib,cousinandson-in-lawofMuhammad,andplacedtheirrecommendationsbeforetheMuslimcommunity.Thecommunitywassplit.Buteventually,OthmanwaselectedasthethirdCaliph.Othmanwasrenownedforhisgenerosity,entrepreneurialabilitiesandgentleness.Heruledfortwelveyearsandwasmurdered,asaresultofopenrebellion,in656.
DuringOthman’sreignanumberofpoliticalgroupshademerged.Afterhisdeath,oneofthesegroupscampaignedforAli,putpressureonhim,andeventuallysucceededingettinghimelectedasthefourthCaliph.Aliisadmiredforhisbravery,humilityandunworldliness.Hewasalsoaveryliteraryperson.Hisspeeches,sermons,letters,administrativeordersareregardedasmodelsofliteraryexpression,andmanyofhiswittyaphorismsandepigramshavebeenpreserved.Aliwasmurderedin661.
TheRightlyGuided
hefirstfourcaliphsareknownas‘therightlyguided’todistinguishthemfromtheunelectedmonarchswholaterestablisheddynasties.Theirlivesand
workareasourceofinspiration.Theirruleislookeduponforguidanceinpoliticalandadministrativebehaviour.
Duringthe30yearsofthe‘rightlyguidedcaliphs’,Islamspreadtothefourcornersoftheworld.Thespeedandextentofthisexpansionistrulybreathtaking.
TheExpansionofIslam
henAbuBakrbecameCaliph,hediscoveredthattheyoungMuslimstatewasbeingeyedasajuicymorselbytworivalsuperpowers:Byzantiumand
Iran.HeorganizedanarmyandsentanambassadortoConstantinopleinordertoseekapeacefulsolution.ButByzantium’semperorHeracliushadotherideas.SofirstAbuBakr,thanUmar,capturedonecityafteranotherinIraqandSyria.Wherevertheywent,theMuslimarmieswerewelcomedasliberatorsandtreatedthevanquishedwithtotalrespect,leniencyandkindness.
Iranhadasimilarfate.WhenfacedwithMuslimarmies,EmperorYazdgridsoughtthehelpofChina,theKingofTurkistanandotherneighbouringmonarchs.Hewasdefeatedalongwithhisallies.
DuringthetimeofUmar,MuslimsruledfromLibyatoAfghanistanandfromArmeniatoSindandGujarat(inPakistanandIndia).Othman’sarmiesenteredSpainaswellasChina.HalfthethenknownworldwasunderMuslimrulewhenAliwasCaliph.
TheRiseoftheShia
hemurderofOthmanandAlihadsowedseedsofdissensioninthecommunity.Therewerethreecompetinggroups:thosewhowishedtoretain
theCaliphateintheProphet’sfamily,themajoritywhoarguedthattherulershouldbeelectedonthebasisofconsultationandconsensus,andatinyminoritywhohadthepoliticalambitionandmilitarymighttousurpauthority.
Thepoliticallyambitiouswon.AfterAli,Muawiyah,whohadbeengovernorofSyriaforsometwentyyears,becameCaliphandestablishedtheUmayyaddynasty.MuawiyahwassucceededbyhissonYazid.
ThesuccessionistsgatheredaroundAli’sson,Husain,andrebelledagainstYazid.Husain,hisentirefamily,andhissmallgroupoffollowers,wereallmassacredbyYazid’sarmyinthebattleofKarbalain680.
TheShiaConceptofImams
heShiasdifferfromthemajoritySunnisintheirparticularbeliefinImamah.InShiathought,trueauthoritybelongsonlytotheProphetandhis
household.Thisauthority,combiningbothtemporalandspiritualdimensionsinoneleader,ismanifestedintheImams(earlydescendentsoftheProphet)inwhomthereligiouslifeismarkedbyasenseoftragedyandmartyrdom.Ali,thefourthcaliph,wasthefirstImam;otherImamswerehissonsandgrandsons.TheImams–whoaremasumorfreefromerrorandsin–aretwelveinnumber;andthelastImam,theMahdi,issaidtobein‘occupation’orhidingandwillreappearatsomeapocalypticmomentinthefuture.IntheabsenceoftheImam,thereligiousandtemporalauthorityisexercisedbytheclergyandreligiousscholars.
TheMuslimCivilization
heessentiallydemocraticandaccountablecharacteroftheIslamicpoliticalorder,introducedbythePiousCaliphs,changedwhentheUmayyaddynasty
(661-750)establisheditspowerovertheMuslimcommunity.TheUmayyadswereneitherallthatpiousnordevotedtothecauseofjustice.Theywere,however,goodatbuildingindustry–andevenbetteratconquest.
The‘GoldenAge’ofMuslimcivilizationbeginswiththeriseoftheAbbasidsin750.ThefivecenturiesoftheAbbasidCaliphatesawthetruefloweringofIslamicgenius.ItalsosawthepoliticaldivisionoftheMuslimcommunity,firstintotwoparts,andlaterintosmallerandsmallerkingdoms.
TheAbbasids,whocamefromthefamilyofProphet’suncleal-Abbas,ruledfromBaghdad.Theyhadlittleinterestinconquestbutwerepassionateequallyaboutlearningandinternalfeuding.OnefeudledtotheestablishmentoftheUmayyaddynasty(756-1031)inAndalusia.
TheAbbasidruleestablishedanefficient,honestandvigorousadministration.Concernedaboutthewell-beingofthepopulation,therulerstookstepstoensurethattheirofficialsdidnotlevyextortionatetaxes,thatthebusinessclassdidnotfleecethecommonman,anddevotedgreatenergytobuildingindustry,commerceandinstitutionsofthoughtandlearning.
TheKnowledgeIndustry
ur’anicemphasisonilm,thepursuitofknowledge,becamethemaindrivingforceofMuslimsociety.Thisurge‘toknow’transformedIslamfromits
desertoriginsintoaworldcivilization.Atthezenithoftheclassicalperiod,over500definitionsofknowledgewerecompetingfortheattentionofthebelievers.
Initially,agreatdealofemphasiswasplacedontranslationsandabsorptionoflearningfromothercivilizations,includingEgypt,Babylonia,Greece,India,ChinaandPersia.Withinashortperiod,booksfromGreek,Syriac,Sanskrit,ChineseandPersianweretranslatedintoArabic–oneofthemostremarkableinstancesofculturaltransmissioninhumanhistory.
Aftertranslationcamethelongandarduoustaskofcriticallysifting,analyzingandacceptingorrejectingthelearningofothercivilizations.ThisiswhentheentireMuslimcivilizationbecameengulfedinintensedebate–andthebookbecamethekeyvehicleforcommunicationofideas.
Atthebeginningofthe8thcentury,booksweremadeofparchmentandpapyruswhichweredifficulttohandleandnoteasytoprocure.TheMuslimsacquiredtheartofpapermakingfromtheChinese,introducedanumberofvitalinnovationsandturneditintoanindustry.Thusbooksbecameaccessibleandrelativelycheap.Bythebeginningofthe9thcentury,paperhadbecomethestandardmediumforallwrittencommunication–andforwrappinggroceries!
TheWarraqeen
heknowledgeindustrygaverisetotheprofessionofwarraqeen(lit.thosewhohandlepaper).Thewarraqeenwerehumanphotocopymachines:they
copiedmanuscripts,accuratelyandrapidly.Abookofafewhundredpageswouldbecopiedwithinhours;longertomestookafewdays.Mostwarraqeenmadetheirownpaperandmanagedtheirownbookshops–anythingfromastreetstalltohugeshopsinpleasantupperchambersremovedfromthedustofthebazaar.
WhilewarraqstallsweretobefoundalloversuchcitiesasBaghdad,Damascus,Cairo,Granada,FezandSamarkand,thebookshopsthemselveswereusuallyconcentratedinaspecificquarterofthecity.Al-Yaqubi,thefamousMuslimscholarofthelate9thcentury,countedmorethanonehundredbookshopsintheWaddahsuburbofBaghdadalone.Thelargeandreputablebookshopsattractedscholarsfromconsiderabledistancesandactedasinformalclubsforacademicdiscussionsandmeetinggroundsforwritersandthinkerswithmutualinterests.
UndoubtedlythemostfamousbookshopinMuslimhistorybelongstothetenthcenturybibliophileal-Nadim(d.990).Al-Nadim’sbookshopinBaghdadwascrammedwiththousandsofmanuscriptsandbecamewellknownasameetingplacefornotablewriters,thinkersandmenoflettersofhistime.Theannotatedcatalogueofthecontentsofhisbookshop,al-Fihristal-Nadim,isrenownedasanencyclopediaofmedievalIslamicculture.
Thepublicationindustrypioneeredbythewarraqeenworkedonasystemofmutualcooperationbetweenwritersandtheirpublishers.Awriterwishingtopublishabookwouldannouncehisintentionspubliclyandwouldalsocontactoneortwowarraqeen.Thebookwouldbe‘published’inamosqueoranotedbookshopwheretheauthorwoulddictatehisbookeverydayduringanappointedtime.Anyonecouldattend,anditwasnotuncommonforalargenumberofstudentsandotherscholarstobepresentatpublicdictations.Thedictationwouldtakeconsiderabletime,severalmonthsperhaps,duringwhichtheappointedwarraqeenwouldalwaysbepresent.Whenthebookwasfinished,ahandwrittenmanuscriptwaspresentedtotheauthorforcheckingandcorrections.Onlywhentheauthorhadgivenhisfinalpermissionwouldthebook
beinthepublicdomainandothercopiesfreelymadefromtheoriginal.Theauthors,byagreementwiththewarraqeen,wouldreceivearoyalty.
ThepublicationindustrythatdominatedthelengthandbreadthoftheMuslimempire,fromthe8thtothe15thcenturies,wasofmind-bogglingcomplexity.Atitspeak,literallytensofthousandsofbookswouldbepublishedinasingleyear.TheoldestextantmanuscriptpublishedinArabicinthismannerisdated874.
Thehand-writtenmanuscriptswerethesizeofthemodernbook,withwritingonbothsidesofthepaper,boundtogetherbyleathercovers,androughlytwiceasbulkyastheircontemporaryprintedcounterpart.Forexample,thefamousKitabal-Aghani–acompendiumofpoeticandprosepassages,withmanystoriesaboutthecaliphs,poets,singinggirlsandpopularheroes–filled5,000leavesofhand-writtenmanuscript;themodernprintededitionfillsfivevolumes,eachofabout400pages,andoneshortervolumewith280pages.
InstitutionsofLearning
ntheearlydays,themosqueservedasthebasiceducationalinstitutionofthecommunity.However,asthedemandforlearninggrew,itbecame
inconvenienttoholdlecturesandlivelydiscussionsinthemosquewheresomanypeopleweretryingtoprayandmemorizetheQur’an.Muslimeducatorsthusdevelopedanewtypeofinstitution:theMadrassahorthecollege.AmongthefirstofthesecollegeswasNizamiyyah,builtbyNizamal-MulkinBaghdadin1067.
IntheMadrassah,theteacher(Shaikhorprofessor)wouldsitonalowchair,surroundedbystudentssittinginacircle.Thehonoraryheadofthecollegewasahighofficialwithadeputyorvice-chancellortoconducttheadministration.Eachprofessorhadanumberofteachingassistantsandsometimesaspecial‘Reader’forreadingaloudtexts.Therewasnoregularscheduleandthestudentswerefreetocontinuetheirstudiesaslongasboththestudentandtheprofessorthoughtitwisetodoso.Eachprofessorstartedhiscoursebygivinganoutlineofwhatwastobecovered,followedbyageneralexplanationofthesubjectandthewaystheauthoritiesdifferedaboutit.
Inparallelwiththeevolutionofcollegesemergedjamiaoruniversities.Theoldestuniversityintheworldisal-AzharinCairo,establishedin970.TheQarawiyinUniversityofFezinMoroccowasestablishedsoonafterwards.Apartfromreligioussciences,theuniversitystudentslearnedlogic,metaphysics,philosophy,mathematics,physics,astronomy,rhetoricandtool-making!
Theemergenceofcollegesandlibrariesraisedaafundamentalquestion:Howtoclassifyknowledgeforteachingpurposes,aswellasorganizingbooksonashelf?
Theclassificationsthemselvesledtotheproductionofnumerousgenresofreferenceandbibliographicalworks:thesauri,dictionaries,encyclopedias,biographical,historicalandcentennialdictionaries,genealogicaltables,geographicalguides,aswellasnarrativeandinterpretiveworksofreference.
