GENERAL AGREEMENT ON /flugu" 1986 - WTO Documents ...

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GENERAL AGREEMENT ON / f lugu" 1986 TARIFFS A N D T R A D E Special Distribution

PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN

FORESTRY PRODUCTS

Background Note by the Secretariat

Revision

Problems of International Trade in Forestry Products was first circulated under the document symbol Spec(84)13. That document was considered by the Working Party on Trade in Certain Natural Resource Products and is herewith re-issued, revised, in follow-up of the Working Party's report (MDF/23), adopted by the CONTRACTING PARTIES on 26 November 1985 (L/5933).

86-1290

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Foreword

(i) The present note is a revised and partly up-dated version of document Spec(84)13 and Add.l, both of March 1984, and of Corr.l and Corr.1/Suppl.1 thereto. These documents were considered by the Working Party on Trade in Certain Natural Resource Products and comments and suggestions made by the Group, as well as corrections submitted in writing, are taken up and reflected in the present document. To the extent possible, the note also reflects some recent trade and trade-policy developments of relevance to international trade in forestry products.

(ii) For procedural and practical reasons, the product coverage of the secretariat's note had to be limited, in essence, to the products classifiable in CCCN Chapters 44, 45 and 47, e.g. wood and cork and manufactures thereof (other than furniture) and wood-pulp and cellulose. The limited product coverage notwithstanding, the secretariat did bear in mind the interest manifested by a number of contracting parties in studying also problems of trade for products covered by CCCN Chapter 48, e.g. paper, paperboard and products thereof. One of the countries interested in identifying problems of international trade in that product area did present several position papers dealing, in part or wholly (MDF/W/1, MDF/W/3 and Add.l and MDF/W/49), with forestry products' trade-related issues, including also paper and paper products.

(iii) In relation to forestry products trade problems, the Working Party, under its Chairman Mr. M. Cartland (Hong Kong), met formally in June and September 1984 and again in September 1985. In addition, the mainly interested delegations met informally, in bilateral or plurilateral consultations, with the Group's Chairman, on a number of occasions in the spring and autumn of 1985. Notes on the proceedings of the formal meetings are contained in documents MDF/W/2, MDF/W/16 and MDF/W/53. A summary of the Group's main findings, together with suggestions on possible follow-up, is contained in documents MDF/3 and MDF/23, the Chairman's reports submitted to the GATT Council of Representatives. The report contained in document MDF/23 was forwarded by the Council to the Forty-First Session of the CONTRACTING PARTIES (C/M/194). As noted in document L/5933 and in the Summary Record SR.41/2, page 15, CONTRACTING PARTIES adopted the report on 26 November 1985.

(iv) In the revision of Spec(84)13 - Problems of International Trade in Forestry Products - the originally used paragraph numbers have been kept throughout, if for no better reason than to facilitate reference to comments made by delegations in relation to specific paragraphs. Some wider ranging comments and certain additional information that has come to the fore since Spec(84)13 was issued are accommodated in footnotes.

For views expressed on dealing with problems of international trade in natural resource products attention is invited to the record of discussions in the Senior Official Group in November 1985, notably documents SR.SOG/2 (page 9), SR.SOG/8 (pages 2 and 3) and SR.SOG/11 (page 17) and also to PREP.COM(86)SR/3, pages 35-42 and SR/6 - pages 34 to 37.

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(v) It is realized that a virtually world-wide survey of forestry industry related activities and of trade and trade problems, as has been attempted in this note, can never be more than a sketch or overview, and can never be fully up-to-date. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the data elaborated and presented in this document will be of some use to contracting parties, as discussion background material, for their further work. Suggestions by contracting parties for corrections or amendments that may be required would be appreciated.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Foreword 2

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Area and product coverage 7 Methodology and statistics used 9 Recent production and trade developments 10 Developments in forestry-industries' technologies 11 Forest-policy measures and developments in international trade of forestry products 13

Tariffs and non-tariff measures affecting forestry products' trade 14

Sources and acknowledgement 16

A. FOREST RESOURCES, THEIR USE AND POTENTIAL

General 17 Forest resources, by major countries and areas 18 Forest land ownership structure and use patterns 20 Forest-use policies and objectives 23 Protected forest lands, reforestation 24 Forest resource appraisals 25 Age and species composition of forests, forest management, forest yields 27

Forest die-back problems 29 Timber yields as related to tree species and site conditions 29

"Softwood" and "hardwood", definitions 31 Climatic factors influencing tree species - composition of forests 32

Major forest tree species of Japan 34 Forest-fire data 34 Plantation forests and comparative advantage 35 Species composition of North-American forests 36 Little-known or "secondary" wood species 37

Forest Resources Survey

General 39 ECE/FAO/UNEP: Forest Resource Surveys 39 Explanatory notes to Table I 40 Canada - forestry care and production objectives 41 Chile - forestry - industry achievements and targets 42 SUMMARY TABLE I (Forest Resources, Wood Production,

Imports, Exports, Trade Balance) 43 EC - Forestry policy objectives, wood-industry production levels and developments 46

US forestry products production, trade and requirements 50 Japan - forest resources, production, requirements and trade 51

China, Republic of - forest resources and policy measures and objectives, imports 55

Korea, Republic of - afforestation 56 Nordic countries - forest resources 56 USSR and CMEA countries - forest resources, resource- and trade developments 57

Other countries' and developing countries' forest resource situation and trade 60

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd) Page

PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CATEGORIES OF FOREST PRODUCTS

General 65 Explanatory notes to Summary Table II 66 Forest products-resource and -industry development, South Africa Rep. 67

New Zealand forest industries' development and targets 67 Prerequisites for developing primary forest-products production, logging and forest-care operations 68

Resource accessibility - road infrastructure 70 "Floating" 73 Wood and cellulose yields in various processing operations 74 Disposition of total industrial roundwood production 76 Factors contributing to cyclical fluctuation in wood production and trade 78

SUMMARY TABLE II (Per Caput and Total Production of Wood, Semi-Manufactures and Woodpulp, Net Trade and Availabilities) 80

ECE and FAO forest products statistics and publications 82 Developments in various countries' saw-mill, ply-mill and pulp production and trade 84

C. INTERNATIONAL TRADE FLOWS IN FORESTRY PRODUCTS

General 88 SUMMARY TABLE III-A (Imports and Exports of Wood-, Cork-,

Products thereof and Woodpulp) 89 World production and world exports of industrial roundwood 92 World production and world exports of sawnwood, plywood, particle board and woodpulp 93

Major importers of roundwood, sawnwood, woodpulp, plywood and particle board 95

SUMMARY TABLE IV-A (Percentage Shares of Different Importers in Total, in respect of product categories referred to above) 97

IV-B (as above, in respect of exports) 98 Major exporters of roundwood, sawnwood, plywood, particle board, woodpulp 99

Technical and marketing characteristics influencing trade-flows in wood products 100

Factors influencing demand for construction grades of wood in the United States 102

Summary data on wood-use in house construction 103 House construction, wood-industry activity and -trade in North America 106

House construction and demand for wood products in Europe 107 Other factors (including transport, tariff treatment, regional cooperation, etc.) influencing trade developments for forest-industry products 108

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd) Page

D. TARIFFS AND NON-TARIFF MEASURES AFFECTING TRADE

General 111 Private and public ownership patterns 111 Pre-Tokyo Round import tariff treatment for various forestry products 112 Average duty rates, pre- and post-Tokyo Round, by broad product categories 114

SUMMARY TABLE V-A (Pre- and post-Tokyo Round Tariff Rates, at the 4-digit CCCN position level) 118

V-B (Value of Imports from World, at the same level of detail, and m.f.n. and GSP origin shares in imports) 119

Notes on data in the preceding Tables 121 Import and/or export duties on forestry products in developing country areas 122

Nominal and effective rates of protection 124 Tariff escalation 125 Classification criteria 127 Distinctions made in tariff schedules for different wood products 128 Technical standards, building codes and traditions 131 Drawing up technical specifications for little-known woods 133 Phyto-sanitary regulations 134 Import licensing, controls, restraints, prohibitions 135 Other policy measures and action affecting production, prices and trade 135

E. ADDITIONAL NOTES RELATING TO CORK

General * 137

ANNEX I-A

SUMMARY TABLE III-B (Imports and Exports of individual GATT member countries of wood, cork and products thereof, and of woodpulp, by origins and destinations) 139

- abbreviations used in Table III-B 164

ANNEX I-B

Volume of Production, Exports and Imports of GATT member countries in

1963, 1973, 1979 and 1981 of: 165

Industrial roundwood 166 - Pulpwood 167

Sawnwood 168 Plywood 169 Particle-board 170 Fibre-board 171 Woodpulp 172

ANNEX II

Trade Matrix for Imports of Wood and Wood Semi-Manufactures and Woodpulp for Major Import Markets - 1963, 1973, 1981 - 173

- Reproduction of headnote texts for several of the text summary tables 196

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Introduction and Overview

1. The present information note is one of several background papers the secretariat was requested to prepare, in follow-up of the November 1982 GATT Ministerial Meeting, with a view to addressing problems in international trade in various natural resource products, in their primary form and as semi-manufactures and manufactured products.

2. Natural and/or managed forests of differing size and tree-species composition are found around the globe and are absent only from the climatically most inhospitable regions. An attempt is being made in this note to provide some relevant data for all GATT contracting parties. Summary data relating to resources, production and trade in forestry products are, to the extent possible, also provided in respect of the Republic of China and the USSR.

3. Forests, both the virgin natural forests and forests planted and managed in various ways by man, are a planetary resource of great importance in maintaining and equilibrating the atmospheric-, terrestrial- and oceanic-carbon cycle, as a source of atmospheric oxygen, as wildlife habitat, floristic gene-bank, for watershed protection, for recreational purposes and as a source of construction-and fuel-wood, and of various herbs, medicinal plants, - gums, resins and of several tree fruits and oils, of fibres and of various dyeing-, tanning materials and certain other products for specific industrial uses. Forests are also of importance, in some cases essential, in operating certain agro-forestry activities and, if propery managed, can provide specialized pasture for game-farming operations.

4. Given the many uses to which forest products can be put, the subject is potentially a vast one. For practical and procedural reasons , the present note concentrates on the subject of international trade issues as they relate to wood and cork, and to manufactures thereof, and to one of the main wood derivatives - pulp. More specifically, the products covered in this note are those classified

There are a number of other countries in Latin America, Africa, Asia and Oceania which are significant producers and exporters of forestry products (including, in the latter region, Papua and New Guinea), and there are certain other countries, though not among major producers, for which forestry exports are actually or potentially of importance, but for which, for lack of space, data could not be provided in the Summary Tabulations. Statistics on forestry-production and -trade for these countries are, however, generally available from the relevant FAO forestry statistics and are, to some extent, also provided in footnotes to text-passages and in Annex II.

2 There are 20 four-digit headings in CCCN Chapters 1-24 allocated

exclusively or predominantly to various tree-fruits. 3cf: MDF/23, MDF/3; MDF/W/2, 16, 53; C/W/467 and Add.l, MDF/W/49

and Corr.l; C/M/183, 187, 188, 190, 191 and 192.

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in the Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature (CCCN) in Chapter 44 (wood and wood products), in Chapter 45 (cork and cork products) and in CCCN Chapter 47 (woodpulp). Details of the product coverage in relation to specific tariff headings and positions in these three CCCN Chapters are shown in Table V.

5. Slightly more than 30 per cent of the earth's land surface is covered by forests or woodlands. Man has exploited forests wherever forest resources were easily accessible, and where uses and markets for forest products could be found, and has changed, in the process, the natural vegetation cover. In the more densely populated areas, forests compete not only with agriculture but also with land-use for urban settlements, industrial establishments and road networks. In other areas of the world forests have been thinned out by use for fuelwood, for pasture, and expanding agriculture, shifting cultivation, in some cases to the point of virtual destruction. In many parts of arid and semi-arid Africa, Asia, South America and certain insular locations the destruction of forests is of crisis proportions.

6. Given the great diversity of forests in the different areas of the world, and the way local populations experience their respective forest, there exists no really adequate way of conveying verbally, in a few succinct paragraphs, a picture of the world's forest-cover and -characteristics. In the circumstances, it was thought that, for purposes of this note, a tabular presentation of some quantitative data would, perhaps, best convey the extent of possible forest resources. This approach does have some limitations as regards possibilities for exact inter-country comparisons and attention is therefore invited to the many caveats in the text preceding Table I in Section A.

7. One of the difficulties in dealing with the subject of international trade in wood and wood semi-manufacturers is the profusion of commercially used names for given species of wood and the large number of tree species. In the 'Sixties it was considered (Elseviers) that there existed more than 2,500 botanical tree species, and hence species of wood. Recent reference books list even more species. For many of the main species there may exist several sub-species and also local variants of names and designations. Considerable time and effort

CCCN Chapter 46 covers plaiting materials and products made thereof. These materials and products are not covered in this note, nor are bamboo poles or rattan, both of which are classifiable in Chapter 14. To the extent that bamboo or rattan has been processed into a product covered in Chapter 44, the tariff information provided in Section D might be relevant.

2 For a development of the question of forest classification and

nomenclature see "Tropical Forests Ecosystem - a state of knowledge report", prepared by UNESCO/UNEP/FAO, 1978. For a short survey of the world's major forest regions, in terms of wood resources, with a summary description of forest characteristics, see "Wood Resources and Their Use as Raw Material", UNIDO/1S.399, Aug. 83 (based on FAO's comprehensive forest documentation) and, for a short descriptive commentary, a special issue of the publication "Co-Evolution", No. 15 (83/84).

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has been invested by many individuals, research institutions and committees in arriving at a uniform international nomenclature for the identification of the main species used and traded. Even so, there remain today at least some five hundred different wood species-varieties which are of actual or potential significance in international trade. It is clearly beyond the possibilities of a note like this one to deal in any detail with all the possible variants. The approach adopted was therefore, to examine, first, the existing import tariff schedules of GATT member countries and, then, to note the kind of distinctions made, by species or otherwise, and, finally, to examine these distinctions and the effect they may have on trade. On the basis of this examination, it can be said that the species-distinctions in the tariff schedules of GATT member countries are, on the whole, quite limited. Nevertheless, such species-distinctions as do exist in the tariff schedules could, in some cases, be a source of uncertainty as to what tariff treatment is applicable to a given wood variety, or to the products made thereof.

8. As regards statistical tabulations, two approaches have been adopted. One, as in Table I - Section A, attempts to provide a "snapshot", as it were, of the situation at a given moment, bringing together various elements which, it is hoped, will permit an overall impression to be gained of forest resources, current forestry production and use and the interaction of resources and needs on trade flows. Similarly, in Table II - Section B, it is attempted to provide follow-through data on timber availabilities, the primary manufacturing stages which the available timber undergoes in given countries (taking account also of net imports or exports) and, finally, an account of the type and approximate volume of wood semi-manufactures and of woodpulp available for further processing. The juxtaposition of the various data is not without risk and in order to avoid, to the extent possible, misleading conclusions to be drawn from these summary tabulations, relating to one year only, attention is invited to the various qualifying remarks in the text of this note. The second approach is of the more customary nature, setting out statistical data on trends in production and trade by means of time-series tabulations; these are shown in Annex I-B and Annex II.

9. Given the vast amount of forestry data which are compiled worldwide and the practical difficulties not only in presenting these, but also in reading tightly packed statistical tables, this note opts for selectivity, limiting the data presented for forest resources and production in the summary tabulations to 1979. For import and export data in Table III (which also gives origins of import and export destinations) and in Table IV, the data shown were the latest available (up to 1982) when Spec(84)13 was issued. Data in Section D (Table V) are, again, the latest available or, for MTN trade concessions, the final MTN tariff rates (i.e. those applied as of 1.1.1986, or 1.1.1987). As regards Annex I-B, production and trada data are shown for 1963, 1973, 1979 and 1981. Data covered in the trade matrix in

Among these, dealing with a wide range of forestry-research related topics, the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), founded in 1891-92, might be cited. Today, IUFRO has a membership of about ten thousand scientists, and 500 institutes from 85 countries - united in promoting international co-operation in forestry research activities.

2 An indication is also provided of import duty reductions to be

phased in by Japan over the period 1986 to 1988.

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Annex II cover 1963, 1973 and 1981, unless otherwise indicated. The year 1963 was chosen as a point of departure, because UN statistics available for that year are more readily comparable with statistics for subsequent years than the pre-1963 data. 1973 seemed a logical interval, was a year of high-level wood industry activity in North America, but is also the year in which the post-war housing construction boom in Europe came to an end; 1979 was chosen because much of the resource/cum/production statistics available from different sources could be related to 1979/80 and, finally, 1981 was chosen as the year for which data for a considerable number of countries were available at the time of writing. Several of the developed countries in 1984 and 1985, saw a recovery in forestry industry production and trade, often falling short, however, of the peak levels reached in the mid 1970's, or in 1979. Nevertheless, the data for these earlier years do provide an indication of most countries'forestry related activities and interests. Certain recent trade developments are, to the extent possible, identified separately in later parts of this note.

10. While only a relatively small part of the world's total forestry products production moves into international trade (say, around 10 per cent, in terms of the volume of industrial roundwood production equivalent) exports of wood-, cork- and semi-manufactures thereof and of

The trade situation, which, for practical purposes, in Spec(84)13 had to be frozen in 1981/82, has, of course, further evolved. While the period 1981 through the first half of 1983 can, in general, be characterized as recessionary, for both production and trade in forestry products, an improvement in trade opportunities and in the actual volume of trade flows, particularly those destined to the United States, can be noted as from the second half of 1983, when - in some cases - the high points reached in the 1970s were again attained, or even surpassed, with some exceptions, notably a stagnation or even decline in the volume of shipments of tropical wood semi-manufactures from Africa to Europe, a reflection of the recession in housebuilding and construction activity in Europe (Imports of tropical sawnwood into Europe peaked in 1979). The upturn in demand for forestry products in certain markets over the last two years notwithstanding, the profitability record of the forest product industries was rather mixed, depending not only on past and present management results of the enterprises concerned, but dependent also on the structure of firms, with those firms that could benefit from the earlier and more significant upturn in demand for such downstream products as pulp, paper and paper products experiencing generally better returns than firms dependent on wood products only. Like prices for many other commodities, export prices for logs and lumber in international markets in the mid-Eighties were, on the whole, below those of earlier years (but are now expected to firm). Early 1986 returns point to a slowdown of export growth for several major forestry products exports and possibly a weakening of export prices for woodpulp. It should, however, also be recalled in this context, that, since the trade data for 1979, 1981 and 1982 were recorded, the world's major trading currencies have undergone repeated - and sometimes major -adjustments which have, of course, not been without repercussion on trading opportunities and the direction of trade-flows. Recent changes in petroleum prices will also not be without repercussions on production and trade-flow possibilities.

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woodpulp, from all sources, are important in international trade, amounting to somewhat more than 31 thousand million US dollars annually, on average, in 1979 and 1980 (not including certain finished wood manufactures or furniture), or about 1.7 per cent of world exports of all commodities.

11. It is important to bear in mind that the wood-processing industries have undergone major technical and structural changes since international trading opportunities opened up again, in a significant way, in the mid-1950s, when the combined effect of the ravages of war and, as a result thereof, currency restrictions, had started to be overcome in many countries, and when efforts and institutional arrangements for regional and global co-operation, including those arising from the early GATT multilateral trade negotiation rounds, started to take effect.

12. On the technical side there have been remarkable changes in forest cultivation, -harvesting and -logging practices and facilities. Silviculture, as a science, and in actual practice, has made great progress. At the level of the wood-processing industries, machine-shaping and -joinery has become increasingly widespread, while, unfortunately, artisanal skills have been on the decline, at least relatively so. Increasing reliance on machine processing has favoured the use of uniform, homogeneous inputs. This, in turn, favoured increasing use of the technically more homogeneous coniferous woods (in terms of processing characteristics), then increased use of blockboard, plywood and fibre- and particle-board, of varying characteristics and specifications, and of certain varieties of tropical woods.

13. The increasing availability of these items and particularly so the, by now, widespread use of particle-board and fibre-board (at least in the developed areas), has considerably enlarged the raw material base of the industry. "Wood-waste" (both processing-waste and waste-wood, i.e. wood from species previously considered unfit for joinery, panel-boards, and pulping) has become a very relative term, indeed. New wood-laminating, wood-preservation and wood-colouring techniques have still further enlarged the resource-base for the industry by opening up use-possibilities for less durable and less decorative woods (of which one demand-enhancing variant is a partly transparent overprint process for otherwise non-decorative veneers). As regards pulpwood requirements, the recycling of paper, increased use-possibilities for short-fibre hardwood pulps and of wood chips, including those from rubber trees and mangrove tree varieties, have still further enlarged the raw material base. Moreover, pulping processes which produce larger usable quantities of pulp for a given quantity of wood input, as compared with conventional, chemical, pulp-manufacturing processes, are coming more widely into use. Nor are developments at their end. Great strides are being made in developing production and markets for greater

More than 2.0 per cent if paper were also be included. The 1.7 per cent figure also does not cover the not inconsiderable value of wooden crates and packings, used in exports of non- wood products.

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strength "oriented-flakeboard". The increasing availability and use of medium-density fibreboard - more recently also in Europe - increases competition for natural wood in furniture making. Greater use of exterior-grade flakeboard for construction will increase competitive pressure on construction-grade plywood. Fighting back, the plywood industry has now under development processes and center-less veneer lathes for producing technically acceptable peeled plywood veneer from small-diameter logs. The particle-board industry's response is a further speed-up in panel-forming and pressing processes. Computer control of sorting, sawing and milling operations is starting to spread for producing sawn and milled wood products. Milling machines with microchip-sensors and precise, motor- or hydraulically-controlled, operations, and even high pressure water-jet cutting and laser controlled finishing and cutting techniques are starting to make their appearance. Certain production processes, such as door manufacture (sometimes wafer-thin veneers over a honeycomb cardboard core) and even the fabrication of wall-size panels for pre-fabricated houses (in particular„European modular prefabs), are starting to be fully automated.

14. The whole of the forest products trade has been impacted in a major way by the rapid development of the export trade in tropical timber, estimated by FAO to have grown, in log equivalents, from about 7 million cubic metres in the 1950's to approximately 70 million cubic metres in a recent year. While in the early 1950s only a few dozen tropical wood species were of some significance in international trade, the number of

This is primarily a North American development and is only now starting to spread to Europe where it is also known as structureboard, or waferboard ("Stirlingboard", in the UK). Outer - and inner - layers of thin woodflakes are put down in different directions, rather than at random. This orientation gives more strength (two- or three-fold increase in bending strength). (Because of their matted appearance such boards require veneer or plastic overlays, if intended for furniture surface materials.) As regards medium density fibre (MDF) board it is probably correct to say that (once it becomes more widely available) it could have a wider range of uses than any other manufactured board material. MDF board has high strength, smooth surfaces, excellent machining characteristics (like good, solid wood) good edge quality and good finishing properties.

2 An interesting summary description of modern manufacturing

processes in the wood processing industry and the characteristics and uses of many types of wood semi-manufactures was recently published in "A Review of Technology and Technological Development in the Wood and Wood Processing Industry and its Implications for Developing Countries", document: UNIDO/IS. 413, of Nov. 1983. For somewhat broader aspects of wood industry production and trade developments, with particular emphasis on tropical wood varieties, attention is invited to (FAO) UNIDO document "Wood Resources and their Use as Raw Material", UNIDO/IS. 339, and "First World-Wide Study of the Wood and Wood-Processing Industries", UNIDO/IS. 398. Another, recent, study to be mentioned is "Mechanical Processing of Tropical Hardwood in Developing Countries: Issues and Prospects for the Plywood Industry's Development in the Asia - Pacific Region" in: Case Studies on Industrial Processing of Primary Products, Commonwealth Secretariat and IBRD.

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tropical species traded now is figured in hundreds. Originally, exports from tropical suppliers consisted mainly of logs. Many of these countries now restrict or prohibit, or otherwise discourage, log exports, while encouraging exports of sawnwood and plywood, exports of both of which have expanded manifold, as have exports of other products made of tropical wood varieties.

15. Problems of log restrictions have, in some cases, been overcome through joint ventures for forest-resource exploitation, accompanied by the establishment of transformation industries and international marketing support measures. Many of the forestry enterprises which have sprung up over the last two decades have been geared expressly to supplying export markets and most of these ventures have been quite successful in this respect. Joint ventures and transnational investment have not been limited to developed and developing country co-operation, but are also a feature of developed-cum-developed and developing-cum-developing country co-operation. As joint ventures spread, trade flows were affected, and so were production developments in various locations.

16. Large-scale increases in exports of semi-finished wood products to distant markets have been made possible by standardizing grading, performance specifications, shipping documentation, contract conditions, transport and also improved customs clearance facilities, assisted, inter alia, by the work of international standardizing bodies. Container transport is becoming increasingly important for shipments of wood semi-manufactures and is also widely used for shipping waste paper to be recycled into paper and paperboard manufactures. After the spread of shipping bundled lots, sometimes palletized, the development of specialized ocean transport and of special port terminal-facilities have been key elements in the development of that trade. Part of the trade in woodpulp is conducted on the basis of long-term supply contracts; for transport to Japan some 70 special purpose wood-chip bulk transporters ply the Seas. In some cases the interested industries -particularly in respect of pulp and products made thereof - have diversified both their sources of raw material supplies and their market outlets through international investment in the form of new foreign investment, by acquisitions, or joint ventures, all spurred by increasing demand for wood, pulp and paper, in the face of expanding consumer markets and explosive growth in the needs of the print -, publishing and communications-media, for data-processing uses (so far the paperless office is a myth, but work on many fronts (including by ECE) for standardizing intra- and inter-industry and transport-documentation electronic data interchanges (EDI), aiming at an increasingly paperless office-environment) is accelerating, and in uses for sanitary purposes and by the packaging industries.

For a recent bibliographical listing of ISO standards for wood, wood semi-manufactures, cork and for paper pulp, see ISO document "1 Bibliography", 4th edition, Geneva, March 1984. Among international bodies involved in wood-industry products' standardization work, the UN/ECE should be mentioned. For ECE-recommended standards for construction sawn-wood, cf. Timber Bulletin, Volume XXXIV, supplement 16, November 1982. Work on shipping policies, standardization of freight tariff rules, multi-modal (door to door) container traffic, etc., has been, and continues to be, undertaken by UNCTAD and OECD.

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17. Certain forest resources, hitherto largely inaccessible, are seen as becoming exploitable, for instance additional timber and wood-chips from the USSR could become available for export in the wake of ongoing exploration and development of resources in Siberia and the expansion and improvement of the USSR's transport system. In the Amazon Basin, considerable progress has been made for operating, on a sustained-yield basis, several large woodpulp complexes, the output of which is destined predominantly for export, and, overall, the accessibility of the Amazon region's forest resources is improving, as transport infrastructure-development (including rail) proceeds. In other regions of the world (for instance in New Zealand, South Africa, in several EEC countries and in parts of the United States) output from timber and pulpwood plantations, established in earlier decades, is starting to become available for harvesting and is already a factor in the market. Pulpwood plantations are also being created in several locations in Africa, in Asia and in Oceania. Reforestation efforts are being intensified almost everywhere.

18. While it will be seen from Section A that different regions and countries are differently endowed with forest resources, either in terms of forest per total land-area, or forest resources per caput, and while forestry policy objectives are, by necessity, accorded different levels of importance within different countries' socio-economic policy objectives, it can be said, generally, that the governments of all of the countries covered by this note are keenly aware of the need to protect forest resources and all of them have on their statute books policies for maintaining forests at desirable levels and, whenever possible, to manage this resource so as to obtain sustained yields and to balance short-, medium- and long-term interests. This is true regardless of whether forest-ownership is public, provincial, communal or private. There exists considerable concern and international support for the adoption of appropriate forest management policies and some international financial and technical assistance has been directed to finance efforts for halting desertification and for promoting reforestation, including schemes financed by the EEC, by individual governments and by the IBRD and by regional development-banks and development-associations.

19. As regards trade, it will be noted that, as a result of various regional-integration schemes and -preferential arrangements, the successive Lomé-Conventions and the GSP, a large part of international trade in wood and wood products has been moving free of import duties for some time, at least as far as imports into many developed market-economy countries are concerned. Undoubtedly, the different regional arrangements are of considerable importance in promoting regional economic development and trade expansion. This is the very purpose of these arrangements. Yet, for the group of products covered by this note, an examination of the data in Table III-B, on import-sourcing and export-destinations, shows (North America, perhaps, excepted) that resource- and trade-complementarity is often more important between different regions than within a given region or preference-area.

20. Trade liberalization and duty-reduction or elimination in various contexts notwithstanding, some wood products and wood-derivative products are considered "sensitive" in several developed countries and continue to be (or are now [temporarily]) subject to positive m.f.n. import duties, which may be relatively high, in some instances. M.f.n. import duties on wood and wood products in many of the developing countries are very often high, though, perhaps, not higher than import duties for many other classes of goods.

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21. Since virtually all countries have some forests or woodlands and, associated therewith, some wood production and -processing, imports of wood and wood products are quite often considered as being not among essential import needs and are thus likely to be among restricted items when balance-of-payments import restrictions, currently widespread in the developing areas, are imposed.

22. Less favourable tariff treatment for wood and wood products, depending on origin, is a matter of serious concern to a number of countries, including some of the major forestry products producers and exporters. In past discussions, these countries have pointed out that for many types of forestry products the market is highly competitive and price sensitive, with the result that even relatively low nominal rates of duty can have disproportionate effects on export marketing possibilities, particularly when tariff protection's on top of such natural protection as significant transport costs. Another area of concern as regards wood products is the existence of differentiation in tariff treatment for given products having the same use, but made from different woods. Another question that arises is the level of effective tariff protection, as compared with nominal tariff levels.

23. From such documentation on non-tariff measures as has been examined for this note, it is evident that certain non-tariff measure obstacles to trade in forestry products exist. Some of these measures are intended to deal with temporary problems (mitigating storm damage, or measures for protecting the balance-of-payments) or with measures designed to protect the flora, or health (formaldehyde emissions, etc.). Other measures may be designed to serve forest-resource maintenance or -development, or social policy objectives. The picture of the many possible and varied government support activities, actual or only perceived, gets blurred, and sometimes very complicated, by the fact that the State is, in many instances, the owner of part, perhaps even the major part, of the forest resource. Forest resource disposition- or development-measures thus become merged with general economic objectives and policies.

24. Like other sectors of trade, international trade in wood and wood-products is affected by numerous technical standards and regulations. A reading of the relevant documentation suggests that some of the existing technical barriers to trade are, perhaps, due to insufficient familiarity of importers, exporters and administrations with the technical characteristics of wood and wood-products available from, and being offered for export by, suppliers in other countries. There is some indication that problems in this area, notwithstanding the fact that standards are sometimes set and enforced by national- or regional professional or industry associations, can often be, and have in the past been, resolved through bilateral consultations between interested countries.

If recently published data on international transportation cost for US imports in 1981 are generally representative, the freight factor (ratio of international transportation cost to the free-alongside value of the product being shipped) for lumber (and even more so for paper and paperboard) is particularly high, when compared with freight factors for 18 other broad import categories. Ref: H. McFarland "Transportation Cost for US Imports from Developed and Developing Countries" in The Journal of Development Studies, London, Vol. 21, No. 4, July 1985.

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25. Special thanks are due to the Geneva-based Timber Section of the ECE/FAO Agriculture and Timber Division for the generous access provided to their reference library facilities. Without this facility the preparation of the overview note (within a relatively short span of time, when Spec(84)13 was first presented) would not have been possible. The findings arrived at in this note are, of course, the sole responsibility of the author. Suggestions for any corrections or amendments that might be required will be appreciated.

Since Spec(84)13 was circulated, 1985 having been designated "international Year of the Forest", much further research by many individuals and institutes has gone into the investigation of the world's varied forest resources, their protection, and their proper use for social and economic development. Some of the research results, findings and conclusions, for instance those published in connection with the IX World Forestry Congress (Mexico, July 1985) and considered to be relevant for this note, have - to the extent possible - been reflected in this revision and partial up-date. Last, but not least, it should be mentionned that ECE/FAO in September/October 1985 published an up-dated and much expanded survey of "The forest resources of the ECE region (Europe, the USSR, North America)". The wealth of information provided by that survey (some 200 pages, including notes on methodology) goes well beyond the summary information, based to some extent on earlier ECE/FAO survey data, attempted in this note. Other material, such as papers prepared for UNIDO's recent "First World-Wide Study of the Wood and Wood Processing Industries" did become available in time to be reflected, as appropriate, in this note and account has also been taken of some of the major conclusions of the first meeting of ILO's, recently established, Forestry and Wood Industries Committee (cf. ILO, document IC/FWl/1/17 - 1986).

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A. FOREST RESOURCES, THEIR USE AND POTENTIAL

26. The main thrust of this overview note is aimed at trade-related topics. However, as primary production and, thereafter, exports of wood (and some of the products derived therefrom) depend on the existence of an adequate natural resource base, namely forests of various types and species-composition, it seems relevant to consider briefly that resource base, first globally, then by regions and, in tabular form, by countries.

27. On a global basis, were it not for the competition in land-use by agriculture, pasture, fuelwood collection, timber offtake, urban settlement, road networks, and, in some regions, an expanding desert, more than 60 per cent of the world's land surface might be, and presumably once was, covered by forests, nature's way of providing a protective cover for the soil. As it is, the original natural forests have been much thinned out, in some areas to the point of virtual disappearance. Overall, only slightly more than 30 per cent of the earth's land surface, or 4,100 million ha. , is now covered with closed forests or other wooded land, wherein the latter designation, standardizing efforts for common definitions notwithstanding, allows a considerable range of interpretations as to the nature and density of tree-stands. It is estimated that about three-fourths of the world's forest/woodland area would qualify for the designation "closed forests".

28. As regards types of natural forests, one finds pine, spruce, birch, aspens, alders and larch in the boreal forests in the North, then, proceeding southward, vast stretches of increasingly more varied stands of conifers, mixed conifer-broadleaved forests in the temperate regions, sparse tree coverage in most of the Mediterranean regions, some scrubs and woodland in the savanna, then, increasingly dense, humid forests and the wet, evergreen tropical forests of Latin America, Africa and South and South-East Asia and parts of Oceania. Tree coverage decreases again as one moves still farther south, except where a maritime, humid climate favours forest growth, such as in parts of southern Chile. In all regions, elevation above sea level makes a considerable difference as to the type of forests one finds, with, as a rule, coniferous tree-stands on the flanks of the great mountain ranges. Australia and such insular locations as Madagascar are different again as regards flora and forest characteristics. More than one half of all tropical shores are fringed with mangroves and the great river systems on earth have their own characteristic forests. Different tree species have, over the ages, found the particular ecological niche most suited to their needs, or one to which they could adapt. This has led to a bewildering variety of tree species, most of all in the tropical forests.

One hectar (ha.)„= 100 x lOOmetres = 10,000 square metres = 2.47 acres; 100 ha. = 1 km ; 1 million ha. = 10,000 km , cf. also footnote 2 on page 13.

2 "Closed forest" is a forest which has a closed tree canopy.

"Other wooded land" designates, in general, areas where trees predominate, but without constituting a full tree canopy. (Closed

./.

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Footnote (cont'd)

forests - as defined by FAO - are those which, by their different strata and their undergrowth, cover a large part of, or all, the ground and which, in general, do not have a continuous herbaceus stratum (except in certain coniferous forests.) Other wooded land - also "open tree formations" - are those in which the canopy is generally less closed. These are essentially mixed broadleaved forest-grassland formations, such as the South-Amercian "cerrado" and "chaco", the African woodlands and wooded and tree savannas. - FAO Forestry Paper 37). About 1,600 million ha. of closed forests are in the temperate zone and about 1,200 million ha. in the tropical regions. The volume of standing timber per hectar in the closed forest averages 80 to 100 cubic metres in the temperate regions and 100 to more than 200 cubic metres (on account of the more active bioclimatic conditions) in the tropics. The estimated total volume of growing stock of closed forests is 145,000 million in the temperate regions and about 185,000 million in the tropical forest. About 75 per cent of the forest area in the temperate and northern regions is covered with coniferous stands. Coniferous forests account for 2.5 per cent of total forest area in the tropical regions. The term "other wooded land" applies to about 400 million ha. in the temperate zone and 750 million ha. in the tropical area. Total growing stock in these "other" woodlands is estimated at 20,000 million cubic metres, two-thirds of which is in the tropical regions (as defined by FAO, the area occuring between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn). Less than one-half of the forest area is considered "operable" - the remainder is not operational for a variety of reasons, such as physical or economic inaccessability, or legal constraints designed to preserve the forest for its protection potential. The operable volume of growing stock in the developed areas is estimated at 96,000 million cubic metres (of which 72,500 million coniferous). The figures for total (figures for coniferous in parentheses) volume of operable growing stock, in 1000 million cubic metres, are: North America - 36.4 (26.6); Europe -14.1 (8.8); USSR - 40.0 (33.2) - other developed - 5.5 (3.9). The estimated volume of total growing stock in the developing areas (much of it not operable, however) is of the order, in 1000 million cubic metres, of close to 80.0 for South, -Central America and Caricom, 38.8 for Africa and 43 for Asia (including insular). Ref: "Wood Resources and Their Use as Raw Material"; op.cit.

