history - Te Kura

kōrero nehe

history

2013/1

HS3001INTRODUCTION TO ENGLAND 1558 TO 1660

NCEA LEVEL 3

© te aho o te kura pounamu

historyncea level 3

Expected time to complete workThis work will take you about 14 hours to complete.

In booklets HS3001–3004 and HS3007–3009 you will work towards the following standards:

Achievement Standard 91436 (Version 1) History 3.3Analyse evidence relating to an historical event of significance to New ZealandersLevel 3, External4 credits

Achievement Standard 91438 (Version 1) History 3.5Analyse the causes and consequences of a significant historical eventLevel 3, External6 credits

Achievement Standard 91439 (Version 1) History 3.6Analyse a significant historical trend and the force(s) that influenced itLevel 3, External6 credits

For further information see the Course and assessment guide.

In this booklet you will focus on these learning outcomes:

• exploring introductory ideas relating to England 1558–1660

• describing the nature of history and identifying features and problems of historical study

• explaining the nature of society in England and Britain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

You will continue to work towards these standards in booklets HS3002–3004 and HS3007–3009.

Copyright © 2013 Board of Trustees of Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu, Private Bag 39992, Wellington Mail Centre, Lower Hutt 5045,

New Zealand. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without

the written permission of Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu.

1HS3001© te aho o te kura pounamu

contents

1 The transformation of England

2 History: the search for truth?

3 The English story 1558–1625

4 The English story 1625–1660

5 England and Britain: people and places

6 The status society

7 Women’s place: inferior to men

8 Marriage, sex and family

9 Traditional beliefs and witchcraft

10 Your goals, views and interests

11 Answer guide

2 HS3001 © te aho o te kura pounamu

how to do the work

When you see:

1A Complete the activity.

Check your answers.

Your teacher will assess this work.

Key point.

Check the website.

Contact your teacher.

You will need:

• pens and a ruler

• A4 pad paper.

Resource overview

Welcome to the first booklet. Details of the full course are found in the Course and assessment guide (HS3000CA). If you haven't received this yet, let your teacher know. Read it first before you start this booklet.

Key terms are shown in bold when first used, and some are explained in context. A full list of these and other useful terms is contained in the Course and assessment guide.

There are activities for you to answer in each lesson.

When studying by correspondence, try to do these things:

• Answer all activities in each booklet that you study. Try to complete one lesson (one chapter) of work per day.

• Write your answers on A4 lined pad paper i.e. on loose pages. It's best not to write answers in an exercise book or on the printed booklet itself (unless you're actually asked to do this).

3© te aho o te kura pounamu HS3001

• Once all work is done, cut off the back cover from the booklet you have been working on. Staple it (at top left) to the front of your written answers and write your name and school ID number on the top panel.

• At the end of each day, ensure that you have self-checked (self-marked) all work for which we've given answers in the back of the printed booklet. (Use a red pen).

• Once all work is done and the cover sheet is filled in and attached, your work is ready to post in to the school.

Note: keep the printed booklet. Don't send this in as you need to be able to refer to it later.

Your teacher may add further comments on your self-check answers and will mark other work to be assessed.

Further information

• Each lesson should take you about one hour.

• Write answers on your own paper, unless you're told otherwise.


1 the transformation of england

The English State was modernized and, in the process, caught up with the development of the English economy and society.

British historians Michael Graves and Robin Silcock

learning intentionsIn this lesson you will:

• identify aspects of the Tudor-Stuart topic covered in the HS3000 programme

• begin to develop a range of history skills.

introductionIt started with a young queen changing the country’s religion in the mid-sixteenth century and ended with civil war and a restoration of the monarchy in 1660. England from 1558 to 1660 had it all:

• turmoil in politics and religion

• loyalty and betrayal

• scandal and corruption

• love and lust

• witchcraft and alchemy

• exploration and inventions

• rebellion and war

• poverty and prosperity

• strong men and enterprising women.

Queen Elizabeth opening Parliament.

john

gre

en

Charles II returns to London in 1660.

john

gre

en


the transformation of england

In just over a century the face of England and the British Isles was changed forever. It was a fascinating historical ride.

you will studySetting England and the rest of the British Isles

Time frame 1558–1660

History period Reigns of the Tudor and early Stuart monarchs A short period from 1649–1660 when there was no monarchy The return of monarchy in 1660

Main sections Economy and society – setting the scene Government and politics 1558–1640 Revolution, republic and restoration 1640–1660

Assessment See the Course and assessment guide for more detail on the assessment process which involves yourself, your teacher and the achievement standards.

developing skillsHistorian Peter Mandler has said that history develops the capacity ‘to measure, to judge, to balance, to compare’. These abilities are developed using a wide range of history resources. They may be documents, texts, cartoons, sketches, photographs, cartoons, films, recordings, websites, even wall paintings and graffiti!

You need skills to use historical sources to get as close as possible to the truth about the past.

In this and the following booklet, you will find some short sections on sharpening your history skills. These briefly cover a particular skill, with an example. Then it’ll be your turn to show your skill. Even if you have covered the skills before, this will be useful practice related to the Tudors and Stuarts.

Historical resources come in many forms.

THE PAST

6 © te aho o te kura pounamuHS3001


online inquiry optionThis is a feature of all the booklets. If you have access to the Internet regularly or even just occasionally, you can expand your learning by following up particular topics and questions on the Web.

sharpening your history skillsRecognising symbolsSymbols come in two forms:

• to show a person’s status, such as a crown for a monarch at their coronation, or

• to represent particular people, institutions or activities in paintings, sketches, posters, signs, logos and cartoons. For example, an oval ball to indicate rugby, or a crown to represent monarchy or a kingdom.

Symbols were important in Tudor and Stuart England. For example, there were laws that governed what different classes of people could wear in public. Bishops and other clergy in the Anglican Church wore vestments (robes) to show their status. And the monarch had symbols to show his or her status as king or queen. These symbols included:

• an orb (a globe with a cross on it) which shows that the monarch is head of the Church of England

• sceptres (metal batons with jewels). One shows that the monarch has a religious (spiritual) role, the other the monarch’s political role as ruler.

Queen Elizabeth has these in the illustration on the first page.

Online inquiry option: Check out The Monarchy and further detail on the crown jewels and other royal symbols at www.royal.gov.uk

This is an activity where you will be doing the assessing yourself. Write your answers on your own paper, and then check them against the answer guide at the back. If you get something wrong, write in the correct answer in another colour.

Refer to the resources on the next page.

1. List three symbols of kingship in Source A: the painting of Charles II.

2. Usually monarchs wore the regalia which previous monarchs had used. Was this the case at Charles II’s coronation in 1660? Give evidence from Source B to support your answer.

3. The previous monarch, Charles I, had been executed in 1649. Source C symbolises Charles going to heaven. Three crowns are used as symbols.

a. Which crown would Charles have been crowned with when he first became king?

b. What does the crown of thorns symbolise? Justify your answer.

c. Source C was an illustration done for a book published in 1649. Give evidence that the writer of the book was a supporter of Charles I.

Check your answers.

1A



source a

source b

Over a period of a few weeks from mid-December 1649 to mid-January 1650, almost every single item of the English regalia was disposed of. It was deliberately decided that the items which were the most potent symbols of monarchy were not to be sold off intact, but were instead to be ‘totallie Broken and Defaced’. So the King’s state crown, valued at a massive £1,110, was completely dismantled, the pearls going to one buyer, the sapphires to another, the emeralds to another and the gold itself to the Mint for coining. The same was the case with Henrietta Maria’s crown and the coronation bracelets, while the state orb was melted down to yield £57-worth of gold.

British historian Anna Keay

source c

King Charles I was executed in January 1649. In the frontispiece of Eikon Basilike, a book published in 1649 that kept the memory of Charles alive in the Interregnum, the King is shown exchanging his earthly crown for a crown of thorns, and winning a heavenly crown as a reward.

the

roya

l co

llec

tion

john

gre

en



causes and consequencesYou’ve seen in the Course and assessment guide that one external standard relates to historical causes and consequences.

Cause: the reason for somebody doing something or for something happening.

Consequence: the result or outcome of something happening

Elizabeth I had no children. (This caused her ministers to invite the King of Scotland, James VI, to become the King of England when she died).

john

gre

en

In the 1630s Charles I reformed the church. Some people approved of the changes, while others didn’t, leading to further religious divisions in English society.

In later booklets you will study many causes and consequences from the period of English history from 1558 to 1660.

For each of the following, write in the bracket whether it is a cause or a consequence.

1. Because of poor harvests from 1594–97, food riots occurred in parts of England. ( )

2. In March 1629 Charles I decided to govern alone. ( ) He therefore dissolved parliament. ( )

3. James VI of Scotland became James I of England in 1603. His views on the divine right of rulers were not well received by the English Parliament. ( )

Check your answers.

1B


History is an argument without end.

Dutch historian Pieter Geyl


• recognise the nature of history and describe what historians do

• examine issues surrounding the reliability and usefulness of historical sources and evidence.

introductionIn the quotation above, Peter Geyl sees history as a constant argument with different views about what happened in the past. But what do other historians have to say and how do they view history? Here is a sample:

• Most history is lies about crimes. (Alan Clark)

• … an activity of the reasoning mind. (Peter Mandler)

• … an endless negotiation between the past and the present. (Simon Schama)

• Immersion in the lives of people in the past enlarges our understanding of the human experience and helps us better understand ourselves …. (Lawrence Stone)

• History is the shaping of the past by those living in the present. (Judith Binney)

There is truth in all these observations, but it’s hard to nail down one complete definition. As Armesto explains, ‘History lets you write … different stories to fit the evidence’. However, there are three things all historians agree on. History is:

• a record of past events, developments and situations

• constantly being made: ‘Today will be yesterday tomorrow’

• a search for truth about the past which will continue to be reinterpreted.

History shifts as you look at it. It twists and coils into unexpected shapes: suddenly, rapidly, continuously like a snake darting between stones.

(Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Professor of Modern History at Oxford University)

history: the search for truth?2


history: the search for truth?

what historians doHistorians try to: establish why things happened the way they did

establish how things happened

uncover what it was like to live at certain times in certain places

For example:

• Why did Elizabeth change England’s religion in 1559?

• Why was King Charles I executed?

• Why did the Scots invade England in 1639?

• How did James I keep England at peace for 20 years?

• How did Charles I rule without parliament for 11 years?

• How did Parliament win the Civil War?

• What was it like to be a peasant’s wife in the 1570s?

• How did the wealthy landed gentry live in the 1630s?

Historians do have personal beliefs and may have biases, but basically they are trying to get it right. In his 2003 book Re-Thinking History, Keith Jenkins sets out five features of historical method:

Research: modern accounts must be supported by research into sources linked to the past.

Authenticity: historians need to ensure that the sources are what they claim to be.

Interpretation: it’s best to go to the primary sources which date from the period to get the knowledge needed for accurate analysis.

Reliability: is the source intended simply to inform or is it meant to entertain, persuade, flatter or deceive?

Objectivity: we must not ignore or fiddle the evidence. Historians must be honest, detached and fair.



1. Name an historian quoted on page 9 who would agree with each of the following:

a. An historian employed by a government may conceal the regime’s wrongdoing.

b. Present-day historians decide what happened in the past.

c. There are many ways in which developments in history can be written up.

d. There is no final history.

e. Television programmes of people actually living the way folk did in the past help us understand our own place in history.

2. For each of the following, write in the brackets the feature of historical method referred to. The first one has been done for you.

a. Checking the accuracy of sources ( authenticity )

b. Forgetting our own prejudices and being logical ( )

c. Gathering relevant material from the past ( )

d. Testing sources for bias, motive and accuracy ( )

e. Reconstructing what happened from the sources ( )

Check your answers.

Key point

The study of history relies on having sufficient evidence, as well as an accurate interpretation of the evidence to give it its true meaning and relevance.

testing the evidenceScientists are better placed than historians to check the evidence for proof. They can use actual tests on materials like bones, soil samples, x-rays, plants and swabs to get answers to problems, questions and theories.

2A



Historians may have some physical evidence from the past like castles, pottery, bones and wall paintings to help them. But, as English historian and journalist Geoffrey Wheatcroft observes, there are problems the further back you go: Historians looking at 800–1300 AD are putting together a huge jigsaw puzzle, where most of the pieces have been eaten by the dog.

Historians often have to rely on what evidence has survived in the way of written records, statistics, bones and buildings. So an historian may be like:

• a detective trying to reconstruct the events that led to a crime

• a film-maker doing an imaginative reconstruction of the past.

It all adds to the fascination and challenge of finding out the truth. The results can be stranger than fiction. One of the big challenges is determining whether the information is fact or fiction.

how do we know it’s true?This can be a worry, especially as history reaches people in many different ways:

• Historical novels, films and television programmes help to make history popular and are probably the main source for many people.

• Papers and magazines report on the recent past and start the process of written history.

• History today also comes in many more forms than it did in Tudor and Stuart times – photographs, films, recordings, websites, computer databases, carefully unearthed archaeological sites. Sometimes it seems there is too much evidence: there is still a lot of doubt about who killed American president John Kennedy in 1963, even though there is tonnes of evidence!

In the 2001 film Elizabeth, the director went to enormous trouble to have the costumes exactly as they would have been at the time. But then the screenplay had Elizabeth’s favourite, the Earl of Leicester, as a Catholic when historical evidence shows that he was a Protestant.



Look at the sources below to see other ways people have tried to falsify history.

Americans ‘knew’ in 1991 that Iraqi soldiers had thrown Kuwaiti babies out of incubators to die on hospital floors. After the incubator story had successfully demonised the Iraqi military and ennobled the cause of liberating Kuwait, it emerged that the story had been concocted by the daughter of the Kuwaiti ambassador to the UN, who wept as she told Congress about the horror of the dying infants. She had been put forward to testify at the hearings by the public relations firm Hill and Knowlton.

Terry Allen from the New York Centre for Economic and Social Rights

Mao Zedong and his friends.

bett

man

n/c

orbi

s

bett

man

n/c

orbi

s. m

anip

ulat

ed b

y de

sign

talk

Dominion Post, 24 April 2003.

dom

inio

n p

ost



1. What problem of accuracy might arise from imaginatively reconstructing the past?

2. Suggest a reason why one man was taken out of the photo of Mao Zedong and his friends.

3. Imagine you are a journalist who has uncovered the truth about the Kuwaiti incubator babies story. Write the headline and the first sentence of an article exposing the fraud.

4. Suggest why the Sun published the SARS story.

5. Suggest three things an historian should do to check the accuracy of information and sources.

Check your answers.

myth, legend and historyThe way people view their world and origins is influenced by their culture. For many societies, like the Māori, indigenous Australians, Celtic and First Nation peoples of Canada, there are strong myths and legends about:

• where they came from

• the origins of their religions

• the way their environments evolved.