ArgumentsandDebates
ntensedebates,withfierceargumentsstretchingovercenturies,werethehallmarkofMuslimcivilization.Allvarietyofintellectualgroups,with
remarkablydiversepositions,mushroomedeverywhere.ThesegroupshadnameslikePeopleoftheTent(whowereStoics)TheBrethrenofPurity(whowereneo-Platonists),PeopleofSubjectiveVision(whoweremystics),andPeopleoftheStraightWayandtheCommunity(whoweretheologicalrationalists).
“TheBookofDebate”–oneoftheearliestprintedhooks.
DuringthefirsttwohundredyearsofIslam,philosophystemmedfromtheQur’anwhichprovidedrationalgroundstodemonstratetheexistenceofacreative,uniqueandincorporealGod.ThisrationalphilosophywasfashionedbythetheologiansandwasknownasKalam.Kalammeansspeechorconversationandwasbasedontheideathattruthcanbefoundthroughaprocessofinterrogationinvolvingquestionsandanswers.
ThesituationchangedwhenMuslimsmasteredGreekphilosophy.ThechampionsofGreekphilosophybrokeawayfromrationalisttheologyandbecameknownastheMutazilites(Separatists).ThereactionagainstMutazilitephilosophyproducedanumberofmovementsconcernedsolelywiththerationaldemolitionofGreekphilosophy.ButthemajorchallengecamefromtheAshariteSchoolfoundedbythetheologianal-Ashari(d.945).
TheMutazilitesarguedthatwithreasonaloneonecouldknowofGod’snatureandexistenceandwhatitistoactmorallyandimmorally.Thusitwaspossibletoperceivethetruthwithoutprophecyandrevelationandmenwerefreetodoastheywished.TheAsharitesarguedthatthecomprehensionofuniquenatureand
characteristicsofGodwerebeyondhumancapability.Andthat,whilemanhadfreewill,hehadnopowertocreateanything.
Onbothsidesweresomeofthemostbrilliantmindsofthetime.OntheMutaziliteside:
Al-Kindi(d.866),knownas‘thephilosopheroftheArabs’,encyclopedicscientist,authorofsome270booksonmathematics,physics,music,medicine,pharmacyandgeography,commentatoronAristotle.
Al-Farabi(d.950),anauthorityonmusic,amystic,masterofGreekphilosophy(andhencecalled‘theSecondTeacher’,Aristotlebeingthefirst)andauthorofTheBezelsofPhilosophyandThePerfectState(freelyappropriatedbyStThomasAquinas).
IbnSina(d.1037),childprodigy,encyclopedist,physician,psychologist,authorofthestandardtextCanonsofMedicine,masterof,commentatoronandcorrectorof,Aristotle:‘themostfamousscientistofIslamandoneofthemostfamousofallraces,placesandtimes’(GeorgeSarton).
IbnRushd(d.1198),physician,scientist,linguistand‘TheCommentator’onAristotleandPlato:‘thegreatestMuslimphilosopheroftheWest’.
NottoforgetanassortmentofAbbasidCaliphs,whosawthemselvesasphilosopher-kings,andthoughtGreekphilosophyajollygoodidea.
OntheAshariteside:
Al-Ghazzali(d.1111),theologian,sceptic,believer,mystic,professoratNizamiyyahcollegeandtheauthorofthemonumentalTheRevivaloftheReligiousSciencesinIslam.
Fakhral-DinRazi(d.1209),mathematician,physicist,physician,philosopher,masterofKalam,authorofaninfluentialencyclopediaofscience:‘oneofthegreatestmastersinIslam’.
IbnKhaldun(d.1406),historian,philosopher,pedagogue,founderofthephilosophyofhistoryandsociology.
Whenalltheargumentshadbeendebatedandheard,al-Ghazzali’sdevastatingattack‘TheIncoherenceofthePhilosophers’gavetheAsharitesaclearvictory.Itwasavictorybasedonsuperiorargumentsandrigorouslogic.IbnRushd’scomeback,‘TheIncoherenceoftheIncoherence’,oneofthemostpowerfuldefencesofrationalismeverproduced,couldnotsavethedayfortheMutazilites.
Sufism(Mysticism)
hedebatebetweenphilosophersandtheologianstendedtoconfinereligiontodryrationality.Itledmanythinkerstoseekrefugeinthespiritualhavenof
mysticism.Theearlymysticsusedtotravelfreelywearingawoollendressfromwhichtheytooktheirname:theSufis.
SufismisbasedontheesotericversesoftheQur’anandanumberoftraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.Itskeyconceptistasawwufwhichisconcerned
withvirtueslikelove,awe,patience,trust,fear,humility,quietismandpracticeslikeremembranceandcontemplationofGod,hungerandabstinence.
ToacquiretheultimateexperienceoffanaonehastofollowastrictdisciplinebyjoiningatariqaorSufiorder.
ThefirstSufiissaidtobethegreatwomansaint,Rabiahal-Basri(d.801).Sheistheoriginatorofthedoctrineof‘disintrestedloveofGod’whichservedbothasamotiveandagoalofherlife.
ThemostcelebratedexperienceoffanainIslamichistoryisthatofthePersianmystical-Hallaj(d.922).Al-Hallajbecamerenownedduringhislifetimeformakingmysticalutterancesinthestreets.Oneday,inastateofmysticalfana,herepeatedlyutteredthefamouswords:‘IamtheTruth.’Afteranumberoflongtrialsandcounter-trials,al-Hallajwasfinallyexecuted.
ThemosttalkedaboutSufiinIslamichistoryisibnArabi(d.1240).IbnArabiwrotedeliberatelyimpenetrablebuthighlyinfluentialmysticaltomesandintroducedthenotionofthe‘UnityofallBeing’(wahdatal-wajud)toSufism,amonotheisticversionofpantheism,thusbecomingthesourceofperpetualcontroversy.
TheSufishaveproducedsomeofthefinestpoetryandproseinIslamichistory.TheMathnawiofJalaluddinRumi(d.1273),whichtook43yearstowrite,isconsideredaPersianmasterpiece.RumifoundedtheSufiorderknownastheWhirlingDervishes.OthermasterpiecesofSufipoetryincludeFaridalDinAttar’s(d.1229)TheConferenceoftheBirds,Firdawsi’s(d.1020)Shahanamawhichcontains60,000versesandSadiShahrazi’s(d.1194)Gulistan(TheRoseGarden)andBustan(TheFruitGarden).
Literature
arrativeliteratureevolvedintoanumberofsophisticatedgenres.Theseincludedinstructionalnarrativescontainingreligiousstories,glorioustales
andmoralstoriesandanecdotes.PopularromancesweredevelopedbystorytellerswiththeaccentonchivalryandtragedysuchastheRomanceofAntarahbinShadad,RomanceofBaniHilalandStoryofBakrandTaghlib.Linguisticnarratives,designedtoshowofflanguage,playedonthebeautyandeleganceofArabiclikeal-Hariri’s(d.1122)TheAssemblies.Andphilosophicalnarrativeswhichexploreideasbyplacingtheirprotagonistinethical,religiousormetaphysicaldilemmassuchasibnShahid’s(d.1075)al-TawabiandalMaari’sRisalahal-Ghufran.
TheThousandandOneNights,popularbawdytales,notaliterarymasterpiece.ButmuchusedandabusedbyWesternwriters.
IbnTufayl(d.1185),physician,philosopherandauthorofoneoftheearliestphilosophicalnovels,TheLifeofHayy.Muchplagiarisedbutseldomacknowledged.Defoe’sRobinsonCrusoeisaracistreplicaofthesublimeHayy.
AbuNawas(d.810),masterpoet,scoundrel,companionandcourtjesterof‘goodHarounAlraschid’intheArabianNights,andloverofwine:
Ho!Acupandfillitup,andtellmeitiswine,ForneverwillIdrinkinshadeifIcandrinkinshine.CurstandpooriseveryhourthatsoberImustgo,ButrichamIwhene’erwilldrunkIstaggertoandfro.Speak, for shame, the loved one’s name, let vain disguisesfall,Goodfornaughtarepleasureshidbehindacurtain-wall.
AuniqueinstitutionofMuslimcivilizationwasAdaborliteratureofmannersandaphorisms.Thisofferedthecreamofwhathadbeensaidinverse,prose,
aphorismandpithyanecdoteoneveryconceivablesubject.Oneofthefirstadabworkswasibnal-Muqaffa’s(d.757)moralizinganimalfablesofBidpai,Kalilawa-Dimna.Thearchetypalrepresentativeofadabliteratureisal-Jahiz(d.868)‘thegoggleeyed’.HismasterpieceTheBookofAnimalsisstillwidelyread.
Science
hescientificachievementsofMuslimcivilizationaretrulystaggering.Indeed,scientificmethod,asgenerallyunderstoodtoday,wasintroducedby
thegreatMuslimempiricistsandexperimenters.Inthelabreportsofal-Battani(d.929),al-Baruni(d.1048)andibnHaytham(d.1039)wefindthismethoddescribedandused.TheMuslimsalsoturnedmathematicsintothelanguageofscience.Withthesetwoinnovationsthereseemednolimittotheirresearchanddiscoveries.
Theearliestbreakthroughstookplaceinmathematicsandastronomy.Al-Khwarizmi(d.850)inventedlogarithmsandalgebrawhichcomesfromthetitleofbookKitabal-jabrwa’muqabala(TheBookofInheritance).Throughthisbook,300yearlater,theWesternworldwouldbeintroducedtothezeroandadoptArabicnumerals.InTheShapeoftheEarth,al-Khwarizmileftnoonein
doubt.AbdulWafa(d.997/8)developedtrigonometryandsphericalgeometry,cameupwithsineandtangenttables,anddiscoveredvariationsinthemoon’smotion.OmarKhayyam(d.1123)solvedthirdandfourth-degreeequationsbyintersectingconics–thehighestalgebraicachievementofmodernmathematics.
SoaccuratewereMuslimscientiststhatal-Battani,consideredtobethegreatestIslamicastronomer,wasoutonlyby24secondsfromtoday’sacceptedvalueinhiscalculationofthelengthofthesolaryear.Al-Baruni’smeasurementsofspecificgravitiesofvariousmetalsandpreciousstonesandoflongitudeandlatitudesofeartharecorrecttothreedecimalplaces.
Ibnal-Haytham(d.1039)wasatrailblazerInoptics.Experimentingwith27differenttypesofsphericallenses,hediscoveredthelawsofreflectionandrefraction,explainedtheapparentincreaseinthesizeofthestarsnearthezenith,anddiscoveredthattheeyedoesnotsendoutrays(asEuclidandPtolemybelieved)butreflectsthem.HisOpticalThesaurusisoneofthemostplagiarisedtextsinthehistoryofscience.GuiltypartiesincludeRogerBacon,daVinci,Kepler;evenNewtonisunderscholarlysuspicion.
AtthenumerousobservatoriesthroughouttheMuslimworld,astronomicaltableswerepreparedandpublishedbycountlessastronomers,eachchecking,correctingandimprovingthetablesofhispredecessor.Someofthempublishedreferencebooksonstars,evendifferentiatingbetweenstarsandnebulae.TheobservatoriesatMaraga,Damascus,al-Rayy,SevilleandSamarkandwereamongstthemostfamous.AtMaraga,wherethespecialattractionwasaquadrantoftenfeetradius,thefamousastronomeral-Tusi(d.1274)workedonplanetarymotion.Hisworkwascontinuedbyibnash-Shatir(d.1375)atDamascus.
HistoriansofsciencehavenoticedthesimilaritybetweentheplanetarymodelsproducedatMaragaandDamascuswiththoseofCopernicus.Amerecoincidence?
Astronomy comes immediately after religion as the mostnoble and perfect science. It adorns themind and sharpens
the intellect, it makes man recognize God’s oneness. – Al-BattaniinOpusAstronomicium.
ThabitbinQurra’s(d.901)theoryof‘trepidation’:superimposedontheuniformrecession,thezeropointoftheeclipticdescribesasmallcircleof4degreesradiusin4000years.