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29. Broadly speaking, the USSR accounts for about 22 per cent of the world's forest area (about 29 per cent of world closed forest area). Of the world's coniferous forests, the share of the USSR, in terms of area, is about 60 per cent. Total growing stock (in 1975) was estimated at 74,700 million cubic metres. Growing stock of "operable" forests (i.e. physically accessible and with logging plans) is of the order of close to 50,000 million cubic metres (including stands newly accessible via the BAM railroad and feeder lines). Coniferous species represent more than four-fifths of the USSR's operable forest stock. The corresponding percentages for other regions, as regards total forest area (and closed forests respectively), are: about 19 per cent (7 per cent) for the African continent; about 19 per cent (22.5 per cent) for South- and Central-America; 15.4 per cent (17.6 per cent) for North America; about 13 per cent (15 per cent) for Asia; 4.6 per cent (3 per cent) for the Oceania Pacific region; 4.1 per cent (5.2 per cent) for the European region. For the world as a whole, somewhat more than one half of the forest and woodland area is located in developing countries. Forest resources in terms of ha. of closed forest/per caput (plus ha. of open forest/per caput) in the early 1970s were estimated to be of the following orders of magnitude: North America 2.0 (0.7); Central America 0.5 (0.02); South America 2.4 (0.7); Africa 0.4 (1.3); Europe 0.3 (0.1); USSR 3.0 (0.4); Asia 0.2 (0.3); Oceania and Pacific regions 3.6 (4.8). World average: 0.7 (0.3).

30. In terms of total area under forests, it can be said that in most of the developed countries the forest area is either stable, or increasing slowly. In the developed countries most lumber companies and State forest administrations act on the principle that they are not in the tree-cutting business but in the tree-growing business; the objective is not only to preserve the area under forests but also to make each hectar of forest produce annually more timber than is cut (until final harvest and/or replanting at a given site). In most of the developing countries, despite recent attention and ongoing efforts for reforestation, or afforestation, the total area under forests is still decreasing. As population growth in most developing countries is high (absolutely, or in relative terms), average per caput availabilities of forest land in the developing countries have probably declined since the above estimates were published.

31. Not only is the forest-resource endowment different from region to region, but there are also great differences in the way this resource is used. In the developed countries the overwhelming part of the forest resource, if harvested, is nowadays, it was not always so, destined for the market. In order to be profitable, it is marketed largely for industrial uses. In most of the developing countries,- however, conditions are such that most of the wood removals are for firewood, for cooking and heating.

North America's coniferous forests account for more than one fourth of the world total.

2 Data based on, and adapted from, "The Global 2000 Report to the

President" - US Council on Environmental Quality and US Dept. of State, Washington D.C., 1980. Summary data on land suitable as arable/cum/ cropland and of forest land potential in different regions of the world are given in the GAIA Atlas of Planet Management, Pan Books Ltd, London 1985, pages 24-32. Data on total forest and woodland areas of GATT countries are given in Table I of this note.

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32. While in Latin America, except for unexplored and unsettled areas (such as the vast 'terras devolutas' in Brazil, which are owned by the Federal Government), much of the land, including the forest, is privately owned, in Africa and Asia, and partly in developing Oceania, the forests are administered and exploited on the basis of communal-, rather than individual- or State-ownership, although the State often holds ownership-title. The communal rights and uses include the gathering of forest-fruits and -fibres, the collection of wooden poles etc. for construction, and of firewood, as well as certain grazing and hunting rights. This system works well as long as sufficient forest-space in relation to population and its needs is available. Once population increases significantly, strains on the system develop rapidly, starting normally either from the fuelwood- or the food-shortage end. Once food starts to be in short supply, pressure arises for bringing additional land under cultivation. As easily cultivable land is normally already being exploited, this means recourse to nearby forest land. The forest is cleared, often by burning, and food crops are then planted. Within two to three years, tree-undergrowth and weeds (which are difficult to eliminate from the imperfectly cleared ex-forest plot) take over again, making agricultural pursuits toilsome and unproductive. This provides an incentive to repeat the clearing/cum planting operation on a new plot - i.e. shifting9cultivation, which leaves behind a degraded forest and is at present , probably, the main source of overall forest destruction in the developing areas. In the forests of some of the developed countries, wildlife populations (both small and big game) are rising rapidly, the result both of recent restrictive regulations and reduced forest-care operations. There is some reason to fear long-term degradation and damage to the rejuvenation of existing natural forests

(a matter which is particularly serious in respect of protective mountain forests), due to excessive forest resource use (including for sports and leisure), or destruction by wildlife or, in some cases, feral animals.

33. Collection of wood for fuel needs places a heavy toll on the forest. First, deadwood is collected. When deadwood is gone, branches are chopped off. Finally, the trees go. With fuelwood lacking, agricultural waste materials and dried animal dung are used for fuel. With less natural fertilizer thus available, soil fertility and food production-capacity declines. This produces pressure for more land to be brought under cultivation, which manifests itself in increased pressure on remaining forest lands. When combined pressure for fuelwood and cultivable land leads to increased hillside-farming and fuelwood collection, soil erosion makes rapid headway, followed by silting of water-courses and flooding, creating new and additional problems over wider and wider areas. In the arid and semi-arid zones of the world, wind, rather than water, is the main agent of erosion. Once the protective cover of trees and shrubs is removed, most often for firewood and animal fodder, the destructive force of the wind is unrestrained. The fine fertile soil particles are swept away, leaving the heavier, sandy ones behind. The soil becomes progressively less fertile and less productive. Once wind erosion has started, the moving soil particles add to the process, in sand-blasting fashion, scouring everything in their path.

The question of forest ownership - very relevant in the context of assessing resource potential - is a very complex one. Some of these complexities, starting with the very definition of what constitutes a

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Footnote (cont'd)

forest (with considerable differences between different countries), are highlighted in a "unasylva" review article (in Vol. 37, No. 148 (85/2)) of "Forêt et environnement en droit comparé et international", M. Prieur éd., Presses universitaires de France, 1983.

2 J. Westoby, in a book review article, published in "unasylva",

Vol. 37, No. 148/85-2, makes the point that it is a misconception to assume that tropical deforestation is necessarily the result of overpopulation, recalling that vast areas of tropical forest were destroyed in centuries past, in places and at times "when there was little if any population; indeed, populations - slaves and later indented labour - had to be brought in to accomplish the deforestation ... Brazil's northeast, and most of the Caribbean were deforested in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ... in all three tropical regions deforestation accelerated in the nineteenth century ... Throughout the tropics it was export-oriented agriculture that pushed the forest back". Even now, the problem is seen as being caused by shifted cultivators (their lands having been absorbed by other users and, perhaps, uses) rather than by shifting cultivation, which, as previously practised, in accordance with tribal traditions, was ecologically sustainable. All this argues for appropriate reforms in many of the areas where tropical forests are now under assault. More generally it can be said that the term "shifting cultivation" is variously used by different authors, and the practice of shifting cultivation may produce widely differing results. An interesting summary of work conducted by FAO on alternatives to shifting cultivation (in collaboration with research institutes in the UK, Netherlands, France, Tanzania and Ghana) is given in an article by J.P. Lauly, in "unasylva", Vol. 37, No. 147 (85/1).

3Cf. FAO, WFD/1/1985.

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34. In the tropical forests, where fuelwood is not generally in short supply, forest clearing for agricultural uses also has its problems; an estimated 11 million ha. of tropical forest and woodland (of which 7.5 million ha. in the "closed forest" category) are "cleared", or degraded each year. Tropical forest soils are generally poor in nutrients, so much so that no single tree species can establish itself as truly predominant. The great species variety of the tropical forest is a reflection of the poor soil nutrient levels. The bulk of the nutrients is in the living phytomass, e.g. the trees, shrubs and the underbrush. Leaves are shed and new leaf growth occurs round the year, and, apart from a shallow layer of surface soil, there is consequently little humus formation, as everything is recycled very rapidly, especially so as most tropical trees - once fallen or felled - are not very rot-resistant, in the hot and humid environment. When the trees are removed, only few nutrients remain in the soil. The shallow surface layer, even if enriched by ashes - as in slash burning - is quickly destroyed by weathering and leaching. The forest-to-atmosphere, and back again, water-cycle (forests create their own micro-climate) is interrupted, the soils dry out, get parched and become unproductive, as nutrient elements needed for plant growth (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) are often in short supply - while levels of aluminium and iron, in a way toxic for plants, are frequently high. Thus, after one or two relatively satisfactory harvests, there is an incentive to shift cultivation to other plots of virgin forest lands, with all the longer-term problems this entails.

35. These are not imagined scenarios. Even though some of the underlying statistics on fuelwood-use and -needs, and on the extent of shifting cultivation, are only estimates, the problems cited are real and widespread. Fortunately, policies and measures for halting the destruction or degradation of forest resources are being adopted almost everywhere. Among measures being introduced are the establishment of fuelwood-plantations, promotion of better coppice practices, the

The fact that most tropical tree varieties (unlike the temperate zone forest-tree varieties, which are mainly fertilized by wind-borne pollens) depend on very specific pollinators (a specific insect variety or a specific animal) for effective pollination, is another reason.

2 A concise summary of the status of the world's rain forests, their

use and protective measures, country-by-country, is contained in "Rain Forests", National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 163, No. 1, January 1983.

3 According to recent FAO estimates, 100 million people in

developing countries already have insufficient fuelwood for cooking and heating. Another 1,000 million people can only meet these needs by depleting fuelwood resources. Asia experiences the most acute fuelwood shortages. Almost all of India and Pakistan are affected by fuelwood shortages, as are the more heavily populated plains and islands of South East Asia. The Himalayas are particularly badly stricken. In Africa the most severe shortages are in East Africa and Madagascar, but all of the arid zones are in danger. In Latin America, the Andean plateau and the Eastern plains of Brazil are the most critical areas. Ref. FAO, document WFD/1/1985. A detailed map of the fuelwood situation in the developing areas, country-by-country, was published in 1981 by FAO, as a "unasylva" supplement.

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introduction of cooking stoves, stricter land-use regulations and improved agro-silviculture practices and, to halt desertification, the planting of windbreaks , hopefully to be complemented by better (holistic!) range-management. With few exceptions, progress in all these endeavours is slow, however.

36. Reduced, and perhaps declining, as the earth's forest coverage may be, the world's forests continue to be so large as to be defined and appraised only with great difficulty. What is even more difficult is an assessment of the way it can be seen as a resource, since forest-policy objectives and -uses overlap with many other sectoral and general policy objectives, to which different importance is attributed in different socio-political contexts, depending also on changing environmental objectives. In some areas of the world, where forest coverage is now much reduced, because of intensive agricultural uses, the increased agricultural land-use option was probably mainly prompted by economic considerations. For many governments, forest-policy considerations carry less importance than agricultural policy objectives. Forests that are being converted to agriculture provide food already in the short term, while the forest itself is seen more as a capital asset, often a not very productive one, or productive only in the longer term. It is, of course, realized that forestry activities, including reforestation work, do provide employment opportunities, an aspect accorded very high importance in some developing and developed countries. It is also recognized that income generated by forestry related employment is fed back into the overall economy. Yet, wherever agricultural land is scarce in relation to food needs, the forests normally lose out to agriculture.

37. While in terms of purely economic returns forestry use objectives may now be determined mainly by medium-term considerations, long-term policy objectives are not absent. Contrary to a widely-held belief, the importance of protecting the environment and preserving, or re-establishing, a proper balance between forestry and other land-uses is not something that has been recognized only recently. In fact, governments of most countries, and earlier on some colonial administrations, have since long attached great importance to proper forest management and the maintenance of a balanced ecosystem generally. In some countries forestry legislation goes back well over a hundred years (in some instances to the late Middle Ages) and in other instances

Partly under bilateral aid schemes, as in Senegal, where - with Canadian assistance - a 300 km. eucalyptus belt has been built to halt the advance of the desert. Other large-scale windbreak plantations, benefiting from international technical and financial' assistance measures, include a project on the high plateaus of Ethiopia, a project in Niger, started some time ago with assistance from the US and certain EC sponsored initiatives in some African countries, etc.; Algeria, on its part, has also made great efforts in combating desertification.

2 Acceptance of wood-burning stoves, or hearths, which permit

10-15 per cent wood-fuel thermal energy content to be recovered (instead of 2-5 per cent in the typical, three-stone, open-pit fire which is, moreover, through high pollutant emissions, very detrimental to the health of users) by local populations is often difficult to achieve. FAO, among others, is doing considerable work for the adoption in developing countries of better technologies for the conversion of wood energy into heat energy and/or mechanical energy. This is only a small part of a much wider, integrated, FAO "Tropical Forestry Action Plan", outlined in FAO document M-30 ('85/'86), bearing that title.

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at least to the beginning of this century. In some cases (for instance, Switzerland, India) forest-policy objectives and prescriptions are written into the Constitution. In many cases forest use and forestry objectives are regulated by national or federal and provincial laws. While the policy objectives are not always the same, virtually all provide for maintaining a balance between silvicultural and agricultural uses, and many of the implementing regulations insist on, and provide for, measures of, at least limited, reforestation. In the case of professionally managed private forest lands reforestation measures are undertaken as a matter of course, even in the absence of State regulations. This is so also in the main tropical wood-producing and -exporting countries, notably those of South and South-East Asia and in West Africa. As a result of these policies and measures, and, of course, also the availability of substitute fuels and industrial raw materials other than wood (formerly based on wood, wood ash, etc.), and the emergence of new sources of wood supplies through trade development, the area under forest in Western Europe and in the United States has been growing, slowly but steadily, with some war-time exceptions, through most of this century. The provisions made for preserving forests for watershed protection purposes, for recreation, and as wildlife and botanical sanctuaries, are also of some significance. In the United States, national parks and federal forest lands, the former fully protected and the latter protected in various ways, were established as from the turn of the century, comprising a very large area, indeed, and total forest area in the US is now larger than at the beginning of the century. Canada, with a total of some 340 million ha.

The Côte d'Ivoire, for instance, is currently intensifying reforestation efforts under a programme envisaging outlays equivalent to close to US$60 million, somewhat more than one-half to be derived from IBRD financing. More generally, in an IBRD, UNDP and World Resources Institute (the latter a private, Washington-based research institute) study it is proposed to spend US$8 billion over a five-year period (beginning in 1987) to begin reversing the trend of tropical deforestation. Many tropical countries are to be covered in this proposed project, with $1.2 billion earmarked for India and $785 million for Brazil. Several countries, including France and FR Germany (FF500 million and DM150 million, respectively, over five years), announced at the February 1986 Silva Conference in Paris large-scale financial assistance for protecting and building up again Africa's forest resources.

2 The federal US Government owns about one third (= 290 million

hectares) of all US land; 100 million hectares have been set aside as national parks, wilderness and primitive areas and other similar reserves. No logging is permitted in these areas, so they are not considered commercial forests. Consequently, a large part of trees in these reserves are over-aged, and thus vulnerable to insect attack and damage (currently a major problem, also for adjoining private timber lands in Texas and Louisiana). Total commercial forest area, including private and other publicly owned forest land, is of the order of 200 million ha., of which about 120 million ha. is owned by private individuals, and about 21 million ha. by forest industry companies. The remaining forests are publicly held in national and state forests, of which 37 million ha. national forests, in which controlled logging is permitted, but sometimes contested (even violently, nail-spiking, "ecotage") by environmentalists.

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of forests, has set aside 9 million ha. as protected parks. In the Brazilian Amazon Basin about 17 million ha. is protected forest and forest reserves in other parts of the country have also been, or are being, created. Some of the countries in East Africa have very large protected areas of savanna woodland. Protected natural parks are also of importance in most of the countries of Western Europe, certain other developed countries, and are also found in a number of developing countries. This has to be taken into account in respect of data on, total forest areas, recorded in Table I for the different countries.

38. Any attempt to appraise the economic value of a given forest area must evidently take into account such factors as forest composition by tree species, -age, growing stock, growth potential, cost of harvesting, transport, nearness to markets, market demand for the wood and other forest products concerned, value and importance attached to other than economic considerations, and, last but not least, alternatives and preferences for either present or future resource use. In other words, the appraisal must take into account, inter alia, both current and future revenue and capital appreciation potential. Options available, and exercised, will depend not only on current market conditions for forest products, and on expectations as to future supply/demand relationships and prices for forestry products, but also on the general economic and fiscal policies prevailing,in countries concerned and on the ownership structure of the forests. That this is not idle

While the latter figure may seem small in relation to the overall level of the resource, the park area nevertheless covers an area larger than the total area under forests in F.R. Germany, the three Benelux countries and Denmark combined. The Canadian forest resource proper, namely "stocked, productive, non-reserved forest land" is of the order of 190 million hectares, of which 36 per cent is mature forest, 3 per cent is over-mature, 45 per cent is immature forest and 8 per cent consists of regenerating areas. The degree of private ownership varies somewhat across Canada, but about 80 per cent of total forest lands are owned and administered by provincial governments and about 11 per cent by the federal government. Private holdings account for over 90 per cent of Prince Edward Islands' (the smallest province) 225,000 hectares of forest land and almost 75 per cent of Nova Scotia's 4.4 million hectares. Public agencies own about 90 per cent of the 120 million hectares located in Ontario and Quebec and over 95 per cent of the 116.5 million hectares found in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Source: Government of Canada - Forestry Service, "Canada's Forests ... Fibre for the World".

2 In Indonesia steps are being taken to require each of the

country's 27 provinces to convert 10 per cent of the land to forest preserves. Once these measures are implemented, the country will have forest preserves totalling about 18 million hectares.

3 For details in respect of ECE countries, see "The forest resources

of the ECE etc.", 1985, op.cit.

That there may be differences of view as to the true value of timberland and other forest industry corporate assets has recently been demonstrated in the context of a number of contested take-over initiatives of some major forest product companies headquartered in North America.

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speculation is demonstrated by the considerable difficulties which wood-processing industries have in some countries, though possessing large forest resources, in persuading private owners to offer timber to the market for industry or for pulping. The disposition to do so, as well as to engage in forest-care activities, will depend, inter alia, on the extent to which forest owners are dependent on forest-resource income, on the marginal tax rate to which such income may be subject (which under a system of progressive income taxes would be different from case to case and, perhaps, year to year), special forestry- and land-tax provisions, inheritance taxes, etc. State aids to forest management and/or forest harvesting, as in the case of some assistance currently provided in the fight against forest die-back, could also make a difference in the way forests are cared for and the level of stocks that are removed and which then come to market.

39. One other important element in regard to forestry resource uses is the fact that, apart from import duties, and from natural protection provided by transport costs (abstracting for the time being from non-tariff measures which could affect supplies and hence market prices), timber prices in many markets are closely related to price developments in the international market. While, in principle, this should be considered desirable, certain problems may arise for proper forest management and -use where such integration into the world market of the forestry resource, and as a consequence fluctuating and often low prices for timber, coincides with forestry activity being carried out jointly with agricultural activities which, through import protection, are less integrated into the international economy, the forest owners being also farmers. In such cases, agriculture, benefiting perhaps from a variety of support measures, while forestry does not, or much less so, proper forest management may become a problem, with forestry activities

With the possible exception of Switzerland (mainly windbreak damage removals so far) and of some of the countries in Eastern Europe, there was no evidence, at the end of 1985, of significant additional quantities of industrial roundwood coming to market as a consequence of forest die-back problems in certain areas of Europe. This may, of course, not hold in the future, but an attempt is being made by the industry to accommodate die-back sanitation fellings (not yet a problem in most areas) through reduced fellings of healthy trees. It should also be pointed out that, apart from some temporary pre-processing storage problems, wood from die-back trees is normally just as strong and useful as that from the, presumably, healthy trees. In the United States South and South-East exceptionally large sanitation fellings in 1985, to combat insect infections, have, however, led to a large imbalance in supply and demand of roundwood, with offer prices falling in some geographic areas to about one-fourth of the national average. (Cf. also footnote 2 on page 24). Developments in European and North-American forest die-back sanitation fellings, which may have an effect on the market, are to be monitored by ECE under a project decided upon in the autumn of 1985.

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being neglected, as compared to agriculture. While, in terms of regulatory policies and -measures for purposes of environmental protection most governments, have, by now, fairly wide authority and intervention possibilities (regardless of the type of forest ownership), possibilities for directing the use of forest resources in the non-State sector are much more limited. Another important element to consider is the degree of vertical integration, namely common ownership of the forest resources and of the downstream forest products industries. In most of the EEC countries, and certain other European countries, there exists very little of such integration, while in the United States, and to some extent in Canada, and also in one or two countries in northern Europe and in countries such as Brazil, vertical integration, in terms of privately-controlled forest-resources and forest product-processing industries, is fairly common. (The integration is not necessarily one of ownership of the primary resources, but may take the form of long-term leases or use-contracts in respect of forest land.) Evidently, vertical integration does provide an additional degree of freedom to management, as far as planning of resource-use and -disposition is concerned.

40. In considering forestry resource-potential in relation to area under forests, it is relevant to bear in mind that forests have different growth rates, varying with the age of the tree population, by species and by site-conditions. Apart from the far North and certain inhospitable mountain climates, where growth is slow, throughout, it can be said that forests composed of young trees grow quickly. Quick growth notwithstanding, a certain growth-result has to be attained to make harvesting worthwhile. During the growth process forests have to be cared for, including repeated thinning out, to permit the more promising portion of the tree-population to develop to the fullest extent those marketing- ar-< uss-characteristics which are most desired for wood industry purposes. Through proper forestry techniques, foresters can influe.'-e usable trunk length, or diameter growth, or both, to mention on3; some of the intervention possibilities. With good management,

. various production objectives can be achieved and overall forest growth can be favourably influenced. This is one of the reasons why production from well-managed forests may often contribute a disproportionally large share of a country's overall wood-production volume and -value, and why forest plantations may well hold the answer to meeting the world's increasing requirements for wood and the many products derived therefrom.

In Switzerland, for example, the pulp and paper industry is much interested in obtaining its pulpwood from domestic sources and, theoretically, much of the pulpwood needs could be obtained domestically. Yet, the economics of thinning out forests and forest care are such (some years excepted, as in 1985) that a part of pulpwood requirements is met through imports. It is now hoped that the impetus to proper forest care to be given by increased attention and finance, in the context of a new programme for the preservation of the forest, will also lead to greater quantities of pulpwood reaching the market (without preventing, however, a record level of sawn-wood imports in 1985).

2 Where certain plantation forests are predominantly destined for

pulping, repeated thinning out may be less economical and is hence reduced. In other cases, the pulp mills do count for their supplies on thin - and gnarled wood, removed during forest care operations. Saw-mills are, however, also relying increasingly on smaller diameter saw-logs, made feasible and profitable, in some cases, by the adoption of laser-traced sawing and innovative (panel-board-construction) lamination techniques. Many complex factors have to be taken into account in "stand-level" and/or "forest-level" management decisions.

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41. If left to themselves, as has been the case for forests in remote, inaccessible areas - whether in the high northern latitudes or in the tropics - forests will eventually reach a stage of almost steady-state equilibrium (though species composition of such forests may change), sometimes referred to as "climax" forests. In steady-state forests production of new phytomass (or of additional atmospheric oxygen) is, by definition, zero. This abstracts from the currently widespread preoccupation with negative growth of forests which are reported to be

Forests made up of young and (or still) vigorous trees can be conceived as being not only factories producing wood, but also as producers of oxygen (of the latter approximately 10 tons per ha. per year). Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air and converted by photosynthetic processes into plant sugars and such carbon polymers as various forms of cellulose and lignin, e.g. the wood, with oxygen being restituted to the atmosphere. The forest land itself, when protected against erosion, can also serve as a soil matrix for the deposition of airborne dust and fine sand particles (several millimetres per year, or 50-60 tons per ha.). Over-mature forests - though perhaps majestic in appearance - on the other hand, may consume (in decay processes) as much oxygen as they produce and, as most of the growth has already taken place, there is often little or no net gain in total woodfibre production. While the great bulk of the earth's carbon deposits and reserves are concentrated in the form of sediments on the sea floor and in the continents and in the form of various minerals and organic matter, with another large part found in the oceans (bound in plankton -or dissolved in the form of bicarbonate) the atmospheric carbon diox^ie is of particular, even prime, importance in maintaining climatic balance. Small as the proportion of carbon dioxide is in total atmospheric gases, it triggers (together with a few other trace gases) what is known as the greenhouse effect. Large-scale use of fossil-fuels is adding to naturally released carbon dioxide (of which vast amounts of termitic origin) and the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from about 270/290 parts per million (ppm) a century ago to about 360 ppm at present. While this, in itself, may not be cause for alarm (the world has known periods of even higher atmospheric carbon dioxide levels) the ongoing wide-scale destruction (part of it by slash-burning, releasing large amounts of carbon (mon-) oxide!) of tropical forests does add a new disturbing element, in that the forests - which, next to ocean plankton, are by far the largest living depositories of carbon - are diminishing to an extent that their global regulatory function is increasingly impaired. Plants which form their molecules with three carbon atoms (as is the case for many temperate zone products and trees (studied so far by USDA)) are stimulated in their growth, and grow to a much larger size, when raised in a carbon-dioxide rich atmosphere (this factor is not going unnoticed in silvicultural research, practice and planning). Other plants that build their molecules with four carbon atoms (many tropical plant varieties) are likewise stimulated, and also grow more rapidly but, overall, the final size of these plants is hardly affected. All this, of course, has many implications for balanced growth and good management of the planet's resources and the environment.

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dying from pollution or of - as yet not universally identified - damage, deficiencies or viral disease. (Insect pests are a problem in some areas, adding to, or favouring, the occurence of tree diseases and pollution damage, over-mature trees being particularly vulnerable, but younger trees are also often affected.) Climax forests are often characterized by large proportions of trees with decaying cores. This can be a major problem, as in certain parts of South-East Asia and in the Amazon Basin (and perhaps elsewhere), where sometimes close to 50 per cent of climax timber stands have been found to be in a state of partial decay, making them largely unfit for commercial use. The question of interior decay of trees is also a problem when trying to establish forest-inventory data on the basis of aerial survey results, unless the aerial survey data can be matched and interpreted in conjunction with status-report data from representative and intensive surveys on the ground.

42. Just as important as is information on forest age, is information on species-composition of forests for any assessment of the forest-resource potential. Eucalyptus, for instance (though there are significant differences in growth rates and characteristics between the more than 500 known eucalyptus sub-species), grows rapidly to a stage where harvesting becomes economically worthwhile. For pulping purposes the rotation period (planting/felling/replanting) may be as short as six to twelve years (depending on sub-species and site conditions). For poplars and certain pine varieties, notably Monterrey pine, (also called radiata pine or pino insignis) the rotation period may be as short as twenty to thirty years. Monterrey pine plantations produce under favourable climatic and -site conditions more than three times the volume of wood as produced in the trees' original, natural habitat in the US, and also about three times as much as pinus sylvestris, the most common conifer species in northwestern Europe. While very few conifers have the growth-rate possibilities of Monterrey pine plantations, (now widely planted in various parts of the world, notably in New Zealand and Chile, each one of which accounts for about 30 per cent of world radiata pine stands), many conifer varieties have significantly higher growth rates than pinus sylvestris and pinus larix, the latter thriving at the

The recent (1985) (re-) discovery of a rod-shaped virus, in various diseased conifer varieties (and beech and oak) in the F.R. of Germany, does suggest that the current forest die-back problem may be the result of virus infection. Such virus infection, first reported some 20 years ago in Eastern Europe, reduces the trees' photosynthesizing capacity. The infection is spreading west-south-west, i.e. in a direction opposite to prevailing winds. There are indications that certain forests in past centuries may have suffered from similar afflictions and recovered. The problem is, however, very complex, involving probably, multiple pollutants, stresses and pathogens. (Cf. also "World Resources - 1986", World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., and International Institute for Environment and Development, London and Washington.) Undoubtedly, further intensive research in regard to all the hypotheses advanced so far (there are at least six major schools of thought) is required, accompanied by appropriate remedial action.

2 Réf.: Manuel de Capacitacion Forestal, Ministerio de Agricultura,

Madrid, 1967: - Perhaps as much as 20-30 cubic metres per year per hectar - ref. Chile Economic Report, CORFO, Jan. 1984.

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higher elevations. Traditional rotation periods for these two varieties are assumed to be between 100 to 150 years (shorter rotation periods are coming into use, however). For oaks, rotation periods - if that be the term - are between 80 to 250 years. (The oaks planted under Colbert's orders 300 years ago, to serve as construction-timber for French navy ships, are now a highly prized product and export-item, mainly for producing oak-veneers.) In other words, wood-offtake possibilities differ enormously from species to species and are modulated further by differences in growing-site conditions. Tropical tree varieties, although benefiting from year-round growth possibilities, also have fairly long "rotation periods", for certain commercially valuable species thirty-five years or more and often well over sixty years (some of the currently existing giant tropical trees are, of course, much older. However, their giant size often makes their harvesting virtually impossible, and many of these trees are simply left standing).

43. For purposes of this note, the point to be borne in mind is that, on average, coniferous forests grow a given volume of wood more rapidly than temperate-zone broadleaved forests (eucalyptus, poplar and similar excepted). While all wood produced can have some potential commercial

Plantations of European larix species in the northern, maritime influenced climates of France, though, at first, seemingly successful, are now perishing under the more humid lowland conditions.

2 In respect of certain tree plantations the primary objective is

not necessarily the production of wood. For instance, the large pinus pinaster plantations in south-western France (Landes) were planted for stopping and controlling shifting dunes. That objective has been achieved. These plantations, based on a slow-growing "pioneer" variety (i.e., a variety which will take root where not much else will grow), also produce about 300 kg. of oleo-resin per ha./year. Nevertheless, these pinus pinaster plantations are now reaching a mature stage, and, with replanting also going on, are making a significant contribution to wood production as well (but, as planted outside the Landes region, often constitute a major fire-hazard in the south of France).

3 With the exception of teak, there are virtually no plantation

forests composed of tropical tree species. Attempts made to establish such plantations have, reportedly, not yet given encouraging results.

4 Data for two of the EEC countries of traditional, average rotation

periods for different tree species are approximately as follows: for the Federal Republic of Germany, (for the United Kingdom): spruce, fir, Douglas "fir", 80-100 (60) years; pine- and larch trees 100-120 (60) years; oak trees 140-180 (120) years; beech trees 120-140 (120) years; poplars 40-60 (35) years; other broadleaved trees 80-100 (100) years. Source: EEC/Forestry Statistics. In the United Kingdom (at Hooke Park, Dorset), in a school for new woodland industries, research and practical experiments are under way for using hardwood thinnings and relatively young conifers (30 year old spruce) for a variety of structural construction systems; still other uses than for firewood and for pulping are also imaginable.

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value it is important to take into account that for certain uses, such as outdoor construction, certain furniture fabrication etc. , the core-or heart-wood from certain species is preferred (though not exclusively used). Thus, information on the overall volume of wood produced may often be less than what is required for meaningful comparisons of production-levels obtained, or usable, in respect of different species. Differences in the quantity of wood that is usable, and in respect of its technical qualities, are reflected, to some extent, in differences in market prices for different wood species and different sawnwood sections offered. Generally, to be readily marketable, a given wood must have at least average technical-use and processing characteristics. To command a really good price in the market it must have, in addition, one, or more, outstanding characteristics; a decorative, aesthetic aspect may be one of these characteristics. For plywood and other wood-panels, panel construction and glues or bonding agents used (apart from surface finish and wood species used) may be major price determinants in any given market.

44. Before embarking on an examination of national forest resources, it may be useful to consider briefly the often-made distinction between wood from coniferous trees and wood from other trees. Wood from conifer trees is commonly designated "softwood" while that of all other trees -the broadleaved trees - is designated as "hardwood". It should be stressed from the outset that, though this is a conventional way to distinguish coniferous and other woods, it is an arbitrary distinction. These classification designations, which are also reflected in many of the tariff schedules, are based entirely on appartenance to classes of tree- species and not on intrinsic hardness or technical-use properties of coniferous and other woods. Some so-called hardwoods are soft, to the extent of being spongy, and are light, little resistant and non-durable, while some so-called softwoods are fairly hard, relatively dense and heavy, technically very strong and durable or, as certain cedar woods, quite light, mechanically not very strong, but fine grained, very rot-resistant and often fragrant. It is, however, true that none of the "softwoods" is as heavy or hard as the hardest of hardwoods, and there are also some softwoods which are both absolutely and relatively "soft".

45. What is important to point out for purposes of this note, and in respect of any attempted assessment of tariff schedules, is that the world's coniferous forests are concentrated in the cold, or cool-to-temperate climatic zones. In the North they grow all the way

Hardwood trees, also sometimes referred to as "broadleaved" are trees classified botanically as "angiospermae (e.g., those producing one seed in a pod); softwoods trees, sometimes referred to as "coniferous", are trees classified botanically as "gymnospermae" (e.g., characterized by ("naked") nutlets, or seeds, fertilized by direct contacts with pollens; botanically much older than the angiospermae. Apart from differences in their reproductive systems, the wood of gymnospermae is peculiar in being composed mainly of disk-bearing tissue without proper "vessels").

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up to the southern border of the tundra. Coniferous species indigenous to the Southern-Hemisphere differ botanically from those in the Northern-Hemisphere, but not very much in wood-usage characteristics, as compared with those of good, average, Northern-Hemisphere coniferous wood varieties. Parana-pine wood - to mention only one of the species -is, in fact, highly prized for certain uses, and, though this resource is now becoming relatively scarce, it is still widely used in its area of origin (Brazil, Paraguay) and also in various import markets in the northern hemisphere. Natural coniferous forests in most of the southern hemisphere occur generally in small stands, or occur mixed with other species, conifer plantations, however, may, there too, cover vast stretches of land.

46. The geographical distribution of coniferous and of mixed- and broadleaved-only forests around the world is not without influence on the pattern and scale of coniferous and broadleaved wood uses in different parts of the world. As the main coniferous forests are found either in the industrialized consuming countries, or can be procured from other nearby industrialized country sources, coniferous woods account for the bulk of industrial uses of wood and for the bulk of international trade in wood and wood semi-manufactures. For pulpwood and woodpulp, coniferous varieties are generally preferred, mainly for their intrinsic technical characteristics. Nearness of production sites to markets is not the only determining factor. Both the harvesting and general usage of coniferous woods offer some possibilities for economies of scale which are not found in nearly the same degree in respect of hardwood varieties, with the possible exception of wood from teak plantations and from some of the natural Dipterocarp-tree tropical forests in South-East Asia and of certain forests in West

The main limiting factor to growth of natural conifer forests is not so much the severe cold of the boreal winters, but the requirement of a minimum average temperature of about 10° Celsius in the month following the onset of summer, a critical growth period. Where severe climatic conditions similar to those of the northern areas prevail, such as in mountainous regions (including the higher elevations of mountain chains and high plateaus in the tropic and sub-tropic zones), conifers are, generally, predominant, or, up to a point, perhaps, in fierce competition with scrub oak. While coniferous trees also grow naturally in warmer climates, as for instance in the circum-Mediterranean regions and parts of the Caribbean and in southern Brazil, and thrive especially in some temperate, maritime-influenced humid climates, as in southern Chile, parts of New Zealand, the US Pacific- and Atlantic- coastal areas, parts of the Atlantic and Baltic coasts in Europe, parts of Japan, the southwest of France, and parts of the western Iberian Peninsula, they are competing in these temperate regions with broadleaved tree varieties. There are virtually no large natural conifer forests in the tropics. On the other hand, true tropical trees, most of which are evergreen varieties, do not support freezing temperatures and many subtropical and Mediterranean-type tree and shrub varieties are quite temperature sensitive and often not frost résistent, if and when winter temperatures fall rapidly and significantly to low sub-zero temperatures, as was the case, for instance, in south-western Europe in the early months of 1985, causing substantial damage, inter alia, to olive groves, eucalyptus plantations and many ornamental trees.

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Africa (notably in the Republic of Congo and Gabon), which are also characterized by a fairly uniform species-composition, with similar technical wood characteristics between sub-species, thus permitting intensive and concentrated harvesting, processing/marketing operations to be undertaken.

47. The more limited number of tree-species found in the northern regions is traceable to the fact that forests have been repeatedly decimated, or locally been extinguished, by the southward extension of Arctic-ice and the spreading, inland, of mountain-glaciers during the Ice-ages. As the ice cover advanced, the flora and fauna receded. In North America, where the main mountain chains run North-South, this recession, followed by renewed northward expansion once the ice receded (the last of several ice ages having come to an end only about twelve thousand years ago), permitted many different plant and tree species to survive. In Europe, many tree species did not manage to cross, and then recross, the main mountain barriers, running East to West, and are thus now absent from the natural forests of northern and northwestern Europe. Moreover, tree-resettlement in northern and northwestern Europe, after the end of the last Ice Age, consisted primarily, especially in respect of coniferous forests, of a west-, northwest-bound move out of northern Asia (the Ural mountain chain running from south-east to north-west) and the Balkans, both of which had largely been spared from glaciation, with the result that the natural forests of northern Europe are constituted of only a few tree-species (for instance: UK - 32 endemic forest-tree species), much more limited than in Canada and North America. Most of the forests in the centre of Western Europe can, however, hardly be considered natural forests, given the intensive and widespread silviculture practices employed for almost two centuries. One of the results of man's intervention and his desire for high-yielding forests of pleasant appearance is an even greater limitation in tree species than might have occurred under natural conditions, a situation which may not be without risks for the necessary genetic variety, for the ecosystem generally, and, perhaps, even for long-term forestry production, unless forest seed selection policies or cloning practices are implemented with care and discrimination. In China and Japan, both of which had also been spared by the last Ice Age,

Recent research results suggest that ice-crystal nucleus composition during recent ice-age periods was different from present-day ice-crystal nuclei, resulting in several times greater, crystal-lattice plasticity, thus facilitating the ice cover to spread.