These myths and legends, however, are not history as there is no written evidence or actual relics to support them. Nevertheless, they serve to reinforce traditions, rules and beliefs. Here are some examples.

Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal people) believe that they each have a dreaming. This is a special place where their ancestors evolved and where particular animal spirits created the landscape.

the bible on the origins of woman‘It is not good for the man to be alone. I will provide a partner for him.’ So God formed out of the ground all the wild animals and all the birds of heaven. He brought them to the man to see what he would call them … the Lord God put the man into a trance, and while he slept, he took one of his ribs … The Lord God then built up the rib … into a woman.

New English Bible

2B

the

gran

ger

coll

ecti

on, n

ew y

ork



canada’s haisla people on the origins of the sunA white raven schemed to get a great ball of light which a chief possessed. He changed himself into a pine needle which the chief’s daughter swallowed while drinking from a well. The raven was later born as a small boy to the woman. The chief loved his grandson and allowed him to play with the ball of light in their house.

Suddenly Raven transformed into his true form and snatched the ball of light in his beak. He flew out through the smoke hole and turned black from the soot and smoke … Just as the old chief was about to catch him, Raven threw the ball of light into the sky. The old man could only watch as his greatest treasure astonished the creatures of the world with the gift of light.

Lyle Wilson

mĀori legend on the origins of lake omapere in northland

There once lived a very sacred old man called Takaurere. He was a tohunga, with a deep knowledge of the children of Tane. He lived alone in the forest where there grew only huge kauri trees that produced kapia (gum). One day the great forest of kauri trees caught fire and burnt to the ground. All the magnificent kauri trees perished, and Takaurere with them. Takaurere transformed himself into a taniwha and where the great kauri trees once stood, Lake Omapere was formed.

Takaurere still lives in the lake to this day, sometimes travelling underwater through underground waterways and hot pools … The stumps of the trees can also be seen in the depths of the lake.

Ngawini Smith, 2001



elizabeth i or the bisley boy?Queen Elizabeth lived a long time ago and there are many things about her that we cannot be certain about. Gaps in historical knowledge are often filled by myths or legends. The Bisley Boy is one such legend. As a young girl, Elizabeth spent some of her time far away from court in the tiny Gloucestershire village of Bisley. Here, according to the legend, she fell ill and died. Those who were caring for the child were frightened that the King would blame them and punish them, so they hit upon a plan. They would secretly bury the body of the true princess and scour the countryside to find a similar child to put in her place. But the only suitable red-haired child that they could find was not a girl but a boy! The great monarch who ruled England for 45 years was in fact a man dressed as a woman!

That is the story – is there any evidence to support it?

• We know that Elizabeth owned property in Bisley and was there during some of her childhood.

• In the 19th century, workmen uncovered an old stone coffin near Bisley church. The coffin contained the bones of a young girl.

• As she grew older, Queen Elizabeth started to lose her hair. She eventually had a huge collection of wigs.

• Throughout her adult life, Elizabeth feared doctors and medical examinations.

• Many eyewitness observers spoke about some masculine qualities possessed by Elizabeth. One wrote: ‘The constitution of her mind is exempt from female weakness, and she is endowed with a masculine power of application.’

• Elizabeth never married and never produced a child to take the Crown after her death. Most of her personal life is shrouded in secrecy and uncertainty.

• A modern historian wrote: ‘Four different foreign ambassadors thought … that there were secret reasons why Elizabeth would not bear children and might not marry at all.’

1. Refer to the three stories about origins.

a. Is this the way things actually happened?

b. Suggest why these stories are known to us today.

c. Are the stories history?

d. Do you know of another legend about the sun? If so, outline it in a couple of sentences.

2. a. List three ‘facts’ given in the story of the Bisley Boy myth which are not substantiated (backed up) by historical evidence. b. List three pieces of circumstantial evidence (facts which support but don’t prove) which suggest that the Bisley Boy myth was true. c. Explain in two sentences the difference between myths and history.

Check your answers.

Queen Elizabeth I.

the

gall

ery

coll

ecti

on/c

orbi

s

2C


the english story 1558–16253

Just two monarchs who both died in their beds, a Protestant church established and maintained, and a stronger, richer England. No mean feat at a time when the major powers of Europe were Catholic and generally unfriendly.

British historian Barry Coward


• examine key issues and developments in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I

• discover how England was governed

• use your skills to interpret genealogical tables and create timelines

• recognise the importance of religion in Tudor and Stuart life.

introduction Religion and the hope for salvation after one died was a central part of how people viewed the world in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Different views about religion could cause conflict, so a principle came to exist that the religion of the monarch was the religion of the state. And this in turn, should be the religion of the people.

elizabeth changes the official religionThe year 1558 was significant in English history – Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister, Mary I (Mary Tudor), to become the last English monarch in the Tudor dynasty.

Their father Henry VIII had set up the Protestant Church of England, but Mary had returned the country to the Roman Catholic faith. Most educated English people supported Protestant beliefs, however, as did Elizabeth. So in 1559 the new Queen re-established the Anglican Church by the Elizabethan Church Settlement.

This settlement was based on two Acts of parliament:

• Act of Supremacy which stated that Elizabeth replaced the Pope as leader of the Church in England

• Act of Uniformity which put in place a new Prayer Book, introduced Protestant doctrines and laid down the way people would worship.

The settlement, however, retained aspects of traditional church government and procedure to make it more acceptable to English Catholics.

Henry VIII: founder of the Church of England and father of the last three Tudor monarchs.

brit

ish

libr

ary



Key point

England’s religion changed four times from the 1530s until the reign of Elizabeth I. You’ll find out more about these changes in the next booklet.

problems with catholic europeThe return of England to the Protestant faith after 1558 had a major influence on events in Elizabeth’s reign, which lasted until 1603. The two major powers in Europe – France and Spain – were both Catholic, and with the support of the Pope in Rome, they wanted to see England returned to Catholicism.

By mid-1559 England was at peace with France and Spain, but both powers later supported the Catholic claim to the English throne by Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart). They regarded Elizabeth as illegitimate because Henry VIII had divorced so he could marry her mother, Anne Boleyn.

Religious geography of Europe in 1559: the Holy Roman Empire included more than 300 states in central Europe.

Roman Catholic

Protestant

Orthodox

Islam

Boundary of Holy Roman Empire

Scotland

Ireland

England

Norway

Sweden

Sweden

Poland

France

Spain

Switzerland

Netherland

Denmark

Wales

HOLY ROMAN

EMPIRE

Rome •Papal States



Mary Queen of Scot’s claim was based on her being the great-granddaughter of the first Tudor monarch, Henry VII (see the genealogical table below, where she is given the name of her dynasty, Mary Stuart). In 1568 rivalry between Protestants and Catholics in Scotland resulted in Mary giving up her throne there and fleeing to England. She was immediately imprisoned by Elizabeth, but soon became a focus for plots and rebellions within England.

religious views in englandAt the beginning of Elizabeth’s reign, Catholic religious beliefs were held by most of Elizabeth’s ordinary subjects, especially in the north. So, though Elizabeth’s personal views were Protestant, she followed a careful ‘softly softly’ approach in matters of religion. If her subjects outwardly conformed, she had no interest in ‘making windows into men’s souls’, in terms of their private thoughts.

This approach lasted for a decade but would be upset by Mary’s decision in 1568 to flee from Scotland and seek refuge in England. By her mere presence, she now became a magnet for disaffected Catholics who were opposed to the new order.

Genealogical table of the Tudor and Stuart monarchs.

HOUSE OF TUDOR HENRY VII

HENRY VIII Margaret = James IV of Scots

ELIZABETH (1558–1603) James V MARY I = Philip of Spain EDWARD VI

Mary Stuart – Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

HOUSE OF STUART

Henry, Prince of Wales (died 1612) Elizabeth = Fredrick Elector Palatine CHARLES I (1625–49) = Henrietta Maria of France

JAMES I (& VI) (1603–25) = Anne of Denmark

CHARLES II (1660–85)

JAMES II (1685–88) = Mary Beatrice (2)

Mary = William II of Orange

Anne Hyde (1) =

Elizabeth Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henriette



catholic plots against elizabethIn 1569 two Catholic earls in the north of England revolted in support of Mary, but they failed to get much backing, even from local Catholics. So the Northern Rebellion was quickly crushed, but the Catholic threat to Elizabeth continued.

In 1570 Pope Pius V’s Papal Bull:

• excommunicated Elizabeth from the Catholic Church

• declared that she was not the legitimate ruler of England

• instructed English people to reject her authority.

In 1571 the English Parliament reacted to the events of 1569–70 by introducing tough anti-Catholic laws. This legislation was further strengthened after later plots were uncovered backing Mary Queen of Scots. However, support for replacing Elizabeth and returning England to Catholicism continued to come from Rome, Spain and France. From the early 1570s they financed Catholic missionary activity in England.

Elizabeth’s political advisers, the Privy Council, decided that the focus of English Catholic hopes – Mary Queen of Scots – had to go, and so she was executed in 1587. A year later King Philip II of Spain sent an armada of ships to overthrow ‘that guilty woman of England’. However, the Spanish Armada was defeated, and Elizabeth kept both her throne and England’s Protestant church intact.

sharpening your history skills

Understanding genealogical tables

You have probably seen these before. Your genealogy is your family or whakapapa.

• Horizontal lines show brothers and sisters.

• Vertical lines show links to descendants – children, grandchildren and so on.

In the table on the previous page, Henry VIII was the brother of Margaret and both were children of Henry VII.

Mary Queen of Scots, the doomed focus for Catholic hopes in Elizabethan England.



Refer to the genealogical table for the Tudors and Stuarts.

1. Name the three monarchs who were children of Henry VIII.

2. Edward was younger than Mary I but ruled before her. Suggest why this happened.

3. There is no vertical line below Mary I. What does this mean?

4. What does the symbol = mean in a genealogical table?

5. Use information in the table to say why Mary Stuart had a good claim to the throne of the Tudors.

6. Mary was executed in 1587 but still played a part in the future monarchy of England. Explain with reference to the table.

Check your answers.

the governing of englandElizabethan England was governed by the Queen and her Privy Council based in the capital, London.

Parliament assisted the monarch but only met when she called them together. Made up of the House of Commons (elected) and the House of Lords (appointed), Parliament was only in session for five per cent of Elizabeth’s 44-year reign.

When it did meet, Parliament usually passed laws for the Crown and granted extra taxation. It also discussed local concerns and passed laws for local communities.

Occasionally, some members of parliament (MPs) did offer advice to the Queen, such as suggesting that she should marry and provide an heir, or at least name a successor. In response, Elizabeth told Parliament to mind its own business. It was not allowed to discuss matters related to her royal prerogative – the traditional rights and powers of the monarch.

Although Parliament occasionally disagreed with the Queen, relations between them were usually harmonious because the business of parliament was supervised by able privy councillors.

The governing of local areas (counties or boroughs) was carried out by the upper classes (gentry or nobility) under the supervision of the Privy Council.

3A

Parliament met in the area of London known as Westminster.



a stronger nation and a peaceful successionElizabeth died an old lady in 1603. She was succeeded by her Protestant relative King James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. Though her reign had seen problems over religion, there were a lot of positives:

• the 1559 Religious Settlement remained intact

• the country had become the leading Protestant power in Europe

• England had increased its naval strength and trading activity

• English ships had explored the globe.

Do a timeline of about six major events during the reign of Elizabeth I. List them in chronological (date) order. Leave a further six lines at the end of your list to add more events later. Start with:

1559 Religious Settlement: English church became Protestant

Check your answers.

king james i 1603–25James was a well-educated and experienced monarch who was determined to rule England wisely. He had successfully governed the troublesome Scots where others had failed.

However, he did have certain character weaknesses, which resulted in increasing financial problems for the government and difficulties in managing parliament. He also had favourites who were often unpopular because of their control of patronage: rewards granted by the Crown, such as positions, titles and rights to raise money.

James was also a big spender and misunderstood some aspects of the governing of his new kingdom. Nevertheless, after 1605 he was not faced with any further opposition during his reign.

During Elizabeth’s reign England became a stronger and more influential country.

3B

James I was an experienced monarch.



james and religious affairsLike Elizabeth, James was a firm Protestant, even though his mother had been Catholic. So both Puritans (extreme Protestants) and Catholics hoped that the new king would permit wider tolerance of Christian beliefs.

In 1604, James held a conference at Hampton Court to discuss Church structure and beliefs, but in the end he retained the Elizabethan Settlement unchanged. One positive outcome of the conference was a new English translation of The Bible in 1611. This is known as the King James or Authorised Version.

At first James seemed to be more tolerant towards Catholics, but he toughened up when this caused an outcry. This policy led to the famous Gunpowder Plot in 1605, when a small band of extreme Catholics, led by Guido (usually called Guy) Fawkes, tried to blow up parliament and the King.

However, in contrast to the many plots in Elizabeth’s reign, this was the only conspiracy against James.

financial problems and difficulties with parliamentJames inherited a large debt from Elizabeth and increased this considerably during his reign. At the time there was no regular taxation, and James found it difficult to cover government expenses with royal income such as rents, land sales, customs duties and court fines. The Crown could ask parliament for additional subsidies, but James did not always get what he wanted.

James’ personal extravagance and spending on favourites was criticised by many members of parliament, and two of his leading advisers were removed from office by the process of impeachment. Nevertheless, for the most part, James’ government was accepted by the nation and he was able to maintain the royal prerogative intact.

Guy Fawkes and his Catholic conspirators were arrested in 1605 before they could blow up King and Parliament.

pear

son

edu

cati

on

Hampton Court Conference debated the need for reform in the Church of England, but there were no major changes.

pear

son

edu

cati

on



religious wars in europeAs in Elizabeth’s reign, foreign policy was closely related to religious issues. Europe was split between rival Catholic and Protestant interests, and James hoped to avoid being drawn into conflict. He tried to keep on good terms with both sides, making peace with Catholic Spain in 1604, after 19 years of war.

However, later in his reign, when Spain fought Protestants in the Netherlands and some of the German states, parliamentary pressure mounted for James to give military support to the Protestant cause in Europe. English Catholics opposed these moves. Nevertheless, in 1624 after 20 years of peace, an unprepared England again went to war against Spain.

The following year, James died and was succeeded by his son Charles.

1. From the reign of James I:

a. list two important decisions

b. state two issues. Explain why one of them was an issue.

2. Add major events in James I’s reign to your activity 3B timeline.

Check your answers.

reminder: terms and websitesTerms shown in bold in all the lessons are defined in the Course and assessment guide. However, if you feel it will help your learning, develop your own glossary. Many of the big names and events referred to in this lesson and the next have interesting websites.