Chemistrytooreceivedagroundinginexperimentalmethod.JabiribnHayyan(d.813)inventednumeroustypesoflaboratoryapparatus,introduceddistillationforthepurificationofwater,identifiednumerousalkalis,acids,salts,preparedsulphuricacid,causticsodaandnitrohydrochloricacidfordissolvingmetalsand
discoveredmercury.AbuBakrAl-Razi(d.935)dividedchemicalsubstancesintocategoriesofmineral,vegetableandanimalanddeclaredthatthefunctionsofthehumanbodywerebasedoncomplexchemicalreactions.
Al-Majriti(d.1007)provedtheprincipleofchemicalconservationofmass–900yearslaterLavoisiertookthecredit.
Similaradvancesweremadeinbotany,zoologyandothernaturalsciences.Al-Jahiz(d.869)wrotethefirstcomprehensivezoologicalstudy:TheAnimals.Kamalad-Dinad-Damiri(d.1405)developedtheideaofzoologicaltaxonomyinhisTheLifeofAnimals.AbuBakral-Baytar(d.1340)producedonethemostcomprehensiveworksonveterinarymedicineinKamilas-Sina’atayn.
In1121,Al-KhazinipublishedhisBookoftheBalanceofWisdom.Apartfromadetaileddiscussionoftechniquesofmeasurementandconstructionofbalances,lawsofmechanics,hydrostaticsandphysics,thebookalsocontainsanumberoftheories–atheoryofsolids,atheoryofthebehaviourofleversandatheorythatidentifiesauniversalcentralforcedirectedtowardsthecentreoftheearth.Newton’sapplewouldfall566yearslater!
AfewArabicwordsincommonscientificparlance:azimuth,zenith,nadirstarnames:likeBetelgeose(baital-Jauzah)andAlgol(ra’sal-ghul)chemistry–al-kimiyaalcohol–al-kuholalkaline–al-qalawiarsenic–al-zirnich.
Al-Farghani’s(d.870),TheElementsofAstronomy,whichdealsmainlywithcelestialmotion,wasfreelyusedbyDanteinhisVitaNuova,ConvivioandTheDivineComedy.
Threeperpetual-motionmachinesdescribedinachapteronwater-wheelswrittensometimebetweentheninthandtwelfthcenturiesAD.
Technology
hedevelopmentoftechnologyintheMuslimcivilizationwasintimatelyconnectedwithcraftsandprofessionalindustries.Thedistillationofrose-
water,perfumes,andthescentedoilsinplantsandflowers–the‘essentialoils’–wasagiganticindustry.Technologyforproducinganddistillingcrudepetroleumwasdevelopedasearlyastheninthcenturyastheexcellentdescriptioninal-Razi’sBookoftheSecretofSecretsshowssoclearly.Alsodevelopedbythistimeweretechnologiesforextractionofindustrialoilsandfats,preparationofacids,manufactureofsoapandglass,ceramics,inks,pigments,dyes,paperandleathergoods.Thehistoryofwaterpower,includingtheconstructionofdamsandwindmills,beginswithIslamicculture.
TheBookofIngeniousDevicesbythethreeBanuMusabrothers,whoflourishedinBaghdadduringtheninthcentury,describesonehundredworking
machines,75beingtheirowninventions.
Aself-replenishingvesseldescribedinKitabal-hiyalbyBanuMusabrothers.
AnumberofinnovativeirrigationtechnologieswereintroducedbytheMuslims,includingthewater-wheelandthetechniquefortheutilizationofsubterraneanwaterbymeansofundergroundconduitscalledqanats.Countlessmachines,usinggears,cranksandpistonsforraisingwaterfromthegroundforirrigation,drinkinganddomesticuses,wereinvented.
Muslimsalsodevelopedsurveyingtechniques,undergroundmining(completewithminer’slamp)andtechnologiesformanufacturingalloysandsteel.
InhistwelfthcenturyCompendiumoftheTheoryandPracticeoftheMechanicalArts,al-Jazarisaysthatanyindustrialsciencewhichisnotverifiedbyexperimentsisadoubtfulscience,andgivescarefuldescriptionsofcalibrationprocedures.
Scoopwheelbytheriver.
Aminer’slampwithapivotedsheild,describedbytheMusabrothers.Thesheildwasdesignedsoitwouldbeturnedbythewindtothepositionwhereitwouldprotectthelamp.
Muslimsexcelledinmakingaccurateinstruments.Theplanisphericastrolabe,theearliestanaloguecomputer,isapurelyIslamicinvention.Itwasthemostpowerfultoolavailabletoastronomersbeforetheadventofmoderninstruments.Withit,onecoulddeterminethetimesofrising,settingandculminationoftheSunandstars,findthepositionofacelestialbodyatagiventime,aswellassolveanumberofotherastronomicalproblems.InTaqial-Din’sTheBrightestStarsfortheConstructionofMechanicalClocks,writtenin1565,wefindadetaileddescriptionfortheconstructionofaclockwithverge-and-foliotescapement,astrikingtrainofgears,analarm,andarepresentationofthemoon’sphases.Alsointhesamemanualisadescriptionofaspring-drivenclock.
ThefirstplanisphericastrolabewasconstructedbyAl-Fazari(d.790?).
Medicine
edicinewasdevelopedtoanastonishinglyhighdegreebyMuslims.ThefirstorganizedhospitalwasbuiltforlepersinDamascus.Soonafterwardsevery
Muslimcityhaditsowncentralhospital.Baghdadalonehad60hospitals.Thesehospitalswereremarkablyadvancedindesignandcontainedpharmarcies,libraries,lecture-roomsformedicalstudents,separatewardsformenandwomenandfacilitiesforout-patients.
ThegreatestMuslimphysicianwasundoubtedlyal-Razi(d.925).Hisdescriptionsoftheclinicalsignsofmanyillnessesareunsurpassed.Heinvestigatedwomen’sdiseasesandestablishedmidwifery,wroteonhereditary
diseases,eyediseasesandgavethefirstaccountofsmallpoxandmeasles.Manyoftheideasandconceptscontainedinhis24volumeencyclopediaonmedicine,al-Hawi–TheContinence–arestillvalidtoday!
IbnSina’s(d.1037)TheCanonsofMedicine,in14volumes,wasastandardmedicaltextintheWestfor700years!Itdealswithdiseases,theirclassification,description,andcauses,withtherapeuticsanddescriptionsofsimpleandcompoundmedicines,withhygiene,thefunctionsofpartsofthebodyandnumerousothertopics.IbnSinanotedthattuberculosiswascontagiousanddescribedthesymptomsandcomplicationsofdiabetes.Hewasveryinterestedintheeffectofthemindonthebodyandwroteagreatdealonpsychology.
ADrawingsofsurgicalinstruments,fromatreatiseonexternalpathologybyaz-Zahrawi.SixteenthcenturymanuscriptfromMorocco.
OneofthemorefamousmanualsonsurgerywaswrittenbyAl-Zahra(b.939).Apartfromdescriptionsofhowtoperformawholevarietyofoperations,Al-Tasrifincludesdetaileddescriptionsofoverahundredsurgicalinstruments–manyal-Zahra’sowninventions.Healsodevelopeddentistryandperformedcosmeticoperationstocorrectdentalirregularities.
SocialSciences
heMuslimsalsoinfusedthecriticalspiritofinquiryintosocialsciences.History,includingarchaeologyandethnology,wasaMuslimvocationabove
allothers.Themonumentalworksofuniversalhistorybyal-Tabri,al-Masudi,al-AthirandibnKhaldunshowthequantumleapthathistoryreceivedfromMuslimcivilization.
Allrecords,bytheirverynature,areliabletoerror…
thefirstoftheseispartisanshiptowardsacreedoropinion…
thesecondfactor…isover-confidenceinone’ssources…
thethirdisthefailuretounderstandwhatisintended…
thefourthisamistakenbeliefinthetruth…
thefifthistheinabilitytoplaceaneventinitsrealcontext…
thesixthisthecommondesiretogainfavourofthoseofhighranks,bypraisingthem,byspreadingtheirfame…
theseventh,andthemostimportant,istheignoranceofthelawsgoverningthetransformationsofhumansociety.
IbnKhalduninTheMuqadimmah
Psychologywasawell-establisheddisciplineintheMuslimcivilizationwithsucheminentpsychologistsasibnSinaandibnTufayl.ButthegreatestMuslimpsychologististheSufiphilosopher,poetandmusician,ibnBajjah(d.1138)whoseTheBookofEgoinfluencedcountlessMuslimauthors.
Al-Mawardi(d.1058)introducedanoriginaltheoryofthestateinhisBookonthePrinciplesofGovernmentandibnTaymiyya’s(d.1317)numerouswritingsonpoliticaltheoryestablishedthebasisforaMuslimpoliticalscience.IbnTaymiyya’srigorousworksoncomparativereligionwerenotalwayspleasingtotheShiaortheChristians.
GeographyandTravel
ravelwasabigbusinessintheMuslimcivilization.MuslimshipssailedtoeverypartoftheknownworldandMuslimscientistsdevelopedchartsand
mapsoftheseaareasdividedintosquaresoflongitudeandlatitudecontainingdirectionsofprevailingwindsanddataabouttidalconditions.Asophisticatedsystemofpostalserviceswasintroducedasearlyasthetenthcentury.TheadventuresofSindbadtheSailorreflecttherealitiesofcommerceandcommunicationsduringtheAbbasidperiod.
TheswashbucklingadventuresintheVolga-Caspianregionsofthe10thcenturytravelleribnFadlanmakerivetingreadingandprovideoneoftheearliestaccountsofthisarea.
OneoftheearliestgeographicalworksisRoutesandKingdomsbyibnKhuradadhbihpublishedin848.ApartfromtheMuslimempire,itprovidesdescriptionsofsuchdistantareasasChina,KoreaandJapan.Exactlyahundredyearslater,al-Masudipublishedhisfamousgeographicalencyclopedia,MeadowsofGoldandMinesofPreciousStones.
Al-Masudi’slaterworksdiscussgeologicalevolution.In1154,al-ldris,oneofthemostrenownedMuslimgeographersandcartographers,publishedthefirstspherical,accurateand‘modern’mapoftheworldanddescribedtheuseofthecompassinhisbookAmusementforhimwhoDesirestoTravelRoundtheWorld.YaqutHamawi’s(d.1229)GeographicalDictionarylists,inalphabeticalorder,almosteveryknowntownandplaceandprovidesremarkablyaccurateinformationonthesizeoftheearth,climaticzonesandphysical,mathematicalandpoliticalgeography.
ArchitectureandTownPlanning
ownplanningwasasophisticatedscienceintheMuslimcivilization.Townswereusuallybuiltnearariverwhichsupplieddrinkinganddomesticwater
(upstream)aswellascarryingawaywasteandsewage(downstreamandunderground).Muslimsintroducedtheideaofcarryingcapacityandbuilttownsforacalculatednumberoffamilies.Theyalsointroducedtheideaofharam,inviolatezones–outsidetowns,nearwater-coursesandotherareas–wheredevelopmentwasforbidden.
Architectswiththeirinstruments.
Asthebasicformation,thecourtyarddeterminedtheshapeandsizeofeachhouse,whichinturninterrelatedwiththegroupingofhousestoformaneighbourhood.Theresultantcompactandcontinuouslayoutofbuildingsreducedlandwastetoaminimumandprovidedanetworkofcoolalleywaysandsquares.Differentprofessions,craftsmenandartisansweregroupedindifferentlocationsandasenseofcommunitywasmaintainedthroughanetworkofcompactandhighlydenseneighbourhoods.Themosquesandcollegeswerebothphysicallyandspirituallyatthecentreofthetown,withthesuqsasthecentreofcommercialandsociallife.Thenarrowandsteepalleywaysandcoveredpassagesmadeitpossibletowalkeverywhereinthetown.
TheMuslimsalsointroducedhima,asecondkindofinviolatezone,solelyfortheconservationofwildlifeandforests.Therewerefivetypesofhimazones:
1.reservesinwhichgrazingwasprohibited;
2.reservesforforestsinwhichcuttingoftreeswasforbidden;
3.reservesinwhichgrazingwasrestrictedtocertainseasons;
4.reservesforbeekeepinginwhichgrazingwasforbiddenduringflowering;and
5.reservesmanagedforthewelfareofaparticularvillage,townortribe.
Ibnabdas-Salam,whoflourishedduringthethirteenthcentury,formulatedthefirststatementofanimalrights.