2 Forest seed prescriptions for public-owned forests in the

F.R. Germany are currently the subject of considerable public debate. Forestry policies and practices in a number of European countries, which have increasingly shifted the balance between broadleaved and coniferous forests to the advantage of the latter (broadleaved forests predominated in most of western Europe up until the early 19th century; reflecting also different use patterns) are currently subject to scrutiny and evaluation, accompanied by a growing interest (particularly evident in the United Kingdom) in restoring a more balanced distribution between broadleaved and coniferous species.

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one finds, likewise, a much larger number of tree species than in northern Europe. All this is not only of historical interest, but has some economic consequences as well. The large degree of homogeneity (though tempered somewhat by recurring and large-scale forest fires, which opened possibilities for tree-varieties other than the original one to establish themselves)'" found in the northern forests, and this includes, of course, also those in North America, facilitates the adoption of standardized, efficient logging and woodworking methods. Canada has pointed out in this context that the somewhat greater variety of tree species found in Canada - as compared with Northern Europe - has only a marginal impact at the logging stage, given modern technologies, and little, if any, with respect to woodworking. It goes without elaborating the point, that properly regenerated forests and plantations

Japan has a latitudinal span of 15 degrees, resulting in great regional differences in temperature and precipitation, namely a subtropical, a temperate and a boreal zone. The islands are exceedingly mountainous and relief differences make for further diversity. About 1,100 tree and shrub varieties are endemic to the region (some of which with close counterparts in China). The temperate zone (most of central Japan) natural forests are mainly mixed forests, major broadleaved varieties found include maple, ash, birch, beech, poplar, chestnut and horse chestnut, Pawlownia; major coniferous varieties are: Japanese cedar, cypress, hemlocK, umbrella pine, (jabe) arborvitae, yew, white pine, black pine, r d pine. In the boreal zone (and high elevations elsewhere) coniferous forests predominate, with fir, spruce, larch, hemlock ancLiTapanese cedar. Among the major broadleaved varieties are birch, alder, dogwood, oaks, maple, linden, ash, elm, walnut, cherry and magnolia trees, also some dwarf birch. In the (southern) sub-tropical Region mixed forests predominate, composed of several oak species, then there are fig- and palm trees, camphor trees and certain tropical tree and fruit-tree species and bamboo, to mention only a few. (For reference to overall forestry data for Japan see also footnotes la and lb on pages 52-54.)

2 It is estimated that, worldwide, there are every year more than a

100 thousand major forest fires (affecting areas of above 2 ha. each) most of these lit by lightning (in the Western US, on average, 75 per cent). When fanned by high wind, or spreading underground at the root level, these fires can be devastating over large areas, as in a recent year in Indonesia, in Australia, but also in North America and elsewhere. In Canada there are, on average, some 9 thousand forest fires a year, with annual losses ranging from 1.2 - 5.4 million hectares of merchantable wood stocks. In the United States there occur, on average, more than twenty thousand major forest fires a year. To the extent that the areas affected are natural forests, too remote to be exploited and cared for, forest fires are nowadays no longer regarded a natural catastrophe, but part of nature's system of cleaning and regulating natural forests through a very complex ecocycle. (Certain (natural) forest tree varieties (for example lodgepole pine) depend for seed eclosion on the occurence of a fire, others, relatively fire resistant (douglas "fir"), owe their local predominance to repeated forest fires. Forest fires change acidic soils to alkaline, favouring regrowth of species thriving on such soils. Natural forests composed of trees of about equal height and age are often an indication of a common start-up, as after a major fire.) Where lives or valuable properties are at stake, no means are spared, however, to fight wildfires. (Fire fighting crews in North America are now assisted (now also in France), and directed, by specialized computer generated "attack" programmes.) For ECE countries' forest fire statistics see TIM/EFC/WP.2/R.73 and Add.l.

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of species and age homogeneous forests, as are now found in various parts of the world, can also offer considerable forest management and tree-harvesting advantages (subject to the reservations already expressed, cf. footnote 2 on page 33). '

48. Apart from the impact of past Ice-ages on the boreal forests, it is also relevant to point out that the number of species and sub-species in the general class "conifers" is much smaller than the number of species and sub-species in the class "broadleaved trees". Broadleaved forests in the temperate regions comprise several hundred main species. Predominantly broadleaved forests are often mixed forests, producing wood of quite distinct technical characteristics. In other words, they lack the relative technical homogeneity of the wood produced, generally, from coniferous forests. In the tropics, as has already been indicated, tree species are counted by the thousands. Often several hundred different tree-species are found in an area not larger than just a few hectares (for the Amazon-Basin as a whole, about 560 different species). The different species, many of which may look alike to the casual observer, produce woods which generally have technical characteristics very different one from the other. As a consequence, many of the tropical forests have been exploited on a selective basis only. This may, perhaps, have some advantages from the point of helping to preserve the tropical forest ecosystem. On the other hand, selective exploitation, or "creaming", may not necessarily be the most productive way of using the tropical forest resource and in many cases selective felling also causes much damage to the remaining stands. '

See: "The Comparative Economics of Plantation Forestry - a Global Assessment" by R.A. Sedjo, published by: Resources for The Future, Washington D.C, 1983, which makes the point that plantation forestry is capable of producing very large increases in wood yields (ten to twenty times the estimated average yield of typical forests in 1978) , so that it would be possible to satisfy global wood needs by using just a small fraction of land «iow devoted to forests. The study then demonstrates the feasibility of major expansion of plantation forestry in a number of areas around the world and thus possibilities of major shifts in the principal supply areas on the basis of shifts in comparative advantage. As regard factors relevant in formulating forestry plantation objectives in temperate regions, attention is invited to a paper submitted to the Mexico/FAO sponsored Ninth World Forestry Congress (July 1985) : "Perspectives on Forestry Plantation Practices in the Temperate Zone".

2 For a summary of a recent discussion of "Long-Term Forest Resources

Trade, Global Timber Supply and Intertemporal Advantage" see the December 1983 issue of the American Journal of Agricultural Economics.

3 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Trees, 1980, Salamander Book,

Ltd., London, assumes the number of tree-species to be found, on average, per ha. to be of the order of about two in Scandinavia, ten in some of the temperate-zone forests and about 100 in the tropical forests.

4 In a paper presented by Freezailah B.C. Yeom (Malaysia) to the

IX World Forestry Congress it is reported that - because of market preferences for wood from "popular species", and consequently a lack of interest in marketing lesser known woods, only a small fraction of gross timber volumes (GTV) are actually being harvested in the tropical forests, namely, in American tropical forests: „8.4 m out of about 149 m GTV/ha, in Africa: 13.5 m out of 242 m GTV/ha and in Asia: 31.3 m out of 185 m GTV. For an earlier contribution by the same author and another interesting article on the subject of "creaming", by Mr. J.S. Bethel, see "unasylva", Vol. 36, No. 145.

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49. Translating this general information into practical terms, it may be noted that, out of about two hundred tree-species growing in Canada, (including also approximately fifty non-native species). 9t<?ut 20 per cent are conifers and the rest broadleaved varieties ' . In the United States, with its wider spectrum of climatic and soil conditions, the US Department of Agriculture some time ago designated some 580 tree species as being native to the United States. Out of these, the Department had selected some 160 species as being of significant commercial importance for their wood. Somewhat more than two thirds of US tree-species designated as being of commercial importance grow in the Eastern States of the Union and, generally, the tree species found in the Western United States are quite different from those in the East . More than one half of the commercially important species growing in the US are also found in Canada. In addition to the more than 580 native species, there grow in the United States (not counting hybrid

1 (a) As identified, avoiding double-counting to the extent possible,

in "Flore du Canada", published by the Bureau de Traduction, Secretariat d'Etat, Ottawa 1974.

A useful summary of Canada's rich and varied forest resources in the different geographic regions, originally published in 1937 by the Canadian forester W.E.D. Halliday "A Forest Classification for Canada", is reproduced in a recent Canadian Forestry Service Brochure "Canada's Forests - Fibre for the World". The Canadian forest resource is estimated to contain a total wood volume of about 19.5 billion (thousand million) cubic meters - made up of about 63 per cent softwood, 23 per cent wood from mixed forests and the rest hardwood. Spruce, pine, balsam fir, aspen and poplar are, overall, the principal species. That the matter of regional differences in species composition of forests may be of some importance in judging the value and possible impact of species-defined tariff concessions may be seen from Section D of this note, paragraphs 164 and 165. By geographic regions the main species are as follows: A. Boreal Forest Region: white and black spruce, fir and jack pine, also aspen and white birch. jB. Montane Forest Region: (blue) Douglas fir, white spruce, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, trembling aspen, Engelman spruce, alpine fir, western white birch. C_. Coast Forest Region: Western red cedar, Western hemlock, Sitka spruce, Coast Douglas fir, Amabilis fir, yellow Cypress, mountain hemlock and alpine fir - also some arbutus and Garry oak. p_. Columbia Forest Region: Western red cedar, Westerm hemlock, certain Douglas and grand fir, variants of white pine, Larch and Yew. E_. Subalpine Forest Region: Engelmann spruce, alpine fir, lodgepole pine and a few other species. F_. Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest Region: Eastern white and red pine, eastern hemlock, red oak, yellow birch, sugar and red maple, basswood, white elm, eastern white cedar, largetooth aspen. G_. Deciduous Forest Region: sugar maple, beech, white elm, black walnut, hickory, basswood, red ash, white oak, butternut, sycamore. H. Acadian Forest Region: Red spruce, balsam fir, yellow birch, sugar maple, white spruce, black spruce, red oak, white elm, black ash, white and grey birch and also Eastern white cedar.

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varieties), about thirty tropical tree species (mainly in Florida), and about sixty other imported species which have become acclimatized, and now grow wild, or are found in plantations. ' Several of the tree species producing a significant volume of commercially useful, and industrially used, wood are virtually unknown outside the United States. Woods of US origin which are shipped overseas in significant quantities include, in particular, wood of long-leaf yellow pine and of several other pine varieties, wood of certain cedar varieties (some of which are highly prized in certain import markets, notably in Japan), wood of Douglas-"fir", of certain Tsugas, redwood, and, among broadleaved varieties, oak wood (there are at least twenty-eight oak varieties in the US, not all of which are in common use in the wood industries), hickory-wood and certain walnut or walnut-like woods and cherry-wood. Virtually all of the woods shipped overseas from North America are woods which have special, desirable, technical characteristics or are in demand (including in the US - making them relatively rare) on account of their particularly decorative aspect.

50. Desirable technical characteristics of a wood notwithstanding, export market opportunities generally open up only when a wood gets to be known abroad and accepted by potential users. Introduction to, and opening of, export markets often requires heavy promotional efforts and expenditures and may require considerable time. Thus, some of the Australian eucalyptus varieties, say Jarrah and Karri (to mention only two out of many), some of which have highly desirable technical characteristics (the wood being similar to, or, in some ways, even better than oak) are not exported in significant quantities, since they are virtually unknown outside Australia. Viewed from the other side of

Based on Forest Service Statistics, US Dept. of Agriculture, as cited in "Materials Handbook", 8th edition, Graw Hill Book Co., New York.

Growing stock in exploitable (commercial) closed forests in the United States is estimated to be of the order of 20.1 billion (thousand million) cubic metres. About 53 per cent of all growing stock in such forests is found in the Eastern United States. Non-coniferous species account for 36 per cent of total growing US stock, but for less than one-tenth of total non-coniferous growing stock is found in the Western United States. As a percentage of total US growing stock, in exploitable closed forests, the main commercial species are, in the Eastern United States: (coniferous) southern pines 13.0 per cent, spruce and fir 2.7 per cent, white and red pines 1.5 per cent - all other coniferous 2.7 per cent; (non-coniferous) oaks 12.2 per cent, hickory 2.1 per cent, hard maple 1.9 per cent, sweet gum 1.7 per cent, yellow birch 0.5 per cent, ash, walnut, black cherry 1.9 per cent, all other non-coniferous 10.7 per cent - In the Western United States: (coniferous) Douglas fir 13.1 per cent, Western hemlock 7.2 per cent, true firs 6.1 per cent, ponderosa pines and sugar pines 5.3 per cent, Western white pine and Jeffrey pines 1.0 per cent, redwood 0.6 per cent, all other coniferous: 10.6 per cent; (non-coniferous) all types, 3.0 per cent. Source: "The forest resources of the ECE region" - op.cit.

2 For a concise summary of species composition of US forests see

"Forestry Handbook", ed. K.E. Wenger (pages 20-27), J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1984. For a summary report of major types of woods exported by the US, attention is invited to two recent brochures published by the US National Forest Products Association/USDA Foreign Agricultural Service: (i) USA - Wood for the World, Today and Tomorrow and (ii) Trends in Trade: The United States in the World Markets.

MDF/W/52

the border, some useful and valuable woods are not widely-known in Australia because they do not occur naturally here, such as chestnut trees. Unfamiliarity of wood-users with various tropical woods is also a problem when trying to introduce these to the market. Some efforts are, however, under way, and have, in some cases, been crowned with success in introducing formerly virtually unknown tropical wood varieties (for instance: Framire, Doussie, Ramin, Wenge) in significant quantities to the international market.

Other varieties for which an effort is being made to introduce them into the (French) market - originating in Guyane - are Courbaril, "Coeur dehors", Amarante (known since the XVIIIth century but, wrongly, considered rare), Grignum Franc, Gonfolo, Parcouri, Jaboty, Yagamadou, and even the somewhat problematic (cf. "unasylva", Vol. 36, No. 145, pages 51 and 52) Wapa, to name only a few. Among institutions working on the classification and testing of the so-called secondary tropical tree species, and promoting their industrial uses, is the French "Centre Technique Forestier Tropical", which also cooperates closely with similar institutes in various countries of Africa and also in South America. A recent summary of the Centre's activities is contained in "Marchés tropicaux", No. 2068, of 28 June 1985. The promotion of lesser known tropical woods will also be among the areas of activity of the newly founded International Tropical Timber Organization (with headquarters in Yokohama), in co-operation with research, testing and standardization bodies existing in various ITTO member countries. Last but not least, FAO should be mentioned. For a useful overview of problems related to marketing lesser-known species of tropical wood (LKS) see unasylva, Vol. 36, No. 145, already referred to in footnote 4 on page 35.

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Forest Resources Survey

51. Much progress has been made during the last decade and a half in collecting information on the world's forest resources, through field investigations, aerial photography and radar mapping (some tropical forests are constantly under cloud-cover), satellite-imaging and -analysis techniques and last, but not least, through an improved international information exchange on all aspects of world forestry-resources and -uses. As a result, there exists now a large body of information on world forest resources, both globally and at the regional and national level. For some countries, including the more than thirty countries which participate in the work of the ECE Timber Committee, the possibility of periodic reviews and the ongoing statistical data compilations have, to a large extent, provided a data-base which does permit some meaningful inter-country and inter-temporal comparisons to be made. Countries covered by the ECE forestry and timber statistics are identified in Column 1 of Table I by the letters "EC". For many of the developing countries, data compilations were until quite recently very patchy and little suited for purposes of inter-country comparisons. It is welcome, therefore, that FAO, in a joint project with UNEP (within the framework of the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS)), has recently published results of its ongoing Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. In the context of that project, different FAO-directed teams researched and reported under a comprehensive and common-definition and -designation-system on various forest-characteristics of more than seventy countries. The data so collected.are too detailed to be reflected in their entirety in this note. Countries which have benefited from inclusion in that survey are identified in Table I, Column 1, by the letters TS (Tropical Survey). The data in Table I on land-use for forests reflect, generally, the information provided in the respective country surveys. The data are, nevertheless, subject to some subjective interpretation, as it was necessary to achieve a degree of comparability with data for countries not covered by the survey. In certain cases, where the detailed notes accompanying the statistical data in a given country-survey were still very provisional, and where the categories of forest resources were not always clearly identifiable under more conventional and less detailed category designations, some earlier FAO estimates have been retained. The data on land-use for

Cf. footnote 1 on page 16. 2 Three volumes, some 1600 pages - "Forest Resources of Tropical

Africa", "... Tropical America", "...Tropical Asia", FAO,' 1981. - The detailed country surveys cover such aspects as: the respective forest resources, for example, mangroves, swamp-, riverine-forests, lowland-, montane-, closed-, dense-, open-forests, productive-, unproductive-, fallow-, degraded-forests; standing stock, growth-; broadleaved-, conifer-, bamboo forests, main tree-species, plantations-, forest-legislation, -ownership, -management, certain forestry product uses, etc. A summary of some of these data by geographic regions, or sub-regions, rather than at the country level of detail, is contained in FAO Forestry Paper 37, "Conservation and development of tropical forest resources", FAO 1982. A summary of data covering both ECE and tropical forest resource data is contained in "FAO - Forest Resources - 1980", FAO, Rome, July 1985.

MDF/W/52

forests in Table I are subject to revision in the light of additional information, as and when it becomes available. It must also be stressed that important information gaps for many of the existing national forest inventories remain. The preparation of a comprehensive forest inventory normally requires much time, especially so as the manpower resources allocated to this task are often very limited. Once completed, the forest inventory may already be partly out of date. The representativeness of forest resource data, often elaborated on the basis of field survey samples, is not always uncontested. Comparability of data for different c juntries may also suffer from differences in methodology and/or the use of different measurement criteria.

52. An indication of forest resources assessment of a different nature, involving categorizations in terms of producer-, consumer- and trading interests for tropical woods, is provided by the consensus reached on the allocation of voting rights between tropical timber producing- and consuming-countries under the International Tropical Timber Agreement 1983, which, de jure, entered into force on 1 April 1985. Annex A to that Agreement lists 36 developing countries as producing countries, while Annex B lists 34 countries (including a number of developing countries) as tropical timber consuming countries. Their inclusion in the respective lists (as far as the countries are also covered by Table I) is indicated in Column 1 of Table I by the letter "P" for producers and "C" for consumers. It should be pointed out in this connection that the Agreement provides for amendments of the respective lists and vote allocations, subject to specified procedures (as first exercised at the ITT Council's First Session).

53. From what precedes, it may be deduced that information on the area of forest/woodland in a given country is not, by itself, sufficient to determine the adequacy, or otherwise, of forestry potential or of the degree to which a possibly existing potential (large growing stock, large increments) could be translated into forestry- products export potential. It is for this reason that an attempt has been made to bring together, in Table I, various elements which relate data on a given country's overall territory, the area under forest (or classifiable as forest/woodland), with certain data on species-composition., of forest areas by broad botanical classes, or types of forest area. Table I also shows overall wood removals and the percentage of the overall removals used as fuelwood; further, the volume of production of "industrial roundwood" and the percentage of industrial roundwood production classifiable as "saw- or veneer-logs" (actual uses might „ differ); and industrial roundwood production per caput in 1979(80). Table I also shows 1979 imports, exports, and trade balance, in million US dollars, combined for wood, (including wood chips, now of some importance in trade), wood semi-manufactures and wood pulp. Also shown

Forests do, of course, also produce "goods" and services other than exportable wood, and these may be variously appreciated by different populations and be reflected, for instance, in the level of removals, and, indirectly, the size of the growing stock, and so on. For such data as may be available on these qualitative aspects of the forest resource for certain countries see UN/TIM/EFC/WP.2/R.70 and Addenda.

2 Population data are either based on national statistics or on

"Demographic Indicators of Countries: Estimates and Projections as Assessed in 1980", U.N., New York, 1982).

MDF/W/52

are data on per caput availability of forest land, wood production per nectar. The data in Table I link up with data in Tables II and III in Sections B and C of this note respectively. As regards the composite data in Table I, it should be borne in mind that whatever limitations affect a component datum will, by necessity, affect the validity of the composite data. All the data shown are merely intended to serve as broad indicators.

54. As regards data on industrial roundwood production it should be remembered that production may fluctuate significantly from year to year, reflecting not only movements in the level of economic activity in a given producing country, or the spill-over effects from developments in export markets, but also such elements as the need to fell and process from time to time significantly varying volumes of wood (with a view to salvaging damaged timbers), for instance after extensive storm-or fire-damage of forests, or in the context of forest clearings necessitated by large-scale hydro-electric projects (such as is currently the case in Brazil and in some African countries). Cases are also known where production and exports of wood and wood products were significantly affected by drawn-out labour strikes or, seasonally, by climatic factors, such as particularly severe winters (hindering both shipments and depressing demand for wood in importing countries' construction industries), prolonged rainy seasons, etc.

55. Also of importance in considering reported production levels and the level of exports is to bear in mind production potential. In Canada, for instance, it was estimated in the mid-1970s that the annual allowable cut, permitting to maintain productive forests on a sustained yield basis, was of the order of 276 million cubic metres, while the average annual total of wood harvested during the period 1972-76 amounted only to about 132 million cubic metres, or less than one half of the possible resource utilization, Canadian government policy, as recently reported, aims at increasing forestry production by the end of this century by about 40 to 50 per cent above current production levels.

Reference: Canada Year Book 1980-81 and Canadian Forestry Service, "Canada's Forests...Fibre for the World". In early 1980, the Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers (CCREM) established a target wood harvest level of 210 million cubic meters a year by the end of the century, approximately 40 per cent higher than the figure for 1981. It is realized that to reach that objective, on a sustainable yield basis, Canada will need to undertake, inter alia, an ambitious forest renewal programme, and achieve also a reduction of forest losses due to fire, insects and disease. At the beginning of the 1980s, out of total annual harvesting operations, covering about 800,000 hectares, only 200,000 hectares were artificially replanted or seeded, with another 200,000-300,000 hectares considered to be regenerating naturally in a satisfactory manner. To close the regeneration gap, the recently adopted "Framework for Forest Renewal", together with the policy objectives set out in the 1981 "Forest Sector Strategy", Canada aims at replantings on 500,000 hectares a year, with an emphasis on the use of genetically superior seedlings, and the rehabilitation of at least 100,000 hectares a year of previously neglected backlog lands. Silvicultural activities - such as weeding, spacing and fertilizing are to be greatly expanded, so as to cover about 400,000 hectares a year.

MDF/W/52

56. Forestry production, both for domestic purposes and for export, may also largely be influenced by, and be a reflection of, overall socio-economic development planning objectives. For instance in Chile, where industrial roundwood production increased from 2.96 million cubic metres in 1963 to 14.4 million m in 1980 , the development of the rich forestry resources of the country is one of the key elements inscribed in the 1982-1989 Development Plan, both for providing larger quantities for exports and also to meet expected demand for wood under a major, new housing development programme. The Development Plan, sub-divided into regional development plans for each of the 13 constituent regions of Chile, provides for significant forestry development in seven out of the thirteen regional plans. In addition, in one of the seven regions, and also in the Santiago metropolitan area, significant further development of the wood-processing industries is among important Plan objectives.

57. Bearing in mind that virtually all countries plan to preserve their forest resources, striving, at the same time, to increase wood-production, and planning to foster their respective wood-processing industries, and are also expecting to increase exports of forestry exports, it is hoped that, with the various caveats made, the data in Table I will be largely self-explanatory.

58. Table I is followed (starting with paragraph 59) by comments which attempt to highlight certain aspects of the forestry-resource situation in a somewhat broader time-framework.

Note: The headnotes to Table I - subject to photo-reduction in this revised version of the document - are reproduced, for better readability, in larger print size on page 196.

Up from 8.3 million cubic metres in 1979. 2 Unmet housing needs in 1985 further increased (by about 100,000

units) due to extensive, earth-quake damage to many of the existing buildings in March 1985. Making use also of foreign (US) expertise and earth-quake relief assistance, many of the replacement houses (breaking with local building traditions) are to be built of wood, with emphasis on high energy - and good thermic - efficiency characteristics.

3 Plan-targets (under a scenario reported in the press in the autumn

of 1983, for the following 7-Year Development Plan) envisage that sawn-wood production should reach 4.8 million m by 1996 (= + 120 per cent over 1980), pulp production 1.5 million tons (= + 102 per cent over 1981) and log-production 5.6 million m (= + 455 per cent over 1980), veneer production 0.17 million tons (+ 58 per cent over 1981). The value of forest products exports (at 1983 prices) is envisaged to reach $1.4 thousand million by 1996. A recent annual report of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) makes specific mention of Chile's achievements in the forestry sector and refers to these as an example of the kind of forestry policy which should be followed throughout the region. The report also refers to the relatively high levels of productivity in terms of wood growth. Chile (radiata pine plantations = 1 million hectares), Brazil and Argentina account for 85 per cent of the total area planted for industrial purposes in the region. The greater part of these plantations (including, however, fast growing species' pulpwood plantations) are less than ten years old. Ref: Chile Economic Report, No. 150, CORFO, Jan. 1984.

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MDF/W/52

59. In the EEC (not yet including the production figures for Greece, Portugal and Spain), wood production has fluctuated around a level of close to 80 million m over most of the last two decades. (Presently it is at a level of about 85 million m per year.) With demand for wood increasing throughout the period, the additional demand was mainly met through increased imports. In terms of raw material (roundwood equivalent of wood products (including paper and board)!, imports rose from about 40 million m in 1950 to about 120 million m in the mid-1970s - of which: roundwood about 10 million m ; sawn-wood, about 45 million m ; wood-based sheet materials, (mainly plywood and fibre-board; particle board (needs are largely, though not exclusively, met from internal production): .7 million m ; other wood products, 3 million m ; pulp, 33 million m ; (paper and board, 22 million m ). EEC Member States have estimated that under existing policies, annual removals from EEC forests will_rise from about 85 million m at present to slightly over 100 million m by the year 2000. It is thought that, given the adoption of policies which permit this increase to be achieved, and also taking measures for making more efficient use of existing resources, (sometimes largely underutilized - as up until now in France - due in part to the highly fractioned ownership of private forest lands), and increased recycling, the self-sufficiency ratio, which currently is of the order of only 40 per cent, could be substantially improved.

60. As regards the interaction between EEC land-use patterns for farming and for forests, it has been estimated that there exist, in addition to some barren land, at present, 5 million ha. of agricultural land which is, or which has become, sub-marginal for agriculture and which would be more suitable for forestry. It is not certain whether that agricultural land, additional to any submarginal land, will be converted, in the medium-term, to forestry activities, although proposals to that effect, have, on occasion, been made, and have, indeed, gained force (linked however, to demands for conversion-cost subsidies) in the wake of mounting surpluses in the production of several agricultural commodities. It may also be mentioned that Ireland (which has only a very limited area under forest, and where any extension of the forest area is dependent upon certification that the land to be so affected is unsuitable for agricultural uses) is shortly to turn from being a net importer of sawn-wood to becoming a net-exporter, as some of the forest plantations are reaching maturity. In the United Kingdom some of the reforestation work undertaken after World War II is now coming to fruition and starting to have an impact on domestic supplies of pulpwood, even prompting some (limited) exports, pending the coming on stream of new pulpmills in the United Kingdom (cf. also footnote 1, following page). In France, likewise, additional forest plantations are reaching maturity, producing both additional

Data cited are based on "Forestry Policy in the European Community"; Bulletin of the European Communities, Supplement 3/1979. Measures announced since that time go in the indicated direction. On the Community level the main thrust so far has been the rehabilitation and fire protection of forests and woodlands in the Mediterranean region. Data on the EC's forest sector, the industry, and Commission comments and proposals for EC forestry policy, are contained in an important discussion paper: "Memorandum Forêts" (issued in "Newsflash", mid-May 1986), published by the EC's Agriculture Information Service, No. 36.

MDF/W/52

pulpwood and timber and considerable efforts are being made to make better and fuller use of existing timberland resources, partly with a view to reducing import needs. Fast-growing eucalyptus, grown by farmers under contract to pulp mills, has been introduced, and areas cultivated are said to be expanding in south-western France. (Many of the eucalyptus plantations were damaged in the 1984/85 winter and efforts are now under way to breed eucalyptus varieties which are frost resistant to minus 30°C, instead of, as at present, only minus 15°C.) Various Mediterranean tree species are threatened by extinction as a result of the spreading of insect pests and other tree diseases. Hybrid varieties with better disease- and pest-resistance are, however, being introduced.

61. The subject of the forestry implications of the accession of Portugal and Spain to the EEC has been considered at the technical level of the forest services of these two countries and by the EEC. Broadly speaking, it has been calculated that the accession of these two

Also, as regards individual member States, out of the envisaged additional removals, the largest part (plus 10 million m log equivalent) is expected to come from French forest resources. A new French forest law, providing, inter alia, for mandatory forest-care activities by private owners, and encouraging regrouping of holdings (now: 1.6 million private owners, controlling 71 per cent of total forest area (17 per cent of forest area is owned by some 11 thousand communal bodies and 12 per cent by the State)) was passed in October 1985. In the United Kingdom, some 2.5 million ha. of partly barren lands (much of it in Scotland) are considered to lend themselves for afforestation, a view which draws protests, however, as regards some of the designated areas, from among environmentalists. Industrial roundwood production in the United Kingdom showed an increase by about one-half over the period 1979-1985. By the end of this century, domestic supplies of saw-logs in the United Kingdom are expected to increase by about 80-90 per cent over current levels. It is expected that most of the additional domestic availabilities (mainly spruce) will be used in fencing, shed manufacture, palleting, packaging and mining timber - as at present. Only about 4 per cent of United Kingdom domestic timber production is destined for housing construction. While domestically available coniferous woods could be used more extensively in construction, demand for the finer grades and qualities of wood for joinery will continue to be met predominantly through imports. At the same time it is relevant to note that the United Kingdom sawmills are upgrading the quality of their output (drying, size-specifications, stress grading etc.). In France, over the last two or three years, much additional investment has been reported for increasing kiln-drying capacity - so much so that it is hoped to meet not only more of the domestic demand, but to produce also for export. Ireland - where industrial roundwood production doubled over the last 5-6 years -expects to become self-sufficient in the lower grades of coniferous whitewoods by the end of the century, much of it destined for pulping, with pulpwood production slated to be further developed, partly in joint ventures with foreign participation.

MDF/W/52

countries increases the EEC's forest area by about two thirds and its production of wood by somewhat less than one third. The expected overall effect of their accession will be an increase in EEC net import requirements in the wood sector (Spain, at present, is a net importer, and Portugal a net exporter of wood and wood products). Though dependent, to some extent, on wood imports, Spain has in recent years experienced significant growth of its wood-processing industry, relatively more so than several other EC countries, and is successfully bidding in export markets both for wood-industry products proper, such as particle-board, but also for finished articles of wood - the latter based on the use of traditional, artisanal, skills. Portugal's forestry-products industry is characterized, on the one hand, by efficient and modern industrial processing complexes, particularly so for pulp, and, on the other hand, by a large traditional woodworking sector where small, artisanal units predominate.

3 62. The United States, the world's largest producer and consumer of industrial roundwood and products made»thereof, is also a large net importer of sawn-wood - 21.7 million m in 1979 (mainly from Canada, equivalent to one half of total Canadian production of sawn-wood in that year, or a volume equivalent to more than four fifths of total EEC (10) sawn-wood production in that year), also of plywood, of woodpulp and of certain wood manufactures and of paper. In turn, the United States exports significant quantities of wood, various wood products and wood-based derivatives. The US overall net trade position for the forestry products covered in this note is only slightly (at least, in relative terms) in deficit.

Spain's forest statistics - on which these estimates were partly based - have recently been revised, with the share of non-exploited, (and, perhaps, economically non-exploitable) forests revised upward substantially. Part of the problem in collecting and then correctly interpreting forest statistics for Spain may be one of definitions. The Spanish term for forest, "monte", in Spain designates "any wooded area, but it may also include areas that could be forested in the future, but which are, at present, bushland, as well as national prairie land and even mountainous agricultural land". (unasylva, Vol. 37, No. 148, pages 57/58.)

2 Cf. Section E. - Portugal is the world's largest producer and

exporter (1984 = 113 thousand tons) of cork. Both Portugal and Spain (the latter also a large cork producer) are exporting a variety of cork manufactures. Raw cork is included in Annex II of Article 38 of the EEC Treaty as an agricultural product.

3 While there is little doubt that the United States is a large,

most likely the largest, producer and consumer of wood, volume data for sawnwood, etc., for the United States (also Canadian data), when expressed in terms of cubic metres, may not be fully comparable with those of most other countries, until such time that all United States (and Canadian) companies report in metric terms. Most of the United States companies report in terms of board feet equivalents (a unit equivalent to a board one foot by one foot and one inch thick. One thousand such board feet correspond to 2.36 cubic metres). The problem arises from the fact that the nominal size designations of the main items in trade do not correspond exactly to the real size of the designated items. For instance, the standard "2 x 4's" (inch) rafters,

./.

MDF/W/52

Footnote (cont'd)

traditionally widely used in timber frame construction, but now increasingly substituted for by 2 x 6's (which permit more in-wall insulation), measure generally only 1.5 by 3.5 inches. (Margins between nominal and real values differ by different proportions for different size specifications.) Overall, it may, however, be assumed that strict conversion of nominal board feet to cubic metres results in an overstated volume of cubic metres. This overstatement may be quite significant and is something that should be borne in mind in comparing US prices internationally. For total United States production figures it is, however, also relevant to note that some United States wood industry observers think that some of the production figures reported for the southern United States forest region are, perhaps, significantly understated. This having been said, it should also be mentioned that differences between nominal and real measures are not a problem unique to the United States. Even the plywood on sale in Europe, from European production, quite often does not correspond to the thickness specifications announced (it often is less), as anyone equipped with a tape measure or caliper can verify when visiting a lumber yard or building materials' supplier.

MDF/W/52

63. Unlike in the EEC countries, there exists in the United States very considerable potential for increasing forestry production from domestic resources. Large forest resources exist in the US-Northwest, there are large, and moreover rapidly growing, supplies of timber in the US-Southeast and significant forest resources in the US-Northeast, to mention only the most significant timber stands (cf. also footnote lb on page 37). The industry is dynamic, well organized and very cost-conscious and efficient, but it is also beset by cyclical swings in demand for wood products, excess capacity in certain product lines and regions, by restructuring needs and often only moderate, or low, profitability, described by industry observers as "profitless prosperity". The level of forest removals is, on average, relatively low, when compared with some of the Western European countries, i.e., the overall production potential is not fully exploited. It has been estimated that the annual level of wood production reached in the mid-1970s could be doubled by the year 2000, thereby meeting projected increases in domestic demand for nearly all wood products. A major demand increase is projected for softwood timber. Demand for hardwood will also increase, but both the present and the future domestic supply/demand relationship is seen to be in better balance for hardwood than for softwoods. The US Administration has earmarked wood, pulp, and paper, as being among the industrial sectors which could significantly expand exports. To what extent US forest resources will be developed to meet both increasing domestic demand and to expand exports will depend, of course, on relative price developments for wood, as compared with those of possible substitute products, both domestically and abroad, and on international price and exchange rate developments generally, as well as on access facilities in import

Reference: US Forest Service report, "The prospective renewable resource situation in the United States", completed in 1980, as summarized in Unasylva, FAO, Vol. 33, No. 134. A record of a recent discussion on "Changing Perceptions of the US Forest Sector: Implications for the RPA [Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act - 1974] Timber Assessment" is contained in the December 1983 issue of the American Journal of Agricultural Economics.

2 Demand for wood and wood products should be expected to increase

markedly (competition from, and some substitution by, other products notwithstanding) as the necessary general and large-scale infrastructure rehabilitation development programme in the United States gathers steam. Among wood items for which demand will significantly increase are wooden railroad sleepers (also referred to in North America as ties or cross-ties). About one half of all those now in place will have to be replaced before the end of this century, an operation necessitated by years of under-investment, a renewed desire to speed up rail freight, increased axle-loads on new double-stack container cars, and helped also by the increasing vigour of the industry, following rail de-regulation and a recent change in accounting conventions and tax treatment rules.

MDF/W/52

markets, and also on export promotion efforts. US environmental policy considerations and desiderata may also have an influence on production developments. A number of US forestry-products enterprises, or major forestry-product users, are invested in some Canadian forestry exploitations and complexes (and some Canadian firms have invested in, or participate in, US forestry complexes). Various firms in both of these countries are participating in forestry-industry operations in several overseas countries. Some European forestry firms, and also New Zealand firms and, to some extent, Japanese firms, have invested in US or Canadian, or in both countries' forestry-product industries. A significant number of forestry product enterprises, not only enterprises originally headquartered in North America, could well be characterized as having almost global dimensions, in some cases with backward and forward linkages, and interlinkages, into other resource-industries, the paper industry, packaging, consumer products, distribution, publishing, entertainment and media and communications firms and conglomerates.

64. For Japan, the second-largest importer of wood and wood products, after the EEC taken as a group, detailed information on production, consumption, and on projected demand up to the turn of the century, and information relating to the extent to which demand might be met from domestic resources, is not as readily available in Geneva as for most of

According to the US Office of Technology Assessment (a research branch of the US Congress) the US wood-industry is seen as being internationally competitive, so that wood exports could be increased significantly. The Forest Products Division, FAS, in the US Dept. of Agriculture, in close co-operation with the member associations of the US National Forest Products Association, is currently engaged in a programme for researching and opening up new export markets for US wood and wood products. Ref: Foreign Agriculture, Vol. XXII, No. 2, US Dept. of Agricriculture, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1984. Further, some of the State Governments and industry associations are active in promoting forestry products exports. Significant and, perhaps, increasing import penetration of lumber (particularly so for shingles and shakes) was perceived in the United States as a problem. Among proposals made in 1985 for overcoming United States industry concerns are joint promotion efforts for North American wood industry products in overseas markets. One summary of the problem, as seen by a US observer, "Stumped by the Lumber Issue", appeared in the February 1986 issue of the United States Conference Board's "Across the Board" magazine. (Not-available at the time this note was written, but presumably relevant, might be a 1985 (US) Forest Products Research Society publication "International forest products trade: resources and market opportunities", H.E. Dickerhof, éd.). Apart from very large forest product enterprises, there exist in the US many wood-processing enterprises of medium size, with little traditional export experience. It may be of relevance to note that the Oct. 1982, Export Trading Act does permit individual firms to form joint export ventures. (This provision is, of course, not limited to forest product companies.) However, so far there have not been many reports of wood industry producers availing themselves of this new facility (nor have potential exporters from other industries, partly the result of the "high" dollar in the recent past) and, more generally, there exists a lack of awareness of existing, but still untapped, export opportunities, as noted in the United States Department of Commerce Magazine "Business America", of 9 December 1985.