The new King Charles I and his friend the Duke of Buckingham had earlier urged James to go to war against Spain.

3C



It was a time when the fate of the English monarchy hung in the balance as it twisted and turned in the political wind. Over a period of 42 years it was successively unchecked by parliament, divested of its power, fighting for its survival, rejected and replaced, but eventually restored and reshaped.

NZ historian Roger Childs


• identify key developments in England between 1625–1660

• practise the skill of providing evidence and giving explanations

• demonstrate your ability to construct a history road.

introduction The reign of Charles I was an unsettled time for England.

• There were setbacks in separate wars against Spain and France.

• He had views on religion that differed from most of his subjects.

• He decided to rule from 1629–1640 without calling Parliament.

charles i rules without parliamentIn 1625 Charles I inherited not only the Crown, but also considerable debts. Furthermore, he had to deal with parliaments that were critical of:

• his chief minister Buckingham

• the Crown’s practice of collecting customs duties which had not been approved by parliament.

His religious policies were also unpopular, as Charles supported the view that people could be saved by free will: doing good works in their lives and taking part in the sacraments (church rituals). This rejected the traditional Church of England belief in predestination: that God had chosen at birth those who would be saved. In 1629 the House of Commons passed three resolutions criticising his policies. The King dissolved (dismissed) Parliament and decided to rule without it.

Charles was shattered when his closest friend, the Duke of Buckingham, was assassinated in 1628.

pear

son

edu

cati

on



This period of personal rule lasted until 1640, during which Charles:

• made peace with Spain and France

• used a variety of unpopular methods to raise finance

• supported his Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, in making the Anglican Church more ‘Catholic’ in its worship and beliefs

• increased England’s control over Ireland.

Charles remained unchallenged until 1637 by staying within the law and being able to raise enough money to govern, but trouble was brewing.

When he tried to extend his Laudian policies and English Prayer Book to Scotland, a rebellion broke out. The war against the Scots forced Charles to call Parliament in England to raise money for troops.

After an 11-year absence, Parliament was in no mood to give the King what he wanted. Rather, the Commons and Lords were determined to stop the abuses of royal power which had occurred during the personal rule.

In a series of Acts in 1641, Parliament succeeded in considerably limiting Charles’ prerogative (powers exercised by the monarch).

Mistrust continued between King and Parliament. The King’s decision to go to Scotland and a rebellion in the English colony of Ireland created further worries. Parliament was concerned that the King might raise troops in Scotland, and possibly Ireland, to use against them. So Parliament took the unprecedented step of passing a law to set up its own army.

By 1642 Parliament and Charles had each assembled troops and later that year England was plunged into civil war.

William Laud was widely criticised for making the Anglican Church more Catholic.

In 1642 Charles tried to have five MPs arrested. This was one example of deteriorating relations between King and Parliament.



Give explanations and/or evidence for the following.

1. What was the difference between predestination and free will?

2. What was the general purpose of Laudian policies in the 1630s?

3. Suggest why the period 1629–40 is called the personal rule.

4. Which prerogative power did Charles use in 1629?

Check your answers.

Key point

The relationship between monarch and parliament deteriorated during Charles I’s rule. After eleven years from 1629–1640 when there were no parliaments, the prerogative powers of the monarchy were limited by Parliament in 1641. Increasing tensions led to civil war in August 1642. England had no monarch between 1649 and 1660, as you’ll read about on the next page.

civil war and the end of monarchyThe war was fought between the Royalists (King Charles’ supporters) and parliamentary forces. Parliament eventually won because of its superior:

• money-raising

• access to resources and personnel

• leadership

• military organisation.

When the conflict finally ended in 1648, the parliamentary leaders hoped to reach an agreement with Charles to re-establish a monarchy with restricted powers. However, the King’s double-dealing during negotiations since 1646 convinced many army leaders and MPs that Charles had to go. The King was charged with treason, found guilty and executed in 1649.

4A

King Charles I was publicly executed in London in 1649. With his death, the system of monarchy was temporarily ended.

bett

man

n/c

orbi

s



england without a monarch: the interregnum 1649–60Being without a monarch was a new situation for England. The main problem for Oliver Cromwell, the most influential politician at the time, was how to develop a new constitution (system of government), which would be acceptable to the upper classes.

A key political situation in the 1650s was who would have the executive (governing) power that the monarch previously held:

• the army

• Cromwell himself

• or Parliament?

By the end of 1653, after trying a number of political experiments, a solution was reached, which set up a constitution similar to the traditional system. The main differences were that there was:

• a Lord Protector (Cromwell) instead of a monarch

• just one House of Parliament

• no House of Lords or Anglican Church

• a standing army which remained as a key force.

This arrangement, and other experiments in government, never gained majority support from the traditional governing classes and after Cromwell died in 1658 the system broke down. The period 1649–60 is referred to as the Interregnum, which means ‘between reigns’.


Constructing a history roadYou may have done this before:

• drawing a wide, curving road down your page

• putting dates and events along the road in chronological order

• adding sketches or symbols to go with the events.

It’s like the timeline you did in lesson 3 with a visual touch.

In April 1653 Cromwell and his troops sent Parliament home. This decision showed the problems of trying to get a new system of government sorted out.



Draw a history road to show these events with their dates in chronological order and include a sketch or symbol to go with each. (You may wish to do a highly creative job on the computer!) For the wording of each event, think up a newspaper headline that might have appeared at the time.

• Civil War broke out

• The House of Commons passed the three resolutions

• Charles I was executed

• Charles I decided to rule without Parliament

• Civil War ended

• Cromwell died

• A traditional constitution was tried during the Interregnum

• Parliament limited Charles’ prerogative power

• Cromwell dissolved Parliament.


1660: charles ii – the monarchy restoredGrowing political chaos by 1660 encouraged a group of powerful army leaders and influential landowners to restore Charles, the eldest son of Charles I, to the throne of England.

Charles II had many but not all the prerogative powers that his father had exercised before 1640. He and his Privy Council still ran the government, but Parliament now met more often.

Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, a staunch supporter of Charles I, was the new king’s chief adviser from 1660–67.

Along with the monarchy, the Anglican Church and the House of Lords were restored, and the nobility, gentry and bishops regained much of their former influence. Hopes that the re-established Church of England would be tolerant of other Christian groups, which had emerged during the Civil War and Interregnum, were dashed by Parliament. This was against the wishes of the King, who in 1660 had openly stated his preference for greater religious toleration.

4B

The restoration of monarchy was accepted by most people as a sensible return to the old system of government.



The Restoration was a period when literature, drama, art and music flourished. In 1662 the Royal Society, with Charles II as patron, was established to promote scientific endeavour.

But there were problems too. In 1665–66 there was a double tragedy in London, when an outbreak of the plague was followed by a fire, which destroyed much of the centre of the capital.

a general surveyThe last two lessons have given an overview of developments from 1558 until the 1660s, and a general understanding of what you will cover in more detail later.

As you saw in lesson 1, your studies will focus on broad areas rather than just the chronological story. However, the order of events in certain sections will be important. There will be references to particular time periods, monarchs and events in the rest of HS3001 and in HS3002. If you need to, refer back to these ‘English story’ lessons to check the historical context.

significant historical trendsThroughout history, related events or trends can emerge or evolve over an extended period of time. An achievement standard in the external examination will ask you to analyse such a trend.

Here are some examples:

a. The population of England grew steadily for a hundred years after 1550.

b. During the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I, some landowners began to enclose their land in fenced paddocks.

c. Parliament met less frequently after 1611.

d. The Crown retained the full range of its traditional prerogative powers from 1558 until 1641.

e. Changes to the Church by Charles I had important consequences in the 1640s.

1. For a-e above, identify whether each of these trends is primarily social, economic, political or constitutional in nature.

2. In your view, which trend was most closely linked to the Crown’s ability to govern? Give a reason to explain your choice.

Check your answers.

4C

Much of central London including the old St Paul’s Cathedral was destroyed in the fire of 1666.

the

gran

ger

coll

ecti

on, n

ew y

ork


england and britain: people and places5

Most English men and women lived close to the land in thousands of small parish villages. There were towns but only London could be considered a city.

NZ historian Colin Campbell

learning intentions In this lesson you will:

• identify and explain where people lived in Tudor England

• recognise the importance of London

• explore the political geography of the British Isles in the sixteenth century.

introduction This lesson is about geography as it relates to the history of the time. Knowing where countries and places were located in relation to one another is vital in understanding political decisions and military tactics.

The fact that the British Isles were islands made the navy the key feature of England’s defence. Would-be invaders had to come across the sea (more on this in HS3002).

britain: diverse lands and peoplesThe map shows Britain (the British Isles), as it was in the reign of Elizabeth I. There were four major parts:

• England with its capital, London

• Wales, ruled by England since 1283

• Ireland, a distant and troublesome colony of England. Most Irish never willingly accepted English rule.

• Scotland, an independent kingdom. Over the centuries the Scots had fought many battles against the English.

An Elizabethan sailing ship.

The political geography of Britain in the 16th century.

ENGLAND

SCOTLAND

WALESLondon

IRELAND

Edinburgh


england and britain: people and places

Elizabeth I died in 1603. Four centuries later the second Elizabeth is on the throne and there have been changes. Today Elizabeth II reigns over a state known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: usually referred to as Britain or the United Kingdom (UK).

• Scotland and Wales remain part of Great Britain but have their own law-making assemblies.

• Southern Ireland, known as Eire, is an independent country.

1. Remove Worksheet 1 from the back of the booklet. Use an atlas if you need to. On the map:

• locate and name Wales, Dublin and the capital of Scotland

• shade in the territories that Elizabeth I ruled

• indicate the English Channel with a two-headed arrow

• name the country in Europe which is closest to England.

2. a. What problem would England face if France and Scotland formed an alliance against it?

b. Suggest a reason why an enemy of England might be tempted to get friendly with the Irish.

Check your answers.

how do we know what the population was?England and Wales have more than 60 million people today, but back in 1558 the population was about three million. There were no regular censuses before 1800, so how are these population figures worked out?

In 1538 Henry VIII’s Secretary Thomas Cromwell ordered all priests in parishes to keep a record of baptisms, burials and marriages. Governments like having accurate population data so they know who to collect tax from!

EIRE

UNITED KINGDOM

ENGLAND

SCOTLAND

WALES

London

Northern

Ireland

United Kingdom

Dublin

The political geography of the United Kingdom today.

5A



Parish records, maps and surveys are types of quantitative evidence which statistics can be based on. Other such sources are maps and surveys.

At that time, the majority of people identified with a parish, so church records are the main source for estimating population size in Tudor and Stuart England.

But there are some problems with parish data:

• Some have been lost or destroyed by fire.

• Some clergy weren’t very careful about keeping full records.

• Some people didn’t want to be recorded so they could avoid taxes.

• Others who were beggars or vagrants probably weren’t recorded.

• The records were of church events such as baptisms or christenings (ceremonies for accepting infants into the church community), weddings and burials. However, some families didn’t do such things through the church.

• Some people moved around so might not be recorded on a parish register.

This graph uses data from 404 parishes in England: about four per cent of parishes.

Using a computer programme, this sample has been applied to the whole of England. It’s probably the best estimate we can get.

A parish church.

dt 11

1969

28

population of england 1551–1701Population (in millions)

5.5M

5M

4.5M

4M

3.5M

3M

1551 1561 1571 1581 1591 1601 1611 1621 1631 1641 1651 1661 1671 1681 1691 1701



the nature of population

Key pointFrom parish records and qualitative evidence like diaries, court records, rolls from manors, even plays and ballads, a picture of population patterns emerges.

• Many children died at birth or under five: possibly 25–30 per cent.

• Women, on average, had about six pregnancies and many died giving birth.

• Life expectancy at birth was probably 30–40 years, but for those who survived into teenage years it was much longer.

• The population was youthful, with about 40 per cent under the age of 20.

As the graph on the previous page shows, the population grew steadily for a hundred years after 1550. Why? William Lambarde gave these reasons in 1594:

Nowadays not only young folk of all sorts but churchmen marry and multiply at liberty (which did not used to be). On the other hand … we have not been touched with any extreme mortality either by sword or sickness …

Historians also point out that mostly good harvests in the period meant:

• plenty of food so famine and deaths from hunger were rare

• better nourishment so people were less likely to die from illnesses

• good times generally encouraged earlier marriage and having children.

the plague and other killersSeptember 7 1665 I came home, there perishing now near ten thousand poor creatures weekly: however, I went all along the city and suburbs from Kent Street to St James – a dismal passage and dangerous to see so many coffins exposed in the streets. And the street thin of people, the shops shut up, and all in mournful silence as not knowing whose turn it might be next …

This was John Evelyn reporting on the worst outbreak of bubonic plague in the 17th century: at least 70,000 died in London alone. Its name came from the buboes (swellings) which appeared soon after infection. Death usually followed in a few days. As the worst killer of the time, it was greatly feared.

Rats and fleas: the villains that caused the plague.



Rats carried the plague bacteria and fleas spread the disease, but no one knew that then, and there were no remedies. Doctors tried removing blood and forced vomiting, and suggested potions that included garlic, crushed spiders and gunpowder! The best chance of survival was to have a blood type fleas didn’t like.

While the population was generally increasing in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, unpredictable outbreaks of plague, smallpox, diptheria, typhoid, scarlet fever, influenza and whooping cough increased the death rate for short periods.

Poor hygiene was a major cause of disease. In this illustration a woman is throwing her waste out of the window so it will run into an open sewer down the middle of the narrow street. Pedestrians needed to watch up and down!

1. Give a reason for each of the following:

a. the population was youthful

b. many children died young

c. parish records are the best source of population data.

2. Refer to William Lambarde’s views on population growth.

a. What word does he use for having children?

b. What does he mean by ‘we have not been touched … by sword?’

3. Refer to the graph showing the population of England in 1551–1701 earlier in this lesson. What effect did the plague of the mid-1660s have?

4. Draw a diagram to show how plague could occur, using sketches, symbols, arrows and brief notes. Include these elements:

• a person

• fleas

• open sewers

• rats

• other people.

Check your answers.

5B



most people lived in the countryEngland was largely a rural society. Over 90 per cent lived in settlements of less than 3000. Why was this?

• There were no large urban industries.

• Agriculture did not produce enough surplus food to support large numbers of urban dwellers.

Most people, therefore, lived in villages and worked on the nearby farmland (more on the rural economy in HS3002).