Muslimarchitecturespeaksforitself.JustlookattheskylineofIstanbul,theTajMahal,al-HamrainGranada,themosqueinCordoba,themulti-storeymudhousesofSana,thewholecityofFez(almostintactasitwasbuiltcirca800),the
Art
slamicartisoneofthefinestmanifestationsofMuslimcivilization.Itsmostoutstandingfeatureistheemphasisoncalligraphyanddecorativearts.Even
today,calligraphyisthedominantMuslimartform.Quitenaturally,itistheversesfromtheQur’anthatareusedonreligiousaswellasnon-religiousobjects.
Theemphasisondecorativeartledtothedevelopmentofpottery,tilemaking,metalwork,glass-cuttingandenameling,ivorycarving,bookbinding–allreachedthehighestartisticpeaks.Economically,themostimportantwerethetextilecraftssuchascloth-making,carpetknottingandtapestryweaving.Bookillustration,illuminationandminiaturepaintingswerepopularamongsttheeducatedclasses.Notalltheartsflourishedatthesametimeorinthesameplace–theyspanavastgeographicalaswellashistoricrange.
Music
uslimsclassifiedmusicasamathematicalscience,andnumerousmathematicians,philosophersandmysticswrotetreatisesonmusic.Butthe
mostfamousworkonthetheoryofmusicisbySafial-Din(1294).
The‘classical’systemofmusicwaschampionedbyal-Mawsili(d.850).Hisstudent,themastermusicianZiryab,introducedthissystemtoSpainin822.ThemostoutstandingcontributionoftheMuslimtheoristswasthedevelopmentofmensuralmusic,introducedtoEuropeinthetwelfthcentury,beforewhichmeasuredsongwasunknowntotheWest.Equallyimportantwastheconceptofglossoradornmentofamelody.Itwasatypeofglossknownasthetarkib,thestrikingofanotesimultaneouslywithitsfourthorfifthoctavethatgaveEuropetheideaofharmony.
Thedevelopmentofthetheoryandpracticeofmusicproducednumerousinstruments.Awholefamilyofstringedinstrumentsofthelute,pendoreandguitargroup,andthebowedinstrumentofvarioustypes,originatedintheMuslimcivilizationandwerepassedontotheWestviaSpain.Withthestringedinstrumentscametheplacesofthenotesfixedonthefinger-boardbymeansoffietorfaridawhichweredeterminedbymeasurement.–Beforethat,Europeanminstralsonlyhadcitharaandharpsamongtheirinstrumentsandwereguidedmerelybytheirearsintuning.
SpreadofMuslimLearningtoEurope
ptothe16thcentury,theflowofknowledgewasstrictlyfromIslamtoEurope.TheworksofMuslimscholarswereregularlytranslatedintoLatin
andotherEuropeanlanguages,usedastextbooksandpracticalmanuals.EuropeanscholarsandthinkerswereregularvisitorsatMuslimcentresoflearning.EuropeanstudentswenttoCardova,Fez,Cairo,Baghdad,Samarkandtostudyundergreatmasters’justasMuslimstudentsnowadayscometoEuropeandNorthAmericaforfurtherstudy.Arabicwasthelanguageofscienceandculture,andthosewhocaredforthoughtandlearningshowedtheirconcernbydressinglikeMuslimscholars.
TheEuropeanRenaissanceandalltheprogressinscience,technology,medicine,learningandhumanismthatitproduced,wasbuiltsquarelyontheshouldersofMuslimscholarsandthinkers.Indeed,theRenaissanceisinconceivablewithoutthecontributionofMuslimcivilization.Thisfactisseldomacknowledged.Onthecontrary,theachievementsofMuslimscholarsandscientistswerefrequentlyplagiarized,deliberatelyandsystematicallydowngraded,underminedandbrushedaside.
AfewthingsthattheWestfailedtolearnfromMuslims(andwhichtheMuslimsthemselveshaveforgotten)
ThatknowledgeandvaluescannotbeseparatedWhenitisnecessarytoleavetechnologyaloneTheimportanceofholisticthoughtandactionEnvironmentalhusbandry:thenotionoftrusteeship,inviolateenvironmental
*Toohotforabeginner’sprimerlikethisone.ButseethemuchusedandabusedworksofShaikhMasumi’sThePerfumedGardenwritteninthefifteencenturyandibnSulayman’sHowanOldManCanBecomeYoungAgainpublishedtowardstheendofthefourteenthcentury.SeetheFahiristofal-Nadimforfurtherreferences.
**MuslimSpain(750-1492)wasthefirst,andtheonly,trulymultireligiousandmulticulturalsocietyinhistory;MuslimBosniaandMalaysiaarecontemporaryexamplesofIslamicmulticulturalisminaction.
Decline
hedeclineoftheMuslimcivilizationhasbeenattributedtoanumberoffactors.InternaldivisionsandfeudswithintheMuslimempire,thecorrupt
andluxuriantlifestylesoftherulers,thefallofBaghdadandthelossofSpainarecommonlycitedreasonsforthedownfalloftheMuslims.
WhentheMongolhordesarrivedatthegatesofBaghdadin1258,theAbbasidsweretooweaktodefendthecity.Itwasrazedtothegroundandeveryone,includingthecaliph,wasputtothesword.Theintellectuallosswasalsodevastating:theMongolsburntastronomicalnumbersofmanuscriptsanddestroyedallthelibrariessopainstakinglybuiltbyearlyAbbasidcaliphs.
ThesecondmajorblowcamewiththelossofSpain.HereeventsfollowedthesamecourseasinBaghdad:internalfeuds,divisions,corruptionofrulers…WhenBoadbil,theMoorishPrinceofGranada,kneltbeforeKingFerdinandon2January1492andhandedoverthekeystothecityofGranada,heended800gloriousandtrulyenlighteningyearsofMuslimruleinSpain.Boabdil’cmotherrebukedhersonwiththewordsthathavehauntedMuslimhistoryeversince.
Youweeplikeawomanforwhatyoucouldnotholdasaman.
Theintellectuallosswasequallygreat:countlessmanuscriptswereritualisticallyburntandcenturiesofMuslimlearningweresuppressed.
ButthesackofBaghdadandthefallofGranada,thoughturningpointsinMuslimhistory,cannotreallybeconsideredasthemaincausesforMuslimdecline.TheforcethatplacedMuslimcivilizationinreversegearwasaninternalandconceptualone.
Towardstheendofthe14thcentury,theulama(religiousscholars),who,thankstoal-Ghazzali,wereinapositionofdominance,begantoconceiveofthewrittenwordasanindependentrealmofrepresentationandtruthapartfromlife.Theproliferationofbookshadcreatedadistancebetweenauthorsandthewordsthatcarriedtheirideasacrossspaceandtime.Thetextwasopentoeveryvarietyofinterpretation,irrespectiveofrealfactsandtruth.
Sowhatifagiventextisopentoanumberofinterpretations?Theulamahadtwoconcerns.First,theywereconcernedthattheQur’anwasopentoallkindsofwildinterpretations,notjustbyuntutoredreaders,butalsobytheologicallyunqualifiedprofessionalwriters.Tosomeextent,thiswasagenuineconcerngiventhevarietyofirrationalandexploitativebehaviourthatwasbeingjustifiedonthebasisoftheQur’anandtradition.Butthiswasintimatelylinkedtothesecondandmoreimportantworry:theproliferationofwrittentextshadbeganto
underminetheauthorityandcontrolthattheulamaenjoyedoverboththeMuslimrulersandthemasses.
Ittooktheulamaoverahundredyearstorespondtotheproblem.Theirresponsewasthreefold:
1.Theyreducedtheconceptofilmfrommeaning‘allknowledge’tomeanonly‘religiousknowledge.’
2.Theytransformedtheconceptofijmafrommeaning‘theconsensusofthecommunity’tomean‘theconsensusofthelearned,’i.e.theconsensusoftheulamathemselves.
3.Andtheyclosed‘thegatesofijtihad’:independentreasoningonmattersofreligionwaseffectivelyoutlawed.
ThishadadevastatingeffectonMuslimsociety.Ijtihadthusgavewaytotaqlid(blindimitation);reasoning,speculationandinnovationwerereplacedbyimitation.TheinterpretationoftheQur’anwasfrozeninhistory.Intheabsenceofnewideas,reflectionandunderstandingofchangingcircumstances,Muslimthoughtossifiedandbecametotallyobscurantist.Consequently,Muslimculturelostitsdynamismanddegenerated,whiletheMuslimcommunitywastransformedfromanopentoaclosedsociety.
Thereligiousscholarsdefendedthehighlyprivilegedterritorytheycreatedforthemselveswithgreatvigour.InsharpcontrasttohowrapidlytheMuslimsacquiredpaperfromtheChineseandturneditintoanindustry,theulamamanagedtoresisttheintroductionofprintingpressesinMuslimcountriesfor
nearlythreecenturies.Theyarguedthatmassprintingofbookswouldleadnottotheunderstandingandappreciationofsacredandclassicaltextsbuttotheirmisrepresentationandmisunderstandinginuntutoredhands.By‘forbidding’printing,theulamadeprivedMuslimsocietyofacrucialsourceofoxygen.TheMuslimcountrieswerenowreadytobedevouredbyEuropeanpowers.
Colonialism
minorvariations,theEuropeanpowerswhichcolonizedtheMuslimworld–Britain,France,Holland–behavedaccordingtoasetpattern.‘Divideand
conquer’wasthepolicyofoccupation.Forexample,byplayingoffonerulerinIndiaagainstanothertillexhausted,theBritishcouldeasilydevourtheMughalempire.Thewarofindependencein1857wasthelasteffortonthepartoftheIndianmassestooverthrowtheBritish.Itfailedmiserably.BahadarShahZafar,thelastMughalEmperorofIndia,wasnotverykeenon‘freetrade’andwasreluctanttogivetheBritishtradingconcessionsashesuspectedtheirmotives.Hissuspicionsprovedtobecorrect.Asafirstgestureoftheirintentionstocivilizethenatives,theBritishpresentedhimwiththeheadsofhisentirefamilyonsilverplatters.ZafarwasexiledtoRangoonwherehediedinabjectpovertyandwrotesomeofthegreatestpoemsinUrduliterature.
Ontakingcontrol,colonialpowerssystematicallystrippedMuslimsocietyofallitslearningandexpertise.Oneofthefirstactsofcolonialrulerswastobanallintellectual,learnedandeducationalactivities.Forexample,whentheDutchtookoverIndonesiain1595,theyclosedallmadrasas,collegesandlibrariesandbannededucation.NativeswereforbiddenfromenteringthefewlibrariesthattheDutchestablishedfortheirownpurposes.In1850,theyallowedprimaryeducationforthenativesbutstillprohibitedsecondaryeducation.ThedestructionofIslamicmedicinecamenext.Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,aFrenchdoctorneededpermissiontopracticemedicineinTunisiafromtheMuslimChiefofPhysicians.Bytheendofthecentury,FrenchcolonialadministratorsclassedIslamicmedicineassecondrateandthenproceededruthlesslytosuppressit.Eventually,IslamicmedicinewasoutlawedallovertheMuslimworld.
ManufacturingColonialism
hecolonialpowerslootedeverythingtheycouldfromtheMuslimsocietiestheycolonized,andmostestablishedastructurefortransferringallthelocal
rawmaterialtothe‘mothercountry’.
TheEuropeanrulerscreatedaspecialclass,generallyofcivilservants,astheirlocalsurrogates.Macaulayechoedothercolonialrulerswhenhewrotein1835inhisMinutesofIndianEducation:‘Wemustatpresentdoourbesttoformaclasswhomaybeinterpretersbetweenusandthemillionswhomwegovern;aclassofpersons,Indianinbloodandcolour,butEnglishintaste,inopinion,inmorals,andinintellect.’
TheBritishEastIndiaCompanyandtheDutchEastIndiesCompanywerefreemarketventuresintheMuslimworld.TheyweregivenconcessionsbyvariousMuslimrulerstotradefreely.Buttheirtradeincludedconquestsandannexations.Today,EastIndiaCompanyT-shirtsmakeafashionstatement.
Muslimsocietiesbecameanexperimentalgroundwhereallsortsofideasof‘bravenewmodernists’,missionarieswithcivilizingzeal,believersinscience,
progressand‘WhiteMan’sburden’,testedoutnew,utopianandinnovativeeducational,socialandculturalpoliciesonMuslimsocieties.
