Inscribing Interaction: Middle Woodland Monumentality in the Appalachian Summit, 100 BC –

AD 400

by

Alice P. Wright

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillmentof the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy(Anthropology)

in the University of Michigan2014

Doctoral Committee:

Assistant Professor Robin Beck, ChairProfessor Joyce MarcusAssociate Professor Michael WitgenProfessor Henry Wright

i

© Alice P. Wright 2014

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication.......................................................

.................................................................

.....................................i

List of

Figures..........................................................

.................................................................

..........................vi

List of

Tables...........................................................

.................................................................

...........................xiii

List of

Appendices.......................................................

.................................................................

.....................xi

CHAPTER 1: Interaction and Monumentality in Eastern Woodlands

Archaeology...............1

Theorizing Interaction in Americanist

Archaeology......................................................

..................4

Processes of Cross-Cultural

Interaction .....................................................

......................................6

Marking Landscapes, Making

History..........................................................

......................................8

Macroscalar Interaction in the Middle Woodland

Period...........................................................

..11

Interregional Hopewell: The View from the

Core...........................................................12

Southeastern Interaction Networks, 300 BC – AD

600..................................................16

Interactive Peripheries: Scenarios and

Expectations.....................................................

................20

iv

Scenario 1: Multi-Community

Assembly.........................................................

..................21

Scenario 2: Deliberate Extra-Local

Acquisition......................................................

..........22

Scenario 3: Material or Information

Exchange.........................................................

........23

Caveat: The Role of Local

Traditions.......................................................

.........................24

Outline of the

Volume...........................................................

............................................................26

CHAPTER 2: A Landscape of Interactions: The Appalachian

Summit.................................29

Regional Environmental

Setting..........................................................

...............................................31

Climate

............................................................

.................................................................

.......33

v

Plant and Animal

Resources........................................................

........................................35

Geological

Resources........................................................

....................................................36

Historical Landscapes of the Appalachian

Summit...........................................................

............39

Subsistence

Economy..........................................................

.................................................42

Mobility and

Settlement.......................................................

.................................................44

Community

Organization.....................................................

................................................47

Extra-Local Exchange and

Interaction......................................................

........................52

Ceremonialism and

Monumentality....................................................

................................54

Chapter

Summary..........................................................

vi

.................................................................

.....57

CHAPTER 3: Archaeological Investigations at Garden Creek, 1886-

2012.............................59

Geographic Background: The Pigeon River Confluence

Area....................................................59

Landholding History and Museum Expeditions, 1800-

1919.......................................................62

The Cherokee Project and Mound No. 2, 1965-

1966.............................................................

......66

Garden Creek Archaeological Project, 2010-2012: Field

Methods.............................................69

Geophysical Survey

Methods .........................................................

....................................71

Magnetometry.....................................................

......................................................72

Magnetic

Susceptibility...................................................

.........................................77

vii

Ground Penetrating

Radar............................................................

.........................78

Excavation

Methods..........................................................

...................................................81

Shovel

Testing..........................................................

................................................81

Block

Excavations......................................................

.............................................82

CHAPTER 4: Life Histories of Place: Theoretical and Analytical

Background....................86

Biographical Approaches to Places and

Monuments........................................................

............88

Pinpointing Histories: Absolute Dates and Bayesian

Modeling..................................................91

Bracketing Monumental Histories with Labor

Estimates........................................................

.....93

Fleshing Out History with Social

Stratigraphy.....................................................

..........................96

viii

CHAPTER 5: The Platform

Mound............................................................

..........................100

Deposits and Surfaces of Mound No.

2................................................................

........................101

Dating Mound No.

2................................................................

........................................................108

The Energetics of Mound

Building.........................................................

.......................................111

Histories of Practice Under and On Mound No.

2................................................................

.....114

Report of Stratified Feature

Sets.............................................................

..........................115

Temporal

Comparisons......................................................

..................................140

Spatial

Comparisons......................................................

........................................144

ix

Mound No. 2 Posthole Analysis and Single-Post

Structures........................................145

Base of Pre-Mound

Midden...........................................................

......................150

Top of Pre-Mound

Midden...........................................................

......................158

Primary Mound

Summit...........................................................

............................162

Post Patterns Through

Time.............................................................

..................164

Chapter

Summary..........................................................

.................................................................

...167

CHAPTER 6: The

Enclosures.......................................................