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the other developed countries. ' In this connection, it may be noted that domestic timber removals fell by about one fourth over the period 1970 to 1975 and industrial roundwood production has stabilized, more or less, at the level of the mid-1970s. Industrial roundwood-use (based on domestic production and on imports, including, more recently, large quantities of imported woodchips for pulping) has, however, increased significantly. Only about 30 per cent of total Japanese wood- and woodchip offtake by industry is currently covered from domestic timber harvests. It might, however, be noted that the area under forests in Japan is significant, both in absolute terms, and relatively, when compared to total available land area and when seen on a per caput basis (cf. Table I). It is not known to what extent present Japanese forestry practices are necessitated by watershed protection considerations (most Japanese forest land is on hillsides (only 15 per cent of the land surface is level, or of modest enough slope to permit agricultural settlement), or are prompted by other environmental considerations. Part of the explanation may be that much of the Japanese forest was replanted after World War II, so that, in many instances, the optimal time for harvesting has not yet come and there may also be some concern in Japan regarding the long-term security of supplies of logs from international sources, given an expected overall increase in global fibre demands and, perhaps, decreasing forest reserves in a number of producing areas. According to the Japanese Forestry Agency, there are 10 million ha. of plantation forests in Japan, some of which are to reach maturity relatively soon, but the bulk of the plantation forests will become available as a resource only in the twenty-first century. In Japan, bamboo, some of it cultivated in bamboo plantations, is also of some importance, though perhaps less so than in China and in a number of other Asian countries. Japan participates actively in various forest industry joint ventures in South-East Asia, and in several Latin-American countries. As noted in the preceding paragraph, it also„ has some cross-links with forest-industry enterprises in North America. Import demand has traditionally been met from "South Sea" sources, Pacific and Pacific-Rim countries, including also the USSR. More recently there have also been imports from certain African, including West-African, countries.

Particulary the countries participating in the work of the UN ECE Timber Committee. From such information that is published by Japan, the following summary data can be derived: total growing stock, in million cubic metres, in 1981 - coniferous: 1,480; broadleaved: 1,000. Total forest area 24.7 million ha., of which government owned: 29.9 per cent, other publicly owned: 13.1 per cent; privately owned: 57.0 per cent. Broadleaved natural forests: 47.2 per cent of forest area; coniferous natural forests: 10.1 per cent; plantation forests: broadleaved 0.6 per cent of total area; conifers: 38.8 per cent (bamboo 0.6 per cent). Total forest area designated as protected forest (for headwater conservation, erosion and soil control, windbreaks and recreation etc.): 30.5 per cent. A functional land-use survey (climate, soil, topography), for identifying agricultural or forestry use-suitability, different from purely administrative regional classifications, is given in a recent OECD document (AGR/TC/WP(86)2).

./.

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Footnote (cont'd)

Japan

Log Production and Use (million cubic metres)

1960 1970 1979 1981

Production

Coniferous Broadleaved

37.1 11.4 26.8 18.6 21.4 12.1 20.1 11.2

Saw logs

33.8 27.4 21.4 19.5

Use

Pulp

8.9 6.6 1.9 1.8

Wood chips

8.3 7.9 8.4

Domestic Demand, Exports and Imports (million cubic metres)

1970 1979 1981

Domestic Demand

Saw nl , . Plywood logs J

61.0 12.4 60.1 13.6 48.6 10.0

Exports

Saw ' , Plywood

logs

0.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3

Imports

Other (wood), Logs except chips Wood chips

and pulp and pulp

43.3 4.6 8.5 46.9 7.6 21.4 35.9 5.9 18.4

Domestically Harvested Logs, by Species (million cubic metres, in 1981)

Total, black pine

Total, Remainder:

coniferous: 3.7; Japanese

broadleaved: unspecified.

20.1; Japanese cedar cypress 3.4; Larch,

8.0; whit

11.2; beech trees 0.7; Source: Japan Statistics

Japanese red and e fir and spruce 3.

Japanese oak 0.5. 1 Yearbook, 1983.

9.

. / .

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Footnotes (cont'd)

An estimate of Japan's wood fibre requirements, generally, assumes that requirements over the period 1980-2000 will increase by more than 60 per cent, part of it to be met through increased imports of semi-manufactured and manufactured products (including also paper). Reference: "World Forest Products - demand and supply 1990 and 2000", FAO, Rome, 1982. One rough estimate, based on forest production estimates and Japanese consumption demand projections, cited by North-American wood-industry observers, assumes that import requirements, in terms of wood-fibre equivalent, will increase by not less than 15 per cent over the next 15 years. This estimate was made before the announcement by Japan early in 1986 of various measures for encouraging - among other things - building and construction activities, with - it is assumed - repercussions on wood import requirements and wood-industry activity levels. Fortune magazine, in its issue of 13 May 1985, comments on the likely effect of tariff dismantlement on Japan's wood industry in the absence of governmental assistance measures. The 1984 spring issue of the Columbia Journal of World Business contains an analysis of, and comments on, "United States - Japanese Solidwood Products Trade", by Roger A. Sedjo. Finally, as regards commonly-used (and preferred, but on account of high cost not always utilized) wood species for residential construction the following varieties could be mentioned: Hinoki (chamaecyparis obtusa), or, second-choice, Asunaro (also called "asushi" and "hiba") - Thujopsis dolobrata [both, Japanese cypress varieties; fine-grained, pleasant appearance, decay resistant)]; Akamatsu (pinus densiflora - or "red pine"; high elasticity, very resinous, decay resistant); Kuromatsu (pinus Thunbergii or "black pine"); Tsuga (tsuga sieboldii; a kind of hemlock spruce; the chiefly-used wood material in residential housing construction); Sugi (cryptomeria Japonica - Japanese cedar - good workability, strength and ornamental characteristics); Keyaki (abelica serrata - very decorative); Kiri (pawlownia tomentosa - structurally and aesthetically (light silver-bluish colour) excellent and in vogue - but very expensive). Also used are: Momiji or kaede (acer palmatus - maple); Kuwa (morus alba - mulberry); market sizes are based on standard lengths - "ken" (two (different) ken sizes per "tsubo", i.e., 6 or 6 1/2 ft. or 1,800-2,000 mm). Reference: H. Engel, op. cited, page 132).

2 A survey of Japan's wood-processing industry, of structural

adjustments, policies and of earlier assistance measures was published as "Wood Processing Industry in a 'Timber Deficit' Country, Japan: Structural Change, Adjustment Problems and Policies", by Mr. K. Fukasaku; document UNIDO/IS. 403, Aug. 1983.

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65. China presently has an area of about 120 million hectares covered by "forests", growing mainly in the northeast and, to a lesser extent, in the east and central-south. According to the China Forestry Ministry, there are close to 2,500 tree species (2,000 of which broadleaved species) plus close to 300 bamboo species. China's forest resources are far from sufficient for meeting the country's needs. A major effort has been made in China over the last two decades in afforestation and reforestation, partly by recourse to imaginative methods, for instance, calling on everyone, aged eleven years or older, to plant every year - since 1979 - on "national tree planting day" (12 March), four to six trees on the corners of the homesite, at hedgerows etc. Since 1980 the principle holds that the tree belongs to the person who planted it. Even so, once planted, most trees receive insufficient care, and an estimated one half perish shortly after planting, thus little is known about the speed with which China can develop wood production, especially so as published statistics and evaluations often differ. (Total forest area in China in 1950 was of the order of 8.6 per cent of total land area. It is now reported to be of the order of 12.7 per cent. The target for the end of the century is 20 per cent, and the long-term goal is 30 per cent. However, only 30-40 per cent of the present tree stands are of timber-industry-quality). Among the species harvested for use as timber are Korean and Chinese red pine, China fir (araucaria de Chine), larch, Suren, toon, catalpa, ash, walnut and camphor trees, as well as several trees of the species abies and picea. Given the paucity of the forest resource, China is expanding (Unasylva 157, Vol. 38) its particle board industry, so as to make good use of available wood waste, also of certain other agricultural wastes and of less valuable wood species. Papers presented by the Chinese Delegation to the IX World Forestry Congress mention good progress having been made in the establishment of farmland shelterbelts (including a 7,500 km. 'Great Green Wall') and in agro-forest development. Shelterbelt planting is continuing. Expansion of agricultural land at the expense of existing forests is prohibited. Current annual industrial roundwood offtake is reported to be of the order of 50 million cubic metres (it was only 5 million m in 1950). The aim is to reach an annual offtake of the order of 100 million cubic metres on a sustainable yield basis by the end of the century. Total growing stock at present (including also protected forest areas) is estimated to be of the order of 9,000 million cubic metres. Use of wood for fuel continues to be important. Efforts are, under way to reduce the use of wood, complementing coal, for fuel, by means of numerous biogas production facilities. China has emerged in recent years as a significant import market for industrial roundwood (logs being the preferred import) for woodpulp and, still more recently, for plywood (the latter partly under countertrade arrangements with South-East Asian suppliers) with imports, notably from North America, rising rapidly, running well above the level shown in Tables II and III (in 1984 China imported 7.9 million cubic metres of logs and in 1985 9.7 million m ; imports of woodpulp in 1985 were of the order of 550,000 tons, up from about 400,000 tons in 1984). While China is not among major wood

An assessment and description of the difficulties faced by China in its reforestation programme is given in a special forestry related issue of the publication "Co-Evolution" No. 15, Hiver 1983/84 - Paris. Certain elements of China's forest resource base, policies and of its woodworking industry and trade are described in "Potential and Requirement of Increasing the Degree of Wood Processing in Developing Countries of Asia and the Pacific", UNIDO document: IS. 395, June 1983.

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exporting countries, it is both the world's largest producer and a traditional exporter of such secondary forest products as colophony, tung oil, raw lacquer and camphor. Other "tree" products of importance in exports are white wax, (amur) cork, tannin, Chinese gall, tallow-tree oil, star anisi, shellac, as well as various forest-grown medicinal herbs and stimulants.

66. The Republic of Korea is among the few developing countries which have successfully implemented a nation-wide and large-scale reforestation F-rogramme. The total land area of Korea devoted to forests is important, relatively and absolutely, but most of the forests are not yet mature and in many cases their main intended function is for hillside erosion protection. Korea has also built up substantial wood-processing capacity and has become one of the main exporters of plywood. Virtually all of the wood used by the Korean wood-processing industry is imported. Log export restrictions applied in some of the growing countries have been a matter of concern. Korea participates in a number of forest-industry joint-ventures in several of the countries in South-East Asia. As a major construction contractor in several overseas countries, Korea probably also contributed to the rapid development and expansion in recent years of plywood and sawn-wood exports from South-East Asian producers to such destinations as the Middle East.

67. As regards the forest-resource situation in Europe, it may be noted that Sweden and Finland, and to a somewhat lesser extent, Norway, possess very large„forest resources, especially so when set in relation to population size. Availability of relatively inexpensive energy (of some

Over the last decade some additional 40 thousand hectares have been afforested every year, the result of continuous and strong government support for afforestation and the dedicated efforts of about 20 thousand local afforestation groups. Nearly 70 per cent of the Republic of Korea's land area is now planted with trees, about one half of these are still very young. For a detailed account see "Village Forestry Development in the Republic of Korea - A Case Study", FAO, Rome, 1982.

2 The main commercial coniferous tree-species are pine and spruce.

Percentage in total growing stock: pine - Finland 45.1 per cent, Sweden 37 per cent; spruce - Finland 37.4 per cent, Sweden 46.0 per cent; (all coniferous: (area) - Norway 80.1 per cent); broadleaved - Finland 17.5 per cent, Sweden 15.0 per cent. In Finland pine occurs mostly on drier depositional soils, spruce on moister bogland soils. In Southern Finland, aspen, maple, elm are found. Particulary widespread are species of the birch varieties (alders, arctic birch). Among other varieties are oaks and willows. In Sweden, among major non-coniferous species, one finds various betulacea (birch, hornbeam) beech, oaks, elm, ash and maple. In Norway the principal forest regions are in the southeast and south. Higher north is the birch belt. Many conifer forests also have some stands of aspens, ash, elm, lime, oak, black alder, to name only a few. Beech forests are found near the Skagerrak. Most of the coastal regions are devoid of forests.

Forest area, by main ownership groups, in percentages of total forest area, is as follows; Publicly owned - Finland 29.2 per cent, Norway 15.4 per cent, Sweden 26.7 per cent. - Owned by Forest industries - Finland 7.5 per cent, Norway 5.2 per cent, Sweden 24.4 per cent; percentage of farm-forest ownership - Finland 60.9 per cent, Norway 64.5 per cent, Sweden 48.9 per cent. (Source: national Statistics and ECE (Timber) Statistics.)

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importance in certain energy-intensive downstream forest-industry activities) is on the whole, also favourable, particularly so in Norway and in Sweden. Forestry-industry complexes may have their own energy production resources, or may be affiliated in various ways with, for instance, (hydro) electric power companies (some of which recently sold off by their parent companies). Efficient use is being made for process energy of wood-processing wastes. In order to maintain their current level of pulp and paper production, all three countries are now net-importers of pulpwood. Yet the level of wood removals in all three countries is below that of net annual growth in timber stock. There may be several reasons for this. Part of the trade flows may be prompted by the relative location of the forest resources and that of the wood-processing mills. Another reason could be insufficient timber releases, in relation to industry requirements, from privately-owned forests, in cases where the forest industries do not own a subtantial part of the resource base. In the case of Finland a further reason might be the need to import goods for settling trade balances, for instance in trade with the USSR. Last, but perhaps not least, it would appear that some of the other western European countries do not find it sufficiently profitable to pulp some of their pulpwood availabilities, preferring, instead, to export part of their pulpwood to the Nordic countries for pulping. While the Nordic countries do not possess such exceptionally large forest resources as the USSR or Canada, their resources are both large and growing and that despite annually expanding harvesting operations. Large annual production volumes notwithstanding, annual offtake of wood per ha., in all three countries, is well below that of several European countries, notably Austria, Switzerland, the F.R. Germany and certain countries in Eastern Europe. This is, of course, due to the fact that growing conditions, i.e. climate and soil, are less favourable in the Nordic countries than in central Europe. The removal percentage (annual removal's share of standing stock) is, however, higher in the Nordic countries than in other parts of Europe.

68. Reference has already been made to the vast forestry resources of the USSR and to the fact that access possibilities to that resource are improving. As regards forestry products uses, it may be worth noting

This could be a factor when organized forest farmer groups anticipate higher prices in the future and act, in consequence, on supplies. In practice, prices do not always rise, but may even decrease.

2 According to recent reports from Stockholm, it is projected that,

as a consequence of newly developed silvicultural methods, and further technical progress generally, yearly fellings in Sweden can be increased to about 70 million cubic metres in the early 1990s (1984: 66 million m ), and could reach 100 million m by 2020. (Source: NFA, Cologne and Journal of Commerce, N.Y.)

3 An additional, estimated, 12 billion cubic metres of (albeit slowly)

growing stock have become more readily accessible as a result of the coming into operation of the (new) BAM Trans-Siberian railwood line and of related feeder lines. This development notwithstanding, facilitating access to strips of forest lands, say, 100 km deep on either side of the new track, still leaves much of the Siberian timber resources unexploit-able. At a later stage, infrastructure projects involving the southwards re-direction of part of the waters of the rivers Sukhona, North Ovina and Onega (decided upon in 1984) - and, at a still later stage, of the West-Siberian rivers Ob and Yenisey, may open up still futher access and, perhaps, transport facilities (the water-deviation canals will have a width of the order of 120-200 metres).

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that the USSR is in the process of a major modernization/cum/expansion programme of its wood-processing and its pulp and paper industry. This may influence the future level of annual roundwood production destined for export, which, according to available statistics, the USSR has kept relatively stable over a number of years (reportedly exercising temporary "export restraints" vis-à-vis certain import markets which had requested restraint). Among USSR development plan objectives, now in the process of implementation, relying, in part, on imported plant and equipment (but also on reactivated and expanding (but behind plan-schedule) domestic production facilities for logging, wood-working and specialized materials - handling machinery), is a more rational use of the forest raw-material base, the more productive use.of wood-processing-waste materials and, as required, product adaptation. Considerable cut-backs in wood fibre requirements could, and are envisaged to, be achieved, for example, in newsprint production (of which very large tonnages are produced and consumed) by shifting to lighter-weight newsprint, such as is used in other developed countries. An important objective of development policy is the decentralization of processing industries, including the wood-processing industries. It has been recognized by the USSR planning authorities that some internal supply bottlenecks in the past, both for consumer goods and for producer goods (among the latter, railway sleepers), were due, more than to anything else, to lack of transport infrastructure and facilities which may, and does, result inter alia in large and lengthy accumulation of timber and lumber stocks at points of shipments and major railroad marshalling yards, far removed from centres of processing and/or final consumption. Not only is the transport infrastructure being improved and expanded,

This should not obscure the fact that the structure of the USSR's exports of wood, wood semi-manufactures and other wood derived products is changing. Exports of logs, as a percentage of total wood exports, decreased from 52 per cent in 1973 to 42 per cent in 1983, exports of sawn-wood increased their share from 48 per cent in 1973 to 58 per cent in 1983, exports of plywood, over the same period, more than doubled, particle board exports more than tripled. Exports of pulp and paper are showing rapid growth and are expected to account shortly for more than two fifths of all forestry products exports, in a rising total - the total expected to increase very substantially. Main target markets are countries in the Near and Middle East, India, South-East Asia, Africa, but also China, Japan and Europe. (Source: MOCI, Paris, No. 684, November 1985.)

2 For detailed description see: "The USSR Forest and Woodworking

Industries", UNIDO/IS. 406, July 1983.

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but, as a result of the ongoing industrial decentralization, the volume of goods to be shipped back and forth is also to be significantly reduced. This has implications for transport facilities that could eventually be made available for export movement of forestry products .

69. As will be seen from Table II, several of the Eastern European countries are net importers of roundwood, notwithstanding the high level of their roundwood production (in terms of removals of wood per ha.; rotation periods are often considerably lower than in Western Europe). Roundwood imports are mainly effected from the USSR. While the high level of forest utilization in these countries reflects intensive forest management, pollution and/or tree disease damage to forests in some of these countries is also very high and this may have an influence on the annual level of present, and then of future, wood removals (cf. footnote 1 on page 29). Very substantial progress has been made by several of these countries in recent years in reforestation (for Hungary, see unasylva, No. 145) and in modernizing their wood-processing industry (temporary setbacks in the pace of that modernization, as in Poland, notwithstanding) and in co-ordinating their wood industries in the context of CMEA industrial integration, adding thereby considerably to their international competitiveness in this sector, with emphasis increasingly placed on producing, and exporting, higher value-added transformation products, for instance furniture (Romania) and chairs, seats, prefabricated housing and, perhaps, woodpulp (CSR).

70. Most of the countries in the circum-Mediterranean areas, and several other countries nearby, do not have large forest resources or wood-processing industries. Italy's strength in the sector is concentrated in the wood-processing industry (a large volume of poplar growing stock notwithstanding) not really in basic forest resources. Yugoslavia is one of the few exceptions. Although vast stretches of Yugoslavia's territory (Karst and coastal regions) have been denuded of their once significant forest cover, by overexploitation in centuries past, for shipbuilding and construction purposes (not only on sites in Yugoslavia) and particularly by overgrazing, the country has, on the plains, watered by the Danube and its tributaries, and in certain other areas, a significant, though not entirely sufficient, domestic forest resource. Yugoslavia has a well developed wood-processing industry and has also entered into joint forestry ventures with several African countries. It is a net importer of pulpwood and pulp. Romania, for

The recent coming into operation of Vostochny, on the Pacific Coast, near Vladivostok, which will be the USSR's largest seaport, adding to existing facilities at Nakhodka, adds significantly to forestry-export capacity, through the installation of specialized equipment and facilities for rapidly loading both timber and woodchips. (Exports of woodchips to Japan, much reduced in the early 'Eighties, are to be stepped up significantly in accordance with a multi-year supply contract and the provision by Japan of inputs in USSR pulpwood harvesting facilities.) Shipments of various resource products and other merchandise out of existing and new USSR northern seaports, via Arctic Ocean routes, are becoming a practical reality and rail-ferry facilities from such Baltic ports as Klaipeda, Wyborg, Tallin, to destinations in the GDR and in the West are among transport infrastructure improvements under way, or planned. ((Cross-Baltic rail-ferry capacity between ports in Sweden, Denmark, Finland and F.R. Germany are also being substantially expanded, or have already been expanded, benefiting inter alia, the forest products trade.))

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which comments in the preceding paragraph are also relevant, has considerable forest resources, an important wood-processing industry, including secondary wood-processing, and is, likewise, engaged in some joint forestry ventures in Africa. Turkey's forestry resources are significant, but are located in remote areas of the country and forests are largely over-aged, and not very productive. Turkey does have a skilled woodworking sector with a long and proud tradition. Industrial roundwood removals have shown significant increases in recent years and wood exports have also expanded, largely in response to the recently observed increasing, but now diminished, import demand in the Middle East.

71. In Oceania and the Pacific region there are both a number of developed and developing countries which, in relation to the size of their respective population, are rich in forestry resources. Among countries to be mentioned in this category are New Zealand, (Chile - on the Pacific-Rim of South America), Papua and New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and, to some extent, Fiji and Australia. With the exception of New Zealand and Chile, where forestry-products exports are already of considerable importance, and, to a lesser extent, Australia, forestry-products' export potential in these countries is only starting to be developed, or is still in its nascent stage.

72. As regards the developing countries, the main forestry products exporters are three of the five ASEAN countries, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. (Cf. also Section B.) Singapore is almost entirely dependent for its roundwood supplies on imports, but it has a high-technology wood-processing industry and some exports. Thailand, once a major wood exporter, has become a net importer of roundwood and of certain wood semi-manufactures, but continues to be an exporter of certain wood manufactures. Burma, has a long tradition as a wood exporter, but the volume of wood exports has not been expanding at anywhere the same rate as that of other countries in the region. Reforestation programmes for teak forests and the establishment of teak plantations are under way, and the wood-processing industry is also being rejuvenated (partly under international assistance projects), but, in the near term, it seems unlikely that export availabilities will show very substantial increases. Some of the countries in the area, formerly known as Indochina, do have very extensive forest resources, but these countries are not only not covered by Table I, but data and information on their forestry-production plans and programmes are not readily available . The island of Taiwan, a major producer and exporter of plywood and other wood semi-manufactures and manufactures, is largely dependent on wood imports for feeding its wood-processing industry.

73. On the African continent, the Republic of South Africa has significantly expanded its originally scanty forest resource base through large-scale forest plantations . The African countries with the largest forest resources are West-African countries and those bordering on, or comprising, part of the Congo/Zaire Basin area. Nigeria, once a

As far as Vietnam is concerned, several papers presented to the IX World Forestry Congress reported on the extensive war damage, but also on major efforts under way to reforest and to regenerate damaged forests. By replanting part of the forests with fast-growing tree species, major progress is expected to be made over the next fifteen to twenty years.

2 Cf. also Para. 81.

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major wood-exporting country, while still exporting some wood, currently uses most of its industrial roundwood fellings, and products made thereof, domestically and has in recent years even been a net importer of wood semi-manufactures. In Ghana, the once abundant export supplies have also been much reduced in the wake of increased needs for domestic development, but exports continue, and some of the wood varieties available for export are, generally, in good demand, subject, of course, like wood and wood semi-manufactures from other suppliers, to.the vicissitudes of demand fluctuations in international markets. The Ivory Coast, the main supplier of tropical woods, and of products made thereof, to Europe, is suffering from severe depletion of its most valuable and accessible forest stands. It has started to limit removals and is fostering reforestation. Precedence is starting to be given to supplying the domestic wood-processing industry. Nevertheless, the Ivory Coast continues to be the main African supplier of tropical woods (main export markets for roundwood are Italy, France and Spain) and wood products. The Congo Republic (log production in recent years expanded on average by 8 per cent/year) and Gabon are both major producers and exporters of tropical wood and their forest resources remain large; internal transport problems for logs to ports and centres of processing are frequently encountered, but improvements in transport facilities are under way. Mention should also be made of continuing progress being made in the Congo in respect of pulpwood plantations for local pulp

The restructuration and improvement of the wood industry are high on the list of priority objectives of the Ghanian Government. A Timber Export Development Board (TEDB) was recently established, as was a Forest Products Inspection Bureau (FPIB). These two new institutions -which benefit, inter alia, from IBRD and Swedish expert technical assistance - replaced the former Ghana Timber Marketing Board. The World Bank and the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (BADEA) are contributing $23 million and $9 million respectively to a project for the rehabilitation of Ghana's forest products industries (ref. MOCI, November 1985) . A first national wood industry products and furniture fair was held in Accra in April 1985. A furniture fair is scheduled to be held in 1987.

Total area covered by forests was of the order of 10 million ha. in 1960; 7.2 million ha. in 1970, and is reported to be presently less than 3 million ha. Conversion of forest land to agricultural uses, according to SODEFOR (society for the development of plantation forests), has been of the order of 400-500,000 ha. Measures are being taken to stop clandestine forest fellings and shifting agriculture. Forty reforestation projects, covering a surface of 1.6 million ha., are shortly to be started. Programme cost is envisaged to be of the order of $51.6 million - of which 31.3 million financed by the IBRD, 10 million by the Commonwealth Development Corporation and the remainder by Ivory Coast public funds. New forest plantations are planned to produce in 35 years time 6.6 million cubic metres of wood, with an estimated export value of $880 million. Under the project, some 1,760 km of forest roads are to be constructed or rehabilitated (MOCI, November 1985). An interesting and up-to-date summary of the Ivory Coast's wood industry and wood industry related policies and problems is given in "L'industrie Ivoirienne", Supplement to No. 2094 of "Marchés Tropicaux ..." of 27 December 1985. Major improvements in port facilities, with assistance from Japan, are under way, as are several infrastructure development projects, benefiting from EC assistance.

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production. The Congo has been developing, for some time, partly in joint venture projects (inter alia with a German firm) a well performing saw - and veneer mill industry - and also developed exports of wood semi-manufactures. The forest resources of Cameroon and of the Central African Republic, in the Congo/Zaire-Basin areas, are also important and both countries are significant exporters of wood. Zaire has very large forest resources (the largest of any of the African countries), covering an area of 120 million ha. Zaire has 47 per cent of Africa s forest area - or somewhat less than 7 per cent of world timber stands. Fifty-five of the tree varieties found in Zaire are considered to be marketable. Most of the resource is not yet tapped and remains, relatively, inaccessible. Zaire does currently benefit from international assistance measures (including a major grant from Canada) for the rehabilitation of its forest industries' sector. New wood processing factories are springing up, and total roundwood fellings and processing are scheduled to increase five-fold (most of it destined for the domestic market) over the next five years. A number of developed countries (including also the United States) are interested in assisting in the expansion of Zaire's forest products industry. Liberia, Guinea, and Guinea Bissau also have significant, largely untapped, forest resources and the same holds true for Angola and Mozambique. In Madagascar, much of the original, rich and valuable forest resource has been lost to shifting agriculture (mainly for producing the country s staple food: rice) and the remaining resource is decreasing (national forest-protection and preservation laws notwithstanding) at an alarming rate, thus severely limiting wood production- and export-potential, but here too, some recent policy orientations spell hope that deforestation can be slowed and, perhaps, one day be reversed.

74 In countries in eastern Africa1 (Uganda largely excepted), in Egypt (where some efforts are being made to revive traditional wood-industry skills, and where a (by necessity limited) afforestation programme, with assistance from Sweden, is under way), and the countries in the Arabian Peninsula, countries in Asia-Minor, much of the Himalaya region and Pakistan, are only sparsely forested. India, though having some luxuriant forests, with certain tree species of considerable commercial value, is forest-resource-poor when its resources are seen in relation to the size of the population. There are some wood products exports, but they are very small India is one of the countries where the maximum volume of wood production, and wood production for exports, are stated not to be major forestry policy objectives. Major objectives are of a social nature, designed to provide employment for a growing number of people, to alleviate poverty, to provide fuelwood and, of course, to protect the land and water-courses against soil erosion, silting and, generally, to protect

LPulp production in Tanzania is presently being developed. Once full production capacity is attained, about 25 thousand tons/per year of pulp might be available for export. Exports of newsprint to other countries in the region are also planned.

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the environment. Modern silviculture is, however, practised, as evidenced, inter alia, by India's Sal- and Teak-wood plantations. Efforts are under way in India to modernize and expand pulp- and paper-making capacity, making use not only of pulwood resources, but also of other fiber materials for pulping. In Sri Lanka, although forests cover about 25 per cent of the territory, most of the wood removals are for fuelwood. Sri Lanka does have a small wood-processing industry but, for the time being, it is a net importer of wood and wood products.

75. In Latin America, in terms of total forest resources, no country can equal Brazil and the question of forest-resource potential does not pose itself, except on a regional scale, in the semi-arid North-East, where even fuelwood is scarce. It is also a country which plans and administers forest resources in a modern and scientific manner. One of the so far few instances of the use of lasers in wood-processing, referred to in the introduction of this note, concerns the Jari wood-working complex in the Amazon region. Research into hardwood pulping techniques, and actual pulping operations, are among the most advanced. Brazil is the home of some of the world's most precious wood varieties (of which about 80 presently considered exportable). The country owes its very name to a tinctorial wood (Caesalpinia sapan -yielding a purple/red dye, "brazilin"), much prized in early modern times, and a trade-monopoly item for Portugal during several centuries. Past and present importance of wood production and trade notwithstanding, Brazil is also a country of vast dimensions and, when seen in relation to resource potential, much resource development remains ahead. Also it may be noted that, in terms of resource value per hectar of tropical forest land, the Amazon forests, growing on poor, mineral-stressed soils, are disadvantaged, with tree-cover there being more sparse, and individual tree trunks being smaller than in the tropical forests of South-Asia and Africa. Following a set of strict economic development objectives, Brazil's contribution to world supplies of forestry resources, insofar as export marketing of wood is concerned, is now generally limited to exports of processed wood, mainly high-grade panel products (fibre- and particle-board) and, more recently, also

According to the latest (1985) report of the New Delhi Centre for Science and Environment, recent satellite data show that the country is losing 1.3 million hectares of forest yearly (or an area about eight times larger than indicated by earlier statistics). This poses a threat of an ecological economic and social disaster» There is a tremendous demand for firewood, fodder and wood for urban and industrial needs. Silting rates in dams, as a result of hillside erosion, are reported to be among the world's highest and river-beds are rising, causing serious flooding. If recently proposed plans for promoting reforestation, with the help of international financial assistance measures, come into effect, India should be one of the main recipients of the proposed aid ($1.2 billion out of a global $8.0 billion).

2 Part of it built up (plywood manufacture, for tea-chest

production) under cover of GATT Article XVIII:C measures, invoked in the 1950s and early 1960s.

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woodpulp, in increasing quantities , and also of some wood manufactures. In addition, Brazil is a producer and exporter of some highly-prized specialty woods and log exports may, on occasion, be authorized, for instance when major forest clearings are required in connection with hydro-electric power and irrigation projects (but, for technical reasons, do not necessarily always materialize).

76. Rich tropical forest resources also exist in the Guyanas and in Suriname, in Venezuela and in some of the coastal areas and the inland Amazon Basin regions of countries on the Pacific Coast of Latin America. In Venezuela, apart from natural forest vegetation, there exist also fairly extensive pine plantations. Some of the countries in Central America, as well as certain parts of Mexico (often particularly varied and rich in phyto-genetic resources, on account of their geographic situation on a land-bridge between two continents (and the point of passage of untold flocks of migrating birds), have significant forest resources, some of it used in agroforestry, sometimes to the detriment of the forest ("Hamburger" connection). Reforestation for watershed protection and for economic uses in Mexico is reported to be progressing. With the possible exception of Cuba (where a massive reforestation project [1986-1990] is to be implemented), countries in the Caribbean and the Antilles region, generally, have nowadays only sparse forest-cover and are often dependent for wood and wood-products on imports.

Exports of pulp started in the mid-1970s. Exports of wood pulp in the mid-1970s were of the order of 150 thousand tons per year; they reached about 900 thousand tons in 1983 and for 1984 and 1985 are estimated to have been of the order of 1 million tons. Exports of paper started in 1979, rising to about 600,000 tons, each in 1984 and 1985. Under the most recent development plan, an expenditure of 3-4 billion dollars up to 1990 is foreseen, about doubling pulp production capacity from 3.3 million tons at present (to about 6 million) and that of paper from 3.7 to 5.0 million tons. As a result of that investment, Brazil might rise from eight to fifth place among world cellulose producers (JOC).

2 Due to its geographical location, Mexico has three large forest

ecosystems, with temperate climat forest species (mainly pine, oak and oyamel) covering 29 million ha., mountain pine forests (area covered unspecified, but accounting for four fifths of Mexican lumber production) and about 15 million ha. of tropical forests. Government-or State-affiliated agencies control about one fourth of Mexican lumber production.

3 Forecasts on timber supplies and wood requirements up to the year

2000, by broad geographic regions, are contained in a recent FAO Forestry Paper: "World Forest Products - demand and supply 1990 and 2000", FAO, Rome, 1982.

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B. PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CATEGORIES OF FOREST PRODUCTS

77. Even when the term "forest products" is primarily used to designate items of wood and cork, it covers a vast range of products, ranging from fuelwood and charcoal, over logs, hewn timbers, sawn-boards, wooden-profiles, veneers, plywood, various wood-particle and -fibre -sheet materials, to assembled joinery (other than furniture of CCCN Chapter 94), and assembled structures, to pre-fabricated works-barracks, prefabricated wooden houses, wooden implements and decorative and ornamental articles, chop-sticks, tool handles, textile-machinery bobbins, etc. and various other transformed wood products, such as woodpulp, produced either by mechanical-, thermo-mechanical- or by various chemical-processes, and also cork and cork manufactures. Within these various product categories certain products may be by-products of agricultural activities, such as the occasional log cut from a hedgerow or from a small timber-stand, offered to the market by forest-owning farmers, or may be the outgrowth of an artisanal wood-shaping and joinery activity, or be the product of one of the many small sawmills, slowly disappearing, but which once dotted the rural landscape, or may even be the result of a pit-hole (and entirely manual) log-sawing operation, still practised in some of the developing areas. The products may also be, and increasingly are, the result of forestry-and wood-processing industrial activities, operated on a large-scale, involving often very capital-intensive processes, with individual plants (such as modern pulp-mills and particle-board factories), each costing from $100 million upward.

78. The listing in the paragraph above, though far from complete, is intended to indicate that it is highly improbable that all of these varying activities and sources of "forest-products" are fully and accurately reflected in the economic and industrial production statistics of all the countries covered by this note. In fact, they are not. Artisanal activities, involving enterprises with less than five, ten, or sometimes even more, employees (as the case may be, and small enterprises are very common in certain forestry-cum-agricultural activities and in the wood-working industry) are not covered in the production statistics of many countries, or, if at all presented, are only roughly estimated. (Reportedly, some research into forestry-products production activities and problems in the statistically often ignored "informal sector" in developing countries is in progress in ILO.) As regards trade statistics, when these are based on customs-house data, the situation may be somewhat better, since, in principle, all frontier-crossing products are recorded. What all this suggests, however, is that production- and trade data may not always be fully comparable one with the other and also that coverage of recorded production data for given product categories may not always be identical for the different countries.

A possible exception to this are some small-sized pulping facilities now under development in France, for limited production-runs and decentralized pulping installations.

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79. The data inscribed in Table II show, in the first instance, domestic industrial roundwood production of individual contracting parties, to which are added, to arrive at a measure of "unprocessed wood availability", combined net trade volumes of industrial roundwood and of pulpwood, to indicate the volume of raw wood available for primary processing in the different countries concerned, whether it be for sawing, for manufacture into wood-sheet materials or for pulp production. It will, however, be noted from the data in Table II that all countries do not necessarily engage in respect of the available industrial roundwood in either sawing, sheetmaking or pulping operations. Wood can be, and is being used as such, or after having been hewn and squared, for poles (good pole-quality logs fetch good prices), for fencing, for construction, as sleepers, pitprops etc.

80. Table II also attempts to show data on production of sawn-wood, plywood, particle-board and woodpulp and the level of domestic availability, taking into account the net trade position for semi-manufactured wood and woodpulp. (Possible changes in stocks could not be reflected in this note). Availability data shown are intended to indicate the materials-base for secondary wood-processing activities, such as for joinery, for house construction, cabinet- and furniture-making and for paper- and paper-board manufacture.

81. Notions as to what is, or should be, covered by the term "forestry products production" are likely to differ widely between different observers of the forest industry sector. At its most basic level, forestry production may be considered as taking axe, saw or chain-saw, to the forest, with wood production seen as being akin to a simple gathering-activity or, if practised on a larger scale, perhaps to a mining operation. Such gathering/mining-type operations do exist, but they are far from typical of present-day commercial-scale forestry activities. Forestry production may be seen as commencing as a decision process in regard to land-use options, designating part of available land resources as forest land, another part as agricultural land, as

In a number of developing countries, and also in Japan, bamboo and rattan (Indonesia produces about 85 per cent of all rattan; very little of it is exported) are also widely used for the fabrication of various articles and implements (including - bamboo - tubewell pipe construction in India) and for scaffolding (even for high-rise buildings, viz. Hong-Kong) and for construction purposes (including as concrete re-enforcing materials). Various vegetable materials other than wood, (bamboo, sisal, coconut fibre, manila, abaca, rice husks, cereal straws, sugar cane bagasse, cotton linters, etc.) may be, and are, to some extent, used for producing woodpulp and for cellulose. Availability of bamboo and rattan is generally not covered in international wood-production or-availability data.