ColonialismdismantledMuslimcivilizationbrickbybrick.Itoccupiednotonlythebodiesbutalsothe‘minds’ofMuslims.ItequatedanythingthatcouldremotelybedescribedasIslamicwithinferiorityandlowmoralworth.ItalteredtheculturalprioritiesofMuslimsocieties.ItdrainedtheMuslimcountriesofeverysourceofwealth.AnditreducedtheMuslimpeopletoabjectpoverty.
IsIamandtheWest
uslimsbecamea‘problem’forEuroperightfromthebirthofBailIslam.First,Islamwasatheologicalproblem.WhatwasthepurposeofanArabian
Prophetsome600yearsafterthecrucifixionandresurrectionofGod’sownson?Second,whenIslamarrived–withinafewdecadesofitsinception–atEurope’sborders,itbecameapoliticalproblem.Third,thescholarlyachievementsofMuslimcivilizationmadeIslamanintellectualproblemaswell.
EachaspectoftheproblemofIslamwastackledbyspecificmeans.Theologically,ChristianEuropecouldonlydenounceIslam,itsProphetanditsfollowers.Politically,EuropelaunchedaseriesofCrusadesagainstIslam.Whenthesefailed,itembarkedonfull-fledgedcolonizationoftheMuslimworld.Intellectually,itcreatedaseriesofdisciplinestocontainMuslimthoughtandhistory.
1.Denunciation
enunciationofIslamanditsProphetbeganearlyon.PaulAlvarus(d.859)usedtheBookofDanieltodiscoverthatMuhammadfittedthedescription
oftheAntichrist,completewiththesignofthebeast666,whichwassupposedtobetheyearoftheProphet’sdeath.ThisdefamatorypictureoftheProphetwasincorporatedinthecycleofpopularperformanceliteratureknownaschansonsdegeste–wheretheProphetisgiventheDevil’ssynonym,Mahound–andtheepicromancesthatlaterdevelopedoutofthem.Throughoutthemiddleages,theyexertedtremendousinfluenceonItalian,German,Spanish,FrenchandEnglishliterature,survivingrightuptothe17thcenturyindifferentforms.Thegenremadeacomebackinthe19thand20thcenturies.ThemostrecentexampleofthegenreisSalmanRushdie’sTheSatanicVerseswhichrewritesthelifeofProphetMuhammadinthedefamatorystyleofchansonsliterature.
Theterms“Muslim”and“fanatic”haveoftenbeensynonymousintheEuropeanmind.Illustratedabovealithographof1880.
2.TheCrusades
nceIslamwascastinthepermanentroleofdemonicinfidelenemy,perpetualwaragainstitwasrelativelyeasytojustify.Atthefamous‘Peace
ofGod’CouncilofClermondinNovember1095,PopeUrbanIIlaunchedthecrusades.TheCouncilcalledfora‘WarofGod’againstIslamandtheliberationofJerusalem.
WhenOmar,theSecondCaliph,capturedJerusalemin638,hetreatedtheChristiansandJewswithutmostrespect.Noonewasharmed.WhenOmarmettheChristianPatriarch,heassuredhimthatthelifeandpropertyofthecity’s inhabitant’s would be respected and then asked to be taken toChristianholyplaces.Duringthevisit,thetimeofprayerarrivedwhentheywere in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Omar asked the Patriarch’spermission to pray. The Patriarch invited Omar to do so right where hestood.Omaranswered:‘IfIdo,theMuslimswouldwanttoappropriatethissite, saying “Omar prayed here”. Then,with his prayermat in his hand,Omarwalkedoutsideandprayedonnakedground.
ThecrusadesbeganwiththeslaughteroftheJewsinEurope.ThecrusadersenteredJerusalem,aftera40daysiege,on15July1099.Theykilledsome70,000men,womenandchildrenaccordingtotheMuslimhistorianibnal-Athir.ListentoRaymundAguiles,aneye-witnessreporter
TheJewsofJerusalemfacedthesamefate.AndalsotheirfellowChristians:Greeks,Copts,Syrians,ArmeniansandGeorgiansweretakenoutoftheChurch
oftheHolySepulchre,roundedupandtortured.ElsewhereintheHolyLand,thecrusadersboiledMuslimsincookingpots,roastedchildrenonspitsandroamedthecountrysidehuntingfor‘paganSaracens’.
TheMuslimsrecapturedJerusalemon2October1187.WhentheAyyubidCaliphSalah-ad-Din(Saladin)enteredthecity,hegavestrictorderstohistroopthatnoChristianshallbetouched.HeannouncedthatChristianholyplaceswouldbeprotectedandthatanyonewhowishedtostaycouldstayandanyonewhowishedtoleavecouldleave.Manyleftandtooktheir(looted)wealthwiththem.ThepatriarchofJerusalemhimselfraidedtheChurchoftheHolySepulchreanddroveoutofthecitywithnumerouschariotsfilledwithgold,carpetsandallvarietiesofpreciousgoods.ThecompanionsofSalah-ad-Dinwerescandalized.Imamal-Dinal-Asfahani,Salah-ad-Din’streasurer,wasbesidehimselfwithrage
ThecrusadershavehadatremendousinfluenceonEurope’sperceptionofIslam.ThecrusadesprojectedIslamastheevil,darksideofEurope.ThisstereotypepictureofMuslimsasbarbaric,licentious,depraved,fanatical,ignorant,stupid,uncleanandinferior,becameanintegralpartofEuropeanthought,literatureandoutlook.Itwassustainedanddevelopedundercolonialismandisperiodicallyrecycledinourtime.
3.Orientalism
specialdisciplinesevolvedtoprovideacademicjustificationforfalseimagesofIslam.Anthropologyemergedtostudyallnon-Westernculturesasthe
imperfectandprimitiveversionsofWesternsociety.Islamreceivedtheexpectedracisttreatmentatthehandsofmanycolonialanthropologists.OrientalismwasdevelopedspecificallytocastthefearandloathingofIslamintoanacceptableobjectiveandacademicframework.
Orientalistwriters,whohaveoftentendedtobepriests,havesincethe15thcenturybeenrewritingIslamichistory,presentingperverselygrotesquedescriptionsofIslamicsources,attributingwickedandinnatelyevilcharacteristicstoMuslimsocieties.TheQur’anwasrepeatedlyanalysedasaincoherent,repetitious,violentbookoflittleconsequence.Muhammadwasconstantlypresentedasamoralandlicentious.Muslimthoughtandlearningwassuppressedandwrittenoutofthehistoryofscience!
Orientalismwas/isnotjustanacademicpursuit–itwas/isalsoanoutlooktowardsIslam.Europeantravellers,novelistsandartistshaveproducedavastcorpusofliteratureandpaintingsdepictingIslamasabarbaricfusionofsexandviolence,atreasurehouseofmagic,superstition,drugsanddeformations.Manyofthesewriters–suchasRichardBurton(d.1890),IsabelleEberhardt(d.1904),TELawrence(d.1935)–wenttotheMuslimworldeitherasspiesortoseeksexualgratificationdeniedtheminEurope.
SensualityandsexoozefromthislanguorousAlgerianodalisquebyRenoir.Theharemanditsdelightswereafrequentresortfortheimaginationof19thcenturypaintersandwriters.Renoirpaintedthisin1870,nineyearsbeforehevisitedAlgiers.
TheWesternattemptstosolvethe‘problem’ofIslamhaveproducedacatalogueofcrimesandinjusticesagainstMuslimsthatdefiesdescription.
IthasledtoaninstitutionalizationofIslamandMuslimsastheDemonisedOtherinEuropeanthoughtandhistory.
IthaspervertedWesternscholarshiponIslamandtheexplorationofMuslimsocietiesinliteratureandtravel.
ButbeyondthestereotypesandclichésofEuropeanhistory,Muslimsareworkingtorebuildtheirransackedcivilization.
ReformandRevival
uslimstrugglesagainstEuropeanimperialismbeganalmostimmediatelywiththedawnofcolonialism.Buttraditionalrevoltswhichhadprovedso
effectiveinearlyMuslimhistorywerenomatchforEuropeanmilitarytechnologyandadministrativecapabilities.MuslimthinkersthussoughttofightcolonialismbyrevitalizingIslamandunitingtheMuslimworld.
OneoftheearliestattemptstoreversethedeclineofIslamwasundertakenintheArabianpeninsulabyMohammadibnAbdal-Wahhab(d.1787).Abdal-WahhabunitedthewarringArabiantribesandestablishedamodernstateinArabia.HepreachedasimplereturntofaithandobediencetothefundamentalteachingsofIslamcombinedwithdiscipline,pietyandasenseofsacrifice.Hisson-in-law,MohammadibnSaud,gavehisnametomodernSaudiArabia.
IntheIndiansubcontinent,theSufischolar,ShahWaliAllah(d.1763),madethefirstattempttorethinktheentiresystemofIslaminaspiritofobjectivity.Hisemphasisonsocialjusticecombinedwithpopularmysticism,gainedhimanenormousfollowing.ShahWaliAllahstressedtheessentialunityofallreligionsandtriedtodevelopamodernIslamicphilosophyofhistory.
Similarreformsandanti-imperialistmovementsemergedthroughouttheMuslimworld.IntheSudan,MohammadAhmad,knowntohisfollowersastheMahdi(d.1885),foughttheBritishinaseriesofbattlesandsucceededinsettingupanIslamicstateintheSudan.InLibya,MuhammadAlial-Sanusi(1859)foundedtheSanusiOrderfortherejuvenationandreformofIslam.InAlgeria,AmirAbdal-Qadir(1884),establishedtheUlamaMovementwhichfoughtbothforreformofMuslimsocietyandagainsttheFrenchcolonists.InNigeria,OsmandanFadio(d.1817)ledarevolutionarymovementandsucceededinestablishingtheSukotoCaliphate.InBritishIndia,SirSayyidAhmadKhan(d.1898)emphasizedselectiveadaptationofwesternpoliticalideasandtechnicalinnovationsandestablishedthecelebratedAligarhMuslimUniversity.
Inthelate19thcentury,pan-lslamismemergedtocutacrossethnicandtribalaffiliationsandcombinetheeffortsoftheregionalmovementstocreateaninternationalIslamicforce.ItsmainproponentwasJalamuddinAfghani(d.1897).Dubbed‘thewildmanofgenius’,AfghanisoughttomodernizeIslamandexhortedMuslimseverywheretoriseagainstEuropeanimperialism.
AfghanicombinedhisreformworkwithMuhammadAbduh(d.1905),theGrandMuftiofEgypt,andtogethertheyeditedaninfluentialArabicweekly,Urwatal-Wuthqa(TheIndissolubleLink),whichshapedtheideasandidealsofawholegenerationofMuslimintellectuals.ThemovementthatemergedfromtheireffortstogiveamodernidentitytoIslam,andprovideMuslimsocietieswithpurposeanddirection,cametobeknownasSalafism.
Liberationmovementseverywherewereinspiredby‘thepoet-philosopheroftheEast’,MuhammadIqbal(d.1938).Hispoetry,philosophicgeniusandpassionatevisionofIslamicrevivalbasedonsocialjusticeandelevatedbelieversstruckachordwithMuslimsthroughouttheworld.IqbalarguedthatdogmatismhaddebasedIslam,territorialandracialnationalismhadsplitMuslimsintoaggressivegroups,andmaterialisticphilosophywastakingeveryonetowardsnihilism.Iqbal’svisionledtothecreationofPakistanandhisphilosophyhasbecomeabenchmarkforallreformistthoughtinmodernIslam.
ThethirtiessawtheemergenceoftwoofthemostinfluentialIslamicorganizationsintheMuslimworld.InEgypt,Hasanal-Banna(d.1949),aschoolteacher,establishedIkhwanalMusliminortheMuslimBrotherhood.Abu’lAlaMawdudi(d.1979),ajournalist,establishedtheJamaat-e-lslamiinIndia.
TheMuslimBrotherhoodiscommittedtoreligious,politicalandintellectualreformofIslam.ItsmessageofreturningtotheIslamicroots,re-establishingtheMadinastateoftheProphetMuhammadinourtime,foundfavourwithyoungMuslims.Butin1947,theBrotherhoodwasaccusedofpoliticalterrorismanddisbanded.TwoyearslaterHasanal-Bannahimselfwasmurdered.
In1952,JamalAbdulNasser,enlistedthesupportoftheMuslimBrotherhoodtooverthrowKingFarouk.Wheninpower,NasserturnedagainsttheBrotherhoodandpersecutedthemruthlessly.Hundredsofitsmemberswereimprisonedwithouttrialandtortured.