The diagram alongside shows how urban areas varied in size according to their functions:

• commerce

• government

• justice

• religion

• industry

• transport centre.

london: centre of action‘Through the city ran the River Thames – a highway for its citizens and the gateway for foreign trade’ (historian Martin Holmes). And so it is today. London has been the biggest centre in the British Isles for 2000 years. In Tudor and Stuart times it was the focus for many activities. (You can find the places mentioned below on Worksheet 1. You may find it useful to highlight or underline them.)

urban hierarchyHamlets

small clusters of farmhouses

Villageslarger settlements with a church, a few

crafts, trades and shops

Market townsurban centres with larger population.

Farm produce and crafts sold at regular markets and fairs

County towns and boroughsbig towns were government centres and had courts. Called a city if there was a cathedral

Capital – Londonthe only city, 20 times larger than any other town and

the largest urban area in Western Europe by 1667

londonBiggest port in England: ships from the British Isles and Europe anchored in the Pool of London

Huge market for goods from other parts of England

Capital of England with the Royal Palace at Whitehall and the Houses of Parliament

Education centre: four Inns of Court and two Inns of Chancery were England’s law schools

Cultural/entertainment centre: drama, theatre, music, fashion. By the 17th century the London ‘season’ was popular with the élite

Trade and industrial centre: particularly for England’s major product – woollen cloth



By 1600 London had expanded well beyond its old protecting wall. Once separated from Westminster by open land, the city had absorbed the government centre.

The illustration shows the only bridge across the Thames at the time. For farming communities south of the river it provided easy access for bringing their produce into the city. It had some other interesting features:

• many wooden houses and shops (a major fire danger)

• a traitor’s gate

• pillars which prevented ocean-going vessels from sailing upstream.

Smaller barges, which could sail under the bridge, moved goods to and from ships.

the good and bad of londonWith 200,000 inhabitants by 1600, the capital was a huge market for farmers selling grain, vegetables, fruit, meat and milk. There was also a big trade in timber and crafts. Conveniently named locations – Wood Street, Bread Street, the Poultry – made it easy to find the markets.

London had its advantages, but there were major worries for the inhabitants.

• Fresh water was scarce and many drank polluted water with the risk of serious illness.

• Coal was increasingly used in the 17th century for heating and fuel, especially once nearby forests were felled. Pollution from fires created a major smog problem, particularly in winter.

• With no rubbish collection and open sewers in the streets, rats had a field day and outbreaks of plague occurred from time to time.

• The narrow, crowded streets created various hazards, especially congestion. There were also plenty of thieves and beggars, ready to lift your purse or slit your throat.

Old London Bridge.

the

gall

ery

coll

ecti

on/c

orbi

s

Londoners.



Nevertheless, there was a magic about London: it was ‘action city’.

It attracted:

• upper classes of peers and gentry who came to parliament, the royal court or just to enjoy the socialising and entertainments such as Shakespeare’s plays

• merchants because London was number one for trade and commerce

• shopkeepers, tradesmen and nearby farmers as the city was a huge market

• students who came to the grammar schools and for training in law

• apprentices who wanted to learn a trade

• servants who could work in the many wealthy households

• criminals and beggars who could prey on the wealthy.

London offered the best and worst of big-city life. Imagine you are a resident of London in 1600. Write about half to three-quarters of a page on what you like and dislike about the city. You can choose your gender and class.


A merchant.

5C


the status society6

Almighty God has created and appointed all things to heaven, earth and water in most perfect and excellent order … Every degree of people, in their vocation, calling and office, has appointed to them their duty and order.

From a sermon on good order and obedience read each year in every church during Elizabeth’s reign.


• describe how English society was structured

• recognise the importance of social status in sixteenth century society.

introduction The sermon at the start of this lesson makes an important point. Everyone and everything in heaven and earth has its place in the Great Chain of Being. Presiding over all creation was God the Father, as shown at the top of the illustration below.

But were men as totally in control on earth as God was in heaven? Not from 1553 to 1603, when first Mary and then Elizabeth ruled. People accepted the concept of divine right which said that monarchs were chosen by God. If the ruler was a woman because there was no male heir, then that was God’s will and it could not be questioned.

The Great Chain of Being (from Rhetorica Christiana, 1579).

brit

ish

libr

ary


the status society

1. Quote from the sermon on the previous page the phrase that indicated God had got it right when sorting out the order of things on earth.

2. Give two reasons why women could be monarchs in England.

3. Refer to the Great Chain of Being picture.

a. Who are the figures surrounding God at the top (one word)?

b. Give evidence that they needed to behave themselves.

c. What is the place at the bottom? Justify your answer.

d. Name some of the things God had created on earth as well as people.

e. If you were born into a wealthy noble family, how could you justify your position in relation to less fortunate people?

Check your answers.

a man’s world?Although the monarch could be female, it was men who:

• ran the government

• controlled economic activities

• administered the Church

• were responsible for justice, law and order.

The term patriarchal (from the Latin pater, meaning father) is used for a male-dominated society like the one that existed in Tudor and Stuart times. (You will look at the subordinate but vital place of women in this society in the next lesson.)

As the Great Chain of Being illustrates, society was also based on levels of status: a hierarchy. People knew their place in the chain because it was God’s will and the natural order of things.

Individual status was based on:

• birth and upbringing: if you were the duke’s eldest son, you would inherit the title when dad died

• wealth, especially land: increasing your wealth could allow you to move up the social ladder

• reputation in the community: how you were regarded by others

• occupation: the upper classes (peers and gentry) usually didn’t work, but other people could improve their status through economic success.

6A

A gentleman – although small in number the gentry were an immensely important group in society, the economy and politics.

brit

ish

mus

eum


the status society

structure of societyThis diagram shows the social hierarchy in Tudor and Stuart times. Note how status was linked to political importance. Men, from wealthier yeomen landowners with an annual income of 40 shillings or more and upwards on the social scale, could vote. However, it was the peerage and gentry in particular, but also wealthy merchants, lawyers and bishops, who had most political influence. Upper classes with political clout are sometimes called the political nation.

men at the top: peers (nobles)A peer had a hereditary title which he could pass on to his eldest son. The title was granted by a previous monarch or the present sovereign.

In earlier times, peers had been military leaders. By Elizabeth’s reign, however, nobles could not keep private armies or build castles. Nevertheless, they still had large properties and political power. Tudor and Stuart monarchs relied on them to:

• help run central and local government

• keep order in the kingdom

• be present at Court.

Peers were generally happy to serve the monarch because it increased their status in society. They could also increase their wealth by getting a share of royal patronage: positions, gifts, monopolies on making and selling products, the right to collect customs duties and other money-making opportunities. In turn, peers would provide patronage for clients wanting to improve their status.

Crown

Political Leaders

Other ruling classes

Parish office-holders

no political importance at all

55 to 170 temporal peers, up to 26 bishops

30,000–50,000 non-titled landowners, lawyers, merchants and so on

80,000–120,000 yeomen, working landowning farmers

3–5 million small farmers, landless labourers, vagrants and so on

DukeMarquess

Earl

Viscount

Baron

Peers in order of rank.


the status society

The monarch might make a man a peer because he:

• was a royal favourite

• had wealth and power

• was related (Charles I’s younger son was Duke of York)

• had served the Crown well

• was the descendant of a former peer. (Women could not inherit titles.)

Being a peer brought rights and privileges, such as:

• a seat in the House of Lords

• being able to assess (usually under-assess) yourself for tax purposes

• legal protection from creditors, so they often ran up huge debts!

• freedom from imprisonment except for very serious offences

• trial only by fellow peers

• possibility of royal pardon, with the exception of treason. (Read the story of the Duke of Norfolk.)

bett

man

n/c

orbi

s

how the mighty could fallWhen Elizabeth began her reign there was only one top-of-the-range peer: the Duke of Norfolk. He was a Catholic and made the fatal mistake of sympathising with a rebellion against the Queen. This was treason and there was no pardon or mercy. Norfolk was beheaded in 1572. Apart from James’ sons, no further dukes were created until the King’s friend George Villiers was made Duke of Buckingham in 1623.

what made a gentleman?That wasn’t easy to define, but there were three indisputable requirements:

• owning large chunks of land

• living off the rents and production of their land

• acceptance in the community as being gentry.

There were perhaps 30,000 gentry in 1558 and close to 50,000 by 1667. Not surprisingly, there were ‘greater’ and ‘lesser’ gentry:

• baronets: a title created by James I in 1611 as a way to raise money! These men were rich but did not sit in the House of Lords

• knights: like baronets, they were addressed as ‘Sir’

• esquires (squires): had a coat of arms like baronets and knights

• lesser gentry: owned smaller estates.

KnightsBaronets

Esquires Lesser gentry

degrees of gentry


the status society

The status of gentry was much sought-after. Lawyers and merchants who did well in the towns and cities would often try to buy the status by purchasing land. Once you obtained the land, however, you had to be accepted by the local community as being gentry!

Gentry held key positions in local government like JP (Justice of the Peace) and sheriff. Most MPs in the Commons were from this class. Some went on to become privy councillors. Because of their high status and political importance, peers and gentry are sometimes known as the governing class or élite (more on their political roles in HS3002).

successful, wealthy farmers: yeomenThese men made money and gained their status from hard work on the land. They were second only to gentry in village society and were respected for their diligence and economic success.

They qualified as voters by owning land that produced an income of 40 shillings or more a year. But most were much wealthier than this and often richer than lesser gentry.

Many were well educated, and in the parishes often served as:

• church wardens

• constables

• supervisors of the poor

• road surveyors.

They also served on juries and were prominent in county militia units.

lower ordersSixteenth century writer William Harrison observed that they ‘have neither voice nor authority in the commonwealth but are to be ruled over, not to rule others’. He was referring to the 90 per cent of the population ranked below yeomen.

• Husbandmen were small farmers who owned a little land and sometimes profited from good harvests. However, they struggled to make a living when there was bad weather and poor crops.

• Cottagers owned, in theory, enough land to be able to build a cottage (usually two rooms) in the local village. In practice, cottagers often rented land and owned little more than garden plots. They were poorer than husbandmen.

• Landless labourers lived by whatever work they could get: planting, harvesting and tending stock or, possibly, in mines or metal works.

• Paupers were the unemployed who might get occasional work but often lived in dire poverty (more on this large group in HS3002).

Yeomen were, above all, family farmers, working themselves and making full use of their wives and children … they were usually to be found at home, on their land, not gadding about on public duties or visiting friends, like the gentlemen. Historian Professor Joyce Youings

john

gre

en


the status society

1. For each description below, name the social class. The first one has been done for you.

Description Social Class

a. I am Sir Thomas Sharpe, a large landowner and justice of the peace. gentry

b. My family and I have worked hard on our land and we are able to live a comfortable life. I am also the local churchwarden.

c. I cannot get regular work and often have to beg. Now and then I end up in the poorhouse.

d. I inherited the title from my father and live off the estates we own in five counties. In the summer season you’ll find me in London.

e. We have some land and occasionally have a surplus to sell. But last month’s floods wiped out our crops and made life a struggle.

f. We have a cottage in the village and survive on what we can grow. However, we remain very poor.

Check your answers.

urban societyMore than 85 per cent of the population lived in rural areas, though towns and cities were growing. Although they were often crowded, unhealthy places, urban areas attracted a lot of migrants:

• people wanting to improve their education, wealth and careers, like younger sons of peers and gentry

• immigrants fleeing from conflict and religious persecution in Europe. French and Dutch Protestants brought useful skills in the clothing trades and glass-making

• landless and unemployed people from the countryside seeking work. Some ended up as criminals or beggars.

Urban society depended on the size of the settlement, as you can see in the diagram above. The greater the functions and services of a settlement, the more complex the social structure.

6B

A model of the hierarchy of settlement in 17th-century England.

Type of settlement Hamlet Village Town Country town

Borough

Captial

Distance apart (km) 5 16 32 64 400

Service settlement provides

· Smith · Miller · Carpenter · Weaver · Potter

· Weaver (broadloom)· Vicar

· Butcher · Baker · Tailor · Tanner · Fishmonger · Shoemaker

· Barber · Silversmith · Merchant · Glover · School · Lawyer · Cathedral · Quarter Sessions

· Theatre · Court · Finance Exchange · Parliament House

Number of people living in settlement

25 100 1000 6000 100 000


the status society

In big towns wealthy merchants were at the top and this class grew with the expansion of trade and commerce. Judges, lawyers and top officials like mayors and aldermen also ranked highly.

Further down the urban social ladder were:

• owners of businesses producing iron goods, glass, leather goods, clothes

• self-employed craftsmen such as jewellers, gunsmiths, saddlers, printers

• artisans who made shoes, caps, gloves, harnesses, soap, boxes

• apprentices learning trades like weaving, printing, baking, clockmaking

• skilled and unskilled labourers who worked in mining, retail and industry

• paupers, beggars and criminals.

moving up in the worldMost people were born into a social level and stayed there. However, if you could get on the social escalator you could improve your status. Lionel Cranfield’s experience (shown alongside) was an example of what a lucky few could do.

This sort of social mobility was possible as a result of:

• marriage to an heiress

• accumulating wealth and buying property

• success in the law, Church or army

• entering the royal service

• education, talent and luck.

Most stayed put socially but some did improve their status as the world changed. Some went down, like the fallen angels you saw earlier. Women had a harder job improving their lot, as you’ll see in the next lesson.

1. Refer to the diagram on the previous page.

a. How far would a villager have to travel to get to another village?

b. Name two types of craftsmen who might work in a village.

c. What was the smallest settlement to have merchants?

2. Use your knowledge of the last two lessons and your imagination. You are the clever, teenaged son of a cottager who has been lucky enough to go to a village school. You decide to go to a large town to seek your fortune. Tell your story of how you go up in the world.

Check your answers.

Lionel Cranfield was unusual in making giant leaps up the social ladder. He started as a lowly grocer’s apprentice, but used his business skills to become a wealthy merchant and landowner. In 1621 he became Lord Treasurer for James I and was made Earl of Middlesex.

IS 4

5829

54

grocer’s boy to treasurer

6C


7 women’s place: inferior to men

Women are a necessary evil, a natural temptation, a desirable calamity, a domestic peril, a deadly fascination and a painted ill.

St Chrysostom


• explore ideas relating to women and their place in society

• describe how men justified disadvantaging women

• examine the legal status of women in early modern England

• recognise that the rights and roles of women were a product of the circumstances and attitudes of the time.

introductionMany men were scared of women and the power they might use if they had freedom in society. During the 16th and 17th centuries women were second-class citizens with few rights, little authority and generally limited to the roles of production and reproduction.