2 For fibre-board production and trade data see Annex I-B. 3 Part of woodpulp production may be (and is, in fact) used in

other, cellulose-using and processing, industries. 4 For explanatory notes for various terms used in forestry industry

designations cf: FAO, Forestry Paper No. 32

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land to be set aside for urban settlement, etc. In the Republic of South Africa, for example, which originally was not blessed with extensive natural forest-resources, deliberate afforestation policies, pursued both by the government and by the private sector, have by now resulted in the availability of 1.2-1.4 million ha. of forest plantations, which supply, on a managed and sustained yield basis, industrial roundwood for an expanding and modern wood-processing industry, meeting also the not inconsiderable wood-requirements of South Africa's mining industry and of its railroads - 25 per cent of all wood production is accounted for by pitprops and by railway sleepers. From being a wood import-dependent country in the recent past (it was an exporter early in this century), South Africa has by now built up an export capacity for wood, and also for woodpulp , and has, in the process, generated substantial employment opportunities in this sector. Possibilities exist in South Africa for further expanding the forest domain, inter alia, by expanding wattle tree plantations, which are among those that are particularly effective as pioneer-trees in establishing themselves, even in desert-like soils, thus helping South Africa to check the spreading of the desert, while also increasing production potential for wattle bark tanning extracts (and, perhaps, a gum-arabic substitute).

82. Another example of good forward planning and effective use of forestry resources and potential is supplied by New Zealand. New Zealand does not suffer from the same climatic constraints as large tracts of South Africa, and has large natural forests, and, generally, favourable climatic conditions (very different though as between North Island and South Island, reflected, inter alia, by different species-composition in the respective forests) for forest growth. More than fifty years ago the New Zealand authorities realized that the valuable native forests would not last indefinitely and acted to ensure a permanent supply of timber. The first big forest planting in New Zealand thus began more than fifty years ago, providing, at the same time, employment opportunities in an economy affected by the then world-wide recession. Wood from these plantations, some of which have since been replanted, makes a major contribution to supplying the needs of New Zealand's pulp-mills, its wood-processing industry and to exports. In 1960, New Zealand had 350 thousand ha. of forest plantations. Presently the country has 900 thousand ha. of forest plantations (in the North Island such plantations spread, unbroken, over an area stretching more than 110 kilometres long). New Zealand's forest plantations continue to be expanding, with plantations expected to reach 1.3 million ha. by about 1990. Production potential is expected to rise

In at least one developed country, forest land lots carry with them a quasi-automatic building permit - while lots for agricultural-use do not. This results in a high market value of land with standing trees, and it is a brake on forest clearing. Resulting high land taxes on such forest land may adversely affect motivation for forest-care activities.

2 On account of the increased offtake for pulp production,

additional annual tree plantings on 38,000 ha. are required (1984 plantings = 7,000 ha.), otherwise domestic pulpwood supplies will become insufficient by the end of this century; to meet the needs the forestry-products sector is to be invigorated by further privatization.

3 Market demand for wattle tanning extracts (of which there exist

different varieties) is, however, subject to fluctuations, accompanied by a certain instability in prices obtainable in export markets.

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from about 10 million m of industrial roundwood per year now, to about 30-35 million m at the beginning of the next century. The success of New Zealand's forest plantations, and forestry industry generally, owes much not only to close co-operation between the government and private interests, but also to the judicious choice of tree-species for the plantations, the main variety chosen being radiata pine, which, on growing sites in New Zealand, reaches maturity in about twenty-three to twenty-five years, and provides a wood with excellent pulp-making properties, and good quality lumber as well, subject, however, like many other types of wood, to being preservative treated for certain uses. In 1982, the New Zealand authorities drew up a strategy for forest industry development in the coming decade and a half. Under that strategy it is planned to establish, inter alia, a considerable number of new pulp mills, saw-mills.» ply-mills and chemical industries, using residue from the saw mills. '

83. More generally, actual or potential forest resources consist not only of forest land, or land on which forests could be grown, but also of people who are both willing and trained to undertake forestry work. There exists probably some vague general consciousness that tree-felling and related logging activities involve hard physical effort. What is generally less realized is that this type of work, if it is to be carried out at reasonable costs and without loss of limbs and lives of the workforce engaged, requires highly skilled and experienced labour. A demonstration of this fact is sometimes provided when undertaking forest salvage operations after major windfall damage or other natural calamities. An initial reaction of the authorities in trying to cope with the additional forest-work thus arising is often to mobilize army units to assist the regular forest workforce. However, as trees, even those already on the ground, are full of compression- and tension-strains, which may unexpectedly snap - releasing their pent-up energy potential in violent bursts, and with "widow-maker" branches quite frequent, logging accidents are, unfortunately, very common, making logging one of the most dangerous occupations of all. Only good training, experience, and good occupational safety practices can contain accident dangers within reasonable limits. In the circumstances, it is not surprising that storm damaged forests often do not get cleared in time before the windfelled trees become the prey of fungus- or insect-attacks, and hence lose most, or all, of their commercial value. Where storm damage is to be cleared up quickly, it often requires the temporary hiring of skilled foreign forest-workers and -crews. In Europe such crews quite frequently come from Finland, or are composed of free-lancing, experienced forest-workers from other countries. Recourse to imported labour is not always appreciated by local forest-worker unions. While special training and experience are necessary for

Réf.: Financial Times, Special Report, 31 August 1983 2 A short follow-up report appeared in the Financial Time edition of

17 June 1985. - Later reports, from other sources, indicate expansion and further quality-upgrading for paper production.

3 In Switzerland, where work-place safety practices are highly

developed, the accident rate in the woodworking industries is, nevertheless, 60 per cent above, and for logging 200 per cent above, the accident rate for all industrial occupations. The adoption of appropriate safety measures and regulations and of training for improving occupational safety and health of forest and wood industry labour are among the measures being promoted by ILO; ref. ISBN No. 92-2-202765-5, 1981.

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logging, and are indispensable for a successful use of forest resources, special skills and aptitudes are also required at the stage of the wood-working and other wood-processing industries, involving good industrial product design skills. Among instances which come to mind for the wood-working sector, and for furniture production, might be Denmark, Finland, Italy, and the ex-"Bauhaus" tradition. Other countries and design schools are also making a remarkable contribution to the furniture and construction design field, for instance, the UK and France, the latter, however, often not for industrial-series production. Also required is a work-force with good traditional woodworking skills and organizational and marketing talents by management, talents and expertise without which the rapid expansion of wood-production and -exports from certain newcomer countries to the wood-industry trade might not have been possible.

84. The question of the availability of forest labour is of relevance. Until quite recently, possibilities for productivity gains in tree-felling and logging operations were in no way equal to productivity developments in industry, or those possible in mechanized agricultural activities, the main difference arising out of the difficulties of mechanizing forest-care and -logging activities. As national wage levels in most countries rose for all categories of labour, in line with, or even ahead of, overall, industrial productivity gains, forestry activities, where labour costs rose in an analogous fashion, but not productivity, began to be priced out of the labour market, resulting in the decline, or even the abandonment, of forestry exploitation and forest-care in many instances. As this happened, the forest itself tended to become less productive and less remunerative. This spurred, inter alia, imports of wood and wood products from lower cost suppliers and greater use of substitute materials. At the same time, the forest-industry, particularly so in North America, but also in Australia, in Scandinavia and in the EEC, was active in designing ways of mechanizing logging and forest-care activities to the maximum extent. The industry, joining its experience in forestry operations with the skills of its transport- and materials-handling machine-builders, has built up, really taking off in the 1960s, an impressive and ever-expanding arsenal of forestry machinery. Among these machines one might mention the "processors" - which closely approach the tree to be felled, fell it and also clear it from crown and branches, either before or - depending on the type of machine - after felling. Then there are "feller-bunchers" which cut a tree close above ground (often by powerful shearing action) and transport the tree, still held upright, to the special heavy-duty logging trucks and load it, all in one, rapidly executed, operation. Still other logging machinery is designed to process small diameter stems and wood-waste (only about 50 per cent of tree phytomass is in the usable portion of tree-trunks) into wood-chips, blowing these directly - to the extent available - (in the US, in the

For instance, aluminium- and plastic-frame-windows (share in new construction in F.R. Germany above 50 per cent, France 12 per cent), window sills, mouldings, trim- and light construction profiles. Interestingly enough, in some countries, suppliers of aluminium- and plastic-windows, aluminium- and glass- building panels (sometimes supplied with a wooden core) are often former wood-working or wood products trading enterprises. Some wood industry observers feel that imports of wooden joinery products may often be less of a competition problem than the competition arising domestically from shifts to substitute materials.

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early 'Eighties, more than 700 on-site "chippers" were in operation), into transport vans going to the pulp-mills. Other machines even extract part of the trees' tap roots (increasing wood yield (for chipping, pulping) per tree by as much as 20 per cent above normal logging yields and reducing, at the same time, the cost of preparing the site for forest regeneration). Unless environmental considerations are topmost, or harvesting objectives are to obtain from some of the stands very large diameter trunks, forest fellings are often of the clear-cutting variety, since clear-cutting of tree stands often permits efficient and particularly successful replanting operations to be undertaken. A prerequisite for successful mechanization of felling and logging operations is, of course, a certain homogeneity of tree species to be harvested and some uniformity of tree-age and -diameters. The machines used are generally designed to perform with respect to a predetermined range of tree diameters (say between 20-60 cm.), i.e., the highly-mechanized and standardized logging methods described would probably not be possible, or would not be economically profitable, with presently existing machinery, in most of the virgin tropical forests.

85. One of the key elements in forestry-products production possibilities relates to resource accessibility. It is not widely recognized that in many of the tropical forests up to one half of the commercially realizable cost/price at the point of loading for sea-transport may be accounted for by the initial transport cost to the port (as regards sea-transport, more later). This is not only the result of the cost of the standing timber being, perhaps, low (it is never free, as costs are incurred in preliminary surveys, obtention of timber rights, felling costs, in the form of wages and equipment and materials-costs, forest taxes, eventually obligatory reforestation expenditures etc.), but also because transport costs are, indeed, high. While in a situation where good forest-roads and a good road-infrastructure already exist transport costs may be considerably lower than in the case of a new forest exploitation (be it in a developing or in a developed country), transport incurred, or related, costs are in almost all cases quite significant to forest owners, or concessionaries, considering the expense involved in building and maintaining forest-access roads. ' While in many instances

For an account of different proportions of phytomass assumptions made for trunk, crown, branches and roots in different ECE countries' forestry statistics, see: "The forest resources of the ECE region ..." op.cit.

"where these costs can be kept to a minimum, as a result of the resource base being close to wood-using industries and to markets, competitiveness is much increased. This is, to some extent, the case in the South-eastern United States; 35 per cent of total US furniture production is now centered in North Carolina, another 25 per cent in Virginia. (Another important section of the furniture industry has remained in its original, tradional hardwood forests habitat, in the North-East and in the Great Lakes' regions.) A demographic shift to the "sun-belt" in recent years has been of significance in helping along demand for building materials and for other wood-industry products (also pulp and paper) in that area. Location of saw-mills, ply-mills, pulp-mills, in relation to timber stands is, however, also of considerable importance, and many of the mills in Canada may be particularly well situated in this regard.

./.

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Footnote (cont'd)

Differences in authorized axle-loads for logging and other log-transport trucks, which, in turn, are linked to the load carrying capacity of logging roads and highways generally, may be one of several elements affecting competitiveness. Swiss forestry operators have pointed out that the considerably lower maximum axle-loads authorized in Switzerland, as compared with those authorized in neighbouring countries, are a significant handicap.

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governments may assist concessionaries directly, or by tax relief, in building roads and access ways, in other instances, concessionaries may be obliged to develop the access roads they built into public highways, an obligation which may, or may not, benefit from tax relief or tax credit, in one form or another. In other words, what at first sight may appear to be a straightforward logging-operation may turn out to be that, but might, in addition, be an activity more akin to that of a public-works contractor.

86. One point to bear in mind is that, generally, dense population settlement and forests do not go together well. Where human settlements and agricultural and industrial activities expand, forests tend to disappear, except in a limited way, for recreational purposes or for their aesthetic landscape effects. In other words, forests are found away from settlements, in areas either not needed or not wanted for settlement purposes. 1Among areas with difficult access conditions are the mountain regions. However, as easily accessible forests dwindle, attempts will be made to make use of mountain forests for wood production. If logging in such areas is carried on without regard to land protection, the consequences can be catastrophic, resulting in soil erosion (the correction and repair, through regrowth of sufficiently well-rooted plants may take 50 to 100 years), land-slides, river-silting etc. Since this is realized, and as there are, by now, many regulations for the conduct of mountain logging operations - considerable care is taken in logging operations for the protection of the environment. Where forest land is more accessible, heavy earth-moving and materials-handling equipment may be used, either alone - as in some tropical forests - or together with the specialized machinery already referred to. In many of the tropical forests, particularly in riverine- and swamp areas, the use of heavy handling or hauling machinery is, however, impossible (as in most of Sarawak - one of the main sources of tropical woods), making felling and logging operations there as toilsome as ever. In some of the forests in the northern regions, mechanized logging operations are possible only after the ground is sufficiently frozen. What all this adds up to is that logging operations are often difficult and, consequently, not inexpensive.

It is estimated that about one fourth of all currently exploited productive forests are in mountainous regions with difficult access conditions, often involving, for the evacuation of logs, the use of aerial cableways, captive balloons, and, increasingly so, helicopters. A new type of high-lift-capacity airship (pairing some of the characteristics of a (helium-filled) dirigible and helicopters), is currently under development in North-America, sponsored by both the US Government and the Government of British Columbia (a prototype crashed and burned, early in 1986, but development is continuing). Such lighter than air craft (though difficult to manoeuvre) could be useful, and economic, not only in mountainous terrain, but also for logging operations in remote areas, by keeping down what otherwise might be excessive costs for building the access ways.

2 Skidding of logs by horses in certain developed areas is still

economic, and less destructive of forest soils and forest growth than machine or tractor use. The use of trained elephants for such work in certain tropical areas sometimes is both practical and economic.

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87. For initial transport, the floating and rafting of logs on inland waters and rivers has been of importance in many areas (including in Japan). In the northern areas, such river transport is feasible and practical, provided the rivers flow southwards, (at least seasonally) to the ice-free sea, or towards a conveniently-located loading centre. Environmental concerns have started to have a limiting effect on possibilities of floating or rafting logs down the rivers in certain countries. Floating, though generally leading to some wood-losses, is not necessarily harmful (rather the contrary, according to one school of thought) as regards the end-use qualities of the wood, including for fine joinery and certain instrument construction.

88. The practice of floating has had a major impact on the way the world has come to know, or rather not to know, tropical wood varieties. Many woods, particularly tropical woods, in their green-state, are virtually saturated with water. As the woody substance of a tree has a specific density of 1.5 (or 50 per cent heavier than water), many of the still "green" logs will either not float or do not float well. One possible way to deal with this problem would be to dry the logs before attempting to float them (another one would be to raft these together with light-weight trunks, which could be economical if a remunerative market outlet for the latter also exists). Unfortunately, large-diameter trunks take a long time to dry, while many wood varieties, when left simply on the ground, do not take long to be deteriorated by fungi and insects. As a result, many tropical tree-varieties - the so-called 'sinkers' - were generally not harvested in the days before the availability of road-transport facilities and only 'floaters' were taken. Thus, most of the tropical varieties the public in the developed areas came to know are woods which are relatively light, even in their green state. Teak is among the few exceptions, as are certain specialty woods, such as those used in port construction work (greenheart, kapur, etc.) and ebony.

Cf. also footnote 3 on page 57. 2 A wood with a weight (specific density) of 0.5 - when dry - would

indicate that one third of the volume of the wood is constituted of woody substance, the rest being occupied by cell cavities, intercellular spaces and cell-wall capillaries. The "specific gravity" of the woody substance itself is about 1.5, regardless of species, in other words, a heavier wood (in the dry state) has more woody substance. The proportion of woody substance is, by itself, not a sufficient indicator of the strength and durability of the wood concerned.

3 Teak too, when green, will not float. Teak-trees and -wood are,

however, unusually fungus- and insect-resistant, even when the standing-tree is already "dead". Teak trees destined for transport by floating were therefore partly debarked while still standing. This stopped the return flow of the sap to the roots, which then started to die, while, initially, the leaves continued to evaporate water. After two to three years the, by then, dry tree (specific density about 0.68-0.62), was ready to be floated, ready for shipment and subsequent processing and transformation.

MDF/W/52

89. The main point to be borne in mind is that the bulk of wood nowadays consumed is grown in locations far removed from the points of end-use and, consequently, transport-facilities available and transport costs play an important, and often even a decisive, role in regard to forest resource-use possibilities and, as far as importers are concerned, sources of supply.

90. This raises the question of the possibilities of economizing transport costs by reducing the volume to be shipped, by processing logs near the sites of production. Other questions which arise are what the value-added may be from various processing operations, their employment effects and regarding repercussions of alternative use- and production-patterns on foreign exchange receipts or outlays, both absolutely, and in terms of net receipts, bearing in mind that for production to start up, and to continue, imports may be required of machinery and spares thereof (most of the modern, sophisticated forestry-working and handling equipment and wood-processing and pulping-equipment are produced in a few developed countries only) and of certain materials (glues, binders, resins, chemicals for wood-preservation, for colouring, bleaching), motor-fuels and lubrication materials. In relation to resource availability, and production to be based thereon, and in relation to volumes to be shipped, the question of normal waste occurring in wood-production and -processing is of some importance.

91. Starting with the tree as it stands in the forest, felling operations will entail the first significant loss in phytomass that can be extracted. What is recoverable depends on the tree-species, age of trees, the growing-site conditions (trees in dense forests can develop fewer side-branches than those standing singly, or in less dense forests) and the intended use. If the trees are to be transformed into wood-chips (say for pulping) most of the tree-phytomass would, in principle, be usable, if reduced to chips right at the production site. Some of the trees are, however, difficult or uneconomic to chip and chip-production at the felling site is, for the time being, the exception, rather than the rule. Chips made from different tree species often do not lend themselves to one and the same use. This is thus a problem for tropical forests. Chips, once they are produced, should not be kept stored for too long, or use-quality will deteriorate. As wood does not only grow straight, and as there are side-branches and crown branches, these will have to be removed and it will generally be found impractical to transport all of this material to the pulp mill. Where trees are intended to be used as saw- or veneer logs, the removal will generally be limited to part of the tree trunk, accounting, in general, for much less than 50 per cent of the overall tree-phytomass.

92. There occurs, hence, a first volume-reduction already at the logging stage. In terms of volume reduction in subsequent processing and transformation, the greatest volume contraction occurs in transforming wood into chemical cellulose pulp. Indications available

Since the cellulose fibre component represents about 50 per cent of the wood substance (cf. also footnote 1 on page 73) yields of 48 to 56 per cent are achieved in making chemical cellulose pulp: 4.2 - 4.5 m solid volume per ton are required (production figures for pulp are normally reported in tons rather than cubic meters) for unbleached sulphate pulp, or 4.5 - 5.0 m per ton for bleached grades. The other main component of the wood substance, lignin, is dissolved in

./.

MDF/W/52

Footnote (cont'd)

the cooking liquor and used as fuel, enabling modern sulphate pulp plants to obtain self-sufficiency with regard to steam needed for cooking and drying the pulp, and allowing also back-pressure power to be generated by the drop in the steam pressure; in integrated mills the steam will cover, instead, part of the needs for heat in the paper mill. The chemistry of lignin is still far from understood. The lacunae in our understanding are, however, not preventing other uses from being found for lignin, namely lignin derived alcohols, feeds and glue, and, potentially, further processing into (particularly tough), resin base products. When producing mechanical pulps, the.pulp yield attains 94 - 98 per cent of the wood input (about 2.5 m per ton) but, on the other hand, there is no spent liquor to burn and the power input normally exceeds 1,200 kwh/ton and may reach 2,000 kwh/tons, or more, for thermo-mechanical pulps (TMP). [As this note is being written, notices in the press are suggesting that among several other pulping processes that are being tried, a new "ester-pulping" process, under development in the US, holds promise of increasing productivity (higher yields - 60 to 70 per cent, instead of 48 to 50 per cent, shorter process time, lower peak heat requirement) and of virtually eliminating pollution problems (no sulphur inputs required). Time will tell if, and when, "ester pulping" will supplement in a significant way, or will displace, the currently-used pulping processes and installations.]

MDF/W/52

from various sources suggest that solid-wood losses in saw-milling operations may vary between one-fourth to two-thirds of the initial log-volume, depending very much on the initial diameter of the log, the log species, the number of boards or beams, rafters, etc. to be produced from a given log volume, the type of sawing etc., the equipment used, operator skills etc., so that one might assume that volume losses in sawing might, on average, be close to 40 per cent. Much of the original tree trunk is not directly suited to be transformed into veneer and, if losses in preparation for veneer making are taken into account, the wood yield in making plywood is rather low, 30 - 50 per cent. In actual veneer production, solid-wood losses are probably less important, given the fact that good-quality veneer-logs bought, and internationally traded and prepared as such, are expensive, and hence likely to be handled with care and circumspection, that sawing of veneer-logs (in which volume loss is quite high) is relatively rare nowadays, and that losses in knife-slicing and by peeling are relatively limited, the main loss-determinant, for the latter process, being the initial roundness of the log and the remaining core-diameter which is not suited for peeling. As regards wood-chips for the production of particle-board these are often derived from wood left-overs. However, in the production process about 8-10 per cent of bonding agents are also required. Hard-fibre-boards are made by compression of wood-fibres, with (3 per cent), or without, additional, bonding agents. For other types of panel products between 3 - 9 per cent of binders are required and for plywood between 4 - 8 per cent. As fibre-board may be compressed, or be fluffed (as for acoustic tiles etc.), overall volume losses and/or gains are difficult to determine in the abstract, in aggregate terms .

In this context it must be pointed out that the volume loss in saw-milling (35 - 40 per cent) is not, strictly speaking, a loss when the residues are chipped and sold to pulp mills or chip and waferboard factories. In all major softwood producing countries saw-mill chips represent a large proportion of the total wood supply to the pulp mills.

2 In most wood-processing facilities in developed countries there is

a high degree of utilization of raw materials. Residues such as scraps, bark and sawdust are used either as raw materials for producing fibreboard, particle board, or other products, or are burned to produce energy (including also kiln-drying of sawnwood). Wood residues not used at the location where they are produced are sometimes sold to other firms. Overall, for the developed countries, about 50 per cent of the wood delivered to the mill is recovered in primary products and of the remaining residues about 75 per cent is used in some form either for energy production or as raw material. For a thorough discussion of conversion factors in processing wood into sawnwood, railway sleepers, panel products and paper pulp, differentiated also by reporting countries, see "Conversion Factors for Forest Products", ECE/FAO, Supplement 12 to Volume XXXIV of the "Timber Bulletin for Europe", March 1982, and document TIM/EFC/WP.2/R 74, June 1985. In developing countries the situation is somewhat different, however, as regards the use made of process waste. Mill utilization of wood-processing residues is much lower, one of the reasons being that the developing countries so far produce very little kiln-dried sawnwood,or reconstituted board or paper. Reference: UNIDO/IS 437 - "The Use of Residues for Energy Production in the Mechanical Wood Processing Industry", February 1984.

MDF/W/52

93. Reduction in shipping volume is, of course, not an end in itself and the availability of wood is not the only, or main, determinant, of the Lype of production to be envisaged. Availability of relatively inexpensive energy for mechanical pulp mills, and possibilities for evacuating processing wastes, are, for instance, very important in regard to pulp production. Nearness to downstream industries, and the existence, or lack, of market alternatives for different types of wood products and their derivatives are of major importance. As regards transport, shipping companies are, evidently, aware of the benefits to be obtained from shipping more elaborated, higher-value products, and shipping rates (this may also apply to some land-freight rates) may correspondingly be set at higher levels for more highly processed items. Thus it is not a priori certain where, and to what extent, gains from lowering the volume of goods to be transported will accrue. Some of the Latin American producers and exporters of wood and woodpulp, for example, are convinced that they could step up exports if it were not for the lack of adequate (frequency of sailings, schedule reliability, direct connections) and truly competitive ocean transport facilities on South-North routes. In this context, it is relevant to note that some of the large forestry-products companies do own specialized port facilities and/or sea and land transport facilities (some of the forest-products companies have come to forestry from initial transport operations (railroads, ocean tranport)), which - in today's very competitive situation in trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic ocean transport, and under deregulated rail- and road transport in North America - may, or, more likely, may not, confer a competitive advantage.

94. Having touched upon the subject of approximate processing losses, it may be useful to return briefly to the question of the use made of world wood production. Total world wood removals in 1979 were of the order of 3,020 million cubic metres. Out of this, an estimated 52.8 per cent was presumably used for fuelwood, leaving 1,445 million cubic metres (47.8 per cent of total wood removals) in the category "industrial roundwood". The reported sawn-wood output in that year was of the order of 450.7 million cubic metres. Using the, assumed, processing-waste factor of about 40 per cent, this would have required a saw-log input of the order of about 750 million cubic metres, or about 52 per cent of total industrial roundwood availabilities (not taking into account possible variations in stocks). Production of pulpwood and of wood-particles in that year was reported to have been of the order of 356 million cubic metres - or 24.6 per cent of total industrial roundwood production. The next most important use category was "other industrial roundwood" (used either as such, in the form of poles, posts, piling, or for such special purposes as preparation of tanning materials, for gazogenes, distillation, etc.), absorbing an estimated 171.3 million cubic metres, or 11.8 per cent of industrial roundwood materials. Use of industrial roundwood for pitprops (not included in the preceding subtotal) required 33.8 million cubic metres, or 2.3 per cent of the total. Production of veneer and plywood took close to

58 million cubic metres, or about 4 per cent of total industrial roundwood. Production of particle board amounted to 41.2 million cubic metres and of fibre-board to 18.1 million cubic metres. While production of these materials also involves some wood-losses, other materials, including recycled wastes from other production processes are, or may have been, added; production may be assumed to have

MDF/W/52

required wood inputs of at least 60 million cubic metres, or some 4 per cent of 1979 industrial roundwood production. While these figures cannot be very precise, they might help to form an overall idea of the likely order of magnitudes involved in industrial roundwood disposition. In short, somewhat more than one-half is processed into sawnwood (railway sleepers account for a very small share of that), about one fourth is pulped and veneers and wood-based panels account for close to one eighth of total industrial roundwood use.

95. Table II, which follows, based on production and trade data recorded by FAO, should be read bearing in mind that the data relate to one year only, 1979, and that production levels may be subject to important year-to-year fluctuations. Further, the very low levels of production and availability of sawn-wood and plywood in many developing countries, while indicating low consumption levels in these countries for these wood semi-manufactures, should not be seen in isolation. Industrial roundwood as such can be put to good use in many applications and is being used as such, sometimes supplemented by bamboo and rattan. As regards woodpulp, which is shown as not being available in significant quantities in many countries, it may be noted that meaningful and efficient further-processing of woodpulp requires installations of plant and equipment of a certain minimum production capacity. Where such plants do not exist, requirements of products made from pulp are generally met more economically through imports.

3 96. Seasonal, year-to-year, and wide cyclical fluctuations in wood removals and forestry-industry activity and trade are subjects which have attracted much attention, and the remarks that follow can do no more than to point to some of the underlying factors, the interaction of which is very complex, making production forecasts and forward planning for optimizing short- and medium-term forest-industry policies hazardous and difficult. One of the key factors involved is the nature of forest growth and its effect on production decisions. Unlike other agricultural crops, which have a planting to harvest cycle reckoned in terms of a season, a year, or a biennial cycle, forest production is a long-term proposition, with rotation periods reckoned in multiples of decades. While, theoretically, wood removals can be modulated in

In further processing to paper and paperboard, recycled paper is by now of considerable importance. For instance, for the EEC, as a whole, recycled paper and paperboard accounts for about 40 per cent of paperboard of combined fibre pulp/cellulose inputs for overall paper and paperboard production. The waste paper percentage inputs do, however, differ significantly as between industries of EC member countries, depending, inter alia, on types of paper and paperboard produced, type of technical installations and also on market preferences. (French magazine publishers are reported to prefer truly white papers which, (de-inking notwithstanding), limits significantly waste paper input possibilities for producing that type of printing paper.)

2 The subject of the economics of pulp and paper production in

developing countries is dealt with in a number of papers published in "unasylva", Vol. 36, No. 144, FAO, Rome '84/2.

3 Reference was made to the problem of cyclical downturns in demand

for forestry products in the Report to the Council of the Working Party on Structural Adjustment and Trade Policy - GATT document L/5568, of 20 Oct. 1983.

MDF/W/52

response to changes in demand, wood-processors' interests are opposed to any large-scale fluctuations in demand. Unfortunately, wide fluctuations in demand for wood products, particularly wood for construction purposes (responsible in most cases for one half or more of all industrial roundwood uses), is one of the problems besetting the forestry-products industries, since demand is not only related to current consumption, but to investment demand and to expenditure for housing and plant construction, and, not unrelated thereto, also to market developments for such consumer durables as furniture. Likewise, when it comes to wood employed for packing uses, (paletting and wood-crating are particularly important for shipments of machinery and construction materials, which, in turn, are highly affected by cyclical investment variations), demand fluctuations for wood are generally more pronounced than cyclical changes in demand for consumer goods generally.

Note: The column heading descriptions - subject to photo-reduction in this revised version of the document - are reproduced, for better readability, in larger print size on page 196.

:-UF/W/52

TABLE II PER CAPUT AND TOTAL PRODUCTION OF WOOD, • SEMIMANUFACTURES

AND WOODPULP, NET TRADE AND AVAILABILITIES 1979

( Units, as shown: a3 kilograms, Mill ion a,3, Mil l ion Tons, )

1 •J 2/

'-) I jJStrtHl

<) kfltt«dfsh

h) ») h i I » 8 |

9)

10)

U N I

b O T * .

13)

151

Ml Cull» Colupfcla

|18)

19)

20)

CS»

22)

EEC/101' 23)

2<) i u ^ o a b a i r g

2S)

26)

27) F .R.Gsnuny

G r . . c .

29)

M ) I t a l y

31) N e t h a r l i n d i

32) U n U . K i n g d o *

Eupt 34)

35)

36) Ganda

3 ' )

38) Guyana

39)

40) Hungary

Ice land

42)

• 3 ) Indonesia

Î1J..1 <S) I vo ry Coast

«) Jamaica

•')

o.u

1.01

1.97

0.12

„... 0.10

1.06

1.95

0 . 7 1

0.16

1.11

1.21

1.70

1.06

1.60

1.11

0 . »

0 .17

1.26

O . l t

0 . »

0.26

0.19

0.72

0.69

0.26

0.12

0.16

0 .06

0.09

0.06

9.62

6.26

1.55

0 .61

0.23

1.00

3.56

-3.11

.03

. .05

. 6 .

.01

ft

il ii 0 . 1 1

0.96

1 .71

0 .01

.... 0.26

0.01

0.66

o.«

0.01

0.26

6.52

0.22

0.10

0.76

0 .11

0 . 4 !

0 .06

0.12

1.11

(0 .01 )

0 .26

0 . 2 1

-0.16

0.S2

0 .46

0 .06

0.10

0 .01

0 .06

0.07

.0 .01 )

1.67

2.06

0.02

0.23

0.19

0.04

0 . 3 1

-0 . 0 1

0.17

0 .01

0.70

3.01

3.29 J

i JE

' 0 . 1 9

h.U

' 2 . 2 1

0 .01

-0 . 2 ;

0.01

V.41

0 . H

0.01

V.U E 6 .41

«0.16

0.10

£ 0 . 6 1

^0 .12

•»JJ

0.04

0.12

"0 .77

(0.01>

' 0 . 7 2

-E 0 . 1 7

E 0 . 5 0

' 0 . 4 6

' o . 1 2

E 0 . 0 1

«0.21

' 0 . 0 9

'o.os

'o.oi

E 1 .66

n . . .

0.02

E 0 .20

E 0.15

' o . 2 9

E 0.35

' o . 0 4

0 . 0 1

E 0 .03

' o . 4 0

E 0 .29

0.01

' 0 . 9 5

I! III

fjjh m 0.07

0 . 1 1

0 . 4 ]

0.002

0.24

0 .19

0 .001

0.12

0 .01

-0 . 0 1

0 .77

0 .02

0.002

0.12

0.04

0 .01

O.OS

0 .21

0 .11

0.02

0 .31

•

0.59

0 . 2 1

0.17

0.14

0.25

0 . 1 1

0.14

0.24

0.02

0 . 7 1

0.06

n . . .

0,04

0.05

0.004

0.22

0.45

0 .01

0.02

0.10

0.05

0.04

0.47

1 i «

641

157<

( 1 »

---

13K

---

5 3 »

---« -« -

6 »

-

6 1 *

22K

63K

6 t t

11K

1 *

4 4 .

S9K

59K

-l.IOOK

--

--

24K

IK

IK

1 »

--

95«

J

n

Ii 1,054.11

4.79

13.70

12.14

0 .71

-0.04

0.20

52 .01

2 .56

0.04

2 . 1 1

157.31

0.49

0.44

' • 0 : 1 4 . 4

3.30

0 .67

0.19

0 .07

16.16

0 .01

69.6»

2.32

1.S4

21.11

26.92

0.75

0.34

4.62

0.79

4.01

0 . 0 1

40 .71

1.11

0.01

2.52

0.16

0.24

3.51

-19.06

24.11

0 .11

5.47

0.02

1

i i i : :

H).16 E 4.94

' 2 . 5 2

----

"0 .04

H.m -

HM

h.a h.» -

, E 0 . 9 7

E 0 .17

«0.17

. -

E 3 .10

-

' 2 . 4 1

» E 0 .50

E 0.14

' 1 . 1 2

' 0 . 3 9

E 0 .07

' 5 . 9 1

' 0 . 4 6

'o.n

' o . 0 5

' 2 . 3 7

E<1.17>

-E 0.20

E 0 .03

' 0 . 0 1

' 0 . 5 4

' 0 . 0 1

E 0.01

E19.52

' 0 . 2 1

E 3 .20

'o.oi

33.27 | ' 60 .29 '

I" 111

E 4 .96

' 1 . 3 4

-. ------

E 1 .30

-----

-4.03

-

' 2 . 6 1

-E 0 . 6 1

E 1 . 2 0

E 0.05

--

' 1 . 4 7

*0 .04

--

r 2 . 4 5

-. -. -

E0.35

. -

E 0.45

' 1 . 4 7

--

J

[I

4.95

3.00

16.70

0 .71

-0.04

0.20

52.12

>.47

0.04

1.34

152.61

0.36

0.44

7.37

3.13

0.50

0 .3»

0.07

11.73

0 .01

7.34

0.16

26.75

21.19

1.14

0.27

12.00

1.29

4.32

0.13

40.70

i n . . . )

0.01

2.32

0.13

0.25

3.70

0 .01

19.05

4.14

1.79

2.27

0.03

10.25

I J

450.61

0.19

3.17

6.59

0 . 1 1

. 0.02

0;01

14.07

0.42

0.42

44.11

0.07

2.37

0 . 9 1

0.05

0.10

0.07

4.76

' 26 ,42

0.67

. „

0 . »

9.66

10.42

0.39

0.12

2.34

0.25

1.77

9.71

.

0 . 3 1

0.06

0.01

1.11

10.01

3.41

0.67

0.03

19.63

J i i !

' o . 6 3

' O . M

h.V,

' 0 . 0 1

' 0 . 0 4

«0.01

E 0 .52

E 0 .10

•o.M

E 2 « . 9 1

E0.O2

' 0 . 0 1

E 1 . 0 1

E 0 .03

E 0 .03

' 0 . 4 0

' 0 . 0 7

^ . 9 4

*0.O4

' 1 . 6 2

' 1 . 4 7

' 2 . 1 7

' 4 . 6 5

"0 .54

' 0 . 5 1

' 5 . 5 1

' 1 . 1 6

* 1 . 2 1

"0 .67

E 6 .61

E 0 . 0 1

E 0.01

'O.OI

' 0 . 1 3

'0.O6

' 0 . 0 2

E 1 . 2 1

' 0 . 2 1

E 0.30

' 0 .04

' 5 . 0 6

| 1

41.23

0.25

0.53

1.16

0.01

0.55

.

1.21

0.05

0 .01

0.56

11.21

..

0.40

2.19

6.37

0.29

0.05

1.50

0.10

0.60

0.04

0 . »

0.01

0.25

0.02

0.06

.

1.26

1 1

Lu J J Ï Ï

E 0 .63

.

.

.

E0.05

.

'O.OI

' 0 . 0 7

•0 .03

«1.11

..

' 0 . 1 5

' 0 . 0 4

' 0 . 1 1

E 0.01

'0.O6

' 0 . 3 1

' 0 . 4 7

' 1 . 4 9

' 0 . 0 1

E 0 . ! 2

.

' 0 . 0 2

' o . 0 2

.

.

.

' 0 . 0 3

!

5 1

42.32

0.05

0.90

0 01

.

0.76

0.12

0 . 0 !

2.51

.

0.02

0.05

0.10

.

1 62

0 05

..