ItwasinprisonthatSyyedQutb,theintellectualleaderofthemovement,wrotemanyofhisinfluentialworks,suchasSocialJusticeinIslam.In1966,alongwithfiveotherleadingfiguresoftheBrotherhood,SyyedQutbwasexecutedbyPresidentNasser.Hewasaccusedofwritingaseditiouswork:Milestones.ThebookarguesthatMuslimsarelivinginanageofignoranceandtheirsalvation,inthisworldandtheHereafter,liesinreturningtotherootsofIslam.
AfterpartitionbetweenIndiaandPakistan,Jamaat-e-lslamiemergedasanIslamicpartydevotedtotheestablishmentofanIslamicstateinPakistan.ItfoughtseveralelectionsinPakistan,butithasnevergainedmorethanahandful
ofseatsintheparliament.ItcollaboratedwithGeneralZiaulHaqand,forashortperiod,wasapartnerinhisgovernment.
MawdudiisoneofthemostwidelyreadMuslimthinkerstodayandhasagurustatusamongstMuslimactivistsinmanycountries.ByfarthemostimportantofhisnumerousbooksisCaliphateandMonarchy,anoriginalandbraveattemptatareinterpretationoftheearlyhistoryofIslam.Conservativeandpuritan,Mawdudi’sthoughtiscomplex,oftenmovingbetweenflashesofbrilliancetostatementsofshallowpiety,betweenradicaldiagnosisofMuslimmalaisetonaivesolutions.
Afterthedeathoftheirfoundersandintellectualmentors,boththeJamaat-e-lslamiandtheMuslimBrotherhoodhavebecomeintellectuallysterile.Whiletheycommandtremendousallegiance,theyhavelostmuchoftheirintellectualcredibility.
TheMuslimWorld
uringthefortiesandfiftiesmanyMuslimcountriesgainedtheirindependence.ThecontemporaryMuslimworldstraddlestheglobalmiddle
belt:fromtheshoresofSenegalandMoroccotothePacificOceanandtheislandsofIndonesia,andnorthtosouthfromtheMediterraneancoastofTurkeytoSomalia.TheMuslimworldconsistsofsome52sovereignstatesatvariousstagesofdevelopment,incorporatingmorethan60languagesandwithethnicbackgroundsasdiverseasthoseoftheArabsandIndians,theTurksandthePathans,theChineseandtheMalays,theUzbekandtheHausa.
TheendofthecoldwargaveindependencetosixnewMuslimstatesinCentralAsia:Uzbekistan,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Turkmenistan,TajikistanandAzerbaijan.InEurope,AlbaniasheditsStalinistpastandBosnia-HerzegovinabrokeawayfromformerYugoslaviaandwasinvadedbytheSerbians.
MuslimMinorities
heglobalMuslimcommunity,ortheummah,ismuchmorethanjusttheMuslimworld.Itsasupranationalentitywithacommonreligiousculture
andhistoryandacertainconsciousnessofbelongingtogether.One-thirdoftheummahexistsasminoritiesinnon-Muslimcountries.
TheMuslimsofIndia–consistingofover120millionpeople–aretheworld’slargestminority.
Over60millionMuslimsliveinChina.AndtherearelargeMuslimminoritiesin
thePhilippines,Burma,ThailandandSriLanka.
Immigration
incethefifties,aftertheindependenceofmanyMuslimcountries,MuslimshavebeenmigratingtotheWest.InEurope,thismigrationtookplaceona
well-establishedroute.FamiliesfromallovertheMuslimworldsoughttomakenewhomesinthecountriesoftheirformercolonialmasters.Thus,MuslimsfromIndia,PakistanandBangladeshcametoBritain.Algerians,MorocconsandTunisianswenttoFrance.IndonesiansandSurinameswenttoHolland.TherelationshipbetweenTurkeyandGermanyduringthewarsledtotheestablishmentofasubstantialTurkishcommunityinGermany.Therearenowanestimatedover20millionMuslimslivinginEurope.
BlackMuslims
verthelastdecades,over6millionMuslimshavesettledintheUnitedStatesandCanada.ThereisalsoaverylargecommunityofBlackMuslims
intheUnitedStates.ThiscommunitywasestablishedinthesixtiesintheheydayofMalcolmX(AbdulMalikShabbazz)byElijahMuhammadastheNationofIslam.Intheeighties,mostBlackMuslimgroupsacceptedorthodoxIslamandwereproclaimedasanintegralpartoftheummah.
MalcolmXwastotallytransformedwhenhewentonapilgrimagetoMakkah
OrganizationofIslamicConference
uslimcountriescometogetherasasingleinternationalblocattheOrganizationofIslamicConference(OIC).TheOrganizationwassetsetup
attheinitiativeofKingFaisalofSaudiArabiainSeptember1969.FaisalcalledasummitofheadsofstateofMuslimcountriesasaresultoftheincidentofarsonattheal-AqsamosqueinJerusalemthatyear.TheSummitestablishedapermanentsecretariatinJeddahtocoordinateactivitiesofMuslimcountries.
TheOrganizationhasthreeprincipleorgans:
1TheIslamicSummitoftheHeadsoftheMuslimStateswhichmeetseverythreeyearstodiscussmajorissuesfacingtheMuslimworld;
2theConferenceofForeignMinisterswhichmeetsyearlytoimplementgeneralpolicyandreviewprogressonresolutions;and
3theGeneralSecretariatwhichpromotescooperationandcoordinatesactivitiesbetweenMuslimcountries.
NumerousinstitutionsfunctionundertheumbrellaofOIC,including:theIslamicDevelopmentBankwhichfinancesprojectsthroughouttheMuslimworld,theRedCrescent,theIslamicScienceFoundation,theIslamicCentreforDevelopmentandTradeandIslamicReliefAgency.
TheOIChasdevelopedjointMuslimstandsonanumberofpoliticalissues,suchassupportforthepeopleofPalestine,oppressedMuslimminoritiesaswellasanumberofThirdWorldmovementsandissues.IthashadsomesuccessinpromotingeconomicandculturalcooperationbetweenMuslimstatesandsettlingdisputesbetweenMuslimcountries.
TheIranianRevolution
nitsearlyphase,theIranianrevolutionwasamajorsourceofinspirationforMuslimseverywhere.Itwasconsideredthefirstseriousvictoryofthe
traditionalistsovertheWesternizedéliteswhowerethemainbeneficiariesofthedepartingcolonialpowers.However,therevolution’sexcessesandinjusticeshaveturnedmostMuslimsagainstit.
Yetjustice,mercyandcompassionareacornerstoneofthethoughtoftherevolution’sforemostintellectual,AliShariati(d.1977).Shariaticombined
radicalthoughtwithsociallyconscioustraditionalism.HewaskilledbytheShahandhisworksarebannedinIran.ButhisideascontinuetoinspireMuslimseverywhere.
TheIranian‘Islamicstate’isuniquelyShia.TheforemostauthorityistheWaliFaqihortherulingjurist.Inhimresidesallreligious,politicalandlegalauthority:heisthusanabsoluteruler.TheWaliFaqihisassistedbya
RevolutionaryCouncilmadeupofthecountry’stopreligiousauthoritieswhoarecommittedtotheobjectivesoftherevolution.AyatollahKhomeiniassumedtheroleofWaliFaqihaftertherevolution.HisbookTheWilayat-e-Faqih(RuleoftheTheologian)soughttoestablishthelegitimacyoftheoffice.
Thereisalsoanelectedparliament(majlis)whichiscontrolledbyaSpeakerwhoisaleadingmemberoftheShiaclergy.Boththepresident(headofstate)andtheprimeminister(headofgovernment)aresubordinatestotheWaliFaqih.
Iranthusfunctionsasanabsolutetheocracy.SunnischolarshaveunanimouslyrejectedtheocracyasaformofIslamicgovernment.TheIranian‘model’thereforecannotbeexportedtootherMuslimcountries.
IslamicFundamentalism
nonerespect,allMuslimsarefundamentalistsastheybelievetheQur’antobetheliteralWordofGod.Assuch,thetendencytolabelanyonewho
speaksforIslamas‘fundamentalist’isnotjustmeaningless,itisalsodangerouslywrong.TheMuslimsarenotamonolithicentity.Theyincludepeoplewithallshadesofpoliticalopinions,positionsandinterpretationsofIslam.
However,thelastdecadeshaveseenariseinfanaticismandintoleranceamongstcertaintypesoftraditionalMuslims.Thishighlyvisibleandvocalgroupcanbedescribedas‘fundamentalist’inthatitinsistsonasingleinterpretationofIslamwhichcanonlybemanifestedintermsofan‘Islamicstate’.Inthisframework,theintegrated,holisticandGod-centredworldviewofIslamistransformedintoatotalitarian,theocraticworldorderandapersuasivemoralGodisreplacedbyacoercive,politicalone.
Fundamentalismhasemergedforanumberofreasons:
1.TheexcessesofmodernistleaderswhohavemaintainedtheirpowerinMuslimsocietieslargelybycoercivemeansandhaveruthlesslypersecutedthetraditionalleadership,includingimprisonment,tortureandexecutionofreligiousleadersandthinkers.
2.Thespectacularfailureoftheeconomicanddevelopmentpoliciesofthemodernistleaderswhichhaveledtotheaccumulationofwealthinfewerandfewerhands.
3.Thecontinuousabuseandridiculesincethe50softraditionalthought,lifestyleandeverythingassociatedwithit.
4.ThepoliciesofWesternpowerstodeliberatelyundermineIslamicoppositionsinMuslimcountries,demonizeIslamicleaders,propupoppressivewesternisedregimes,andreduceMuslimstatestoeconomicpaupersanddebt-riddensocieties.
TheIslamicstate
inceindependence,IslamicmovementsallovertheMuslimworldhavebeenworkingforthecreationofanIslamicstateintheirrespectivecountries.By
anIslamicstateismeantastatewheretheShariah,or‘Islamiclaw’,isestablishedandthereligiousscholars,ortheleadersofthenationalIslamicmovement,eitherhavesomesayinthegovernmentorhavetotalcontrolofpoliticalpower.
Women
raditionalMuslimthoughthasbeenveryunkindandoppressivetowomen.Whilereligiousscholarsconstantlyrecitethelistofwomen’srightsinIslam,
theyhavebeensystematicallyunderminingtheseveryrightsforcenturies.WhiletheQur’anicinjunctionsarealwaysdirectedtowards‘thebelievingmen’and‘thebelievingwomen’,theirinterpretationsconvenientlyforgetthemenandplacealltheburdenonwomen.
Forexample,theQur’anicadviceaboutmodestyinbehaviour,‘tellthebelievingmentolowertheirgazeandtobemindfuloftheirchastity…andtellthebelievingwomentolowertheirgazeandtobemindfuloftheirchastity…’(24:30-31),hasbeeninterpretatedexclusivelyintermsofthebehaviourofwomen.‘Modest’and‘decent’behaviourforwomeninpublichasbeeninterpretedasarigiddresscodedespitetheopennessandmuchwidersignificanceoftheQur’anicversesandtheirdeliberatevaguenesswhicharemeanttoallowallthetime-boundchangesthatarenecessaryforsocialandmoralgrowthofasociety.InatotalperversionoftheQur’anicadvice,dressingmodestlyhasthusbeeninterpretedtomeandressinglikeanun,coveredfromheadtofoot,showingonlyawoman’sface(insomecirclesonlytheeyes),wristsandfeet.Aninjunctionmeanttoliberatefromtheoppressionsof‘beauty’and‘fashion’endsasaninstrumentofoppression.
Invertedandgender-biasedinterpretationsoftheteachingsoftheQur’anandtheProphetMuhammadhaveledtoacanonizedjurisprudencewhichisaggressivelyanti-women.Forexample,whileIslaminsiststhatwomenhavetherighttodivorce,Islamicjurisprudencehasbeenformulatedinsuchawaythatitallbuttakesawaythisright.JudicialsleightsofhandshavebeenusedthroughoutMuslimhistorytodenywomenapartindecisionmaking,inplayingtheirfullpartinsocietyandgenerallytoproduceathoroughlymisogynistculture.