........................................169

Enclosures in Horizontal and Vertical

Perspective......................................................

...............170

x

Dating Enclosure No.

1................................................................

...................................................177

The Energetics of Enclosure

Construction.....................................................

.............................179

Total Monumental Labor Investment at Garden

Creek...............................................184

Features In and Around Enclosure No.

1................................................................

.....................186

Consumption and Crafting: Assemblage-Level Histories of

Practice......................................192

Pottery..........................................................

.................................................................

........193

Macrobotanical

Remains..........................................................

..........................................194

Crafting

Debris...........................................................

.........................................................195

Chapter

Summary..........................................................

xi

.................................................................

...200

CHAPTER 7: The

Occupation.......................................................

.......................................203

Site-Wide Organization: Geophysical

Inferences.......................................................

.................204

Report of Off-Monument

Excavations......................................................

...................................217

Test Units and Unit

1................................................................

.........................................219

Unit

2................................................................

.................................................................

....221

Unit

3................................................................

.................................................................

....223

Unit

4................................................................

xii

.................................................................

....229

Unit

5................................................................

.................................................................

....232

Unit

7................................................................

.................................................................

....233

Unit

10...............................................................

.................................................................

...234

Unit

11...............................................................

.................................................................

...236

Feature Morphology and

Function.........................................................

.......................................237

Off-Monument

Assemblages......................................................

....................................................242

Pottery..........................................................

xiii

.................................................................

........242

Lithics..........................................................

.................................................................

.........244

Macrobotanical

Remains..........................................................

..........................................248

Chapter

Summary..........................................................

.................................................................

...250

CHAPTER 8: Comparing Garden Creek and its

Contemporaries........................................253

Midwestern Comparisons: Adena-Hopewell Small Geometric

Enclosures............................257

Southeastern Comparisons: Middle Woodland Platform

Mounds...........................................266

Village or Vacant Ceremonial

Center?..........................................................

.................................275

Chapter

Summary..........................................................

xiv

.................................................................

...280

CHAPTER 9: Monumentalizing Pre-Columbian Culture Contact in the

Appalachian

Summit...........................................................

.................................................................

.......282

Assessing Scenarios of Middle Woodland Culture

Contact.......................................................284

Late Pigeon Phase, ca. 100 B.C. – A.D.

1................................................................

........285

Pigeon/Connestee Transition, ca A.D. 1-

125..............................................................

...287

Connestee Phase, ca. A.D. 125 –

400..............................................................

.................288

Post-Colonial Perspectives on Pre-Columbian

Processes........................................................

..289

The Historical Landscape at Garden

Creek............................................................

......................293

xv

APPENDICES.......................................................

................................................................2

96

REFERENCES

CITED ...........................................................

............................................358

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Map and photos of the Appalachian

Summit...........................................................

..................2

Figure 1.2: Modern setting of the Garden Creek

site.............................................................

.......................3

xvi

Figure 1.3: Maximal geographic extent of

Hopewell.........................................................

............................4

Figure 1.4: Hopewell ceremonial sites in

Ohio.............................................................

.................................5

Figure 1.5: Hopewellian regional

traditions.......................................................

...........................................17

Figure 1.6: Middle Woodland platform mounds in the

Southeast........................................................

....19

Figure 2.1: Principal mica deposits in the Appalachian

Summit...........................................................

....37

Figure 3.1: Map of the Pigeon River

confluence.......................................................

..................................60

Figure 3.2: Flood zones at the Garden Creek

locality.........................................................

........................61

Figure 3.3: USGS map with location of Garden Creek

mounds...........................................................

....65

xvii

Figure 3.4: Middle Woodland and Mississippian components at

Garden Creek....................................67

Figure 3.5: Magnetometer survey

results..........................................................

.............................................75

Figure 3.6: Non-archaeological magnetic

anomalies........................................................

...........................76

Figure 3.8: GPR timeslices over Garden Creek

enclosures.......................................................

.................80

Figure 3.9: Location of shovel test

pits.............................................................

............................................81

Figure 3.10: Location of units in Waters Point

Lot..............................................................

.......................83

Figure 3.11: Location of units in Warren-Robinson

Lots.............................................................

.............84

Figure 4.1: Middle Woodland monuments at Garden

Creek............................................................

.........88

xviii

Figure 5.1: Keel’s maps from Garden Creek Mound No.