0 .01

0.56

0.44

0 . 0 1

0.41

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.64

0.04

0 04

.

0.01

0 .11

'"'blil"

0.07

0.06

1.53

i

•o.oi

' 0 . 0 7

' 0 01

' 0 . 0 2

E 0.11

•tun

E 0.34

' o . 0 2

' 0 . 0 2

E 0.02

'o.oi

' 0 . 1 1

' 0 .14

' 0 . 1 5

' 0 . 4 1

E 0 .03

' 0 . 0 5

E 0 .03

' o . 4 9

' 1 . I 6

' 0 . 0 4

E 0 . 5 1

E 0.01

' 0 . 0 2

' 0 01

E 0 .01

E 0 .20

E„ „2

E 0 .02

'O.OI

E 0 .05

I t Hi

m

1.15

4 .76

1 24

0.20

0.06

0 0 6

0 01

14 75

0.44

0 .2»

11.33

0 .01

1.36

1.03

0.52

1.17

4 .73

0.10

3 0 4

2.9»

14 95

22.54

0 16

10 11

4.71

11.32

0.79

1.69

0.03

0 OS

0.02

2.31

0 09

10.22

2.55

0.39

0.41

0 01

54.46

1

123 SO

0 »

0 65

1 27

0 01

' " i5»!* '

111:0.06)

3 70

0 12

0 15

0.34

0 07

0 15

0 32

7 0 4

0 10

. 1 :0 .27 )

9.25

:ïîî li*.'.

' 0 . 1 2

' 0 . 2 1

hn

"I?-™

E 6.93

E 0 .43

I

' O O I

' 0 . 2 1

•oo<

' l . 4 7

I 2 , ,

,

' 1 71

' 2 . 1 7

E 1.15

,

' 0 1 1

,

' 1 . 75

H i

0 51

0 01

1 4 9

0 27

0 14

0 0 4

0 » 3

0 6 2

.

11.0

- Includes al io Pulpwood

• for ant on world production and trade sea the Stat ist ical Tables In Ann.» 1 , likewise for data on EEC trad* and Intre-trade. Data ahovn for Individual EEC countries include Intra-EEC trada.

" - " - i l gn l f l t a lets than «no half tha alnlau

Population data - aacratarlat a s t l u t t .

1 eatount shoun 1n the Table In a given coluan.

MDF/W/52

TABLE II (cont'd)

t

W)

4 I | Koraa.ttB.

SO) auMl i

»1) t u a i j i i c i r

"1

m l i y l l l

m l t i a a i

"I Malt* U ) n m r l u a l a

" ) K*ur|t1ui

Ntw Z i i l tnd S9) Nlcarif**! »0) Nlgar

• 1) •((•ru

«»>

M I l U l

M )

"I Pnll lpplnat taillé 47)

5" »») k i a l l 70)

" 1 Slarra laflft» ») Stnfjaor*

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MDF/W/52

97. While certain types of specialty woods are not readily substitutable by other wood varieties, or by other non-wood materials, many of the common construction woods are interchangeable one against another, within certain limits, in such uses as residential construction. The result is that the cost of wood construction-materials becomes of some importance, in terms of profitability optimization, particularly so where the proportion of wood in the total house price is significant, bearing in mind also that the construction industry (operating with competitive bidding - or as promoters' development projects) is generally extremely cost-conscious as regards factor costs and hence is ready to1achieve savings by employing, if necessary, substitute materials. Some forest-resource rich countries, which can offer wood at very competitive prices, thus have become major suppliers to certain import markets, where they may account for a significant share of overall consumption of dimension lumber, shingles and shakes etc. This has its advantages and its disadvantages, in that producers in the exporting countries come to depend not only on developments in the construction business cycle in their own country, but are also benefiting from housing-booms, or suffering from housing-construction industry woes, in other countries. In other words, they are confronted by conditions which are to a large extent beyond the control not only of the industry itself, but also to a large extent beyond the control of their respective national authorities.

98. Within the limits of the present note it is not possible to enter into even a cursory examination of all of the elements which do influence forestry- and wood-industry activities, or even to list all the relevant indicators. In respect of developments and forestry-industry trend-report data for most of the main developed country forestry-products producers, -exporters and -importers, attention is invited to the FAO publications issued under the aegis of the ECE Timber Committee and the FAO Forestry Commission. These comprise:

- statistics of production, trade and prices;

- analysis of recent trends on forest products markets;

- short-term forecasts by the ECE Timber Committee for production and trade;

- long-term outlook studies;

- forest inventory data;

- periodic medium-term surveys of particular sectors.

Shifts to substitute materials are, of course, a possibility for countering important price rises - say of construction wood. However, given existing building codes, local ordnances and clients preferences, such shifts are normally not easily operable in the short term. Shifts which are, however, often possible, at relatively short notice, are those between different suppliers of the same or similar products, if there are significant differences in the offer prices for the product in question.

MDF/W/52

The data are mostly annual and cover the ECE countries in Europe, North America and the USSR . The data collection and dissemination system of FAO/ECE is integrated with that of the FAO Forest Department, which publishes among other things, the FAO Yearbook of Forest Products (production and trade of forest products, worldwide). The latest issue of the Yearbook, published in 1986, covers data for the period 1973-1984. FAO also publishes series of forest products prices (annual data). A recent FAO publication on forest-product prices is FAO Forestry Paper No. 46, with series for 1963-1982. FAO also publishes a monthly bulletin on "Tropical Forest Products in World Timber Trade". It is also engaged in a series of long-term outlook studies of which the first, on the pulp and paper sector, is scheduled to be published in 1986 or 1987. It should also be noted that once the International Tropical Timber Organization becomes fully operational, the Organization will collect, process and disseminate data on production, trade, marketing and related issues for tropical timber. Data relating to trade and tariff treatment of tropical timber in major markets are also dealt with in certain documents of the GATT COM/TD/W series. Short summaries of major developments in world trade in wood and in woodpulp are given in GATT's annual "International Trade" (1985/86).

Since January 1985 most of this information is published in the FAO/ECE Timber Bulletin, which is available on subscription. Except for one of the annual issues (No. 3 - special issue, and which will deal each year with a different subject)** each issue number has the same coverage from year to year. The ten issues of the Bulletin (in 1985) were:

1. - ECE Timber Committee Yearbook (1984);

2. - Monthly Prices for Forest Products;

3** - Survey of the Saw-milling Industries;


5. - Forest Product Statistics (up to Dec. 1984);

6. - Annual Forest Products Market Review;

7. - Forest Products Trade Flow Data 1983 and

1984;


9. - Forest Products Markets in 1985 and Prospects for 1986;

10. - Forest Products Statistics (up to June 1985).

(As noted before, in the autumn of 1985, ECE published "The forest resources of the ECE region", with data on forest area, growing stock, increment and removals, ownership and management, biomass growing stock and major uses of the forest.) In (autumn) 1986, "European Timber Trends and Prospects to the Year 2,000 and Beyond", covering the outlook for the whole forest and forest-products sector, will be published. Finally, profiles are published periodically of the forest and forest products sector of individual countries. FAO publishes periodically bibliographies of its forestry-related documentation. The 1984 bibliography covers documentation for the period 1979-1983.

** The 1984 Special Issue (Supplement No.2) contained a Survey of the ECE Wood-based Panels Industries.

MDF/W/52

99. Saw-milling is a traditional industry for most of the countries in Europe, dating back to the development and use of power-transforming, or -generating equipment. The industry developed on an artisanal scale and was transplanted in that form to other parts of the world. In many countries vestiges of this earlier, small-scale, industr> are still surviving. Many countries in the developing world, to this day, do not possess a major saw-milling sector. Other countries have started to develop a saw-milling industry and some of the countries in Asia, South-East Asia, Latin America and, in a few cases, in Africa, have built up modern, efficient and relatively large-scale saw-milling industries to process their wood resources, both for domestic consumption and, in some cases, for export. This development of the saw-milling industry, and also of plywood-production, was in some cases spurred by governmental policies which tied logging concessions on public-owned land to the progressive establishment of saw- and plywood mills, progressively limiting log exports by means of tie-in regulations; for example, for each cubic metre of logs exported, one or more cubic metres have to be processed domestically into sawn-wood or plywood. Some governments have also set export duties on exports of logs (say 20-25 per cent), on sawn-wood (say 5 to 10 per cent), while granting export duty exemption for exports of plywood.

100. The emergence of new producers, entering the international market, new wood-processing methods, a changed economic environment generally, and a different mix in products in demand in the market, all combine in setting into motion the current, and far from completed, restructuring of the wood-processing industry. Similarly, the pulp and paper industry is undergoing a major restructuring process, for streamlining operations and increasing specialization, in an ever more competitive environment. With respect to the saw-mill sector this may be illustrated by the situation in the French (broadly) Rhone-Alpes administrative region. Production in this group of ten Departments accounts for about 15 per

These policy measures were adopted both with a view to raising revenue and to foster development and industrialization, based on the use of domestic raw material sources. The measures taken have, in fact, spurred increased production, both for the domestic market and for export. Indonesia, for instance, where total plywood production capacity in 1973 was less than 30 thousand cubic metres per year, had an installed plywood production capacity of 3.7 million cubic metres in 1982. (This is equivalent to more than twice the installed capacity in the EEC.) Up to 1977, Indonesian plywood exports were of the order of several thousand cubic metres per year. In 1984, 2.7 million cubîfc metres were exported. Early in 1984, seventy plywood factories were in operation, forty-nine more were under construction and thirty more were planned. Exports of wood and wood semi-manufactures are now the second most important source of Indonesia's foreign exchange earnings, after petroleum. Plywood production is targeted to reach 7 million cubic metres (ref. Journal of Commerce, N.Y., 15 August 1985). The main export markets for plywood in recent years were the United States (in 1985 China), Canada, Middle East, Australia, Hong Kong* and Singapore.*

*(Part of it for re-export, including also destinations in China.) It is, however, relevant to note that much of the recent plywood production capacity expansion is destined for domestic consumption, which is expanding rapidly.

2 ~ Comprising the Departments Ain, Ardeche, Drome, Isere, Loire,

Haute-Loire, Rhône, Saône-et-Loire, Savoie and Haute-Savoie.

MDF/W/52

cent of French (or about 6 per cent of EEC (10)) production of sawn-wood. Out of some 940 saw-mills in this administrative grouping, an undetermined, but in any event very small, number of saw-mills process tropical hardwood logs. About 540 of the saw-mills have an average output of sawn-wood of approximately 2 cubic metres per work-day, some 310 saw-mills produce an average of 10-11 cubic metres of sawn-wood per work-day, and the remaining 90 saw-mills produce, on average, close to 40 cubic metres per work-day. A limited number of saw-mills account for the bulk of the output in each of the ten Departments concerned. There are two types of saw-milling enterprises in the region. The majority are small, family-run and -owned enterprises, processing locally offered logs, as and when these are offered, for local users. Generally, plant and equipment is obsolete, by modern standards, but in working condition and amortized. These enterprises are, generally, neither profitable nor strapped for operating funds. Most go out of business for want of a successor willing to take over when the owner-operator leaves the business. Alongside these traditional, rural, saw-mills one finds some medium-sized enterprises which have invested in modern, productivity-enhancing equipment and machinery and which are, technologically, quite up to date. To finance modernization (generally accompanied by an expansion of saw-milling capacity) most of these enterprises have had to rely on bank-financing. The combined sawn-wood processing capacity . exceeds wood production possibilities from the local forest resources. Most of the saw-mills operate at, perhaps, one half of installed capacity; the financing charges do not. Most of the enterprises, for lack of finance, could not take their modernization efforts all the way; most lack kiln-drying facilities. The local (mountain) tree-crop arrives at the saw-mills with a very high moisture content (of the order of 40 per cent). Finance for carrying sawn-wood stocks long enough for air-drying is often not available, or considered to be too expensive. Market outlets outside the region are not readily conquered. The sawn-wood assortment on offer is limited and often does not correspond to what main industrial users want. In any event, the saw-lot _ assortments available are not sufficiently large for major users. At present, the industry is still in a state of recession. The industry is concerned and alarmed about what are seen to be low prices for imports from the USSR (as and when these occur, including - in the past- under counter-trade deals), reported to be landed in Marseilles at prices below those economically quotable ex-saw-mill in the area. French prices for domestically produced assortments are generally also considerably higher than prices for similar assortments offered by the US, Canadian and Scandinavian suppliers (which, in particular as regards supplies from the latter, often have benefited from in-factory-applied wood preservative treatment).

However, for the whole of France, installed saw-milling capacity is considered, by the authorities, as insufficient, and government-sponsored efforts are under way to expand saw-milling capacity, so as to correspond more closely to the envisaged increased utilization of domestic forest resources.

2 Since this was first written (83/84), major efforts are underway

in France to build additional kiln-drying facilities with a view to matching production more closely to domestic market demand and for developing export sales.

3 Reference: "L'Agriculteur du Sud-Est", Lyon, No. 137, Oct. 1982.

MDF/W/52

101. While the narrative above relates to one specified region in France, a similar story,1with variations, could be told for certain other countries as well. Austria, for instance, a major exporter of coniferous sawn-wood, is also a country with numerous, small saw-mills, which are struggling for survival; exports are accounted for by a relatively limited number of large, efficient saw-mills, deriving their logs partly from imports from the USSR and from countries in Eastern Europe. In Japan too the saw-milling industry, in terms of the number of operating enterprises, has undergone a large contraction over the last decade and a half. Recent developments in structural adjustments of the Western-European wood-processing industry were aggravated by one of the worst business slumps at the start of the 1980s. Production of sawn softwood, in 1982, in a number of countries was at the lowest (seasonal) level on record for many years (and even now it is still in recession, including in the Nordic regions). In North America, the 1981/82 cyclical downturn was particularly severe. US-sawnwood output in 1981/82 reached a low point not experienced for several decades. For particle-board, the earlier euphoria in Europe for the installation of new capacity came to an end even earlier. At present, it seems, no new particle-board capacity is being installed, but investments for increasing productivity (press times are being reduced significantly), are continuing in some cases, and capacity for new types of panel boards is also being developed. In other cases, plants are closing and those remaining are sometimes merging (as recently in France and F.R. Germany) to carry on with improved efficiency (for instance, through product specialization, streamlined marketing, etc.; with these efforts, however, not always crowned with success), thereby reducing somewhat pressure from the overhang of capacity on the market. In any event, ever since the mid-1970s, particle-board, fibre-board and plywood factories in most of the developed countries have been operating, on average, at between.three fourths to a high of about four fifths of installed capacity.

102. In woodpulp production too, the recent business downturn showed up the existence of considerable excess-installed-capacity (in a downturn). While little in the way of additional pulping capacity, as is officially reported, being installed, except, it seems, in the USSR [also the CSR, Brazil, Portugal and the Republic of South Africa], modernization and restructuring (involving limited new capacity being installed, replacing out-of-date small-scale plants, being shut down elsewhere) is going on. Some industry observers are already speculating on a shortage of pulping capacity, (for instance, in Japan) in a few years, while in other quarters fears are expressed about further excess capacity being generated, for instance in Western Europe. This is just one example of the many and constant changes, not always very transparent, even for the

For detailed stastistical tables of the saw-milling industry in ECE countries see the ECE/FAO "Timber Bulletin, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 3, (special issue, May 1985).

2 For details see the "Annual Forest Products Market Review", in the

ECE/FAO "Timber Bulletin for Europe". 3 For details see "Medium-Term Survey of the Wood-based Panels

Sector", ECE/FAO, Supplement 10 to Vol. XXXII of the "Timber Bulletin for Europe", and relevant subsequent issues.

MDF/W/52

industry itself. To mention one specific example, just a few years ago, Brazil's major venture into pulp-making was considered to be an economic failure; and so it might have been, at the then prevailing pulp prices of US$300 a ton. When prices rose to $450 a ton - going still higher and rising, then, for other pulp-types' suppliers - the Brazilian venture into pulp production and exports turned into a success. (The current prices for market pulp are somewhat lower; with output being cut back by major producers, price levels may stabilize somewhat.) To end this Section on a positive note, it may also be mentioned that one of the pulp-tree varieties imported by Brazil to be planted in its pulpwood plantations (gmelina arborea - originating in Malaysia/India, where it permits harvesting for pulping purposes within a six to ten year cycle) did not, at first, particularly thrive in its new Brazilian habitat, on account of unsuitable soil conditions, but now turns out to be particularly suitable for the production of certain high-value specialty papers and, fortunately, for the success of this particular venture, the gmelina plantations were also complemented with fast growing-Caribbean pine [and eucalyptus, on the decrease again] plantations.

103. The point of all this is that the data shown in Table II can be no more than a possible point of departure for exploring the complex subject of production developments and of structural adjustments in the world's forest- and wood-processing industries.

... if estimates were to be based only on published, official industry statistics and aggregate production and capacity forecasts; ... according to press reports, capacity for both pulp and paper and paperboard production is, apparently, being expanded by various enterprises, with a continuing preference for building up integrated (pulp-cum-paper) production units. Useful summary data on industry developments may, for instance, be found in such trade publications as "Pulp and Paper International", San Francisco, (particularly the annual review issues).

2 Unlike pine, eucalyptus is a short-fibre wood. In the sulphide

chemical process, pulp manufacture fibres are generally broken down further so that eucalyptus pulp could normally be used only as a filler in producing long-fibre based papers. In the sulphate process the fibres are left intact. While the sulphate process is far from new, it is said that it was Brazilian researchers/producers who proved that good paper can be made from 100 per cent eucalyptus pulp - and such pulp is now increasingly used, on grounds not only of cost-saving, but also on account of yielding a high-quality pulp (Ref. Financial Times 19.XI.85). Incidentally, this is a technological development which is not fully reflected in some of the tariff treatment provisions in the CCCN and has been, or is, the subject of discussion among some of the interested parties.

MDF/W/52

C. INTERNATIONAL TRADE FLOWS IN FORESTRY PRODUCTS

10A. International trade in wood, wood semi-manufactures and manufactures, in woodpulp and in cork and cork manufactures is of considerable importance, accounting for close to 2 per cent of the value of world exports. From the data assembled for the purposes of the present note it will be seen that trade in forestry products is not only important generally, but is a matter of particular interest to a number of contracting parties which are heavily dependent on export earnings from forestry products. (Sections A and B of this note have shown the differing levels of forest resources of different countries and also the differences in their respective wood-industries' processing capacity.)

105. While, in value terms, world exports of wood and wood products, have continued to grow through most of the 1970s, in volume terms exports of logs, pulpwood, sawn-wood, plywood and particle-board (in other words the major trade items covered by CCCN Chapter 44) have stagnated since 1973, after a period of significant, and even rapid, growth in the 1960s and early 1970s. In 1981 total exports of these items were at a level even below that reached in 1979 and in the mid-1970s and, though recovering somewhat thereafter, still have not reached the earlier peak year levels. The volume of woodpulp exports, which in the 1960s had grown relatively less than exports of wood and wood semi-manufactures, continued to show modest growth also in the 1970s - but virtually stagnated, worldwide, during the period 1979-1981. Unlike timber products, trade in woodpulp did expand significantly in 1983 and 1984, and stayed at a high plateau through most of 1985, in the wake of considerable expansion in demand for paper and paper products. A slow-down in growth is feared, however, for 1986. Data on import developments, by countries and major product categories, spanning the period 1963-1981 are shown in Annex II.

106. As noted in Table I - in Section A - somewhat more than one half of all wood "harvested" in the world is used in the form of fuelwood or charcoal, for cooking and heating purposes, and very little fuelwood or charcoal is traded internationally, except among some of the countries in South-East Asia and, to a more limited extent, in East Africa. There is also some limited trade in charcoal between some of the developed countries. More recently, some richly forest resource endowed developed countries have hinted at possibilities for supplying fuelwood pellets (based on wood processing wastes) to fuelwood starved regions in the developing world and some trial shipments, financed by charitable organizations, to destinations in East Africa, have been reported.

A recent Canadian Forest Service Brochure makes the point that the dollar value of Canada's forest product sales (in the broader sense) in world markets (Can$ 13 billion in 1983), exceeded that of Canadian exports of all metals and minerals combined by about 10 per cent, of farm products by over 20 per cent and of energy and energy-materials by 25 per cent.

2 If a new French wood-waste transformation process (thermo

condensation of wood, at about 250°C) were to be developed industrially, significant trading opportunities for "roastwood", for use in industry, might arise. "Roastwood" can be produced with only 10 per cent energy loss in conversion from wood; it has high caloric value, 5,500 cal/kg; is not as brittle as charcoal; and is hydrophobic, with ash residues of only 1 per cent.

MDF/W/52

TABLE I I I - A

TABLE l l l - A

« •

Slit:

JUefiïï/ , . 'TEAR-

World (not

ehoun)

ARGENTINA

- "80

AUSTRALIA

- 'BO

. AUSTRIA

BANGLADESH

. '79

BARBADOS

- '79

BELIZE

. '7B

K i l l

• '74 BRAZIL - '82

) BURMA

- '77

) BURUIDI

- '75

) CAKROON

• '80

1) CANADA

. '81

>) CENTRAL

AFRICAN REP.

- '80 i) CHAD

" . '75".

i) CHIU

- '78

') COLOMBIA

- 'B l

)) CONGO REP.

- '79

1 CUBA

)) CTPRUS

ft CZECHOSLO

VAKIA

- '«1

2) DOMINICAN

REPUBLIC

- '81

EC • Extra -

EEC (10)

3/24) BELGIUM/

LUXEMBOURG

- '81 5) DENMARK

- '81 6) FRACE

• 'B l 7) F J l . GERMAT

- '81

8) GREECE

- '81

S) IRELAND - '81

D) HALT

- '81 n) NETHERLAW

- '81

12) UNITED

KINGDOM

Mill on US do l l IMPORTS ind EXPORTS OF WOO. CORK. PROOUCTS THEREOF AND «OO-PULP

t n • 1n years shown • d e t a i l s , Inc luding sourcas of I q i o r t and export dest inat ions I n Tabla

WOO ind ROOD PRODUCTS

IMPORTS

24

WOO,

LUMBER,

:ORK

153.9

Z16.3

Z74.3

0.4

7.2

-

-

19.8

0.2

-

0.1

337.0

-

0.8

2.0

0.5

:

15.5

29.6

16.2

5,739.5

264.7

187.6

857.3

r 1,128.3

97.1

105.5

T,433.8

502.6

1,162.6

247(242)

«00, ROUGH, SQUARED

4.9

—

106.3

0.4

0.2

-

-

3.9

0.2

•

-

61.1

-

-

-

-

-

• • 1.3

8.1

8.5

960.0

26.6

7.6

245.0

211.5

38.0

8.1

368.8

23.0

31.4

248(243)

«00, SHAPED,

«RKEO

143.1

215.9

115.2

0.1

7.0

-

-

12.9

-

-

-

252.5

-

0.8

0.2

0.3

-

•• 14.2

20.0

7.6

4,552.0

235.9

178.1

537.1

867.7

58.7

99.5

978.8

472.1

1,124.1

(34(631)

VENEER,

arwoo, ETC.

15.9

55.6

46.5

0.1

2.7

0.1

-

11.1

-

0.1

0.7

138.5

-,

0.3

0.4

8.2

-

•• 7.9

14.5

5.4

1,422.3

67.4

82.0

134.7

327.4

0.7

22.1

128.6

117.5

54', .9

(35(632)

GOO

UMJFAC

rURES

15.5

33.2

67.8

1.0

0.7

-

-

0.5

-

0.1

5.2

112.4

-

-0.3

0.6

-

" 1.4

4.4

1.1

658.8

134.3

21.4

65.3

197.4

4.6

8.4

52.4

43.4

131.6

EXPORTS

24

WOO,

LUMBER,

CORK

0.6

. 239.1

711.4

0.7

-

1.0

-141.6

••

-

144.2

2,716.2

33.2

-B1.0

2.1

18.0

0.1

296.1

-

383.9

7.4

29.6

86.9

188.7

1.0

4.0

21.9

7.7

36.7

247(242)

WOO,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

0.4

1.2

B0.3

0.7

-

0.9

-

1.3

•• -

110.8

54.6

27.4

-29.0

-14.2

-14.0

-

64.3

3.6

2.6

10.1

43.6

-

-

1.3

0.8

2.3

248(243)

WOO,

SHAPCO,

WRKED

0.1

20.5

624.0

-

-

0.9

-

139.9

••

-33.3

2,554.0

5.8

-52.0

2.0

3.7

-155.7

-

185.7

2.7

15.3

47.0

92.7

1.0

-19.6

4.6

2.8

£34(631)

VENEER,

PLTWOO,

ETC.

7.1

128.8

-

-

•

0.2

. 108.3

••

-21.5

185.4

-

-2.9

1.4

12.1

• 12.6

-

489.2

181.2

48.6

41.1

96.9

8.9

-B6.9

5.2

20.4

635(632)

WOO

HANUFAC.

TUBES

0.1

2.2

109.4

-

-

-'

0.7

24.5

-

-

339.4

-

-11.8

8.3

-

•• 8.4

34.9

-

613.5

10.1

115.6

118.5

149.8

1.0

1.1

148.8

14.6

«

WOO-PULP

IMPORTS

251

PULP.

HASTE

PAPER

69.9

123.7

139.6

4.6

0.4

-

-

10.4

-

-

-

58.3

-1.8

36.5

-

•• 0.6

53.7

0.5

4,313.9

202.6

55.9

834.6

1,260.4

45.3

17.6

767.2

263.8

668.5

EXPORTS

251

PULP.

VASTE

PAPER

2.6

130.2

-

-

-2B7.7

•• -

0.1

3,213.8

-128.2

-

-

»

-11.5

-

105.4

10.3

8.2

41.3

35.2

0.1

• 0.8

1.7

7.8

HUB tn Annex 1 - A -CORK and CORK MANUFACTURES

IMPORTS

244

CORK,

RAN,

. VASTE

6.1

0.3

0.2

-

-

-

-3.0

-

-

-

••

1.8

0.2

-

-1.5

-

23.6

0.5

0.3

• 6 . 4

5.3

0.3

-

7.1

1.1

2.6

633

'Ml

NAHFRC

TUBES

0.4

11.1

(.5

•-

-

-

-

0.3

0.1

-

-(.8

0.5

0.4

-

•• 0.3

-

-

145.2

3.8

2.6

60.1

36.0

2.2

0.5

14.8

3.2

16.0

EXPORTS

m 633

CORK, c o n

IAN, MANUFAC

. VASTE TUMES

,

.-

0.2

; -

..-

• -

• • -

-

••

-

• -

»

•• -

-

••

-

1.5

-

-

0.2

-

-0.1

-

0.5

0.9

0.5

•

-

-

• -

0.1

»

-

-

»

-0.1

•

••

-

- 23.9

. 0.1

0.2

2.6

5.1

-

.-4.1

0.2

, 1 U

MDF/W/52

TABLE III-A (cont'd)

$:TC:

"••Li 4 Esm

- '81 0 FIH.A»

. '81 ;) GABON

- ' 7 9 i) GAMBIA . - «77 0 (RAM

- '78

i) EUTAU

- '79

1) HAITI

- 7 7 / 7 8

1) HUNGARY

- '81

l) ICELAND

- '81

!) INDIA

- '79

1) INDONESIA

- '82

i) ISRAEL

- ' 8 1

>) IVORY COAST

- '79

i) JAMAICA

') JAPAN

- '81

1) KENYA

- '60

1) KOREA REP.

- '81

1) KUMIT

- '80

) MADAGASCAR

- '80

J MALAWI

. '80

1) MALAYSIA

- '81

i) MALDIVES

i) MALTA

- '81

.) MAURITANIA

- '72

) MAURITIUS

- 'It l) REVZCALAW

- '81

) NICARAGUA

- '80

l) 8IGER

- '81

) NIGER!»

- '79 ) WRHAY

- '81

1) PAKISTAN

- '81

) PERU

. '80

i) PHILIPPIC

- '81

.) POLAJD

- '81

) PORTUGAL

- ' , 8 1

nOO M d MX» PRODUCTS

M un,

.una, 'con

340.6

1414

2.0

2.»

135.6

19.2

7.8

0.1

62.8

0.5

6.2

5,229.0

0.1

684.3

52.6

-•

1.3

15.1

••

10.0

0.4

2.4

13.5

-

0.4

4.6

183.2

16.4

4.9

1 0.7

38.5

113.3

247(242)

mot, ROUGH,

SQUARED

VA

23.8

-

-

3.3

3.5

•

25.7

0.3

2.2

3,640.4

-

647.7

0.3

-

-

0.4

»

-

-

0.3

1.9

-

-

3.8

11.9

3.6

0.7

0.3

5.2

87.0

IMPORT!

248(243)

BOO,

SHAPEO,

HORIIO

309.3

11.2

2.0

2.3

15.8

2.5

•

57.0

0.1

4.0

784.9

-

27.9

50.5

-

1.3

11.5

• •

9.9

0.4

2.1

11.5

-

0.3

0.2

112.6

12.1

4.2

0.3

27.9

9.4

(34(631)

VECFJ, FITWO, ETC.

51.9

12.6

0.1

0.2

0.3

3

9.2

0.2

0.8

15.4

0.2

1.4

42.1

-

18.8

52.7

0.8

2.1

6.9

..

5.4

0.2

2.1

5.4

0.2

28.5

68.7

2.7

2.8

0.4

44.4

1.7

635(632)

UOO MANUFAC

TURES

7 4

25.6

1.5

0.2

0.2

1.3

13.4

0.6

2.2

13.6

1.3

1.2

119.2

-

3.4

22.7

0.3

0.2

4.6

• •

1.0

-

0.5

3.2

1.7

7.6

70.3

0.2

0.7

0.3

2.0

1.4

EIPDITS

24

BOO,

UMBER, con

-

1,095.7

112.5

61.4

5.5

0.1

53.1

-

9.0

556.0

0.4

379.8

-

34.8

1.8

49.2

15.3

-

-

1,569.9

• -

-

-

-

97.0

1.0

-

eo.4

-

4.1

208.2

138.2

142.1

247(242)

ROUGH,

SQUARED

-

114.3

111.4

39.4

2.6

0.1

-

6.4

327.9

-

317.9

-

6.9

0.4

0.3

0.2

-

-

1,072.1

..

-

-

-

32.1

0.5

-

11.6

-

-

76.1

3.7

4.6

248(243)

WOO,

SHAPED,

HMKEO

-

915.3

1.1

22.1

3.0

-

0.6

221.4

0.4

61.7

-

27.4

1.4

48.9

14.1

-

-

489.5

..

-

-

-

63.9

0.5

-

42.9

-

4.0

125.8

B8.7

83.4

634(631)

VENEER,

PLYICOD,

ETC.

-

352.2

7.4

3.1

635(632)

«on MANUFAC

TURES

0.2

115.2

-

0.2

25 J)

-

' 11.2

316.1

12.6

17.7

-

76.4

0.9

395.2

4.6

-

-

175.0

..

-

-

-

42.4

2.2

-

10.7

-

7.5

156.4

25.3

22.6

-

7.3

6.7

0.9

3.2

-

40.8

3.1

45.8

63.8

-

-

23.8

..

1.2

-

-

13.4

0.2

-

30.3

0.1

-

39.9

7.4

13.7

NDOO-PULP

IHFORTS

251

PULP.

MA5TE

PAPE1

214

214

-

73.4

-

1.7

63.1

38.0

-

0.3

879.9

0.2

348.5

-

3.7

-

4.0

..

0.1

-

3.7

-

7.2

98.2

7.2

28.5

37.0

64.7

18.1

U M T S

251

PULP, WASTE

PAPEI

-

826.6

-

7.3

-

-

-

-

0.4

0.1

51.3

• 0.3

0.1

0.4

-

-

-

..

-

-

-

141.5

-

-

241.7

-

-

10.7

0.1

202.2

CORK mi- CORK MAHUFACTURES

IMPORTS

244

con,

. HASTE

0.2

..

-

-

-

1.3

-

..

-

-

54

-

0.5

-

-

-

0.4

..

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.1

0.1

-

-

0.5

164

633

MAJUFAC-

TURES

•4"

1.6

-

-

-

0.3

0.6

0.7

0.1

0.3

6.6

-

0.2

0.4

-

-

0.6

..

0.2

-

-

3.0

-

0.3

3.6

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.5

0.5

EXPORTS -

244

coin, I N , • HASTE

..

.,

404

S3)

CMK

MANUFAC

TURES

.

-

-

•

-

-

-

-

-

0.3

0.2

0.1

•

-

-

-

..

-

-

-

1.2

-

-

0.1

-

.-

-

-

190.0

TABLE III-A (cont'd)

MDF/W/52

SI7C:

- % *

8) ROKANI*

9) RHAWA

0) SCK6AL . iBO

1 SIERRA L E O * - ' 7 6

2) SINGAPORE - 'BÏ

•3) STH.AfRICJ REP.

'4) SPÂ|> - '81

75) SRI LANKA - ' 82

76) SUR IRAK

77) SNEDEN

WOO and (000 PRODUCTS

1 WORTS

24

mo, , UMBER,

CORA

.-

5.6

0.3

183.7

286.8

1.0

..

402.9

78) SilTZERLAW 204.7

79) TANZANIA - '80

80) THAILAND - ' 81

81) TOGO - ' B l

82) TRINIDAD/ TOBAGO - '81

(83) TUNISIA - ' 81

(84) TURHEY - ' 81

(85) UGANDA - ' 76

(86) US - ' 81

(87) UPPER YOLTA - ' 81

(88) URUGUAY - '81

(89) YUGOSLAV 1 - '81

(90) ZAIRE - '78

(91) ZAMBIA - '79

(92) ZIffiABIC

Sob-Total f o r 47 coun t r i es

It/

-

81.7

0.4

47.0

57.8

0.9

0.1

2,223.0

1.8

11.0

A 199.4

0.1

2.6

••

[17,245.1)

247(242)

ROUGH, SQUARED

••

4.1

0 .1

42.0

76.3

0.1

..

28.7

31.5

-

15.5

-

0.9

4.2

0.4

-

35.4

0.4

125.5

-

1.2

••

(5,984.8)

248(243)

«00, 1HAPE0, HOMED

..

«

1.5

0.2

139.2

202.7

0.8

••

47.0

140.5

-

66.0

0.4

46.1

47.6

-

-

2,013.0

1.8

10.2

71.5

-

1.4

••

(9,163.1)

634(631)

vcm, finooo, ETC.

:

••

4.2

0.6

113.6

14.0

3.3

••

eo.7

97.4

0.5

1.9

0.5

11.4

8.8

2.3

0.3

789.0

0.7

1.2

31.9

0.2

1.1

••

E (3,119.5)

635(632)

WOO NUUFAC-TURCS

..

• .

0.9

14.0

16.5

0.6

••

53.0

115.5

1.5

1.5

0.2

8.5

(2.0)

-

0.3

529.6

1.3

4.9

2.4

1.0

0.2

••

E (1,876.6)

EXPORTS

24

WOO, LUMBER, com

••

i . i

1.0

2D1.8

64.2

3.5

• •

1.0B2.1

77.1

1.0

6.6

-

1.1

7.9

-

2,372.5

292.8

7.0

-

••

(12,410.0)

of which:

247(242)

WOO, ROUGH, SQUARED

••

-

0.8

7.5

• 5.3

0.1

• •

19.9

61.1

0.2

3.5

-

4.3

-

1,125.9

42.3

2.7

-

••

(3,126.0)

248(243)

WOO, SHAPED, WORKED

••

1.1

0.1

190.3

21.9

0.2

••

1,031.8

14.6

0.8

0.3

-

3.6

-

932.9

241.3

4.3

-

••

(8,200.8)

634(631)

VENEER, PUWOD, ETC.

«

0.4

227.0

77.7

.-

••

99.2

53.7

-

13.8

-

8.0

-

343.6

77.6

0.5

-

••

E (3,437.9)

635(632)

WOO RAMJFRC TDRES

••

0.6

27.7

72.4

2.4

••

196.3

25.7

0.3

48.9

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252.4

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IMPORTS

251

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137.7

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158.0

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(8,977.2)

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82.7

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1,345.1

25.5

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6.8

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[8,768.6)

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5.2

11.4

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33.3

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23.5

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(270.2)

—'Ci t i çlven art the l i t t i t available In UR Statistical Papers, series 0; except for a few cases, Identified In ftotnotea to the data In the acre detailed" Table 111-8 In Amu l b .

^•'Sub-total covers ETC p i n 37 countries for which data In the table above relate to 1981 or 1982. Data for China and the USSR are not available In series D statist ics. Given the disparity In the period covered, and the lack of coiprthenslvenus, sub-totals are provided for convenience only.

For détails of product coverage of the different SITC groups and of SITC Division 24 (which also covers pulpwood, fuelwood, charcoal and raw, t ie . ) aw the note* to Tabla 111—6.

Svebsls used: ' - ' • less than ,50,000 \ . « • not available •E» . Eat l u t e

MDF/W/52

107. World production and world exports of "Industrial roundwood" i.e. wood other than that used for fuel or for charcoal, in million cubic metres, amounted to:

1963 1973 1979 1981 (Million cubic metres)

Production : 1053.0 1360.0 1445.0 1384.0

Exports of industrial roundwood plus pulpwood=-' : 54.7 134.5 146.2 134.4

Percentage of total industrial roundwood production exported : 5.2% 9.9% 10.1% 9.7%

(Share of pulpwood of exports in total industrial roundwood production) : (1.3%) (1.9%) (2.3%) (1.9%)

Proportion of pulpwood exports in roundwood exports : 25% 19.4% 22.8% 21.5%

— Not including intra-trade among the (then) 10 EEC member-States 2/ — For purposes of production statistics, pulpwood is included in

the category "industrial roundwood"; in trade statistics it is excluded, as are all products processed from "industrial roundwood", the latter thus becoming a residual category. As the distinction between the residual "industrial roundwood" category and pulpwood is becoming less relevant, in some uses they are interchangeable, pulpwood exports have been added to those of "industrial roundwood".