InsomeMuslimsocieties,womenaredoublyoppressedbygrievousethniccustomswhichareoftenjustifiedintermsofIslam.WhileIslamexplicitlyforbidsfemalecircumcision,thisbrutalityismaintainedintheSudanandEgyptinthenameofreligion.WhileIslaminsiststhatwomenmustchoosetheirownpartners,forcedmarriageisacommonpracticeamongsttheMuslimsinIndia,PakistanandBangladesh.
TheoriginalteachingsofIslamunderminepatriarchyandreplaceitwithareligiousbondwithinwhicheveryone–maleorfemale,blackorwhite,youngorold,richorpoor–isequal.Islamaimsatreplacing‘paternalbond,’tribalallegiancesandclassaffiliations,withallegiancesbasedsolelyonmoralandreligiousprinciplesandtotalequality.Buttraditionalthoughtandjurisprudence,
asithasevolved,hasunderminedthisgoalaswellasinstitutionalizedinjusticesagainstwomeninthenameofIslam.
Muslimwomenscholarshavenowbeguntoquestionthegender-biasedinterpretationsoftheQur’an,thetraditionsoftheProphetandtheearlyhistoryofIslam.WriterslikeAzizahal-Hibri,AminaWadud-Muhsin,FatimaMernissi,RiffatHassan,LailaAhmad,AishaAbdul-Rahman,MerrylWynDaviesandsomanyothers,whohavemorethanjustapassingfamiliaritywiththeclassicalsources,aresettointroducegenuineequalityinMuslimthoughtandaction.
Reconstruction
thadbeencustomaryforMuslimthinkerstoblamethepresentconditionofMuslimsocietiessolelyoncolonialism.Butinthe50sand60s,theAlgerian
socialphilosopherMalekBennabi(d.1973),knockedthissuggestionforsix.Bennabiintroducedthetheoryof‘colonizability.’Inessence,thetheoryholdsthattherealillsoftheMuslimworlddonotspringfromthefactofbeingcolonized,butfromastateprevioustothis,whichmadeitripeforcolonization.TherealliberationofMuslimpeople,Bennabiargued,willcomefromaddressingtheinjusticesintroducedinthethoughtandbody-politicofIslaminthelate13thcentury.BennabiforcedMuslimsocietytolookatitselfandre-examineitshistoryandsources.
OtherwritershaveofferedsimilaranalysesoftheMuslimpredicament.ThePakistanischolar,FazlurRahman(d.1988),consistentlyarguedforre-examinationoftheformativehistoryofIslam,afreshunderstandingoftheQur’anfromanethicalandsystematicratherthanatomisticperspective,andthegrowthofgenuine,originalandcontemporaryIslamicthought.Rahman’sassertionthatthedevelopmentofIslamiclawwasnotconsistentwiththeethicaloutlookoftheQur’anearnedhimasmanyfriendsasenemies.
TheoverallconsensusamongstMuslimscholarsisthattheMuslimworldisinurgentneedofnewthoughtwhich:
1.Liberatestraditionfromfossilizedhistoryandtransformsitfromasuffocatingintoalife-enhancingenterprise.
2.Formulatesanewfiqh–thatis,anewjurisprudenceandlaw, focussed on contemporary needs, requirements andissuesfacingMuslimsociety.
3. Re-opens ‘the gates of ijtihad’ and leads, throughreasonedandsustainedstruggle,toafreshunderstandingandanewcomprehensionoftheteachingsoftheQur’anandthelifeandtraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.
Islamizationofknowledge
hePalestinianthinker,Ismailal-Faruqi(d.1986),turnedthequestfornewthoughtintoaninternationalmovement.Hecapturedtheimaginationof
MuslimintellectualseverywherewithhisplansfortheIslamizationofknowledge.Al-FaruqiarguedthatMuslimsweretryingtosolvetheircurrentandhistoricproblemswithtools,categories,conceptsandmodesofanalysisthatwerenotjustirrelevanttotheirsituationbut,inmanycases,inimicaltotheethicalspiritofIslam.The‘malaiseoftheummah’,al-Faruqiasserted,canonlybetreatedbyworkingonasystematicplan,tobecarriedoutoveranumberofgenerations,thatsynthesizedthebestofclassicalIslamicknowledgeandideaswiththebestofcontemporarythought.Onlywhenmodernknowledgehasbeen‘Islamized’inthisway,imbibedwiththespiritandethicsofIslam,coulditbecomeaninstrumentforthementalandeconomicliberationofMuslimsocieties.
Whileal-Faruqi’stheorieshavebeenextensivelycriticized,notleastforbeingtoomechanical,hisworkunleashedtremendouspentupenergyamongstMuslimintellectuals,academics,professionals,writers,journalistsandthinkers.TheIslamizationofknowledgedebatehasnowbecomecentraltoanydiscussionofthenatureofMuslimidentity,theimpactofmodernityonMuslimsocietyandwaysofthinkingaboutthepresentandfutureMuslimreality.ThemovementhasgeneratedvastamountsofinnovativeliteratureandinducedaprocessofrethinkingrightacrosstheMuslimworld.
Thisrethinkinghasgeneratedanumberofnewdebatesanddisciplines.Islamiceconomics,forexample,hasemergedinthelasttwodecadesasasophisticateddisciplinewithitsowncategories,concepts,analyticaltoolsandinstitutions.Operatingonthebasisofzerointerestandparticipatoryarrangementsinthelabour-capitalandland-labourrelationships,itaddressesthequestionsofsocialwelfare,unemployment,economicdevelopment,publicdebtandissuesofglobal
economicstructurefromtheperspectiveofIslamicnormsandvalues.IslamicbankshavemushroomedallovertheMuslimworld.
Amorerecentandlessconclusivedebateconcerns‘Islamicscience’.HerethefocusisondiscoveringastyleofdoingsciencethatreflectstheethicalteachingsofIslam.Similardebatesareragingabout‘Islamicanthropology’,‘Islamicsociology’andothersocialsciences.AnumberofnewIslamicuniversitieshavebeenestablishedtoresearchandteachtheemergingdisciplines.
Todayand…
Islamandterrorismhavebecomesynonymous.Aftertheeventsof11September2001,thiswouldseemtobeanaturalcoloration.Yetnothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.IslamcannotbeblamedfortheactionoftheterroristswhoattackedtheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkandthePentagoninWashington,anymorethanChristianitycanbeblamedforthegaschambers,orCatholicismfortheactivitiesofIrishterrorists.Terroristsfollowtheirowntwistedlogicandexistoutsidenormalityandbeyondreason.Theyaresenselessmenwhoseevilactsappalallpeopleofconscience.
TheIslamicconscience,theconscienceofthevastmajorityofMuslims,standsforjustice,truthandcommonhumanvalues.BypaintingallMuslimswiththesamebrush,weunderminetheirhumanityanddefameoverabillionpeople–oneinfiveofthosewhoinhabitourplanet–theirsocieties,theirhistories,asacaricatureofthedarkersideoftheWest.
Muslimsarerealpeoplewithrealhistories.Forovereighthundredyearstheircivilizationledtheworldinscienceandlearning,inthoughtandinnovation,inliteratureandtravel,inpoliticsandinternationalrelations.
Today,Muslimsaretryingtorediscovertheirhistoricidentity,liberatethemselvesfromthecrushingburdensofneo-colonialismandanoppressiveandunjustworldorder,andshapearesponsibleandviablefuture.
…Tomorrow
ehindtheturmoilandcontradictionswhicharepullingitinsomanydifferentdirections,theMuslimworldisreconstructingitselfasadynamic,
progressivecivilizationofthefuture.Awayfromtheclamourandslogansofahighlyvisibleminorityofextremists,itisbubblingwithideas,debates,anddiscussionsoncontemporaryandfuturesignificanceofthemessageofMuhammad.Manyofthesenewideas,theories,institutionsandoutlookswillnotonlytransformIslamandMuslimsocietiesfromwithin,butwillalsomakeagenuineandoriginalcontributiontotheevolutionofapluralisticworld.
Tobesure,thequestionsfacingtheMuslimworldhaveneithersimpleanswersnorareitsproblemsamenabletopalliativesolutions.Sometimesthesituationlookstrulyawesomeandhopeless.ButMuslims,byvirtueoftheirfaith,areeternaloptimists.Andtheyarebecomingincreasinglyawarethatonlysustainedandprolongedintellectual,socialandpoliticaleffort,combinedwitha
continuousprocessofrethinking,willyieldviableoptionsandalternativesforthefuture.Awareness,astheysay,ishalfthebattle!
THEAUTHORS
ZiauddinSardarisawriter,criticandbroadcasterlivinginLondon.HehasworkedforthesciencejournalsNatureandNewScientistandLondonWeekendTelevision.AuthorofoverthirtybooksoncontemporaryIslamicthought,scienceandtechnologyintheMuslimworld,informationscienceandthefuture,hehascontributedtonumerousnewspapersandmagazinesbothinBritainandotherpartsoftheworld.Currently,heiseditorofFuturesandcontributesregularlytotheNewStatesman.
ZafarAbbasMalikisagraphicdesignerlivinginLondon.HehasdesignednumerousbooksandjournalsbothforBritishandoverseaspublishers.Herunshisowndesigncompany,UmranDesign,andistheartdirectorofthequarterlyjournal,ArtsandTheIslamicWorld.
Nowthatwehavereachedtheend,hereisalittlesecret.Manyartistsandphotographers,Muslimandnon-Muslim,pastandpresent,havecontributedtothemélangethatisthisbook.Iamsuretheywillappreciatethatitisallforagoodcause.Wehaverunoutofpagestomentionallofthembyname.WasSalamualaykum:peacebeuponyouandmayyoursocksalwayskeep
youwarm.
HEALTHWARNINGAlthoughIhavetriedmybesttokeeptheauthorsonatightrope,Iamsurethatsomeofourbrothersandsisterswillfindsomethingtocomplainandwhingeabout.AllcomplaintstotheSpeakers’Corner–please!
FurtherReading
GENERAL
AbdulWahidHamid,IslamtheNaturalWay(MELS,London).ThebestcontemporaryintroductiontoIslam.
Abdur-RahmanAzzam,TheEternalMessageofMuhammad(Quartet).Acquiringaclassicstatus.
KhurshidAhmad(Ed),Islam:ItsMeaningandMessage(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).WeightyandworthyarticlesbynotedmodernMuslimthinkers.
SuzanneHaneef,WhatEveryoneShouldKnowaboutIslamandMuslims(KaziPublications,Chicago).Apopular,livelybook.
THEQUR’ANANDLIFEOFPROPHETMUHAMMAD
MuhammadAsad,TheMessageoftheQur’an(Daral-Andalus,Gibraltar).UndoubtedlythebestEnglishtranslationoftheQur’anwithaveryinformativeandenlightenedcommentary.
ArthurJ.Arberry,TheKoranInterpreted(Oxford).Abeautiful,poetictranslation.
MuhammadMarmadukePickthall,TheMeaningoftheQur’an(variouseditions).Widelyused.
Sahihal-Bukhari,translatedbyMuhammadMuhsinKhan(HilalYayinlari,Ankara).AnawkwardtranslationoftheclassiccollectionofthesayingsoftheProphetMuhammad.
Sahihal-Muslim,translatedbyAbdulHameedSiddiqui,(KitabBhavan,NewDelhi).Ditto.
MartinLings,Muhammad:HisLifeBasedonEarliestSources(AllenandUnwin,London).ConsideredtobethebestbiographyofMuhammad.
MuhammadHusaynHaykal,TheLifeofMuhammad(AmericanIslamicTrust,Indianapolis).TranslationofahighlyregardedArabicoriginal.
CULTUREANDCIVILIZATION
MarshallHodgson,TheVentureofIslam(UniversityofChicagoPress).AmagnificentthreevolumejourneythroughtheupsanddownsofMuslimcivilization.
IsmaelR.al-FaruqiandLoisLamyaal-Faruqi,TheCulturalAtlasofIslam(Macmillan).Comprehensive!
D.M.Dunlop,ArabCivilizationtoAD1500(Longman).Simplybrilliant!
MajirFakhry,AHistoryofIslamicPhilosophy(Longman).AwellknownintroductiontothedepthandsophisticationofIslamicphilosophy.
AhmadY.al-HassanandDonaldR.Hill,IslamicTechnology:AnIllustratedHistory(Cambridge).Highlyreadablestandardtext.
Hourani,Albert,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge(OxfordUniversityPress)andAHistoryoftheArabPeople(Faber).Scholarly,butaccessible.