2................................................................

.....103

Figure 5.2: Stratigraphic relationships between Mound No. 2

features.................................................104

Figure 5.3: Simplified Mound No. 2 Harris

matrix...........................................................

........................105

Figure 5.4: Calibrated, modeled AMS dates from Mound No.

2............................................................110

Figure 5.5: Feature typology for Mound No.

2................................................................

..........................115

Figure 5.6: Feature Sets 1 and

2................................................................

....................................................117

Figure 5.7: Features 46 and

53...............................................................

.......................................................118

Figure 5.8: Feature Sets 3 and

4................................................................

....................................................119

Figure 5.9: Feature Set

5................................................................

................................................................1

21

xix

Figure 5.10: Feature

43...............................................................

.................................................................

...122

Figure 5.11: Feature

35...............................................................

.................................................................

...124

Figure 5.12: Feature

41...............................................................

.................................................................

...124

Figure 5.13: Feature Sets 6 and

7................................................................

..................................................126

Figure 5.14: Features 27 and

39...............................................................

.....................................................127

Figure 5.15: Feature Set

8................................................................

..............................................................129

Figure 5.16: Feature

6................................................................

.................................................................

....131

xx

Figure 5.17: Feature Sets 9 and

10...............................................................

................................................133

Figure 5.18: Feature

45...............................................................

.................................................................

...135

Figure 5.19: Feature

20...............................................................

.................................................................

...136

Figure 5.20: Feature

44...............................................................

.................................................................

...137

Figure 5.21: Feature

18...............................................................

.................................................................

...138

Figure 5.22: Feature types across mound

surfaces.........................................................

...........................141

Figure 5.23: Approximate feature

volumes..........................................................

.......................................143

xxi

Figure 5.24: Base of Mound No. 2, showing Structure 1

postholes.......................................................1

47

Figure 5.25: Posthole scatter at top of subsoil below Mound No.

2......................................................151

Figure 5.26: Newly identified structures at subsoil-

level............................................................

..............152

Figure 5.27: Close-ups of alignments for newly identified

structure at subsoil-level...........................153

Figure 5.28: Orientations of Structures 2, 3, 4, and

7................................................................

...............156

Figure 5.29: Orientations of Structures 1, 5, 6, and

8................................................................

...............157

Figure 5.30: Posthole scatter on top of the pre-mound

midden...........................................................

..159

Figure 5.31: Newly identified structures at midden-

level............................................................

.............160

Figure 5.32: Orientation of Structures 9 and

10...............................................................

.........................161

xxii

Figure 5.33: Structure 11, with Feature

41...............................................................

...................................163

Figure 5.34: Outlines of Structures 1 and

11...............................................................

...............................165

Figure 6.1: Close-up of enclosures in magnetometer

results..........................................................

.........171

Figure 6.2: GPR timeslices showing Enclosure No.

1................................................................

..............172

Figure 6.3: GPR timeslices showing Enclosure No.

2................................................................

..............173

Figure 6.4: Horizontal exposure of Enclosure No.

1................................................................

................174

Figure 6.5: Profiles of Enclosure No. 1

ditch............................................................

.................................175

Figure 6.6: Schematic profile of Enclosure No. 1

ditch............................................................

...............176

xxiii

Figure 6.7: Rock filled posthole in Enclosure No. 1

ditch............................................................

...........177

Figure 6.8: Calibrated, modeled AMS dates from Enclosure No.

1.......................................................179

Figure 6.9: Schematic of variables used to calculate ditch

volume.........................................................18

1

Figure 6.10: Relative sizes of Garden Creek and Ohio Hopewell

earthworks.....................................185

Figure 6.11: Feature

21...............................................................

.................................................................

..187

Figure 6.12: Unit 6 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................189

Figure 6.13: Unit 9 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................190

Figure 6.14: Feature 28

profile..........................................................

............................................................191

Figure 6.15: Pigeon check-stamped sherd from

ditch............................................................

...................193

xxiv

Figure 6.16: Cut sheet mica fragment from

ditch............................................................

..........................197

Figure 6.17: Density of mica in different

features.........................................................

............................198

Figure 6.18: Lithic raw materials from different

features.........................................................

................199

Figure 7.1: Magnetic anomalies in northwest survey

quadrant.........................................................

.......205

Figure 7.2: Magnetic anomalies in northeast survey

quadrant.........................................................