MDF/W/52

108. World production and world exports of the main wood semi-manufactures were as follows (in million cubic metres):

SAWNWOOD 1963 1973 1979 1981

Production

Exports

% of Exports in Production

361

46

12.7%

445

71

15.9%

451

82

18.2%

419

71

16.9%

PLYWOOD

Production :

Exports :

% of Exports in Production :

20.2

1.8

9%

42.2

6.2

14.7%

42.3

6.4

15.1%

37.9

6.55

17.3%

2/ PARTICLE-BOARD-'

Production :

Exports :

% of Exports

in Production :

6.0

0.2

3.3%

32.0

2.34

7.3%

41.2

3.2

7.8%

39.7

2.35

5.9%

109. Production and world exports— of woodpulp - (in million metric

tons)

WOODPULP 1963 1973 1979 1981

Production

Exports

% of Exports in Production

70.0

11.2

16%

114.3

17.9

15.7%

123.0

19.9

16.2%

125.3

20.2

16.1%

— Not including intra-trade among the (10) EEC member-States; for woodpulp, intra-EEC trade is small, both absolutely and relatively.

2/ — Intra-EEC trade, which is here excluded, is the most important,

the EEC being also the largest producer and consumer of particle-board. Production of particle- and waferboards in North America is, however, rapidly expanding.

MDF/W/52

110. In examining international trade flows, in value terms, it will be seen from Table III-A, and from the statistical data in Annex II, that, as far as products in CCCN Chapter 44 (ex-SITC Division 24) are concerned, the category "wood, simply worked" (SITC 248) accounts for the largest share. Trade in saw- and veneer logs (SITC 247) is important, but the total trade value is somewhat lower. Trade in woodpulp (ex-SITC 251) is almost as large as trade in category SITC 248.

111. The great importance of woodpulp in international trade flows may, at first sight, seem astounding, since it is widely believed that pulp is produced in joint, continuous processes, together with paper and paper-board, in which case, pulp, as such, would not show up in trade statistics. Such joint manufacturing processes are, indeed, and increasingly so, a feature of many of the large modern pulp-paper mills. There are, however, many exceptions to this and the reason is that the forest-base resource/cum/ energy resources for pulping are not necessarily found in the same locations as the existing paper mills, which are often situated closer to end-use markets for paper. While many of the paper mills so situated own pulping facilities situated in other locations, or have assured access to pulp supplies by inter-firm arrangements, other paper manufacturers, fibre-board manufacturers etc. depend for their pulp supplies on the market. The fact that the market is supplied with pulp by producers most of whom are also producers and exporters of paper has led to concern being voiced in some instances about pricing policies for pulp and paper respectively, and pricing policies have been, and still are, the subject of official investigation and/or Court review. The increasing (EEC about 40%, Switzerland 44%, Sweden - 11%), and repeated, use of recycled waste paper in paper manufacturing, replacing pulp made from virgin fibres (i.e. less fresh wood (trees) needed) may eventually also require an additional input of virgin fibre pulp to give the end-product sufficient strength. Waste paper being, to some extent, a substitute for pulp, the question of the effects of exports of waste paper on the availability of domestic

Exports of waste paper are, in some cases, important. The United States, both in 1984 and in 1985, exported as much as 3.3 million tons and, in terms of volume, waste paper, both for being recycled in the US and for export, is among the main cargoes transiting through the Port of New York-Newark. Most of the US-produced paper and paperboard is produced from virgin fibre pulp and is, consequently, much sought after. Exports, most of which go to destinations in Asia, are partly rendered economic by the large imbalance in the volume of the east- and westbound trans-Pacific container cargoes. Shipments of baled waste paper (20-25 tons per container) help to avoid too many containers being returned empty to the "Far East". Italy is also a significant importer of US (container-packed) waste paper.

2 SITC 251 distinguishes between eight types, or qualities, of

woodpulp. As in the main developed import markets covered by this paper all types of woodpulp are, generally, duty free, no separate analysis for different types of woodpulp has been attempted for purposes of this note. Among the different types of market pulp - sulphate pulp is of particular importance in international trade flows. Waste paper is an item covered by Chapter 47 of the CCCN, but, as it generally enters duty free, it is not dealt with separately in the Summary Tariff Table.

MDF/W/52

paper-making materials has, on occasion, been a matter of concern to the industry; at other times, high levels of waste paper collection, spurred by high waste paper prices, have led to waste paper gluts and then much lowered prices, in a recurring cycle. The point to be borne in mind is that only part of woodpulp production and, perhaps, trade is "captive", while another part, different from country to country and by industrial sectors and sub-sectors, operates through the market.

112. So as not to lose sight of the wood for the trees in this examination of international trade flows, attention is invited to Table IV-A, which shows the percentage shares of major importers in world trade in both 1973 and in 1981 in the product categories "industrial roundwood", "sawnwood", "plywood", "particle-board" and "woodpulp", and to Table IV-B, which shows country shares in exports for the same product categories and years. Attention is also invited to Table V-B, showing imports into major markets, compiled on the basis of customs statistics.

113. With respect to imports of industrial roundwood (mainly saw- and veneer-logs) it will be seen that both in 1973 and in 1981, Japan, by itself, accounted for more than one half of the total value of imports, the EEC for 17 per cent and 13 per cent, in 1973 and 1981 respectively, and the three leading importers - Korea being in third position -accounted for more than 80 per cent of industrial roundwood imports in 1973 and for more than 70 per cent in 1981.

114. For sawnwood imports (not including the important intra-EEC exchanges) the EEC was, both in 1973 and in 1981, the world's major import market, taking 48.1 and 48.3 per cent respectively, followed by the United States with 24.4 and 16.8 per cent, and Japan with 6.6 and 7.1 per cent. Here too, these three markets together account for about four fifths of 1973 imports and for more than two thirds of imports in 1981 (a recession year when both domestic production and demand were depressed, particularly so in the United States).

115. For woodpulp the situation is not much different, with the EEC in first position, accounting for about 46 per cent of total imports, both in 1973 and in 1981. The US in both years accounted for about 19 per cent, and Japan for 6.9 and 9.1 per cent respectively. In other words, these three markets taken together account for close to three fourths of all wood pulp imports.

116. For plywood, the same three countries - EEC, US, Japan, in first, second and third position respectively - accounted for 76.6 per cent of total imports in 1973 and for 56.9 per cent in 1981, the decrease by 1981 being attributable to a drastic fall in Japan^s share in imports and to a large decrease in the United States share. The exact combination of circumstances leading to this decrease is not known. It may however be noted that, apart from pronounced recessionary tendencies in the US market, other factors may also have been of importance, including the fact that two major US producers of plywood, active.in overseas joint-venture forestry/cum/plywood-production operations ,

Including the largest US plywood producer, accounting for about 19 per cent of US plywood production and for about 30 per cent of US plywood distribution. Another factor may be that in the construction sector, particularly for siding, under-roofing, etc., flakeboard is, in the United States, increasingly being substituted for plywood.

MDF/W/52

reduced their level of participation in certain joint ventures (geared until recently mainly for export to the United States), prior to final transfer of ownership to host-State-agencies or companies. These reductions notwithstanding, the EEC and the United States, combined, still accounted for close to 57 per cent of all plywood imports in 1981 (down from 64.4 per cent in 1973).

117. For particle-board the situation is somewhat different. The EEC is not only the world's leading producer, but also the region with the most active trade performance, if intra-trade is included. Excluding intra-trade, the EEC remains the main importer (the main suppliers being Austria, Finland, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland and some of the countries of the CMEA region). Altogether, the EEC, in this rapidly expanding sector of trade (temporarily slowed by recessionary forces in Europe), accounted for 52 per cent of total imports in 1973 and for some 45 per cent in 1981. Production and use of particle-board (which under US production conditions are estimated to cost about 30 per cent less to produce than use-equivalent plywood for building construction purposes) is only now starting to develop in a significant way in areas outside those cited in this paragraph. The cost advantage in the use of particle-board (which include those with veneer- and plastic overlays) is even more important in furniture manufacturing than in building construction activities. While the particle-board manufacturing industry in Europe is presently suffering from overcapacity, and while long-distance trade of particle-board panels is handicapped by a relatively low value- to weight- and volume-ratio, international trade opportunities for more elaborated-products based thereon may not be without interest in the long term and it may also be mentioned that there exist certain specialty products (such as panels only 2mm thick, or with true wood-veneer, melamine or aluminium sheet overlay) which could find a wider market internationally for use in specialty applications, for example, panelling and for outer-shells and furniture in camper trailers, vans etc.

For some building purposes in some States in the United States, particle-board is not yet authorized under the existing building codes.

2 See, for instance, the furniture items on offer in department

stores and furniture-outlets in Europe, which are frequently little more than particle-board panels, joined by different types of industrial-fasteners.

3 The fact that the F.R. Germany, together with Italy, are normally

in first or second position, respectively, in regard to world furniture exports, may owe something to the high levels of panel-production technology and sophisticated panel-use possibilities developed in both of these countries. Panel use technologies are, however, spreading rapidly to many other countries.

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118. As regards exports of logs and simple wood semi-manufactures, the data presented in Sections A and B show that a number of countries have virtually no potential for sustainable and economically viable exports, while a number of other countries do have large potential, but with the emphasis on potential, rather than on current production and current exports, the latter being determined not only by the degree of infrastructure development, but also by the size of actual or potential market outlets and the transport economics of supplying these markets.

119. For industrial roundwood exports, Table IV-B shows that four countries: the United States, Indonesia, Malaysia and the USSR, accounted in 1973 for about 63 per cent of total„exports. In 1981 the same four countries accounted for 64.4 per cent.

120. For sawnwood, Canada, Sweden, the United States, Finland and the USSR combined, accounted in 1973 for 82.6 per cent of total exports and in 1981 for 74.2 per cent. Canada and Sweden were the countries suffering the largest decrease in their respective percentage shares.

121. In 1973, for world exports of plywood, the Republic of Korea was the leading supplier, followed by the island of Taiwan and Finland. The three countries together accounted for more than one half of total exports. With the addition of six more countries, the United States, Singapore, Japan, Malaysia and Canada and the Philippines (ranked in order of their export shares), the combined share of these nine countries rises to 82.3 per cent. (This compares with an EEC share of 1.7 per cent in 1973.) In 1981, the share of the first three listed countries amounted to 43 per cent. In 1981, compared with 1973, Japan, Korea, China and Canada lost percentage-share points, while Singapore, the US, Malaysia and the Philippines registered increases. By 1981

Part of Canada's position as a supplier of US lumber and woodpulp needs is explained by the nearness of main US centres of consumption in relation to Canadian forest resources. If high international transport costs would have to be added, competitiveness could be affected severely. The ongoing, but recently slowed, demographic shift and industry relocation from the north-eastern and northern-central regions of the US to the so-called sun-belt is a development in favour of southern US forest-producing areas where, moreover, some of the fastest-growing US forest resources are. On the other hand, there is also growing interest in developing or reviving forest-product exports to be shipped across the Great Lakes region to centres of distribution in central USA and there is also growing evidence of returning vigour, urban renewal, and increasing housing construction in the United States North-East.

2 To round out the picture, it may be mentioned that large

quantities of woodchips are exported by Canada, with Japan being the main market.

MDF/W/52

there were also some newcomers to the league of major plywood exporters, notably Indonesia, Romania and Brazil. The EEC increased its share in exports to 3.3 per cent in 1981, but remained below the level of any single country out of the four ASEAN countries cited above.

122. The total value of particle-board exports approximately tripled between 1973 and 1981. Austria, Sweden, Finland, the EEC, Spain, the United States, Switzerland and the USSR were the main exporters, accounting for a combined total of 78.2 per cent of exports in 1981. Spain was the country registering, by far, the largest increase in exports.

123. For woodpulp, four countries (in that order): Canada, Sweden, the United States and Finland, are the leading exporters - accounting in 1973 for 82.1 per cent of all exports and for 84.5 per cent in 1981. Of the four countries listed, three are large net exporters - the US is a net importer. The EEC, for comparison (also the world's largest net importer), had a share of 1 per cent of total exports in 1973 and a share of 0.6 per cent in 1981. Norway is also a large exporter and, as noted in the text, Brazil has emerged as a major exporter. A number of developing countries, also South Africa, and, among the CMEA countries, the USSR, though producing mainly for meeting their domestic requirements, are starting to export woodpulp.

124. Given the preponderance of certain markets in world imports of wood, wood semi-manufactures and woodpulp, accounting for between two-thirds to approximately four-fifths of total imports for the respective product categories, much can be deduced regarding the likely, and, in fact, actual, directions of major world trade flows.

125. Before taking up the subject of export destinations and sources of imports of wood and wood semi-manufactures, it may be appropriate to recall that wood is not a homogeneous commodity and that the same can be said for the wood-derivative products. Different woods have different technical characteristics, which destine them for specific uses. Ebony is not only used for sculpture, but is the wood used for half-tone keys of pianos and, since the XVIII century, for fine inlays and veneers (French ébéniste), there exist not only black, but also brown, red, yellow and green varieties; melanoxylons (other blackwood varieties in the ebony family) constitute the preferred material for making high-grade wood wind-instruments. A Brazilian wood species is the wood for violin bow-strings; only a few cedar-, and juniper-trees, and Katsura

One point worth noting is that "plywood" is not a homogeneous product. Plywood made of coniferous species - virtually a North American specialty (more than 90 per cent of "softwood plywood" is produced there) (in Japan the first (three) softwood plywood mills went on stream in 1985), is destined predominantly for building, general construction, crates and for packing. The same is true for most of the South-East Asian "hardwood plywoods". Other plywoods are used in furniture, decorative panelling, boatbuilding etc. Lamin-board and beams (often included in statistics with plywood) serve building purposes again. The species of wood used in the core layers and those on the faces make a difference in use-possibilities (and prices asked for), as do the ply-numbers, glues used and also sheet-size. As there is some specialization in production, there exists considerable scope for trade complementarity.

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(from Japan), are widely used for pencil-making; Tilias, strobus-pine and balsa are the woods for delicate sculpture and model-making; If -for archery bowr (and now also for pharmaceuticals production); hickory and white-ash are preferred for tough and resilient tool handles, 'colonial' furniture imitations and "northern ash" foi baseball bats; briar for smoking pipes; Santal wood for use in funeral rites; guaiacum (also known as lignum vitae and as such identified (duty-free) in several tariff schedules) - for pharmacy, but also as bearing-packing material for marine propeller shafts; true mahogany for delicate cabinet-joinery; angelique, greenheart, kapur, for sluice-gates, port jetties; teak, walnut, oak, cherry and satin wood - are there to meet consumers' wishes with regard to the decorative aspects of wood panels and furniture, etc. etc. These special quality woods, to mention only a few, are further differentiated by growing sites. Palisander from Brazil looks different from palisander from Honduras or that from Madagascar or from India. The trade and part of the public know this and they may be prepared to pay for certain special wood characteristics. Generally, trade in these woods and certain products made thereof may be more affected by low levels of supplies in relation to demand, rather than by problems of rapid demand fluctuations, or by the level of import duties, if any. Even in pulp manufacture and use, preferences for different wood qualities exist, which is reflected in the price of the pulp made from the respective wood, prices often further differentiated by geographical location of growing sites of the pulpwood used; but here too the situation may not be immutable.

126. International trade in specialty woods, such as mentioned above, is of significance but, in terms of volumes involved, this trade is, obviously, limited. The matter already looks different when it comes to substitutes for certain cabinet-making and joinery- or marine-use woods. A good part of the wood import trade nowadays is based on providing woods which may be used as substitutes for wood varieties high in consumer esteem, but rare and dear. True mahogany, once growing in Cuba, with resources long since depleted for shipbuilding, from "Armada"-days onwards (cherished, among other things, for being unusually splinter-free upon projectile impact) and for fine furniture-making purposes, is being substituted by several Central American wood varieties with characteristics close to Cuban mahogany, but more generally so by certain (lighter and less dense) West African varieties. Walnut wood, by now almost a rarity in Western Europe (except in France for small- to medium-diameter trunks), is being substituted by American walnut (not quite the same grain and colour), but also by woods which only have a superficial similarity with true walnut. Again, the list could be continued and would be long, indeed.

127. While demand for specialty woods is not immutable, since consumer tastes change, and as possible replacement materials are developed (for instance, various types of plastics), the change in demand is generally gradual. On the other hand, the more common woods are subject to wide variations in demand brought about by the fluctuations of the business cycle. This problem of a general nature is dwarfed by the problems encountered by producers and exporters of wood products destined for direct use in house construction. This is not a new problem, but it had taken on a new proportion in the last few years on account of the (hopefully it was only temporary) escalation of money interest rates and, as a result thereof, of mortgage rates, these rates often rising to very high levels, with consequently high monthly payments, so as to disqualify, on reasons of lending institutes' affordability criteria, many aspiring house buyers.

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While this is a problem for producers of building materials and for builders, generally, in any high money-interest area, the effect on the forestry sector is, evidently, particularly marked in those areas where a relatively large proportion of house construction cost is accounted for by the cost of lumber and where most houses are largely built of wood. This set of conditions is found (among other locations, such as in Scandinavia) in North America, where the residential building sector, in any one year, accounts for about one half, or more, of all lumber used.

128. According to data published earlier, the United States wood products industry did not experience a good housing construction year during the first half of the 1980's. In 1978, new housing starts were of the order of 2.1 million. Declining from that peak year, new housing starts had plunged to just over 1 million in 1982. This was the lowest annual level since the 1930's. When mortgage interest rates (which had reached a high of 18-19 per cent) started to fall in the spring of 1983, housing starts advanced by 70 per cent over that of the corresponding period in 1982, to an annualized rate of 1.9 million in August 1983. As interest rates rose again, the annualized rate sank to 1.6 million housing starts by November, or to an annualized rate of 1.7 million for the whole of the year. In 1984, when mortgage interest rates were of the order of 15-13 per cent, housing starts remained at the 1.7 million level. During most of 1985, mortgage interest rates were below 13 per cent. The expected increase in housing starts, to be kindled by the lowered interest rate and pent-up demand, did not happen. New housing starts for 1985 totalled 1.725 million. Towards the end of 1985, mortgage interest rates further declined, edging towards 10 per cent. Interested buyers, but by lenders' standards of affordability perhaps not sufficiently solvent, or who had themselves hesitated in 1985, hoping for a further tumble in interest rates - as it proved, correctly so, started to come into the market. While at the time of writing it is too early to say what the level of housing starts for the whole of 1986 is likely to be - it is certain already that new sales of single family homes in the first half of 1986 (although somewhat slowed toward semester's end) are at record levels. Housing starts should follow, and some industry observers expect that 1986 will become as good a residential house construction year as 1978. There are also indications that new contracts for heavy construction (such as public works and utilities) are rebounding from relative stagnation, part of it reflecting earlier uncertainty, arising from the debate over tax reform (for instance, the tax status of municipal bonds, used to finance many public works projects). There exist thus good prospects for a further up-turn in demand for construction-related lumber, panelboards, etc. In the same vein it may be mentioned that an earlier trend of downsizing of new houses (i.e., less wood needed per house), to increase affordability, (less of a problem in Canada, where the average square footage house-unit on demand is 20-35% larger than in the US; [downsizing is still a preoccupying problem in the UK]), had gone into reverse, even before the recent fall in mortgage rates. There is, of course, a lesson in this, namely that macro-economic happenings (real or

By mid-April 1986, United States nationwide mortgage rates were averaging 9 1/2-10 per cent for a thirty-year, fixed-rate loan, 9 1/4 per cent for a fifteen-year loan, or 8 1/4 per cent on thirty-year adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs).

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imagined, if account is also taken of inflation/deflation, tax deductibility, etc.) can make the fortune, or create havoc for the construction, forest- or, for that matter, any other industry - without industry-specific causes being at the root. That public expectations about inflation, finance, fiscal, and monetary matters, more than building material prices as such, are a major determinant of developments in the construction sector might also be deduced from the relatively limited proportion of the cost of primary building materials in the final selling price of most houses - even in conditions where1 land prices for developed home construction lots are reasonably low.

The average United States single-family house in 1983 had 5.1 rooms, had 1,500-1,700 square feet (125-142m ) living space and was situated (not an average figure, but fairly typical of "middle-income" aspirations) on a lot of about one quarter of an acre (about 1,000m ), or slightly more, depending on area and degree of area urbanization. Early in 1986 the median selling price of the new "average" house was $88,300, with an average of $110,400 (existing older houses in good condition - lot included - often sold for 15-20 per cent less). Land costs in the United States often would be of the order of one sixth to one quarter of the house selling price. In Japan, land costs (inflated, in part, by policies designed to preserve agricultural land) might account for, perhaps, 80 per cent of the price of a single family-unit "home", for a house priced, upward, from Yen 25 million (i.e., US$125,000 in mid-1985, at a rate of, then, US$1.00 = Yen 200) the house being normally about a third smaller than the United States average, and situated on a lot one-third to one-sixth the size of the "typical" United States lot. Obviously, this leaves little room for cost-savings by economizing on building materials. On the other hand, it is also true that house-buyers' spatial expectations and building practices for the traditional home (= house and garden), are much reduced in Japan, as compared with the "West". This is, however, less true for modern-lifestyle houses, requiring much more space to accommodate conveniences, appliances and storage. But back to the typical United States house: apart from various bulk materials for foundation, drainage, insulation, roofing, floor-covering, specific prefabricated items such as doors, windows, bathroom-, kitchen-, heating/air-conditioning-equipment and fittings, the construction of this average house - if constructed in the "stick-by-stick" timber-frame (also called "wood-frame" or "platform-frame") method, will require, on average (including about 5 per cent wastage), 8,500-10,000 board feet (one board foot equals (nominally) a piece of lumber 12 x 12 inches and 1 inch thick) of lumber, (mainly 2 x 4's, 2 x 6's, 2 x 8's, 2 x 10's of Douglas "fir", spruce and (Georgia) pine). Cost per 1,000 board feet of such lumber, early in 1986, at United States East-Coast ports, was of the order of US$220-230, up significantly from mid-1985, but well below 1979/1980 levels. In metric equivalents, the lumber required comes to 20-23 cubic metres - a volume, corresponding to the cubic capacity of a well-stacked, fair-sized moving van. Also required would be a significant (depending also on floor plans) volume of "wallboard" (a good part of which (for interior walls) might be gypsum/plaster boards). To put the timber-frame house together, in the traditional method, 120-150 kgs of nails would be used, and, finishing it, perhaps 300 kgs of paint - all together (not counting labour incorporated in equipment and sub-assemblies), requiring about 3,500 man hours of work. Work time needed to put up (i.e. erect and sheathe) the timber-frame shell would only be a fraction of total work time. One widely-used estimate is that a "framing crew" of three carpenters, using just the basic tools of the trade, can frame and sheathe, working on the building site, a house in two weeks or less.

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In certain areas of the world, including parts of Europe, good mastery of wood-construction techniques, other than of the most conventional types, is relatively scarce (but now said to be coming back in Europe, increasingly being taught in building-training institutions) and architects, paid on a percentage of construction cost basis, are often disinclined to recommend wooden constructions since the wood materials, being relatively inexpensive, tend to lower construction costs - hence lower fees - while, at the same time, requiring, perhaps, more of the architects' planning and design time than would reliance on conventional brick and beton building methods. Partly to spread wood-building know-how, and partly to diversify market outlets for lumber, both the United States and Canada are actively engaged in promoting internationally the well-proven (energy efficient, fast, relatively inexpensive, good fire-retarding characteristics, good seismic shock resistance) timber-frame construction method (in Japan, apparently, with some success; with the number of houses built with "two-by-fours" in the period April 1985 through March 1986, up by 24% over the previous year, part of the rapid increase attributable, however, to the low base percentage).

In Canada 95 per cent of new single family houses are built primarily of wooden construction materials, in the United States 90 per cent, in Sweden 96.5 per cent, in Norway 93 per cent, in Finland 77 per cent, in Japan about 45 per cent (up to the late 19th century all residential construction in Japan was in the form of "wooden houses"; with, however, at least one, bamboo-reinforced, but no-load-bearing, clay wall in each house), in France 7 per cent and in the United Kingdom presently between 5 and 10 per cent (after some undeserved adverse publicity for "timber-frame" construction in the media. Prior to that, about 20 per cent of post-war single-family houses in the UK were timber-frame houses. This is not directly visible, as virtually all of these "wooden houses" in the UK are brick-clad). Not all of the wooden houses are built by the timber-frame method (a centuries'-old method, often designed for being dissembled - moving to another site -re-assembly, and built in a way having many features in common with what would now be called 'post and beam' construction). The modern timber-frame construction (benefiting from Adam Smith's recommended specialization for making nails ("pins") on a large scale) is, basically, a nailed, "stick-by-stick", construction, using to best advantage (i.e. avoiding, as far as possible, the need for resawing, or resizing) certain standard sizes of lumber and board materials (United States timber frame house- sizes will change slightly if and when metrication really gets under way; stud spacing and length will be different, partly because of changes in the size of sheathing panels etc.). Trade and building expert teams from the United States and Canada have toured a number of countries to demonstrate, partly with pilot projects, some of the advantages of building by the timber-frame method. Indeed, for promoting expansion in international trade in standard-sized lumber, timber-frame construction is ideal, since the required lumber (involving only a few standard sizes - unlike the more than 100 different "standard" lumber sizes used in traditional Japanese construction) can be bundled and shipped in compact form, while the shipping of pre-assembled housing almost invariably (particularly so for roof-trusses) implies transporting a "lot of air-space". (The problem

./.

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Footnote (cont'd)

can partly be overcome by good modular construction design - as several European prefabricated house builders have demonstrated.) As a result, under United States conditions, shipments of prefabricated home sections (wall panels, floor- and roof-trusses) tend to become uneconomic beyond a radius of about 150 miles, or about 250 km. Promotion of stick-by-stick timber-frame assemblies notwithstanding, there can be little doubt that, given wage developments in industrialized countries, and the development of ever more efficient and automated woodworking and assembly machinery, a growing portion of house construction elements will, in future, be fabricated on the factory floor (less wastage, better quality control and, of course, less labour) rather than on site, cutting assembly time on the site by perhaps 80 per cent. In the United States, prefabricated assemblies in single house construction (including prefabricated doors, windows, roof-trusses, for otherwise traditionally-built houses) now account for about a third of total wood construction materials used. Among instances for promoting the use of wood in house construction one could cite: UNIDO's publication "The Popular Manual for Wooden House Construction" - UNID0-ID/330 - 1985 (in cartoon style, for international distribution - originally prepared in Brazil); a "conclusion" emanating from the first session (September 1985) of the ILO's Forestry Wood Industries Committee - recommending, inter alia, the proclamation of a special "Wooden Housing Day", at either the national or international level, or both (ILO IC/FWl/1/13); an ongoing United States Government study, with mainly wooden, modular-built, houses from several producers and countries, installed at a test-site in the United States for determining insulation and thermal efficiency of these houses. Also to be mentioned are efforts sponsored by the French authorities, in collaboration with the industries concerned, for promoting use and consumption of (domestically-produced) wood, through prize contests for the design of wooden houses, including multiple dwelling units, the actual construction of model villages composed of wooden houses, etc.

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129. Perhaps the extensive reference to developments in the US housing market will be clearer when it is recalled that the United States is the world's largest consumer of sawnwood (accounting in 1979 for close to one fourth of world consumption of combined soft- and hardwood sawnwood), the world's second largest sawnwood producer, the largest single-country importer, and the destination (1981 figures,.cf. Table III-B) of close to two-thirds of Canadian sawnwood exports. As Canada in recent years exported 70 per cent of its sawnwood production, it can easily be appreciated that a large-scale contraction in US demand for sawnwood, or important fluctuations in demand, would be a matter of major interest to Canada, especially so as the forestry sector is the main industrial activity of the Province of British Columbia and a major industry in several other Provinces.

130. Reference to Canada should, of course, not becloud the fact that an important contraction in demand for house and related building materials is also a major calamity for the US forestry products industry. Large parts of the US North-West, and of other US forestry-products producing regions, have suffered important setbacks in recent years and have experienced heavy unemployment. In both Canada and the United States, there have been numerous mill closures, and profit margins from timber processing since 1980, have been, and still are, relatively low, on average. Cyclical fluctuation in demand for housing, and hence, for wood products is, however, not the only factor for reduced or declining employment (not only in North America) in the industry in recent years. Technological advances in wood processing have resulted in often large productivity increases, and, consequently, a reduction in labour inputs required for a given volume of output. The strength of the US dollar vis-à-vis the Canadian dollar has also been cited by US wood industry sources as a problem in maintaining (not quite achieved) its domestic market share. Sawnwood is not the only forest products sub-sector to suffer in housing construction- and business-downturns. Lauan and Meranti plywood - among tropical plywood varieties - are, or at least were, extensively used in the United States for the construction of residential housing, mobile housing, non-residential building and in remodelling. These and other plywoods and, more recently, also

The biggest producer of sawn-softwood is the USSR, also the _ biggest consumer, despite an export varying between 8 and 10 million m annually. The production in the US of sawnwood in 1981 was _ 70 million m and large quantities were imported, some 25 million m , while at the same time the export volumes from the US West Coast are running high. In certain import markets, high-quality US southern pine sawnwood is increasingly in demand.

2 3 Canada produced 39 million m of sawnwood, exporting about 70 per

cent thereof, and is by far the largest single-country exporter on the world market.

3 Employment in the US lumber and wood industries over the period

1973-1982 experienced an annual decline of the order of 0.8 per cent; it increased significantly^ in 1983 and again in 1984, stagnating at, or slightly decreasing, in 1985, to a level of about 0.7 million. Ref: GATT International Trade, annual reports and US national statistics.

4 The US dollar in relation to the Canadian dollar moved from below

par in 1976 to about Can$ 1.40 for most of 1985. In the spring of 1986 the spread fluctuated between one US dollar per 1.3/1.44 Canadian dollars. During the period of the US dollar's great strength, the Canadian dollar was, nevertheless, also relatively strong vis-à-vis certain other major currencies, which affected Canada's competitiveness in the markets concerned.

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particle- and flake-boards are widely used for exterior siding and as sub-floor and sub-roofing material. An examination of the trade data in Table III-B will show that many countries, not only Canada, but producers of all these items (notably producers of sawnwood and wood-based panels in Asia, South-East Asia and in Latin America), have a major interest in the US market.

131. The EEC member-States, as a group, are even more important as an import market for forestry products than is the United States. This is largely a reflection of the fact that, good forestry management practices notwithstanding, the EEC countries are relatively poor in forest resources. As the different member-States do not all operate simultaneously the same monetary and interest-rate policies, EEC-wide swings in economic activity and housing construction are, in general, not as much in step, and hence somewhat less pronounced, than demand fluctuations in the US. Further, the use of wood materials in housing construction is more limited (much is used, however, for concrete-casing) than in North America. While some of the factors cited above may help to limit the absolute size of swings in demand for construction wood in the EEC, fluctuations as such can generally not be avoided, and high mortgage rates in several European countries (some even higher than in the US in recent years) and reduced, or even negative, population growth are reflected in most of the EEC's regions in reduced levels of construction activity. As in the United States, the negative effects of a downturn in demand, particularly so in the context of the long spread-out recession, are not limited to EEC producers of lumber and wood products, but are also shared by foreign suppliers. Not only is the volume of wood demand subject to periodic cyclical fluctuations, but prices„for wood and wood products are also depressed whenever demand slackens.

EEC-wide, construction-industry analysts are expecting a (moderate) upturn in construction activity starting in 1986 and continuing into 1987. In the United Kingdom, private housebuilding in 1983, '84 and '85 was already at a relatively high level, as high as previously seen in 1973. It is relevant to note that much of the post-war housing construction in Europe, particularly so many of the buildings erected in the 1950's and early '60's, are by now in need of repair - or, as far as wooden window frames and chassis and doors are concerned, often requiring outright replacement, since the materials and construction methods used, (unlike turn-of-the-century and early 20th century high-quality woodwork) make repairs uneconomic. There exists thus a potentially vast replacement demand in several EC countries, including in the UK, France and F.R. Germany. If visual appearance can provide a clue, replacement demand in the US should also be high. One, perhaps, interesting feature of the Japanese market situation is a popularly subscribed-to concept that individual family housing is due for renewal/reconstruction, or expansion (normally in the same style as before - cf. para. 168), after the relatively short time-span of about 25 years.

2 World export price indices (calculated in US dollars) - 1980 = 100

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Ql

(i) timber 86 74 81 75 66 83 (ii) wood pulp 100 92 81 93 78 84 (iii) all agricultural

raw materials 93 82 85 88 76 76

Source: GATT, International Trade 1985/86

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This is a painful experience for all producers and, on a national scale, is particularly upsetting in all those cases where wood exports account for an important part of a given country's export earnings, as is the case, for instance, for some of the West African countries and for several other countries which are among the main suppliers of EEC wood and wood products imports.

132. What has been elaborated above in respect of the United States and the EEC, because of their great weight and importance in world imports, applies, mutatis mutandis, also to other import markets.

133. As will be seen from the export destination data in Table III-B, and also from the data in Annex II, many of the major forestry product exporters, during the period covered by these tabulations, were shipping an important part of their wood semi-manufactures to countries in the Middle East and in North Africa, regions which are not endowed with forest resources sufficient to meet their needs in respect of wood for construction and for joinery. The increased demand for wood in these countries in the recent past arose mainly in connection with the implementation of large-scale economic development programmes, but effective demand has slackened considerably in the wake of the significant decline in export earnings from petroleum.

134. Large-scale fluctuations in demand for wood and wood products due to contraction, expansion, followed by another contraction, in housing construction and in overall levels of business activity in main import markets are not the only problems faced by forestry products producers and exporters. Fluctuations in foreign-exchange rates have also contributed to significant shifts and/or fluctuations in the international competitiveness of different producing areas. Many export contracts are denominated in dollars. Even where this is not the case, a given national currency may be pegged in various ways to the dollar -or to a basket of major trading currencies. In other areas, national currencies and export contracts may be denominated in other currencies -say, in CFA-francs, related to the French franc, as is, for instance, the case for some important exporters of wood in West Africa in the "Franc-Zone". Part of given countries' export and import trade may be effected under the terms of compensation agreements. Wood and, more recently plywood, are among items offered on a compensation trade basis by some important exporters and are, apparently, among the more acceptable trade items for some of their respective countertrade partners. Such countertrade arrangements introduce new marketing and product-disposal methods and incentives into the international wood trade. Directions of trade are also influenced by freight transport conventions or shipping conferences. Certain shipments of wood from West Africa to Western Europe, effected under agreed Conference terms, are, for instance, subject to freight charges which are as high or higher than those for shipments of like goods and quantities over the much longer distance from South-East Asia to Europe. Outgoing

Interestingly enough, some shipments in recent years of lumber from West Africa to destinations in the Asia-Pacific region (a relatively new, but apparently not yet a significant, steady-trade-flow development) are reported to have benefited (despite the much larger distances involved) from shipping rates that are significantly lower than the unit rates for shipments to Europe.

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trans-Pacific freight from North America is, apparently, subject to much higher freight rates than east-bound trans-Pacific freight destined for North-American ports. Trans-Atlantic freight from different loading areas on the North-American East-coast are also subject to different degrees of competition, in terms of facilities offeree by different shipping lines concerned. Some increases in trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic freight rates announced in 1984 and early 1985 were commented upon by North-American forest industry representatives as jeopardizing years of efforts for developing overseas markets for their products. Shipping company representatives have countered by claiming that, for several years past, freight rates charged were insufficient to meet operating costs and even threatened the survival of many companies. Some of the larger forestry products companies, not only in North America, but also in Europe, have their own ships, shipping lines or transport affiliates (but, in the present competitive pricing situation, may not derive much comfort or cost-benefit from this). Some Japanese log importers rely on ships which do load logs directly from the Sea, close to producing sites, without relying on ports, as is the case for most other shippers. Some exporting areas, and even some forest products companies, possess specialized wood handling port terminals, and they may also own ships especially built for transporting wood or wood chips (specialized lumber transport ships have a long history and tradition, encompassing even some of the famous "clipper" ships). Even inter-coastal and inland transport may be subject to special cabotage rules and prescriptions, affecting conditions of competition. Where rail networks are State-owned, special, temporary freight privileges may be granted to deal with special problems, such as wood removal needs occasioned by wind- and snow damage; volumes so affected may be quite important. Several major firms, primarily, and initially, in the transport sector, operate, inter alia, forest industry enterprises. The listing above is not intended to be exhaustive, but to serve as an indication that the subject of the elements influencing trade directions could be a complex one.

135. One of the questions naturally raised in the GATT context is the influence of tariff barriers on actual or potential trade flows. While the subject of the tariff itself is among those to be taken up in the following section, the question of their effect on trade flows already arises in the context of an examination of actual trade flows. The information set out in Table III-B does suggest that the tariff is not the only element which influences trade flows. The United States, apart from its Generalized System of Preference scheme and the operation of

Over the period 1970 to 1984, the world merchant fleet (in terms of deadweight tons) more than doubled. World sea-borne trade (by volume) (index 1970 = 100) stood at 150 in 1979 and at 134 in 1984, i.e., a case of too many ships for the amount of cargo available. While much of the excess capacity is in tanker capacity, dry-cargo capacity tonnage is also in excess by about one-third. Container-ship capacity is also (and still) expanding. As a result, some of the announced rate increases could not be made to stick and some observers of the shipping industry feel that, in real terms, ocean freight rates may presently be at exceptionally low levels (expecting, however, a "change of tide", as reflected in increased ($) rates by mid-1986).