GeorgeMakdisi,TheRiseofColleges:InstitutionsandLearninginIslamandtheWest(EdinburghUniversityPress).ShowsjusthowmuchwasborrowedfromIslam!
JohannesPederson,TheArabicBook(PrincetonUniversityPress).Theypublishedmorebooksin12thcenturyBaghdadthentheydotodayinLondon.Pedersonshowshowitwasdone.
F.Rosenthal,KnowledgeTriumphant(Brill,Leiden).ExploresthecentralimportanceofknowledgeinMuslimcivilization.
ISLAMANDTHEWEST
NormanDaniel,HeroesandSaracens:ARe-interpretationoftheChansonsdeGeste;IslamandtheWest:TheMakingofAnImageandIslam,Europeand
Empire(EdinburghUniversityPress)–sourcebooksforthehistoryofthedemonizationofIslam.
R.W.Southern,WesternViewsofIslamintheMiddleAges(HarvardUniversityPress).AtparwithDaniel.
AminMaalouf,TheCrusadesThroughArabEyes(AlSaqi,London).Whowasbarbarianandwhocivilized?Maaloufgiveseyewitnessaccounts.
EdwardSaid,Orientalism(Routledge,London).Muchmorewidelyreadanalysis.
RanaKabbani,Europe’sMythsoftheOrient(Macmillan).Verygoodonartistsandpainters.
ZiauddinSardarandMerrylWynDavies,DistortedImagination(GreySeal,London).ExpandsandupdatesSaidandbringsintheRushdieaffair.
ISLAMTODAY
MerrylWynDavies(Ed),BeyondFrontiers:IslamandContemporaryNeeds(Mansell).ExaminespracticalMuslimoptions.
MuhammadNijatullahSiddiqui,MuslimEconomicThinking(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).Anaward-winningsurvey.
SyedNawabHaiderNaqwi,EthicsandEconomics:AnIslamicSynthesis(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).EssentialforthoseinterestedinIslamiceconomics.
HamidEnyat,ModernIslamicPoliticalThought(Macmillan).Agroundbreakingsurvey.
MerrylWynDavies,KnowingOneAnother:ShapinganIslamicAnthropology(Mansell,London).AtourthroughIslamicanthropologydebate.
FatimaMernissi,WomenandIslam(Blackwell).ApowerfulfeministreinterpretationofMuslimtheology.
LeilaAhmed,WomenandGenderinIslam(YaleUniversityPress).Ditto.
THEFUTURE
Ismaelal-Faruqi,IslamizationofKnowledge(InternationalInstituteofIslamicThought,Washington).ThemasterdocumentofIslamizationdebate.
ZiauddinSardar,TheFutureofMuslimCivilizationandIslamicFutures:TheShapeofIdeastoCome(Mansell,London).Thetitlessayitall!
AlijaAliIzetbegovic,IslamBetweenEastandWest(AmericanTrustPublications,Indianapolis).AnintegratedanalysisofthehumanconditionfromanotedscholarandPresidentofBosnia-Herzegovina.
M.UmarChapra,IslamandtheEconomicChallenge(IslamicFoundation,Leicester).BrilliantanalysisofIslamiceconomicsasfuturealternativetocapitalism.
IndexandLittleDictionary
Abbasidsref1adl:justice,esp.distributivejusticeinallitsmanifestations:social,economic,political,environmental,intellectualandspiritual.ref1Afghani,Jalamuddinref1Akhra:theHereafter,lifeafterdeath,wheneveryoneisaskedtoaccountforhis/herdeeds.Referstoanotherexistenceafterthelifeoftheworld.ref1Allah:literally“TheGod”.ref1,ref2Allah,ShahWaliref1Arabi,ibnref1architectureref1,ref2artref1astronomyref1,ref2,ref3
Banna,Hasanal-ref1Baruni,al-ref1Basri,Rabiahal-ref1Battani,al-ref1Bennabi,Malekref1BlackStoneref1booksbannedref1classificationofref1demandforref1
bookshopsref1British,theref1,ref2Bukhari,Imamref1
chansonsdegesteref1colonizationref1,ref2,ref3Crusades,theref1
Dawood,N.J.ref1
EastIndiaCompanyref1ElementsofAstrology,Theref1
environmentref1,ref2,ref3equalityref1
Farabi,al-ref1Faruqi,Ismailal-ref1fastingseeRamadanfatwa:legalopinion,usuallygivenbyaqualifiedjuristandbindingonlyonhimandthosewhofollowhis“taqlid".ref1Fihristal-Nadim,al-ref1fiqh:Islamicjurisprudence.ref1French,theref1fundamentalismref1
Ghazzali,al-ref1,ref2GodseeAllah
hadith:sayingsortraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad.ref1,ref2hajj:theannualpilgrimagetoMakkah.ref1halal:lawful,permitted,good,beneficialandpraiseworthyinthebroadestsense.Hamdis,ibnref1haram:unlawful,prohibited,bad,henceblameworthy.ref1Haytham,ibnal-ref1Hayyan,Jabiribnref1heavenref1hijra:MigrationoftheProphetMuhammadfromMakkahtoMadinainJune622;marksthebeginningoftheIslamiccalendar,whichisthusreferredtoashijracalendar.ref1Hilfal-Fudulref1hima:inviolatezone.ref1holywarseejihadHudaybia,treatyofref1hudud:normallyreferstotheinviolatelimitsplacedbyGodonman.Iftheyareviolated,punishmentishandedoutaccordingtofixedlawscalledhudud.ref1Hussain,Saddamref1
ibadah:worshipofeverythingthatexpressesservitudetoGod,suchasthepursuitofknowledge,livingapiouslife,helpingotherpeople,leadingone’scommunitywithhumilityandsoon.
ijma:consensusoftheMuslimcommunityingeneralandthelearnedinparticular.OneofthefourbasesofIslamiclaw.Moreparticularly;consensusaspoliticalprinciple.ref1,ref2,ref3ijtihad:exertingoneselftotheutmostdegreetoreachcomprehensionandformanopinion.ThebasicIslamicprincipleforadjustingtochange.ref1,ref2,ref3IkhwanalMusliminref1ilm:allvarietiesofknowledge,revealedaswellasacquired.ref1,ref2,ref3ilmar-Rijalref1imam:religiousleader;literallyanearlydescendantoftheProphet.ref1Iqbal,Muhammadref1Iranref1,ref2,ref3Islam:peace,submissiontoGod,thenaturalinclinationofhumanbeings.birthofref1denunciationofref1fourpillarsofref1fundamentalismref1futureofref1meaningref1modernizationofref1spreadofref1todayref1andtheWestref1
Islamiclawseefiqh;shariahstatedefinedref1
istislah:publicinterest;asourceofIslamiclaw.ref1,ref2
Jamaat-e-lslamiref1,ref2jamia:universities.ref1,ref2Jerusalemattackedref1Jews,slaughterofref2jihad:struggle;anyearneststrivinginthewayofGod,involvingpersonal,physical,intellectualormilitaryeffort,forrighteousnessandagainstoppressionandwrong-doing.ref1justiceseeadl
Ka’abaref1,ref2,ref3kalam:rationalphilosophyclaimingtodemonstratetheexistenceofGod.ref1Karbala,battleofref1Khaldun,ibnref1
khalifa:trusteeship.InIslam,theearthwithallitsfloraandfaunaisasacredtrustfromGodandweareresponsibleandaccountabletoGodforitscare.ref1Khattab,Umaral-ref1Khazini,al-ref1Khwarizmi,al-ref1Kindi,al-ref1Kitabal-Aghaniref1Khomeini,Ayatollahref1KoranseeQur’an
lawseefiqh;shariahlibrariesref1,ref2,ref3literatureref1,ref2,ref3
MadinaMuhammadgoestoref1attackedbyMakkansref1
madrassah:college.ref1,ref2mahdiref1majlis:parliament.ref1Majriti,al-ref1Makkahref1,ref2defenceofref1fallofref1hajjref1rulersref1
MalcolmXref1manufacturingindustryref1mathematicsref1Mawdudiref1Mawsili,al-ref1MeccaseeMakkahmedicineref1,ref2,ref3miraj:ascension.ref1Mongolsref1moon,Muslimcalendarref1mosqueref1Muawiyahref1mudarabah:profitsharing,oneoftheprinciplesofIslamiceconomics.
Muhammadbornref1deathref1deathofsonref1farewellsermonref1followerstorturedref1messageofref1parentsdiedref1persecutedinMakkaref1plottokillref1revelationref1sayingsseehadith
musharakah:partnership,oneoftheprinciplesofIslamiceconomics.musicref1,ref2MuslimBrotherhoodref1calendarref1civilization,declineofref1cooperationbetweenstatesref1minoritiesref1societyexperimentedonref1world,extentref1
Muslim,Imamref1Muslimsref1blackref1inEuroperef1persecutedref1
Mutazilitesref1
nafs:soul,desire;thecontrolofone’snafsis“thegreaterjihad”Nasser,JamalAbdulref1numbersref1,ref2
oppressionref1opticsref1,ref2,ref3OpusAstronomicumref1Orientalismref1
Pakistanref1,ref2
paperindustryref1,ref2philosophyref1,ref2pilgrimageseehajjpillarsofIslamref1politicaldiscordref1prayerseesalatpublishingref1,ref2
qiyas:analogy–afoundationofIslamicjurisprudence.ref1Qur’anref1artref1denouncedref1frozeninhistoryref1andwomenref1
Qurra,Thabitbinref1Qutb,Syyedref1
Rahman,Fazlurref1Ramadan:periodoffasting.ref1,ref2Razi,AbuBakral-ref1Razi,Fakhral-Dinref1religions,otherref1Renaissance,theref1,ref2revelation,theref1riba:usury,includinginterestandmakingmoneyfrommoney,oneofthefewexplicitlyforbiddenpracticesinIslam.Rumi,Jalaluddinref1Rushd,ibnref1Rushdie,Salmanref1
SahihBukhariref1Saladinref1Salafismref1Salam,ibnabdas-ref1salat:dailyobligatoryprayer,oneofthefourpillarsofIslam.ref1SatanicVerses,Theref1sawm:fastinginthemonthofRamadan,andoneofthefourpillarsofwisdom.ref1scienceref1,ref2,ref3
sexref1Shahaadah,theref1shariah:literallymeaningthepathtoawateringhole,thisistheeternal,ethicalandmoralcodeofIslambasedontheQur’anandtheSunnah.ref1,ref2,ref3Shariati,Aliref1Shias,theref1,ref2shura:cooperationandconsultationforthebenefitofthecommunity,particularlyconsultationasapoliticalprinciple.ref1SiddiqAbuBakrref1,ref2,ref3Sina,ibnref1,ref2sira:lifeoftheProphetMuhammad.ref1SiratRasulAllahref1solareclipseref1Sudanref1sufism:MuslimmysticismandanintegralpartofIslam.ref1,ref2Sunnah,the:literallypathorexample,particularlyapplyingtothepathoftheProphetMuhammad,andincludingwhathesaid,didandagreedto.ref1,ref2Sunnisref1
tafsir:exegesis,particularlytheexegesisandcommentaryontheQur’an.ref1Talib,Aburef1,ref2taqlid:blindimitation,normallyofajuristofthefiveclassicalschoolsofthought.ref1tawheed:beliefintheOnenessofGod,thefundamentalconceptofIslam.ref1Tasrif,al-ref1technologyref1toleranceref1trepidation,theoryofref1Tusi,al-ref1
Uhad,battleofref1ulama:religiousscholars.ref1,ref2Umayyaddynastyref1,ref2Ummal-Kitabref1ummah:theglobalMuslimcommunity;theinternationalpersonhoodofIslam.ref1,ref2“UnityofallBeing”ref1Urwatal-Wuthquref1
wahdatal-wajudref1Wahhab,MohammadibnAbdal-ref1WaliFaqihref1watertechnologyref1,ref2West,theimmigrationtoref1andIslamref1seealsoBritish,the;French,thewhirlingdervishesref1
Wilayat-e-Faqihref1womeninIslamref1
Yazidref1
zakat:ataxonwealth,oneofthefourpillarsofIslam.Itisareligiousdutyandsocialobligation.ref1Zubairref1
ManyIntroducingGraphicGuidesarenowavailableinebookformat-includingthetitlesbelow.Checkinatintroducingbooks.com/ebooks/tokeepuptodatewithmoretitlesastheyarepublishedinebookformat.
9781848317567-IntroducingPsychology
Top Related