Religious beliefs, legal traditions and the writings of male philosophers were used to justify keeping women under the control of either their fathers or their husbands.

not all the sameYou’ll learn that all women in Tudor and Stuart England faced discrimination before the law and were forbidden to hold certain positions. However, a woman could become the royal sovereign and opportunities for women depended to some extent on their social position. Obviously a duchess lived a very different life from the wife of a cottager. The degree of inferiority a woman faced also depended on her stage of life and whether she was married or not.

Circumstances and attitudes could also vary and change:

• During the Civil War and Interregnum religious groups held a range of beliefs. Some, like the Diggers, favoured more equality for women.

• Quakers during the 1640s and 1650s allowed women to preach sermons.

• In London and many other towns, a married woman, like an unmarried woman, could run a business – provided she had her husband’s permission!

trouble started with eve

Men claimed that it was woman who ruined things from the start. Eve had tempted Adam with the forbidden fruit and so God tossed both of them out of the Garden of Eden.

the

gran

ger

coll

ecti

on, n

ew y

ork


women’s place: inferior to men

justifying female inferiorityBiblical teachingsEarly Christian writer St Paul said in his first Letter to Timothy: ‘I do not permit a woman to be a teacher, nor must woman domineer over man: she should be quiet. … it was not Adam who was deceived: it was the woman who, yielding to deception, fell into sin.’

If it happened once it could happen again – women were considered easy targets for the wily devil (see lesson 9). John Calvin, Protestant leader in Switzerland, stressed the female virtues of silence and obedience.

Biological and emotional argumentsGreek philosopher Aristotle had proposed more than a thousand years before that women were incomplete humans. Another argument was that because women were generally smaller than men, they were the weaker sex.

Moods and passionsDoctors claimed that women’s moods were dangerous as they could lead to irrationality, deceit, infidelity and passion. Some Elizabethan writers also contended that women were a danger because of their ‘insatiable lust’ and ‘lewd behaviour’.

Of course, all these arguments were put forward by men to justify the principle that a female should be under the domination of her father or husband.

The viewpoints also justified widespread discrimination against women and their exclusion from any leadership role in politics, society and the economy. Having a woman as queen was hard to take for many men, and some saw it as just a temporary aberration.

discrimination in a man’s world

John Calvin.

the

gran

ger

coll

ecti

on, n

ew y

ork

attend grammar schools or universities

be a diplomat, soldier or sailorretain ownership of property after marriage

have a title in her own right or inherit a title

perform on the stage (prior to the 1660s)

vote or become an MP be a priest or bishop

be a justice of the peace, lawyer or judge

a woman could not …



As a result women ‘would play little part in the intellectual, political or social life beyond the limited sphere of ordering their households and bearing children’.

Historian and journalist Gila Curtis

women’s legal statusGirls were subject to the authority of their fathers and could be married from 12 years old. For most, marriage was desirable because they would at least have a husband to support them. Widows or unmarried women usually struggled to survive in a man’s world. However, there could be some advantage for an enterprising woman in not having a man. There were two types of legal status: a married woman or feme covert, and a single woman or feme sole.

feme covert • subject to husband’s control

• property and goods owned by husband

• expected to produce children

• main roles: running the household, raising children, tending to husband’s needs, helping with his work if required

• with husband’s approval, could be declared a feme sole to run own business

• could not plead in court without him

• without the protection of the law, could be beaten.

feme sole • could own land, run a business, make money and incur debts

• if widowed, land brought into marriage was returned to her

• could take a case to court. At the Court of Requests in Elizabeth’s reign a third of the cases involved women, most of them femes soles

• widows of nobility or gentry could live comfortably (possibly with relatives) but widows of lower classes had great difficulty surviving so would remarry if possible

• if living alone and got offside with the community, might be accused of witchcraft (see lesson 9).

Indicate if the following statements are true or false. Give evidence to support each answer.

1. St Paul believed that Eve led Adam astray.

2. Women faced the same difficulties in life regardless of social status.

3. The main roles for a married woman centred on home and family.

4. A feme sole could be economically independent.

5. Girls could be married before becoming teenagers.

6. On marriage, a woman still retained ownership of her property.

Check your answers.

7A



women and the world of workWomen played a dominant role in the household, cooking, cleaning, sewing, raising the children and dealing with sickness. They might also be employed in jobs related to domestic skills such as making clothing for the upper classes, as warders in female prisons, or nursing in hospitals.

Furthermore, in the social classes up to the level of the yeomanry, women also had a crucial role in helping their husbands on the land, in trades and other businesses.

• Farmers’ wives milked cows, fed chickens, sowed and harvested crops.

• Craftmen’s wives often did the trading and kept records of transactions.

• Fishermen’s wives usually sold the catch at the local market.

• Ministers’ wives sometimes collected tithes (taxes on parishioners).

• From the Civil War on, soldiers’ wives sometimes acted as nurses.

Historian Pearl Hogrefe claims that women in pre-Tudor times were more able to be involved in the economy, run businesses and estates and even hold official positions. Reasons for the changes could include:

• the increasing population, which meant there were more men around

• changing attitudes to the roles of women.

Generally, men dominated the running of the economy and did most of the skilled work. However, the death of a husband allowed opportunities for some women, such as:

• running land estates they might inherit

• continuing businesses: some trade organisations allowed women to keep their husbands’ memberships and even train apprentices.

Ann Clifford in Westmorland took over the important role of sheriff after her cousin died, but she was unique in doing this.

Widows usually looked to remarry. Competing in an economic world which favoured men was not easy, even though some capable and resourceful women succeeded. However, for the majority of women in the lower classes, work was in the home and helping their partner. Upper class women usually had domestic help from lower-class girls and women, and generally lived a life of leisure.

Women were a vital part of the rural labour force. Both sexes also occasionally took breaks from their work!

gree

n



educating women: unnecessary and dangerous?A learned woman is thought of as a comet that bodes mischief when it appears (17th century saying)

Most girls were destined for marriage, family and household roles, so formal education was not considered necessary. Girls could attend village schools but only boys could go on to grammar schools, universities and training in law.

If girls were to have tuition it should be in domestic duties and religion. This knowledge was regarded as important for wives and mothers.

However, there were some who advocated and actively promoted educating women and acknowledged their academic ability.

• John Comenius, the Czech writer and reformer, observed that women ‘had equal sharpness of mind and capacity for knowledge to that of men’.

• Royal, noble and gentry families who wanted to educate their daughters often used private male tutors. By the age of 12, the future Queen Elizabeth had studied French, Italian, Spanish, Flemish, mathematics, geography, astronomy and history. Her tutor Roger Ascham said, ‘her mind has no womanly weakness, her perseverance is equal to a man’.

• Ann Coke was an outstanding scholar whose translations of sermons from Latin into English received rave reviews from two of Elizabeth’s senior clerics, Archbishop Parker and Bishop Jewel.

• In the 1640s Gerrard Winstanley, a leader of the radical Puritan group known as the Diggers, advocated equal education for both sexes up to the age of 18. But by the 1660s, the Diggers had disappeared.

Nevertheless, formal education remained the privilege of a small minority of women in the period. Literacy for women is unlikely to have ever exceeded 10 per cent, while estimates of male literacy of the time range from 25 to 50 per cent.

the female worldIn Women in Early Modern England 1550–1720 (published 1998), Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford described areas of society where women:

• had their own culture

• were in control

• interacted with each other.



In the spheres of birth and childcare, social welfare, conversation and friendship, women hadan existence independent of men.

enterprising womenGila Curtis has concluded that ‘most women in the sixteenth and seventeenth century lived and died in obscurity’. What evidence there is suggests that the vast majority of women accepted their inferior position in society and got on with the domestic and work tasks which society expected of them.

However, as you’ve seen, there were some opportunities for enterprising women to break out of the domestic drudgery. In a few cases, women dominated in a man’s world, in addition to the obvious example of Queen Elizabeth. However, such remarkable women were rare.

elizabeth talbot, countess of shrewsbury, 1518–1608 • Became the second most powerful and wealthy

woman in England.

• Kept and increased her property through four marriages.

• Bought and sold estates, lent money, farmed the land and traded in lead, coal and timber.

• At her death was a millionairess and owned nearly 40,400 hectares and a number of stately homes, including Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire.

Women had their own ways of speaking to each other and had a long tradition of knowledge about herbs, songs and healing. For some, medicine was a profession.

Women played a key role in welfare. Wealthier women often helped the poor. There was also a tradition of giving and exchanging clothing, food, recipes, herbs and embroidery.

Women socialised at the village market, the well, outside shops and in the fields. They formed close friendships and in strictly female company it was common for them to let their hair down.

Men were usually not allowed to be present at birth. Furthermore, babies and small children were basically a woman’s preserve.

the ways of women

Elizabeth Talbot, also known as Bess of Hardwick.

nat

ion

al p

ortr

ait

gall

ery,

lon

don



mary frith (moll cutpurse) 1584–1659 • The daughter of a shoemaker, Mary preferred

the ways of boys from an early age and from teenage years generally dressed as a man.

• She kept bad company in London and formed a very successful gang of thieves.

• Known as ‘Moll Cutpurse’ because of her robbery technique, she sometimes cut off the clothes of her victims!

• Her large London house was a tavern, brothel, pawnshop and warehouse for stolen property.

• She gave food and cash to prisoners.

In the 1650s she robbed General Fairfax, but when her horse failed her, she was captured and jailed. However, on paying the General £2000 she won her release! Moll was a classic rebel who smoked a pipe, had sexual partners of both genders and appeared on stage in drag.

Foreigners thought that English women from the upper and middle classes lived pretty well compared to elsewhere in Europe. There was a saying that England was a paradise for women, a prison for servants and a hell for horses!

1. In a paragraph of about eight to 10 lines, explain how women were disadvantaged in Tudor and Stuart England.

2. List four ways in which women could succeed in a male-dominated economy.

3. Name four prominent women who are remembered from Tudor and Stuart times. In a sentence on each, briefly explain why they succeeded.

4. Which woman would have been wealthier than Elizabeth Talbot?

5. Match the men with their viewpoints:

John Comenius compared Elizabeth favourably with men

Roger Ascham advocated equality in education

Gerrard Winstanley praised the translating skills of a woman

Bishop Parker supported educating girls in home and family skills

Check your answers.

iwoa

sta

te u

niv

ersi

ty p

ress

7B



1558 to 1660: did life change for women?For the majority, the answer is probably no. By the 1660s there had been major political changes and the economy had expanded, but there was no emancipation of women. They were still restricted legally, couldn’t vote, had no role in politics and few opportunities to succeed economically.

During the Civil War and Interregnum towards the end of the period, there were some changes.

• During the fighting many women were left to run estates, farms and businesses.

• Some female roles expanded during the war: more women tended to the wounded, provided provisions and sold their bodies.

• A few brave women took part in the fighting, as in Parliament’s defence of London against King Charles’ troops. The Duchess of Portland, Lady Harley and Lady Winter all organised spirited defence of their properties.

• Women did become more politically active. Some signed petitions and appeared before parliamentary committees. Others joined radical groups, such as the Levellers, Diggers, Quakers and Ranters, which advocated greater freedom and equality.

• In some Puritan religious groups (for example, the Quakers) women were allowed to preach.

But with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, in the main there was a return to the old gender roles. The sects generally went underground and many radicals left the country. In some jobs women were more restricted, notably in teaching and medicine where men became more dominant.

However, there had been some progress. Poor Laws passed late in Elizabeth’s reign provided some social welfare for destitute women (and men) at the parish level. Also, the expansion of trade and the growth of cities, especially in the 17th century, allowed some women in the growing merchant and trading classes to be more involved in family businesses.

Under the heading Did the lives of women change from 1558 to 1660? set up two columns: change/continuity. List at least four aspects of change and four aspects of continuity. Then, in a short paragraph of about six to eight lines, write a summary answer to the question.

Check your answers.

Quaker leader George Fox said, ‘May not the spirit of Christ speak in the female as well as the male?’

mau

sell

col

lect

ion

7C


marriage, sex and family8

The simple fact is that marriage in this period worked. Its purposes were seen by the Church and probably most contemporaries as threefold: the procreation and bringing up of children, the satisfaction of sexual desires and the formation of a lifelong partnership involving the mutual support of husband and wife.

Historian J A Sharpe


• gain an appreciation of the importance of marriage and family

• identify features of arranged marriages

• explore the nature of relationships between husband and wife and between parents and children.

introductionAs in most societies, marriage with a partner of the opposite sex was seen as being desirable and sensible for adults in Tudor and Stuart England. To be socially acceptable it was best:

• to have parental approval

• to be married in church

• to produce children within marriage so they would be legitimate heirs.

The evidence suggests that most men and women followed this pattern, but there were exceptions.

You’ll see that:

• perhaps about 10 per cent of adults never married

• premarital sex, illegitimacy and homosexuality were not uncommon

• some people did marry for love rather than following the usual practice of arranged marriages

• others formed lasting partnerships without the blessing of the Church.

First, look at how marriage was viewed at the time.

Husband and wife heading for town.

john

gre

en


marriage, sex and family

church marriage as the accepted practiceHororia Denny was told on the day of her marriage to James Lord Hay in 1607, ‘All the time of your life you have been gathering for this day’.

Historian Antonia Fraser

Children were taught from early age that marriage was the natural way to settle down in adulthood. The Church of England endorsed the sanctity of marriage and the Book of Common Prayer stated that ‘those whom God has joined together let no man put asunder’. Another key pledge in the marriage service was the belief that commitment was permanent: ‘till death do us part’.

For girls, especially in the lower orders of society, there was little choice. Because of the male domination of the economy, a woman needed a partner to survive. An unmarried woman could easily end up a pauper.

As you’ve seen, women, unlike men, could not follow a career. However, through marriage they often played an important part in the economy.

For men also, especially in the working classes from yeomen down, a wife had an essential role in running the farm, craft or business. As they grew up, children were also an important part of the labour force.

selecting a partnerLove and sexual attraction were considered to be important reasons for marriage but not enough on their own. The need to work to survive was a reality for husband and wife in the ‘lower orders’, so marriage was an economic partnership. At higher levels of society there were other factors:

A yeoman family and their different work roles.

john

gre

en

property deals to increase family resources and fortunes

usually arranged by the fathers vital for producing heirs to continue the family name or title

sometimes used to cement close relations between families

marriage for the nobility and gentry



Conduct books, often written by clergymen, gave advice on marriage. William Perkins listed four essentials for marriage:

• partners must be of different sexes

• neither could be already married

• they must not be related

• both should be free of contagious disease.

He also felt that partners should be of similar religion, age, social status and wealth. Older gentlemen sometimes married younger women if they needed an heir. However, old men chasing young ladies with marriage as the objective were not popular with younger men or the young ladies!

Fathers often gave advice to their sons on suitable attributes for a future wife.