........206

Figure 7.3: Magnetic anomalies in southeast survey

quadrant.........................................................

........207

Figure 7.4: Magnetic anomalies in southwest survey

quadrant.........................................................

.......208

Figure 7.5: Results of magnetic susceptibility

survey...........................................................

.....................210

xxv

Figure 7.6: Middle Woodland circular ditch features at

40Bt90...........................................................

...211

Figure 7.7: Interpreted magnetometer and GPR

results..........................................................

.................213

Figure 7.8: Basin and pit features inferred from GPR

results..........................................................

.......214

Figure 7.9: Pits with FCR and postholes inferred from GPR

results.....................................................215

Figure 7.10: Close up of units excavated in the Waters Point

Lot..........................................................218

Figure 7.11: Close up of units excavated in the Warren-Robinson

Lots..............................................219

Figure 7.12: Unit 2 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................222

Figure 7.13: Unit 3 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................224

Figure 7.14: West profile of Unit

3................................................................

..............................................225

xxvi

Figure 7.15: Fragment of Flint Ridge chalcedony

bladelet.........................................................

..............226

Figure 7.16: East profile of Unit

3................................................................

...............................................227

Figure 7.17: Midwest profile of Unit

3................................................................

........................................228

Figure 7.18: Unit 4 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................230

Figure 7.19: Unit 4 excavated to

subsoil..........................................................

...........................................231

Figure 7.20: Unit 5 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................232

Figure 7.21: Unit 7 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

............................................233

Figure 7.22: Unit 10 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

..........................................234

xxvii

Figure 7.23: Profile of Feature

26...............................................................

..................................................235

Figure 7.24: Profile of Feature

27...............................................................

..................................................236

Figure 7.25: Unit 11 at base of

plowzone.........................................................

..........................................237

Figure 7.26: Morphological classification of off-monument

features....................................................238

Figure 7.27: Debitage types by function

activity.........................................................

...............................245

Figure 7.28: Debitage types by material

availability.....................................................

..............................246

Figure 7.29: Projectile points from Garden

Creek............................................................

........................247

Figure 8.1: “Squircles” from Garden Creek and the Ohio

Valley...........................................................

259

xxviii

Figure 9.1: Pisgah phase earth lodges at Garden Creek Mound No.

1..................................................293

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Appalachian Summit landform

types............................................................

..............................33

xxix

Table 2.2: Historic mining districts in the Southern

Appalachians.....................................................

......38

Table 2.3: Cultural chronology of the Appalachian

Summit...........................................................

...........40

Table 4.1: Variables for energetic

analysis.........................................................

............................................95

Table 5.1: Feature sets in Mound No.

2................................................................

......................................106

Table 5.2: Contexts of radiocarbon samples from Mound No.

2...........................................................109

Table 5.3: Dates from Mound No.

2................................................................

...........................................109

Table 5.4: Raw energetics of Mound No. 2

construction.....................................................

....................112

Table 5.5: Ceramic vessels from Feature

44...............................................................

................................137

xxx

Table 5.6: Metrics of Structure 1

postholes........................................................

........................................148

Table 5.7: Mean area of posthole cross-sections, Structures 1-

11..........................................................166

Table 6.1: Dates from Enclosure No.

1................................................................

......................................178

Table 6.2: Measurements of rock-filled

postholes........................................................

.............................183

Table 7.1: Modeled, calibrated dates from Feature 1A and

1B...............................................................

229

Table 7.2: Connestee and Pigeon rims from off-monument

deposits...................................................243

Table 7.3: Macrobotanical remains from Middle Woodland off-

monument features.........................249

Table 8.1: Enclosures used in comparative

analysis.........................................................

.........................260

xxxi

Table 8.2: Platform mounds used in comparative

analysis.........................................................

.............268

Table 8.3: Ceramics from Middle Woodland platform

mounds...........................................................

..274

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Notes on Geophysical Surveys Conducted between 2011-

2012 at the Garden Creek Site (31HW8), Haywood Co., North

Carolina, by Timothy J.

Horsley..................................................296

Appendix B: Shovel Test

Pits.............................................................

..........................................................312

Appendix C:

Ceramics.........................................................

.................................................................

.........316

xxxii

Appendix D: Chipped

Stone............................................................

.............................................................345

Appendix E: Macrobotanical

Remains..........................................................

..............................................351

xxxiii