For your wife let her be well born and brought up but not too highly, as marrying a superior brings ever change and often danger, of a healthy body, a good complexion, humble and virtuous, some few years younger than you and not of simple wit.

Sir William Wentworth to his son

marriage in the upper classes: by arrangementBecause the upper classes were so concerned about their continuing wealth and status:

• children could be committed to a future marriage from the age of seven

• a marriage could be sexually consummated by girls at 12 and boys at 14.

Daughters of the gentry and nobility would usually give their husbands a portion on marrying. This was a dowry of money and possessions. Unless there was a specific legal agreement otherwise, this became the property of the husband.

Having enough money, property or savings before marrying was not usually an issue for the upper classes, so usually children of wealthy families married younger than in the lower orders. Parents, especially the father, would do the selecting.

A married gentlewoman.

hodd

er s

toug

hton



parental choice: good or bad? • William Perkins wrote: ‘It is the duty of the parents to arrange marriages with good

advice but no child should be pressed into matrimony if their will is against it.’

• George Whetstone (writing in 1582) called arranged marriages ‘the most extreme form of bondage imaginable’.

• Not accepting parents’ wishes could lead to a daughter losing her dowry, or a son his inheritance.

• Marrying against the will of their parents was severely criticised. Lord Clarendon in the 1660s wrote that Sir Lucius Carey had ‘committed a sin against his father in marrying a woman he passionately loved.’

• Mary Boyle, daughter of the Earl of Cork, had misgivings after she married a poor man against her father’s will. She said it was ‘ill and horribly disobedient … my duty and reason have frequent combats with my passion.’

• Some writers and doctors were appalled at parents who forced their daughters into marriage and child-bearing when they were still young teenagers.

• However, many letters and diaries suggest that arranged marriages often worked. They usually lasted and often love developed over time. Thomas Knyvett, married for 24 years, wrote to his wife that he wished himself in bed with his ‘Sweet Hart and honybloude in her pretty little arms’, and sent her ‘a kiss an hower long’.

1. Refer to the quote by J A Sharpe at the beginning of the lesson. List the four reasons he gives for marriage.

2. Fill the gaps in the paragraph that follows.

Marriage was regarded as being a permanent arrangement which would only end when

one partner . Economic survival was a key reason for marriage in the

orders. For the and nobility, marriage was important so

that there would be an to continue the family line. Because of this,

daughters could be married as early as age . Usually on marriage a young

woman from the upper classes handed over a to her husband.

3. For each of the following, give evidence or an example.

a. Her wedding was the most important event in a woman’s life.

b. Conduct books did not accept same-sex marriages.

c. Arranged marriage could result in enduring love and desire.

d. Marriage against the parents’ will was frowned on.

4. In a star diagram, indicate six attributes of the ideal wife according to Sir William Wentworth.

Check your answers.

8A



husbands and wivesYou learned in lesson 7 that marriages favoured the husband and that a woman on her wedding day became a feme covert (a sheltered or protected woman) who:

• belonged to her husband

• took on his social status

• gave him her property, unless there was a legal agreement otherwise

• needed him to plead for her if there was a court case.

The husband was definitely the boss, according to the writers of the time:

• A husband is he that hath authority over the wife. (William Perkins, 1590)

• The man is God’s officer and king in his own house. (William Whately, 1617)

• He is the highest in the family and hath authority over all. (William Gouge, 1623)

Historian Keith Wrightson summed up Perkins’ views on the wife’s position in a marriage: She should acknowledge him in all things and render full obedience, that is wholly to depend upon him both in judgment and will.

However, the vital roles of mutual love, respect and support between husband and wife were also stressed. Because the wife was regarded as the weaker vessel, the husband needed to provide for her needs, protect her, be patient with her in times of stress and ill health, and provide for her in his will.

The law required that half of the husband’s inheritance should go to his widow: in reality it was often more than this.

• ‘… if there be not love predominant in the husband, there is likely to be little peace betwixt man and wife.’ (William Gouge)

• Conduct books emphasised that ‘married couples had to live under the same roof and this was a great incentive towards developing affection, cooperation and mutual give-and-take.’ (Historian J A Sharpe)

• William Gouge also suggested that there was ‘… a place of common equity in many respects wherein a man and a woman are after a sort, fellows and partners.’

• Although legally a man could beat his wife without committing a crime, records show that mistreating a wife was often punished in the courts.

The Tudor family: the wife and children are obedient and attentive to the head of the household.

john

gre

en

A yeoman family.

john

gre

en



marriage: cooperation, love and devotionFor the majority marriage seemed to work well. There were good reasons to make it work, especially when partnership was vital to the success of the family’s economic interests. In the lower orders, you’ve seen how marital cooperation was essential in farming, fishing, crafts and business. For the gentry there was often an important division of roles:

• the husband managed the estates and finances

• the wife organised the household and supervised the entertaining.

At all levels of society, however, husbands and wives shared much of their leisure time, which could have been at dances, festivals, fairs, markets and alehouses or while riding, hawking, watching dramas or entertaining guests.

There are many examples of support, pleasure, respect and devotion in married life:

• ‘My dear wife … her delightful embraces; her counsel, spiritual discourses … help to ease the burden and trouble of household affairs, whose countenance welcomed me home with joy.’ (Minister Ralph Josselin, 1651)

• ‘This I have sent by the gravest, wisest, fittest messenger I could think of …’ (Leveller leader John Lilburne sending his wife with a message to Oliver Cromwell)

• ‘The most sweet, affectionate and observant wife in the world.’ (Anthony Ashley Cooper, one of Charles II’s ministers)

• Lady Fanshawe during the Civil War wrote of her husband: ‘whatever was real happiness, God gave it to me in him’.

• On the death of his wife, Lord Burghley (Elizabeth’s Lord Treasurer) wrote a meditation thanking God for allowing Mildred to be his wife and companion for so long.

marriage breakdownIn 1617 William Whateley wrote that few marriages were ‘without chidings, brawlings, tauntings, repenting, bitter cursings and fightings’. Many women consulted Richard Napier, a 17th-century astrologer, about their unhappy marriages. Common complaints about their husbands were being quarrelsome, misusing money, giving grief and being drunk.

Probably most unhappy couples stayed together, but marriages could be ended by a church court by either annulment or separation.

• Annulment was usually because the family relationship between the two was too close or where one party had previously promised to marry someone else.

• Separation was where there was a complete breakdown of the relationship on grounds such as adultery, arguments and domestic violence.

The nobility with Queen Elizabeth enjoying a picnic.

john

gre

en


marriage, sex and familymarriage, sex and family

sex and illegitimacyAlthough virginity was seen as a Christian virtue and fornication was regarded as a sin, sex before marriage was accepted, provided the children were born in wedlock. Some parish records show that at least 20 per cent of brides were already pregnant on their wedding day.

Society was very intolerant of illegitimacy and unmarried women with children were treated as outcasts. Parishes, which provided what social welfare there was, were concerned about solo mums and illegitimate children being a drain on their resources. HS3002 will give more on the problems of poverty.


HistoriographyHistoriography is about the way historians view events. A key fascination with history is how historians’ views on what happened keep on changing. The perceptions of one writer are often contradicted or challenged by another. In weighing different views, you need to look carefully at how good the evidence is. See how you go on the nature of relations between parents and children.

parents and children: warm or cold relationshipsRead the following two extracts. In two paragraphs of about six to 10 lines each:

• quote the sentence from each which best sums up the author’s view of relationships between parents and children

• give at least two reasons why each historian has this view.

a

Young girls still under parental control had small chance of following emotional preferences in marriage. Parents chose suitable marriages for them and were usually able to enforce the choice. Nearly all marriages were based on material concerns – money, rank, title, or political advantages. Ambitious middle-class people, wealthy merchants, landed gentry, professional men, lesser nobility, aristocracy, and royalty – all expected material gain, with or without love and affection …

Material bases for marriage led young tradesmen or apprentices to rise in the world by marrying the master’s daughter, or even his older widow …

The cold, formal relationship that existed between parents and children (with exceptions, of course) perhaps helped parents to enforce their wishes about husbands for their daughters. A child at its birth was often turned over to a wet nurse who suckled it for two or three years, with an occasional visit from the mother …

Formal relationships were furthered also because children were sent at an early age to other households for training, put into the care of a private tutor, sent to a university, or placed in a lesser Inn of Court for the study of law …

8B



These formal relationships, with parental actions based on family pride, not affection, perhaps led mothers to beat daughters who would not consent to an arranged marriage …

The need of a marriage portion was another factor impelling a daughter to marry the man her parents chose for her. Nearly every prospective husband was interested in its size, and without it a daughter could not hope for a desirable marriage …

Pearl Hogrefe, Women of Action in Tudor England (1977)

B

Children were not regarded as either a potential labour force or a form of insurance against old age. This is not to say that their parents expected nothing of them. Parental expectations, however, were less economic than emotional. On the evidence of the diaries and autobiographies of the period it would appear that they wished their children to be what Henry Newcome called ‘comforts’. What did he mean by that?

In the first place he meant that parents found in their children a source of emotional satisfaction. Ralph Josselin, it may be recalled, found his first daughter ‘a pleasant comfort’. Adam Martindale found his baby son ‘sweet company to his poore mother in mine absence and a refreshing to me at my returne’. Children were a source of delight; ‘pretty things to play withall’ as one observer put it. As they developed, parents took much satisfaction and quickly noticed and recorded their latest accomplishments. ‘My boy is now lively, somewhat fuller of spirit, of a good memory, a good speller apt to learne’, wrote Josselin of his son Thomas, then aged almost six, in 1649. There is little to suggest that children were forced in their development. Their childishness was both recognised and indulged, but each new achievement or indication of character was greeted with pride. Witness Adam Martindale’s evident delight at the sight of his two-year-old child at play and his pride at the boy’s daring: ‘This calfe he would encounter with a sticke in his hand … stand his ground stoutly, beat it back, and triumph over it, crying caw, caw, meaning he had beaten the calfe.’

Keith Wrightson, English Society 1580–1680 (1982)

Check your answers.


9 traditional beliefs and witchcraft

Those who were accused of witchcraft during the great persecutions of the period 1450–1700 were believed to be guilty of an enormous variety of crimes against the laws of God and man – of the malicious destruction of their neighbours’ crops and animals; of murder, usually by ill wishing, by the evil eye or the use of image magic, but sometimes by human sacrifice; of cannibalism, rape, sodomy and incest.

Writer Francis King


• explain the nature of witchcraft, religion and superstition

• explore ways in which religion exploited traditional beliefs

• examine changing attitudes to witchcraft.

introductionExplaining the unexpected and finding reasons for tragedies such as disease, sudden death, famine and vicious assaults has been a challenge for every society. Perhaps these disasters were just God’s punishment for sinning against his laws, but might there be other reasons?

Were there dark forces at work and was God’s powerful rival the Devil responsible for the evil using human beings as his agents? (See alongside.)

People in Tudor and Stuart England were very religious but traditional ideas about magic and superstition were still widely believed. The Church realised this and tried to accommodate such beliefs and give them a Christian twist.

religion and superstition in anxious timesThe 16th and 17th centuries were worrying times. Although there were plenty of good harvests, positive family experiences, business successes and enjoyable relaxation, people had difficulty coping with tragedy and disaster. The death of children, the failure of crops, storms and droughts, and the devastating effects of the plague and other diseases suggested that sinister forces were at work.

Writers and artists of the time portrayed vivid impressions of the Devil at work. Here he is ordering witches to trample on the cross to show their rejection of Christ and his teachings.


traditional beliefs and witchcraft

This was a pre-scientific age and there was little understanding of how the human body worked and how the forces of nature operated. For much of the period from 1558 to 1667 scientific knowledge was based on the ideas of the Ancient Greeks. Key ideas were:

• the Earth was the centre of the universe and consisted of heavy elements – earth and water – and light elements – fire and air

• a belief in alchemy: natural things could become perfect and the four elements could be altered in form, like turning lead into gold! Nobody managed it!

• a belief in astrology: using charts based on the configuration of the stars to predict the future. Do you check out your star sign from time to time?

• ‘humours’ in the body determined moods and health.

The Church, for most people, was the main source of knowledge and belief. Often the explanations for misfortune were seen as disobeying God or the work of the Devil. People were keen to make it to heaven after they died and achieve salvation in the company of God and his angels.

Although many attended church regularly and tried to follow the teachings of Christ, there was always the temptation to turn to magic and superstition to:

• provide explanations

• feel they had some control of things

• make life on earth more bearable.

The 17th century, especially the second half, saw major breakthroughs in scientific and medical knowledge. Key figures in this process were:

• Galileo Galilei: showed that the Earth orbited around the sun

• William Harvey: discovered that blood circulated and that health was not based on ‘humours’

• Isaac Newton: formulated the Law of Gravity

• Robert Boyle: discovered that the earth consisted of many chemical elements.

Turning to cunning people for help. Sometimes called wise, these folk were often consulted on ailments and the future.

The evil eye was to be avoided as it could cause harm or even death. It was linked to the black magic of witches who could cause havoc with a stare.

Festivals celebrated the changing seasons. Dancing round the maypole on the first day of May was a magic ceremony to welcome the awakening of plants.

Ghosts and fairies were seen as spirits of those who had died. They could bring good or bad luck, especially when fairies cast spells.

Events and unusual natural phenomena were seen as omens. The eclipse of the sun, or a comet, was usually regarded as bad news.

The magic touch: it was widely believed that the monarch, who was appointed by God, could heal sick people with his or her fingers. Charles II may have touched more than 70,000 people. magic and the

supernatural



magic and religionChurch leaders were well aware of these traditional beliefs and, in some instances, adapted them into major Christian festivals.

• Before the Christian era, 25 December had been a celebration of the sun’s return after midwinter. The Church used it to celebrate God’s arrival on earth in human form and called it Christmas.

• Easter was an old pre-Christian festival associated with the onset of spring and the new life of plants and animals. Eggs, which were a key feature symbolising fertility and life, came to symbolise the resurrection of Christ after his death on the cross.

The Catholic Church used symbols, rituals and ceremonies to provide for those who wanted comfort, confession and consolation:

• rosaries for saying prayers

• crosses as jewellery

• candles to light to ask for help from the saints

• confession of sins to the priest

• statues and religious art inside the churches

• sacred places like holy wells and the graves of saints.

These picked up on people’s desire for mystery, symbols and support in an uncertain world.

You’ll see in later booklets how the Protestant Reformation removed much of the symbolism and mystery from Christian worship. For many people these things had given them protection, satisfaction and some sense of control in their lives.

1. Can you think of a superstition that is still common today? Suggest why it has survived.

2. How might ideas about witchcraft affect vulnerable people and social outcasts in the community?

3. There is an old saying that the key functions of the Church are to supervise hatching, matching and dispatching. What is being referred to?

4. Use one of the examples of the use of symbols and acts in the Catholic faith to explain how it would make people feel better.

5. Suggest in a sentence or two why the advance of scientific knowledge would tend to reduce belief in magic and superstition.

Check your answers.

Easter.

Christmas.

9A



origins and power of the devilFrom earliest times, people had believed that a supernatural world existed alongside the natural world. This world was associated with evil, mystery and magical powers, a dark existence where creatures such as demons lived. They could bring harm to people and encourage them to sin against God, and furthermore, were in league with witches who lived in the real world.

The Devil was known as the Prince of Darkness or Satan, and The Bible explained his existence as that of a fallen archangel known as Lucifer. Lucifer had tried to become the equal of God and so he and his friends were thrown out of heaven down to ‘the uttermost parts of the pit of hell’. You will remember seeing this portrayed in the Great Chain of Being.

From that time on he was seen as God’s rival and associated with evil, depravity and sin. Witches cooperated with the Devil on earth to spread evil and misfortune.

why blame witches? • It was in The Bible. One of the laws God gave to Moses stated: ‘Thou shalt not suffer

[allow] a witch to live.’ (Exodus xxii. 18)

• Witches were associated with the Devil in popular belief. Illustrators at the time drew gross images of women consorting with the Devil, kissing his backside and having sex with him.

• There were laws against them. Witches could be hanged under Acts passed in 1542, 1563 and 1604.

• Women confessed to being witches. In Edinburgh Agnes Simpson confessed to trying to murder James VI of Scotland by conjuring up a storm when the king was returning from Denmark with his bride in 1589. Torture sometimes helped to bring a confession, as happened to Simpson’s friend, John Fian.

• Everyone knew of instances where witches had caused mischief and distress. There were many tales of misfortune, death and disaster which were readily associated with witches. In 1616, after being falsely accused by Elizabeth Hancocke of stealing a hen, Mary Smith wished a pox on her. Within hours Elizabeth became mysteriously ill. Mary was charged with witchcraft.

• Single women were convenient scapegoats. Women who hadn’t married and lived alone, and unpopular people, were easy targets if things went wrong in a community. In 1566 a woman of Kelvedon in Essex was accused of bewitching cows: one died and the others produced milk of all colours!

Witches were thought to cause illness and injury by firing invisible arrows.



changing attitudes to witchcraftFrom 1558 to 1660 views on the extent and impact of witchcraft varied. The brand of Christianity was a key factor. Calvinists and Puritans took a harder line than the Catholic Church. The problem of evidence and proof worried everyone from King James down to local JPs. In reality, many innocent women died.

late 1550s–1560sIn 1559, 472 Protestant exiles began to return to England from central Europe. There they had been influenced by Calvinist ideas including the biblical statement about not letting witches live. Some became bishops in the Elizabethan church. In 1563 an Act was passed against witchcraft, and persecution and prosecution of witches increased.

1570s–1600sIn 1578 waxen figures, possibly representing the Queen and two leading ministers, were discovered in a Catholic priest’s house. Witchcraft was now closely linked to the fear that Roman Catholicism might be imposed on England. Charges of witchcraft rose.1558–1567: 24 cases, four hangings1578–1587: 147 cases, 19 hangings

john

gre

en

1600s–1610sJames I continued the hard line taken against witches, especially after the Fian– Simpson case in 1589. The King published a text on witchcraft called Daemonology in 1597. As King of England, he supported an Act in 1604 expanding the number of witchcraft offences punishable by death.

1616–1642In 1616 when nine Leicester women were executed on the evidence of a 12-year-old boy, James changed his views. On interviewing the boy, he concluded the evidence was false. Another case in 1621 where a child admitted to giving false testimony convinced James that innocent women should not die. From 1618 to 1642 there were no executions for witchcraft.

mar

y ev

ans

pict

ure

libr

ary



matthew hopkins: self-appointed witch finder generalLittle is known about Matthew Hopkins before 1644, except that he was a mediocre lawyer in East Anglia. In 1644 (or 1645) he claimed some witches had tried to kill him, and began his witch-hunting career.

• He travelled the country with his colleague John Stearne, offering to rid villages of witches for a fee.

• His charges were excessive but he made a lot of money playing on the Puritan hatred of witchcraft.

• It was the time of the Civil War and Hopkins claimed to have been appointed by Parliament as Witch Finder General. There is no evidence to support this claim.

• He used gossip and half-truths to bring charges of witchcraft and devil-worship. Most of his victims were social outcasts and Hopkins often gained confessions by using torture and heavy interrogation.

• At least 230 alleged witches were put to death during the witch-hunting spree, which lasted from 1644 to 1647.

• He probably died in 1647 or 1648, but his death is a mystery. One view is that he was hung for witchcraft himself!

After Hopkins’ death, witch-mania died down. Apart from the 1644–47 period, England never experienced the excesses of witch-hunting like those in Protestant Europe, where thousands died. It is interesting to note that in Ireland, a mostly Catholic region, there were less than six witch trials between 1558 and 1660.

You are the leader of the affirmative in a debate where you will contend that in the period 1558–1660 the supposed existence of witchcraft was based on a superstitious way of viewing the world which resulted in the persecution of hundreds of innocent women and men. In a speech of no more than 300 words, sum up the affirmative’s case.


This illustration from a publication written by Hopkins himself shows him judging two suspects who were later hanged. Having pets (called familiars or imps) was often used as evidence of practising witchcraft. It was said that witches used them to frighten or attack their victims.

bbc

hult

on p

ictu

re l

ibra

ry

9B


10 your goals, views and interests

This is the place where you tell us about yourself – your situation, opinions and ambitions. The information will help your teacher assist you in designing your history learning programme for this year. Use extra paper if you need to.

You can also find a copy of this online. Fill it out and email it to your teacher.

Name ID

School

Why are you studying history this year?

What aspects and topics of history particularly interest you?

What do you plan to do next year?

What did you think of this first booklet?

List any books and other resources on Tudor and Stuart England that you have access to.


your goals, views and interests

Do have computer access? regularly/occasionally/never

If you have computer access:

Do you have reliable access to the Internet?

If you would like to be contactable online, write your email address below.

In the space below tell us about your interests and any other information about your school scene, home and family that you may wish to mention. Use extra paper if you need to. Send us a photograph too if you like.

Thanks for completing the questionnaire. Cut it out and send it in with the rest of your HS3001 work. The information will be very helpful for your teacher. Feel free to contact them at any time. See the Course and assessment guide for details.

what to do now • Check now that you’ve:

– answered all activities

– self-marked all activities for which answers are given.

• Fill in the assessment feedback page at the back.

• Sign and attach the back cover sheet to the front of your written work.

• Send in the work for this booklet. Don’t forget the worksheet and the questionnaire.

• Keep the printed booklet.

Well done on completing HS3001. Start work on the next history booklet when you’re ready.


11 answer guide

how to do the self-checkingMark your answers using a pen of another colour and add corrections if you need to. This is not a complete list of all possible answers. You may have correct answers that are worded differently. If you are in doubt, put a question mark alongside the answer and your teacher will comment.

1. the transformation of england1. crown, orb, sceptre, throne, robes, spurs (round his ankles), cushion

2. Charles II did not wear the regalia previous monarchs had worn because Charles I’s gear had either been melted down or sold.

3. a. The earthly crown which is on the ground.

b. A crown of thorns symbolises sacrifice. Jesus Christ wore one when he died. Like Christ, Charles I was also executed.

c. The sketch shows Charles in a sympathetic light about to receive a heavenly crown – clearly, the sort of image a supporter of the King would display.

1. consequence

2. cause, consequence

3. consequence

2. history: the search for truth?1. a. Alan Clark (lies about crimes)

b. Judith Binney (the living shaping the past)

c. Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (writing different stories)

d. Pieter Geyl (the endless argument) Simon Sharma (the present–past negotiation)

e. Lawrence Stone (immersion in people’s lives in the past)

2. a. authenticity – checking accuracy of sources (done for you)

b. objectivity – being unprejudiced and logical

c. research – tapping appropriate sources from the past

d. reliability – checking on the validity of sources

e. interpretation – sorting out what happened from research

1A

1B

2A


answer guide

1. A lot of evidence has been lost as a result of fires, volcanic eruptions, floods, and deliberate destruction by conquerors. Faced with gaps in the record, historians may fill them with their own views on what might have happened. Mistakes may be made or there may be bias.

2. The man obviously later ceased to be a friend of Mao! The later Chinese government didn’t want Bo Gu associated with Mao.

3. Your teacher will comment on your headline and opening sentence.

4. The Sun probably published it because it would catch reader attention. SARS was a major world health worry at the time and Lord of the Rings movies were the most popular of all time. Just a pity that the story was not true. The only SARS case in New Zealand at the time was nowhere near the Rings’ sites.

5. An historian should check accuracy by:

• finding other sources to support the information in the first source

• checking on the reliability of the original source provider

• seeing if other historians accept the material as being true.

1. a. This will depend on what you believe. The stories can’t be proven from other independent sources. They are stories which are part of a culture’s oral tradition, from a time when there were no written records.

b. They are known today because they have been passed on from one generation to another. In modern times they have been written down.

c. History is a record of the past where other evidence exists to support what is said to have happened. These ‘origins tales’ fit the category of myths and legends.

d. You may have described the Māori legend involving Maui or the ancient Greek myth of Icarus.

2. a. Elizabeth as a young girl fell ill and died in Bisley. Elizabeth was secretly buried in Bisley. Elizabeth was impersonated by a male. (Some women do go bald!)

b. She owned property in Bisley. She had some masculine features, for example going bald. She did not like medical examinations. Some people at the time referred to her masculine qualities.

c. History is a record of the past which is constantly being examined, interpreted and reviewed. Myths are folk tales or legends which might have some basis in truth but may have been altered over the centuries as they have been passed on.

2B

2C


answer guide

3. the english story 1558–16251. Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I

2. He ruled first because he was a male. Rules of succession to the throne meant the (eldest) son of the previous ruler was to rule first, regardless of the age of daughters. Mary ruled after Edward because she was the next oldest child. She would not have become queen if Edward had had children.

3. Mary had no children.

4. Married.

5. She was the great granddaughter of Henry VII: a direct descendant of the first Tudor king. Being in the bloodline was essential to claim a throne!

6. Mary’s son James became England’s monarch after Elizabeth.

1559 Protestant religious settlement.

1569 Northern Rebellion to support Mary Queen of Scots crushed.

1570 Papal Bull excommunicated Elizabeth from the Catholic Church.

1571 Parliament introduced tough anti-Catholic laws.

1587 Mary Queen of Scots executed.

1588 The Spanish Armada defeated.

1603 Elizabeth died and was succeeded by Scotland’s King James.

You needed to mention two decisions and one issue.

1. Decisions: James decided to hold a conference to discuss Church structure and beliefs in 1604/Guy Fawkes and his Catholic friends resolved to blow up the King and Parliament in 1605/James made peace with Spain in 1604/England decided to go to war with Spain in 1624.

Issues: How James managed his finances – the extravagant way James and his government handled royal spending was criticised by some MPs.

Whether to support Protestant or Catholic interests in Europe – there were differences of opinion about which side England should support and whether it should go to war.

2. 1604 Hampton Court Conference. Peace with Spain.

1605 Unsuccessful gunpowder plot.

1611 Authorised edition of The Bible produced.

1624 War against Spain.

3A

3B

3C


answer guide

4. the english story 1625–16601. Predestination is the belief that God has decided at birth whether a person will be saved

and go to heaven after death. This was the traditional Church of England view. This conflicts with the belief that a person can choose to be saved by doing good works and taking the sacraments. This is called free will and was the Catholic view.

2. The general purpose of Laud’s policies was to make the Church more Catholic. (More on this in HS3007.)

3. 1629–40 was the period when Charles ruled without calling parliament to assist him. This was his personal rule.

4. Charles used the prerogative power of dissolving parliament in 1629.

1. a. social

b. economic

c. political

d. constitutional

e. political

2. d. Through possession of its prerogative powers, the Crown had the ability to govern.

5. england and britain: people and places1.

2. a. In a war with Scotland and France, the English could be fighting on two fronts: north and south.

b. The Irish didn’t like the English so might be happy to support an enemy of England.

4A

4C

5A

FRANCE

ENGLAND

SCOTLAND

WALESLondon

IRELAND

Edinburgh

Dublin

ENGLISH CHANNEL


answer guide

1. a. The population was youthful because life expectancy was low.

b. Many children died young because of disease. You may have mentioned that little was known about illnesses and appropriate remedies. c. Parish records are the best source of information because most people would have had their baptisms and burials recorded.

2. a. multiply

b. He means that there had been little conflict or fighting to cause an increase in deaths (mortality).

3. The graph shows the population going down in the 1660s. The plague would have been a major reason for this trend.

4. Your diagram would have covered:

• rats thriving in the open sewers

• virus-carrying rats having fleas

• fleas transmitting the virus to humans

• fleas biting infected humans and carrying the plague on to other humans.

6. the status society1. … appointed all things to heaven, earth and water in most perfect and excellent order.

2. Women could be monarchs if there was no male heir and because of divine right.

3. a. Angels

b. It was possible to fall out of favour and descend into hell. (Note the fallen angels on the right of the sketch.)

c. The place at the bottom is hell. You would have described how it looked pretty nasty down there!

d. God had created animals, birds, fish, trees, rocks.

e. Being born into the nobility was God’s will: the natural order of things.

1. a. gentry

b. yeoman

c. pauper/beggar

d. peerage

e. husbandman

f. cottager

5B

6A

6B


answer guide

1. a. 16 km

b. a smith (blacksmith), carpenter, potter, weaver, broadloom weaver

c. a county town or borough

2. You may have used the Lionel Cranfield story to help you.

Here are some steps by which people might improve their status:

• firstly, getting a job in the town

• doing the job well and getting a promotion: for example, from unloading goods to keeping the records of the business

• becoming a business partner and eventually setting up their own enterprise

• increasing wealth by having success with overseas trade

• buying land in a nearby county and becoming accepted as gentry

• taking on a local government position and becoming a member of parliament.

Another going up in the world story could be: get work as a lawyer’s clerk >> get noticed as being clever by a judge >> he gets you accepted for legal training in London >> successful career as a lawyer >> become a judge >> get asked by the King to join the Privy Council >> given a title for services to the Crown.

7. women’s place: inferior to men1. True. St Paul said it was Eve, not Adam, who had yielded to deception and fell into sin.

2. False. Although there were legal restrictions on all women, those in the nobility and gentry had a much easier life than lower-class women.

3. True. Regardless of social status, the primary roles for a woman were linked to her husband, household and raising a family.

4. True. A feme sole could own land or a business and so make a profit and incur debts.

5. True. A girl could legally be married at age 12. However, in practice this was very rare.

6. False. On marriage, any property passed to her husband. There were some exceptions where a legal agreement was reached.

1. You will have written in sentence form. Here are some aspects of discrimination against women that you might have mentioned:

• Most women were controlled by their husbands.

• On marrying, a woman usually surrendered her property to her husband.

• Women could not vote or hold a political position, apart from the Queen!

• Women could not hold a position in the legal profession or the Church above churchwarden.

• Married women could only plead in court with their husbands.

• Their role was generally restricted to home, work and family.

• Women could not attend grammar schools or universities.

You may have had other points.

6C

7A

7B


answer guide

2. In the economy, if the circumstances were right, a woman could:

• run landed estates she had inherited

• continue her late husband’s business

• keep membership of a trade organisation and even train apprentices

• as a feme sole, run a farm or business

• buy and sell land and goods with her husband’s permission.

3. Some examples:

Elizabeth I was Queen and refused to share her power with a husband.

Ann Clifford became a sheriff when her cousin died.

Bess of Hardwick (Elizabeth Talbot)

became a large landowner and millionairess through marriages, trade and land deals.

Moll Cutpurse became a gang leader, wheeler-dealer and London personality.

4. Queen Elizabeth I

5.

Comenius supported educating girls in home and family skills.

Ascham compared Elizabeth favourably with men.

Winstanley advocated equality in education.

Bishop Parker praised the translating skills of a woman.

You will have put your points in a diagram.

Aspects of change:

• some provision of social welfare through the Poor Laws

• more women able to be involved in the trading sector

• less involvement in teaching and medicine

• during the Civil War and Interregnum, some women involved in military affairs, political lobbying and religious leadership.

Aspects of continuity:

• legal restrictions

• no role in politics

• few opportunities to be economically independent

• most adults were housewives and mothers

• provided economic support for their husbands as required.

7C


answer guide

In summing up you would have concluded that, for the majority of women, little had changed between 1558 and 1660. The key role for most women at the start of the period was looking after husband, family and household, and helping with their husband's work if they were needed. This was still the case in the 1660s. Women could still not vote or be MPs, or hold a position in the clergy or the legal profession. There had been some changes during the Civil War and Interregnum, but these did not continue after 1660. Poverty-stricken women could get Poor Law relief in 1660 which didn’t exist in 1558. Probably more women were involved in trade in the 1660s compared with earlier. Overall, however, the gender roles in Restoration England were much the same as they had been in 1558.

8. marriage, sex and family1. Sharpe’s four reasons for marriage are: having and raising childen/sexual relations/helping

one another/partnership for life.

2. Marriage was regarded as being a permanent arrangement which would only end when one partner died. Economic survival was a key reason for marriage in the lower orders. For the gentry and nobility, marriage was important so that there would be an heir to continue the family line. Because of this, daughters could be married as early as age 12. Usually on marriage a young woman from the upper classes handed over a dowry/portion to her husband.

3. a. Hororia Denny was told this was the biggest day in her life so far.

b. William Perkins said partners must be of different sexes.

c. Many letters and diaries confirm that arranged marriages could result in enduring love and desire. Thomas Knyvett’s amorous letter to his wife is a good example.

d. Lord Clarendon commented that Sir Lucius Carey had committed a sin marrying against his father’s wishes.

4. In your star diagram you would have included six of these attributes in a good wife: good family/well brought-up/healthy/nice complexion/humble/virtuous/younger than yourself/intelligent.

The key sentences in A are the first two: Young girls … marriage and Parents … choice – either would do. Hogrefe backs up these assertions with the following facts and opinions. You should have chosen two of these.

• Marriages were based on material not emotional concerns (for example, a girl was expected to have a marriage portion).

• The relationship between parents and children was usually cold and formal – making it easier for parents to enforce their wishes.

• Children were often farmed out to wet nurses.

• Children were often sent away from home early.

These last two show increasing parental remoteness towards their children:

• Parents’ actions were based on pride, not affection.

• Girls might be beaten if they did not agree to their marriage.

8A

8B


answer guide

The key sentences in B are Children … old age and Parental expectations … emotional. Either would do. Wrightson backs up these assertions with the following facts and opinions. You should have chosen two of these.

• Parents wished children to be comforts.

• Children were a source of emotional satisfaction (for example, the Josselin and Martindale families).

• Children’s accomplishments were noted with pride.

• There is little to suggest that children’s development was forced.

9. traditional beliefs and witchcraft1. Your teacher will comment on your answer.

2. People identified as witches tended to be socially isolated and disliked by some people in the community. Labelling someone as a witch could lead to victimisation, persecution and sometimes a court case.

3. hatching = birth and baptism; matching = marriage; dispatching = death and burial

4. Three examples:

• Wearing a cross as a necklace could be seen as having God’s protection or possibly as a good luck charm.

• By confessing their sins, people could get rid of the burden of guilt.

• Lighting a candle was a positive action to ask the saint for help and guidance.

5. Magic and superstition flourished because there was little scientific understanding of how things worked. As more things were explained by science, traditional superstitions and beliefs would be discarded.

9A


acknowledgements

Every effort has been made to acknowledge and contact copyright holders. Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu apologises for any omissions

and welcomes more accurate information.

Cover: Queen Elizabeth hawking, from Booke of Faulconrie, by Turberville, 1575, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2,

1902, Vol.3, 1903, by John Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Image: Queen Elizabeth I opening Parliament 1589, engraving from the frontispiece to The Journal of all the Parliaments during the

reign of Queen Elizabeth (first edition), by Sir Symonds D'Ewes, London, UK: John Starkey, 1682, B328.42 D5143, Collection of

Columbia University, New York, USA. Print and electronic access by permission.

Illustration: Charles II returns to London in 1660, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2, 1902, Vol.3, 1903, by John

Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

‘A welcome to His Majesty’, Charles II in 1661, by John Michael Wright (1617–1700), RCIN 404951, The Royal Collection © 2003,

Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. Print and PDF file used by permission.

Illustration: King is shown exchanging his earthly crown for a crown of thorns, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2, 1902,

Vol.3, 1903, by John Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Illustrations: Unite (coin) of James I, The British Museum; Charles reformed the Church of England, from A Short History of the English

People, Vol.2, 1902, Vol.3, 1903, by John Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Book cover: Re-thinking History second edition, by Keith Jenkins, London, UK: Routledge Classics, 2003. Printed by permission.

Article: ‘”Plague” picked up on Rings trip – paper’, by Steve Rendle; Cartoon: ‘Check out the movie rights ...’, by Bromhead; both from

Dominion Post, 2 April 2003. Print and electronic access by permission.

Engraving: Henry VIII, engraved from the picture by Holbein at Berkeley Castle, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2,


Illustrations: Map of Europe in 1559 showing religious and political divisions; Genealogical table for the Tudors and the Stuarts; Mary,

Queen of Scots, Engraving; Parliament House, The Hall and The Abbey in Westminster; Elizabeth I; James I (used twice); Hampton

Court Conference, 1604; Gunpowder conspirators (Guy Fawkes), 1605; Charles I; Assassination of the Duke of Buckingham; William

Laud; Charles attempts to arrest five MPs, 1642, all from Longman Write-on Notes: History 13: England 1558–1667, by Colin

Campbell and Roger Childs, Auckland, NZ: Pearson Education NZ, 1996, 1999. Print and electronic access by permission.

Illustration: Cromwell dissolves the Rump, 1653, from Longman Write-on Notes: History 13: England 1558–1667, by Colin

Campbell and Roger Childs, Auckland, NZ: Pearson Education NZ, 1996, 1999. Print and electronic access by permission.

Illustrations: An Elizabethan sailing ship; Map showing the realm of the Tudors and Stuarts, from Longman Write-on Notes: History

13: England 1558–1667, by Colin Campbell and Roger Childs, Auckland, NZ: Pearson Education NZ, 1996, 1999. Print and

electronic access by permission.

Illustration: ‘Carts full of dead to bury’, detail from a contemporary print in the Pepysian Collection, from The Plague in Shakespeare's

London, by E P Wilson, Oxford, UK: 1927. Public domain.

The ‘Great Chain of Being’, BL-C.107.e.3, illustration from Rhetorica Christiana, by Valades, 1579, © The British Library, in History

Today, January 1987, London, UK. Print and electronic access by permission. Further reproduction prohibited.

Robert Vaughan, ‘The English Gentleman’, 1630, engraving, Weidenfeld Archives, The British Museum, in History Today, January

1987, London, UK. Printed by permission.

Illustration (used twice): Yeomen, family farmers, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2, 1902, Vol.3, 1903, by John

Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Diagram: Social structure, all from Longman Write-on Notes: History 13: England 1558–1667, by Colin Campbell and Roger Childs,

Auckland, NZ: Pearson Education NZ, 1996, 1999. Print and electronic access by permission.


acknowledgements

Illustration: Haymakers, from 'The Roxburghe Ballads', British Library, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2, 1902, Vol.3,

1903, by John Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Portrait: Unknown artist, ‘Bess of Hardwicke’: Elizabeth Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury, ca 1590, oil on canvas, NPG 203, The

National Portrait Gallery, London. Printed by permission.

Illustration: Mary Frith (Moll Cutpurse), ca 1639, from Women of Action in Tudor England, by Pearl Hogrefe, Ames, USA: Iowa State

University Press, 1977. Public domain.

Image: A Quaker's meeting in the 17th century (detail), print, Mansell Collection, from History Today, July 1972, London, UK.

Public domain.

An English citizen riding with his wife, from Album of Tobias Oelhafen of Nuremberg, 1623-1625, MS Egerton 1269, British Museum,

from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2, 1902, Vol.3, 1903, by John Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Illustration: Lady in day gown 1660–70, © 1965, 1970 Brockhampton Press, from Picture Reference: Elizabethans to Georgians

1558–1837, by Boswell Taylor, Leicester, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1971. Print and electronic access by permission of Hodder and

Stoughton Ltd.

Illustrations: A Puritan family, frontispiece to Tenor of the Whole Psalms in Four Parts …, 1563; A family group (father smoking pipe),

from 'The Roxburghe Ballads', British Library; A royal picnic, from The Noble Art of Venerie or Hunting, by Turberville, 1575, from A

Short History of the English People, Vol.2, 1902, Vol.3, 1903, by John Green, London, UK: Macmillan and Co. Public domain.

Photo: John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury, from an engraving by G Vertue, from A Short History of the English People, Vol.2,


Drawing based on a pamphlet of 1589: The hanging of three witches at Chelmsford, Charles Walker Collection – Topham

Picturepoint, from Visions of the Occult, by Fred Gettings, London, UK: Century Hutchinson, 1987. Public domain.

Illustration: North Berwick witches (1591) with James VI of Scotland, 10006081, Mary Evans Picture Library; from Witchcraft and

Demonology, by Francis King, London, UK: The Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1987. Print and electronic access by permission.

Illustration: Matthew Hopkins, after ‘Matthew Hopkins Witch Finder General’, BBC Hulton Picture Library; from Witchcraft and

Demonology, by Francis King, London, UK: The Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1987. Print and PDF file used by permission.

Dreamstime

Photo: Parish Church of St Peter, 11196928.

iStock

Photo: Lionel Cranfield, 4582954.

Tranz

Photos: Mao Zedong and his friends, Bettmann/Corbis, SF11310, Tranz International Image Library. Manipulated version of photo

done by Designtalk with permission from Tranz International Image Library.

Photo: Expulsion from Eden, Line engraving, 17th century, The Granger Collection, New York, 0013142.

Photo: Queen Elizabeth I, attributed to John Bettes the Younger, The Gallery Collection/Corbis, 42-18334253.

Photo: King Charles I being beheaded, Bettmann/Corbis, SF1364.

Photo: Great Fire of London, 1666, contemporary painting, Dutch School, The Granger Collection, New York, 0025198.

Photo: Old London Bridge, by Claes Jansz Visscher, The Gallery Collection/Corbis, 42-18334288.

Photo: Duke of Norfolk Thomas Howard, Bettmann/Corbis, SF34258.

Photo: John Calvin, The Granger Collection, New York, 0106954.

Design layout and illustrations: Designtalk, Wellington, New Zealand, 2013


worksheet 1: activity 5a

1558

Elizabeth I

1603

James I

1625

Charles I

1649

Interregnum

1660

Charles II

1559 Religious settlement

1642-8 Civil War

1649 Charles I executed

1660 Restoration

London in the mid-17th century.

Lincolns Inn Fields

CHEAPSIDE

ALDERSGATE ST

TYBURN RD

ST GILES’S

PICCADILLY

DRURY

HOLBORN

FLEET ST

STRAND

THE MALL

KIN

G ST

NEWGATE ST

THAMES ST

BISH

OPS

GAT

E ST

WHITE CHAPEL

Moor Fields

St Paul’s

Smithfield

Covent Garden

Savoy

Bun Hill Fields

Abbey

Parliament House

Whitehall

Somerset House

The Temple

River Thames

Lond

on B

ridge

Pool of london

SOUTHWARKWAPPING

ROTHERHITHE

SPITALFIELDSST

EPN

EY

CLERKENWELL

WESTMINSTER

Lambeth House

Lambeth

Lambeth Marsh

Lamb’s Conduit

Gray’s Inn

Lincolns Inn

Chater HouseEly

Place

Temple Bar

Newgate

Ludgate

Aldgate

Bishopsgate

MoorgateAldersgate

Cripplegate

Charing Cross

St James Park

LANE

LOMBARD ST

Tow

er

0 880 Yards440

Scotland

Ireland England

London

self-assessment hs3001

Fill in the rubric by ticking the boxes you think apply for your work. This is an opportunity for you to reflect on your achievement in this topic and think about what you need to do next. It will also help your teacher. Write a comment if you want to give your teacher more feedback about your work or to ask any questions.

Fill in your name and ID number. Student name: Student ID:

Not yet attempted

Didn't understand

Understood some

Understood most

Very confident in my understanding

Explore introductory ideas relating to England 1558–1660.

Describe the nature of history and identify features and problems of historical study.

Explain the nature of society in England and Britain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Please place your comments in the relevant boxes below.

Student comment

Contact your teacher if you want to talk about any of this work. Freephone 0800 65 99 88

teacher use only

Please find attached letter

Teacher comment



authentication statement I certify that the assessment work is the original work of the student named above.

for school use only

assessment

www.tekura.school.nz

cover sheet – hs3001

students – place student address label below or write in your details.

Full Name

ID No.

Address (If changed)

Signed(Student)

Signed(Supervisor)

history - Te Kura

Documents

Transcript of history - Te Kura