2 A catalogue of some of the problems, difficulties and challenges

in international sea transport and policies, as seen by some of the major shipping nations, is contained in the OECD publication Maritime Transport [1983].

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the special facilities offered under the Caribbean Basin Initiative for developing countries, does not grant trade preferences on products classifiable under CCCN Chapters 44 or 47. Yet, the Scandinavian countries, though very competitive internationally, are not among major m.f.n. suppliers of sawnwood to the United States. In wood-based panels and wood-manufactures their share in US imports is also relatively low. Trade in wood among EFTA countries, though duty free, is also relatively low, except in a few product lines. This is, perhaps, not surprising, in view of the similarity in forest resource endowments among the major Nordic forestry-products producers. In the EEC, intra-trade, though important generally, is not necessarily large for all product lines and for all member-States. For wood products, some of the EEC countries trade largely with non-Common Market countries, though the other trade partners involved may be those which take part in the wider European free-trade arrangements. Finland has arrangements containing tariff preferences with several eastern European countries. Other EFTA countries generally do not grant preferential duties for imports from the Eastern Trading Area (according to data compiled in the GATT Tariff Study Files), nor do the EEC countries. Yet, some countries import significant quantities of wood and wood products, which remain subject to positive m.f.n. rates, from countries in eastern Europe. Sometimes imports from m.f.n.-dutiable origins account for a large, or major, share of imports under a given tariff position, while in other cases m.f.n.-dutiable imports - originating (apart from CMEA origins) in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, to name only some of the more important actual or potential suppliers - have to compete with imports benefiting from various preferences.

136. Japan, the other major import market, has a tariff structure which is fairly complex and though the Japanese tariff schedule does not provide for developed or developing country preferences, other than the GSP for the latter group (subject to exclusions or limitations for certain items), tariff positions are sometimes defined in relation to tree- and wood-species, which, in effect, may create differentiated conditions of access for goods from different sources. Such species differentiation is also found in certain other tariff schedules. This differentiation is often not at all discernible from broad, aggregate trade statistics. The differentiation is, however, detectable from the GATT's detailed Tariff File listings. 'Detailed' is, however, the correct description for these listings - not only for Japan - but for all of the countries for which they exist, so that it would be highly impractical to attempt to reproduce these listings in full. Some attempt will be made in the following Section to illustrate the topic of tariff differentiation with reference to a few selected instances.

137. In closing this Section it may be appropriate to point out, once again, that data relating to one given year may not be truly indicative of trade flows in another year. What is intended to be conveyed in the statistical tabulations of Tables III and IV are orders of magnitude, not more than that.

Since Spec(84)13 was issued, there has also come into force the US-Israel Free Trade Area (FTA). US import duties on forest products for imports from Israel will be reduced and eliminated according to a programme schedule. Likewise, Israel will reduce and eliminate import duties on US imports. US imports from Israel of lumber and wood products (not including wooden furniture) in 1982 amounted to US$836,000. Israel's imports from the US, of the same products, in 1982, came to US$3.45 million.

MDF/W/52

D. TARIFFS AND NON-TARIFF MEASURES AFFECTING TRADE

138. It may be recalled, at the outset, that much of the world's forest land is public property . Consequently, forest-usage, -disposition and -development are subject to State- or other public-body decision-making of a general nature, in which action, as it relates to forest-management and -uses (and indirectly or directly to international trade in forestry products), may well be subordinated to objectives, conceived in the context of broader social and economic policies. While in a few cases State agencies may be directly responsible for forest- management and resource-development and -exploitation, actual forest resource exploitation, even of State-owned and administered forest land, is most frequently in the hands of commercial companies, which operate in accordance with guidelines or directives set out in long-, medium- or short-term lease-contracts or logging concessions. In recent years many of the logging concessions granted by developing countries contained mandatory clauses for the progressive establishment of forest-product processing capacity (saw-mills, ply-mills, etc.). Sometimes these also cover trade prescriptions, such as the ratio of processed wood exports to be achieved in relation to log exports (if any), indigenization clauses (concerning originally foreign or joint-venture operations), reforestation obligations and forest-road infrastructure development and maintainance obligations. Obligations of a similar nature may also be applied to private, domestically-owned, forest-operations, by means of laws, fiscal incentives or disincentives. Conversely, many governments have, on their part, taken various measures for facilitating the development of national-, or regional-, forest resources through provision, or participation in construction, of road infrastructure, transport- and port-facilities, through the granting of tax relief, special import facilities, special import permits and duty relief for forest-industry equipment imports, financing facilities on favourable terms, etc. These facilities are often granted in a way similar to

Even in the EEC (of 10), where private ownership predominates, more than one fifth of all forest land is State-owned and another fifth is owned by other public bodies. (In France, where 80 per cent of the forest area is privately owned, the ONF (Office National des Forêts) manages the State-owned forest lands and those of about 11,000 local administrations and is responsible for about 35 per cent of all domestic timber sales. The Office, whose origins can be traced back to Colbert, is currently being reorganized with a view to taking a still more active role in forest management and forest industry development. In Spain, forests on public lands account for one-third of the total, but central Government State-owned forests account for only 4 per cent of total forests.) In Canada, Provincial Governments control the bulk of forest lands. In developing countries - with the exception of certain countries in Latin America (notably Brazil) - most of the forest resource is owned by Central- or State governments, or is subject to communal exploitation-rights and administration. In the United States, close to one third of all forests are on federal lands and a significant proportion of remaining forests is either owned, or administered, by other public bodies. Private forest holdings of one of the large North-American forest-industry companies exceed 2.5 million hectares . Forest lands owned by several other forest product companies are also large and may exceed 1 million ha. each. (For the respective ownership patterns in the US and Canada, see also footnote 2 on page 24 and footnote 1 on page 25).

MDF/W/52

those extended by many countries to the agricultural sector. Considerable efforts are being made in many countries in fostering forestry-research and -training operations, advanced silyicultural practices and for afforestation and forest rejuvenation.

139. Forest-industry activities and exports of forestry products are of great importance for a number of national-, or provincial-governments, (depending upon the constitutional clauses, or administrative arrangements) as sources of tax revenue, for financing State- and development-budget expenditures.

140. Given the important interrelation of forestry-industry activities with general economic and policy objectives in many of the countries covered by this note, no short summary of governmental policies can give an adequate description of the range, and the possible impact on international trade, of all of the measures in existence, or notified at one time or another, as influencing actual trade flows in forestry products. It is with this caveat in mind that the following paragraphs, dealing with tariffs and with non-tariff measures should be read.

141. As regards the tariff scene, and bearing in mind what has been indicated in the preceding Section on the preponderance of certain countries in world trade in wood and wood semi-manufactures, it may be well to start with a brief review of earlier tariff treatment in some major markets, before arriving at a bird's eye view of the post-Tokyo Round tariff scene in major import markets, presented in Table V.

142. As forest industry products are important, in both exports and imports of many countries, they have been the subject of attention in successive rounds of GATT tariff- and trade-negotiations. Import duties on different forest product items have benefited on different occasions (in different degrees, depending upon product and import market) from negotiated or unilateral tariff-cutting action. A Study prepared by the United States Tariff Commission, at the request of and for the United States Senate Finance Committee, and presented in April 1974 , traces, inter alia, for the wood, cork and pulp sector, the import duty

la The Nordic countries and Canada supplied the following, jointly

agreed, comment on Paragraph 138: "The subjects covered by this paragraph are very important among factors which have a direct bearing on the competitiveness of a saw-milling industry. Government aid to regional development, to improve transport facilities, to assist in reforestation and investment programmes, tax exemptions, import duty relief etc. is often of substantial importance to the individual company, but at the same time they are so generalized, and often disguised, that the effects are difficult to assess. Any attempt to analyse the trade in sawn-wood and pulp could not forgo to try to evaluate the effects of public aid, open or hidden. Of some importance though are the ownership conditions with regard to the wood supply. In countries where public ownership of forests is significant, timber-cutting rights are made available to forest industries in return for obligations which are related in varying degrees to world market conditions.

lbCf. also C/M/198, pages 32 and 33. 2 ..."Trade Barriers" - Report to the Committee on Finance of the US

Senate and its Sub-Committee on International Trade; Tariff Commission Publication 665, Volumes 1-11, Washington D.C., April 1974.

MDF/W/52

treatment accorded in major markets, notably the EEC, Japan, UK, Canada, from pre-GATT days, to the Kennedy Round tariff concessions implementation stage. The study compares import treatment in these markets with that in the United States. The study also contains a description of the methodology used and an indication of the inherent difficulties in making inter-temporal and inter-country comparisons of tariff treatment by reference to duty averages.

2 143. The Study found that (1970) trade weighted average import duties on wood and cork products in the US, the EEC, Japan and Canada compared as follows, between "pre-trade agreement" duty rates and statutory duty rates (or their ad valorem equivalents) in force on 1 January 1972,(the date when the Kennedy Round duty rates had been fully implemented) :

It may in this connection be noted that in the United States (and probably in other countries) import duties paid on imported materials used by industry in the manufacture of other goods are deductible from business income tax, thereby, in most cases, further lowering the real (duty) incidence. This aspect of one of the interrelationships between the tariff and the tax system has been demonstrated in the (1985/1986) United States tax reform debate.

2 For reasons explained in the Study, the trade weighting used in

arriving at the figures, reflected in paragraphs 143 and 144 of this note, involves the weighting with each country's own imports. This average is assumed to have the strongest bias downward because it minimizes the importance of high rates, which deter trade, and emphasizes the importance of large trade items, which are likely to be products with lower rates of duty.

3 For the US - 1934, for the EEC and Canada, basically, the rates

before GATT tariff negotiating rounds and for Japan its 1954 pre-GATT accession rate.

4 The study also identifies the pre-Kennedy Round rates; these are

omitted here, for brevity.

MDF/W/52

Import duty average (or range) in % ad valorem for the products in the listed product category

US

2/ Pre- Post—

EEC Japan

Pre- Post- Pre- Post-trade agreement rates

Canada /

Pre- Post-

Category:

Cork and manufactures thereof 14.4 4.4 1.6 1.2 0.5 0.5 17.5 8.2

Wood and Cork, in the rough 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 10.3 4.8

Wood and Cork, 5.5- 0.5- 0.4- 0.2- 1.1- 0.8-semi-manufactures: .. 5.1 .. 10.9 .. (..)

2.2-11.8

Softwood lumber: 0.74- 10.0 5.0 free- free-4.68 free 10.0 10.0

5.0 free

Wood shingles, shakes :

Wood-based panels :

Plywood :

Paper pulp and waste :

free

34.1

40.0-50.0

0.0

free

15.1

7.5-20.0

0.0

14.0

14.7

15.0

2.2

7.0

12.9

13.0

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18.4

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20.0

4.7

11.3

15.9

15.0-20.0

4.7

free

31.7

35.0

8.3

free

13.8

15.01/

0.0

.. " not available 1/, — Arithmetic average of duty rates.

1.1.1972 i'post 3/ Temporary rate then (1972):10%

144. A comparison, in the above tabulation of average duty rates, of some of the sub-categories with the overall category "wood and cork and manufactures thereof" provides an example of the difficulty of assessing the degree of protection afforded by import duties on the basis of average import duty data, when related to a broad product category, particularly where the trade-weighted average covers both duty-free as

MDF/W/52

well as dutiable imports. Taking the average for dutiable imports only, the data calculated for the US Tariff Commission Study, in regard of 1.1.1972, average, trade-weighted duty rates (% ad valorem or ad valorem equivalents) are as follows:

Post-Kennedy Round

Category: US EEC Japan Canada

Wood and Cork and manufactures thereof 12.1 9.6 15.41/ 13.4

Wood and Cork in the rough 6.4 3.4 5.0 3.7

Wood and Cork semi-manufactures : 4.0 6.8 10.3 9.4

Paper pulp and waste paper 0.0 3.0 (5.0) 0.0

For softwood lumber, wood-shingles and shakes, wood-based panels and plywood, the average, weighted duty rates on 1 January 1972 would be the same as those shown for these sub-categories in paragraph 143, under the heading "Post-" trade agreement rates.

145. Bearing in mind also the experience gained in the preparation of the Basic Documentation for the GATT Tariff Study (Summary by Industrial Product Categories, Geneva, published in March 1974), estimates by the secretariat of trade-weighted pre- and post-Tokyo Round tariff averages for the wood and cork sector are as follows :

1972,

1 Certain unilateral reductions were put into effect on 1 April

Weighted average of all duty rates, using most favoured nation imports (in 1977, in some cases 1976) of the country concerned, at the national tariff line level, as the weighting pattern.

MDF/W/52

Average duty rates in percent ad valorem

(1) US (2) EEC (3) Japan (4) Canada Total, 9

Tariffs Category: Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- (1) through (4)

plus: Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland Pre- Post

Tokyo Round—

Wood and cork in the rough: 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.0

Wood-based panels 14.2

3/ 7.1- 10.6 8.2 19.9 17.8 14.92/

3/ 7.5 -' 13.8 7.0

Other semi-manufactured wood and cork products : 0.3 0.0 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5

2/ 2.1-' 0.8 0.7 0.4

Manufactured Articles of wood or cork 4.5 2.8 7.2 5.1 9.0 4.5

2/ 12.0^' 8.1 7.0 4.5

— For woodpulp, which covers only one tariff line, or a few tariff lines, all within CCCN heading 47.01, see Table V-A.

2/ — Average duty rates for Japan (following reductions made in 1986, or

announced for 1.1.1987 and 1 April 1987, and 1 April 1988 respectively) will eventually be lower. Revised, trade-weighted duty rate averages are not yet available.

3/ — Certain concessions for plywood were granted on a conditional basis,

partly with a delayed target date (1.1.1990), and are not so far in effect, The post-Tokyo Round duty rate thus is higher than the target rate averages shown. Difficulties encountered in moving towards duty reductions in the mutual United States/Canadian plywood trade are set out, as reported by the United States, in the United States 1985 Annual Report on National Trade Estimates, pages 43 and 44 (e.g. the report required by Section 303 of the United States Trade and Tariff Act of 1984). Further, in the United States, it was announced (22 May 1986) that cedar shingles and shakes, previously duty-free, would be subject to a - temporary - tariff of 35 per cent, declining - through successive reductions over a five-year period - to 8 per cent.

MDF/W/52

146. Useful as data on average duty levels by product category may be for purposes of aggregate economic analysis , such data provide little insight regarding the degree of protection the import tariff affords domestic production of a given product and of the possible impact of the tariff on trade. Experience shows that, for an in-depth examination of the protective effect of a tariff, virtually an item-by-item approach is required. As this is not possible in the context of an overview paper, some broad indications of progress made in dismantling tariff barriers in the Tokyo Round on wood, cork and products thereof and on wood pulp may be gleaned from the information set out in Table V-A, which provides data on pre- and post-Tokyo Round ad valorem duties (or ad valorem equivalents, as calculated for the GATT Tariff Study files) at the CCCN four-digit level for some of the major import markets. The Table also provides an indication of the areas in which tariff protection is still of some significance in the listed countries. Generally, it can be stated that tariff protection remains to be of some significance in regard to fibre-board (CCCN position 44.11), plywood (44.15), to some extent also for particle-board (44.18), and for sawn-wood (44.05, 44.13), in certain markets. As sawn-wood (including also planed wood etc.) and plywood are among the most important items in international trade in wood, import tariffs are perceived by some countries as being among the remaining problems and the list of actual, or potential, tariff-treatment problems may, of course, be much longer, depending upon products and import markets involved.

Note; The headnote to Tables V-A and V-B, subject to photo-reduction in this revised version of the document, are reproduced, for better readability, in larger print size on page 198.

Page 118: Japan: one or more sub-positions under each of the following CCCN numbers have benefited (or will benefit, with effect from specified dates in 1987 or 1988) from tariff reductions announced in January 1986: 44.05; 44.11; 44.13; 44.14; 44.15; 44.18 and 44.19.

Canada: * = agglomerated, more than 10% (by weight) binder = 10.2%;

** = coniferous, untreated = free; coniferous, treated = 6.8%;

*** = [final rate to become effective 1.1.1990].

See in this context a study by the UNCTAD Secretariat for UNIDO - "Tariff and Non-Tariff Measures in the World Trade of Wood and Wood Products", prepared in the context of UNIDO's first world-wide sectoral study of the wood and wood processing industry, document UNID0/IS.396 (1983).

2 Not all of the GATT countries which made tariff concessions in the

Tokyo Round on wood, cork and products thereof, or on pulp, could be covered in the Summary Table. Apart from the countries covered in Table V-A, Iceland and Spain made m.f.n. duty concessions on a wide range of wood products. Argentina, India, and the Rep. of South Africa made concessions on a few items. Australia made concessions on a few items and reduced duties unilaterally on several other tariff positions. A number of other countries also effected duty reductions without, however, binding the reduced rates. In a few cases, duties were bound at ceiling levels. Some of the countries not covered by the Table may have granted tariff concessions in earlier GATT negotiating rounds.

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147. As regards international trade in logs, import tariffs are, perhaps, no longer a problem. On the other hand, export controls and/or the prohibition of log exports from some of the producing areas, export duties and various types of non-tariff measures, such as tacit import controls, or quotas, as well as stringent phyto-sanitary controls in certain import markets for logs have, in various contexts, been cited as measures hindering trade-expansion and -development and are seen in some countries (including by Korea Rep.) as a problem in maintaining wood-industry production levels. Tariff-free quotas for certain wood semi-manufactures negotiated, or unilaterally granted, up to pre-set ceiling levels, are seen both as a welcome trade liberalization measure, and also as a measure introducing a degree of uncertainty for exporters in respect of the extent, and the lapse of time in a given quota period, in which they may benefit from more liberal access possibilities. This is a problem not only for exporters but also for the import trade, a problem which has led to complaints about licence -allocations and -utilization procedures, for instance within the EEC.

148. One of the shortcomings for inter-country comparisions of summary data on average tariff protection calculated for m.f.n. duties and (on a more substantive basis) actual tariff treatment, a problem perceived by some of the major exporters of wood and wood products, is the increasingly more limited geographical area-coverage of m.f.n. duty concessions. The US Tariff Commission Study, previously cited, notes that in 1955 almost 90 per cent of all imports (not just the wood, cork, pulp sector) paid m.f.n. rates of duty, but that by 1970 that figure had declined to 75 per cent. As is generally known, the international trading scene has much changed since the early 1970s, with the result that today a large part of international trade is subject to preferential conditions of access, either under the GSP or under various free-trade agreements or arrangements. Where m.f.n. duties have subsequently been reduced, or eliminated, which was the case in a number of countries (for instance, in the Nordic countries, as can be seen from Table V-A) the effect of tariff preferences on a country's own imports has, of course, been attenuated or eliminated. While this is not a subject for the present note, it is relevant to point out that, as shown in Table V-B, imports originating from m.f.n. sources often account for only a limited percentage of all imports. The same is, however, often true for imports from GSP sources, although such imports, in principle, benefit in most of the countries covered in Table VyB from import duty exemption, or, in a few cases, from duty reduction. At the same time, it will be noted that, remaining m.f.n. duties notwithstanding, many countries (for the EEC see also Table III-B) do import from outside the respective common market free-trade area, or the GSP beneficiary areas.

149. The question of preferential trade flows is not one limited only to the GSP, or to the European free-trade area agreements, but is relevant also for trade between Australia and New Zealand and the SPARTECA countries, and, for trade flows among countries in South- and Central America, for trade among developing countries in West Africa, in

For details of GSP treatment of tropical wood products cf. COM.TD/W/345 and Addenda. GSP facilities, and recent changes in Japan's GSP are described in L/4531/Add.10 (page 6).

MDF/W/52

the ASEAN region and under such other arrangements as the GATT Protocol Relating to Trade Negotiations Among Developing Countries and also for remaining Commonwealth Preferences, special area preferences and, perhaps, for trade among the CMEA countries and within the Arab Common Market region. While some of the participants in these regional preferential arrangements are among those with rich forest resources, actual trade flows in wood, wood products and pulp among these countries are often quite limited, as indicated by Table III-B. Often this may be due to the similarity, rather than complementarity, in resource endowments. In other cases, other trade restraints may operate, or tariff preferences may be of a theoretical nature, rather than of practical significance since, sometimes, preferential tariff concessions exchanged involve bindings at a ceiling level, set above the actually applied, or applicable, duty rate. In other cases, preferential arrangements may involve more than merely preferential duty rate reductions, entailing, for instance, inter-industry consultation and co-operation provisions between the different trading partners, or elaborate and sophisticated techniques (as within sectoral agreements negotiated earlier on in the LAFTA context) for determining at which preference level preferential trade flows will actually be generated. These provisions and facilities notwithstanding, trade development and preferential trade expansion results are not always at a level expected, or desired, by the participants, partly so because industry interests may not always match with development planning-exercises and -projects.

150. While m.f.n. duties on trade in wood, wood products, cork and woodpulp countries have been substantially reduced since the 1950s, or even eliminated for some sub-categories of these products in the developed areas, m.f.n. duties on the same categories of products in many of the developing countries remain on the high side. Import duties on wood in the rough, in some thirty selected African, Asian and South American countries range from 5 per cent and 11 per cent to more than 40 per cent respectively in Africa and South America and up to more than 100 per cent in Asia; for wood semi-manufactures the range is from 5 per cent and 14 per cent to more than 40 per cent and 80 per cent respectively in Africa and South America and from some 50 per cent to more than 60 per cent in Asia. For wood manufactures (not including furniture) the range is from 5 per cent to more than 60 per cent in Africa, from close to 30 per cent to more than 80 per cent in South

A limited number of wood items are covered in the tariff concession schedules of some of the participating countries.

2 Most of the countries in the Arab Common Market region, which in

recent years had been a major importing region for wood products, are traditionally among the low-duty countries, and few of these countries are forestry products exporters, so that there is only limited practical scope for tariff preferences. Other forms of trade controls in these countries may, however, be important.

3 This is, for example, the case for some ASEAN concessions on wood

products. However, under a recent ASEAN decision, joint-venture projects, involving participants from other ASEAN members, stand to benefit from preferential treatment in each other's markets for wood products manufactured by these joint ventures, some of which are in existence and are already among major wood-products producers, notably some of the ASEAN joint ventures operating in Indonesia.

MDF/W/52

America and from some 50 per cent up to 125 per cent in Asia. Some of the lower import duties found in a number of African developing countries must be supplemented, for purposes of practical comparison, with additional fiscal duties which may be equal to, or a multiple of, the import duty itself.

151. While import duties in many of the developing countries on wood and wood products are high, when compared with prevailing duty rates in developed countries, the rates applicable in developing countries on wood and wood products are generally not very different from those applicable in the countries concerned in regard of most other products -except imports of certain necessary food items and of goods for specific development purposes. Where wood and wood products are required for specific development projects they are often imported on government account, or benefit from specific duty exemptions. Import duty treatment of wood and wood products in most of the developing countries should also be seen in the context of their revenue needs and development policy objectives. All this does not imply that possibilities for reducing and, where possible, eliminating tariff barriers should not be actively explored, especially so as many of the high duty rates are probably "redundant", and not conducive to the development of viable, efficient wood-processing industries in the different developing regions.

152. Several of the major wood producers and exporters among the developing countries are levying export duties or taxes on exports of logs. Some of the export duties and taxes have a long history, in the sense that they do go back to pre-independence days. The primary objective of these duties or taxes was the collection of revenue. Both import and export taxes in developing countries can, and often do, make an important contribution to overall State revenue receipts, given the relatively undeveloped nature of other forms of revenue collection, while in most developed country contexts varied fiscal- instruments and -mechanisms are available to serve that purpose.

153. A more recent development is the use of export duties and taxes for wood industry development purposes. Under these schemes, operated in some South-East Asian countries, but also in West Africa, export duties and taxes are differentiated according to stages of processing, with duties on exports of logs being highest, with those on sawn-wood and similar products set at a lower rate, with the lowest - or a zero - rate applying to plywood, or other more highly manufactured wood items. This active encouragement of manufactured wood exports is frequently supplemented by special incentives and regulations which favour domestic wood processing activities. Among measures in use in developing

Information on duty rates applicable to imports of unmanufactured wood, and cork, wood and cork semi-manufactures, manufactured articles of wood and cork and of woodpulp, by duty-rate categories, was circulated to interested contracting parties in the GATT LDC/TS document series for a large number of individual developing countries. For a recent summary of tariff information on wood and wood products for a number of developing countries, cf. also UNIDO/IS.396 - op. cit.

2 The provision of such incentives is, however, not necessarily

limited to developing countries only.

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countries are regulations which limit the granting of logging concessions to enterprises which guarantee to set up saw- or ply-mills, to process a progressively increasing share of the log harvest into sawn-wood and plywood. To the extent that the firms are also exporters, log exports may be subject to a form of mixing regulation, linking the volume of permitted log exports to the volume of sawn-wood or plywood exports.

154. The question of the "optimum mix" of these different policy measures, depending on the exact nature of the objectives pursued, has prompted much expert advice to governments, including advice from international agencies and consultants' services, which explore, inter alia, questions relating to tax- and export-strategies. While these measures and policies have, undoubtedly, played a role in the rapid development in recent years of exports of sawn-wood and of plywood from part of the developing regions, and while these policies have some influence on the level of employment opportunities in both exporting and importing countries, the exact foreign exchange earnings impact may be less certain to assess. This is partly so because in the past few years, when the wood industry almost everywhere has suffered from recessionary forces, export prices of logs have, on the whole, held up better than, say, export prices of tropical sawn-wood. (Lowered prices for plywood imports have, however, exerted downward pressures on log export prices and - in Japan - prices have also been affected by increased import competition between softwood and hardwood logs.)

155. With respect to remaining import duties on the products covered by this note, countries having major export interests have repeatedly made the point that, much as they appreciated the progress made in past GATT negotiations in reducing many m.f.n. import duties, to what may appear to be, at first sight, relatively low duty rates, such duties could nevertheless still be serious barriers to trade expansion. Given the structure of the market for forestry- and wood-products, price differences of only a few percentage points, occasioned by the continued existence of import duties, say on sawn-wood, could make all the difference between success or failure in entering a given import market, or in expanding market shares in competition with preferential suppliers. Relatively low nominal duties, even if applied at a uniform rate (say, logs and sawn-wood, both dutiable at 6 per cent ad valorem), could give rise to high levels of effective protection for the saw-milling operations, close to 20 percentage points, if the 6 per cent duty rate for the intermediate product is applied to the value-added price element (say, about 27-30 per cent value-added for saw-milling). Moreover, duty rates on raw materials are often zero, while m.f.n. duties on intermediate products are, more often than not, positive, frequently rising to higher and higher levels for each successive processing stage output, the maximum duty level being applicable to the finished product. Successive duty-rate cutting, as a result of often selective reductions of duty rates, effected in multilateral tariff negotiations, has somewhat reduced the problem of tariff escalation. For the wood sector it will, for instance, be seen from Table V-A that, in some of the major import markets, tariff escalation does not carry through consistently from the lowest to the highest stages of

The 6 per cent duty on both logs and sawn-wood is hypothetical. A more likely, real world, combination is a zero duty on logs with positive m.f.n. duty rates for sawn-wood of the order of close to 4 per cent, 6 per cent or 10 per cent, i.e., giving, at the higher nominal rates, ceteris paribus, still higher effective protection to saw-milling operations.

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processing. Some potentially labour-intensive wood products, for example, wooden foundry mouldings, wooden household utensils, spools-, bobbins- for textile machinery, even wooden joinery etc., may be subject to lower m.f.n. duties than certain intermediate wood products (say, fibre-board, plywood - in some cases, also wooden headings, mouldings -the latter when compared with sawn-, planed-wood etc.).

156. Tariff escalation, as contained in the original tariff schedules, has also lost some of its practical significance as a result of tariff exemption for imports from designated sources, in the context of the tariff preferences granted virtually across the board under the GSP and under certain regional common market and free-trade area arrangements. With import duties eliminated for all, or for a wide range of, products, the question of effective protection provided through import tariffs has disappeared for preference beneficiary countries in those markets where they receive across-the-board preferences. The problem may subsist, however, in respect of other markets in which positive m.f.n. duties remain in force. Evidently, the question is of greatest importance in respect of m.f.n. duty-protected import markets which are presently large importers, or could potentially be large import markets. Thus, though diminished in importance for some countries, the question of tariff escalation and potentially high effective protection levels is still one^f the issues confronting the international trading community ' and, of course, individual producers and exporters. Such tariff escalation, in practice, as notified for instance by Canada, is, apparently, discouraging many of the smaller Canadian wood-processing firms from trying to enter foreign markets. The same effect has been noticed in other producing areas.

157. In all cases where import duties are applicable, the question of actual or potential differentiation in import treatment as between different woods, and the products made thereof, may assume considerable importance. The same is true for differentiation in import treatment as regards non-tariff measures, applied differently as between wood and wood products derived from different species of trees. In the case of non-tariff measures, such differentiation does, for instance, occur (and may be justified) in relation to the application of certain phyto-sanitary measures, and in relation to product classification and acceptance^under prescribed product-characteristic, or performance-standards.

Tariff escalation is a virtually built-in feature of all CCCN-based tariff schedules, since the CCCN-structure can be traced back to the 1931/1937 League of Nations Draft Customs Nomenclature (DCN). One of the four guiding principles for the establishment of the DCN was that it should "take into account the quantity of work embodied in the goods, starting with raw materials, for arriving at semi-manufactures and finished products" with the purpose, as evidenced by the DCN drafting history, of permitting governments to determine the degree of protection necessary for each stage of processing activity. (Cf. also GATT document TAR/W/18.) The question of tariff escalation on wood and wood

./.

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Footnote (cont'd)

products is one of the subjects dealt with in an UNCTAD study prepared for UNIDO - document UNIDO/lS/396, op.cit. A GATT secretariat note relating to a possibly related subject (import elasticities and tariff escalation) was circulated in document MDF/W/5. In the context of the Working Party's deliberations, a submission by Canada (cf. MDF/W/3, page 12) suggests that ascending tariff position numbers, which in the CCCN system would indicate successively higher stages of processing, may sometimes be misleading, in that positions which are several position numbers apart, and dutiable at significantly different rates (cf. Table V A), may actually be fairly similar (such as "rough" lumber, under CCCN position A4.05, and "dressed or worked" lumber, which falls under position 44.13), with little extra value added, and consequently significant tariff escalation, leading to significantly different trade flow patterns for 44.05 and 44.13 items in several key markets.

2 The effective protection concept, first raised in the mid-1950s,

attracted much attention in the 1960s and early 1970s (cf. for instance, "Effective Tariff Protection", Geneva 1971, containing papers presented to, and a record of the proceedings of, the first international conference on that subject, held in December 1970, co-sponsored by the GATT and the (Geneva) Graduate Institute of International Studies). Partly for the reasons cited in the paragraphs above, and partly because of formidable practical difficulties in achieving international consensus on the relative importance and treatment of various real-life problems which should be incorporated in a valid general equilibrium model (with forward and backward linkages, which might offset the protective effect of positive duties, to the extent of, perhaps, giving negative effective protection results even with positive import duties), effective protection theory, although of a fairly high level of refinement, has not found widespread use, or general acceptance, for agreed negotiating objectives. A recent contribution to the discussion of the effective protection concept, and a refinement thereof, with data relating, inter alia, to wood products, paper and furniture, can be found in "The Structure of Tariff Protection: Effects of Foreign Tariffs and Existing NTBs", by V. Deardorf and R.M. Stern, in The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol.LXVII, No.4, November 1985. As far as the question of effective protection on wood and wood products is concerned, reference may also be made to GATT document MTN/SEC/W/2/Add.1, of March 1976. Various aspects of the use of export taxes and import duties, and the effective protection they are providing in certain specific instances involving wood and wood semi-manufactures, are the subject of examination in a (broad-based) FAO-sponsored consultancy project.

3 As an example one might cite the testing, shortly to be

undertaken, or to be completed, by Japan, for acceptance of lodgepole and ponderosa pine as materials to be used for structural laminated lumber under the JAS Standard. (Réf. L/5858 of 3 Sept. 1985.)

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158. Given the great variety of trees growing in the world (several thousand species, at least; cf. Introduction and Section A), there exists, theoretically, considerable scope for the reflection of this species-diversity in the tariff schedules of the different producing--, exporting- and importing-countries. In practice, distinction by tree-species and wood products thereof in the tariff schedules of most of the countries covered by this note is fairly limited. Such differentiation as does exist may, however, have important effects, depending on how differentiation in classification carries through to the tariff treatment stage, and has been, and still is, the subject of discussion and/or negotiations between interested countries.

159. The original Brussel Tariff Nomenclature on which the Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature currently in force is based (150 countries use the CCCN, only fourteen do not), does not specifically distinguish, for customs purposes, between different wood varieties. (A distinction is, however, sometimes carried, for statistical purposes, for linking up with the Standard International Trade Classification/SITC - categories between coniferous wood and non-coniferous wood.) All of the distinctions made in the original BTN/CCCN classification are related to sequential processing stages of wood and/or related to different uses of wood. As it is a fact that certain species of wood are used predominantly, or even exclusively, in certain applications and uses, the CCCN - even without mentioning specific wood species and the products thereof - thus does contain a degree of implicit species distinction. The new Harmonized System, which has recently been elaborated by the Customs Cooperation Council for adoption by member countries for tariff schedule- and statistical purposes, does, however, contain certain species distinctions by singling out various wood species under a number of re-defined CCCN positions, namely: new 44.03 (previously 44.03-04), 44.07 and 44.08 (formerly ex 44.05, ex-13, ex-28) and 44.12 (ex 44.15). Singled out are a number of tropical woods (including certain grouped wood varieties) and, among non-tropical woods: oak, beech, other non-coniferous and coniferous woods.

160. In the GATT itself, in follow-up of the 1963 Ministerial Declaration and the Action Programme, then adopted, and, thereafter, in the context of the Kennedy Round, various tropical wood varieties were notified by interested tropical wood exporting countries for priority action in any duty reduction programmes. Requests for this type of action, as it related to tropical woods, were generally sympathetically received by developed countries and - where such action was administratively feasible - did lead to import duty dismantlement for many of the woods for which action was requested. However, as, at the time, few developing countries had built up significant export capacity of processed wood items, the liberalization measures, as requested,

Details of the specifically designated tropical woods are contained in GATT document COM/TD/W/345/Add.1, of 22 September 1983. Given the ongoing preoccupation with trade-development possibilities for tropical wood and wood products in the GATT, FAO, UNCTAD, ITC, ITTO and other bodies - many of which are concerned with the opening up of new market outlets for secondary species of tropical woods - the question of the advisability, or otherwise, of a differentiation between different woods in tariff schedules is, potentially, a vast subject.

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affected, by necessity, primarily unprocessed wood, increasing thereby, inadvertantly, and, as it turned out, temporarily, the "effective protection" for certain wood products. To the extent that virtually all woods (with some important exceptions in some markets) were subsequently covered by the broader-based GSP schemes, the earlier distinction between designated tropical woods and other woods from GSP origins diminished and virtually disappeared. Consequently, in the tariff schedules of most of the developed countries, and in the accompanying administrative regulations, distinctions between different tropical woods (with exceptions as noted) are now of little importance, if maintained at all. Distinctions between (mainly) non-tropical wood varieties and the duty rates applicable to products made thereof, can, however, be found in the tariff schedules of Australia, Canada, Hungary, Japan (recently attenuated), New Zealand, Poland, Republic of South Africa, Switzerland and, to a certain extent (for instance, on plywood varieties), the United States.

161. The situation for developing countries' tariff schedules is that most countries do not make a distinction that is significant in terms of import duty rates applicable to different woods, and wood products derived therefrom. Developing countries which do make detailed distinctions in their tariff schedules according to tree species and sub-species often reflect details of their export tariff structure in their import tariff. As different tree species are not all benefiting from equally high levels of export demand, export taxes are set at different rates for different log- and wood-species. On the import side they are, however, generally subject to a common, standard duty rate, which, given the production and demand structure, is, moreover, unlikely to have an effect on import patterns and demand.

162. Preferential treatment, or its opposite, is not necessarily circumscribed by preferential treaty provisions. Since it is a fact that certain tree varieties grow only in certain regions of the world, the out-specification in the tariff (or in non-tariff measure

As Switzerland uses exclusively specific duty rates for all woods and wood products, differentiation by wood species would be required if all woods were to be subject to the same ad valorem incidence rate (since different woods have different densities, or weight). In practice, rate differentiation by species exists, as indicated by existing duty rate ranges in given tariff headings in Table V-A. Some of the duty rate distinctions by species in the Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and, to a certain extent, South African tariff schedules are, presumably, intended to give effect to preferences under remaining Commonwealth Preferences, or NAFTA, or SPARTECA, as the case may be.

2 Developing countries covered by this note, which do make

distinctions by species, and which are also duty-rate significant, are: Argentina, Brazil, Haiti, Israel, Korea Republic, Pakistan, Spain, Sri Lanka, Uruguay and, to some extent, Yugoslavia.

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regulations) of a given wood, known to grow only in a given area, or areas, amounts, in practice, to an area-preference - at least for the primary wood items - even if the applicable (high or low) duty rate is couched in m.f.n. terms.

163. While distinctions in import duty treatment for logs are rare in developed countries, since logs (particularly saw and veneer logs) are import-duty free in most developed countries (while export duties on logs, differentiated by species, are not uncommon in developing countries, perhaps for the reasons already cited), differentiation in import treatment of such items as sawn-wood may be of real significance, the maintenance of such restrictions reflecting probably true concern of the importing countries as to the effect which further reduction and/or removal of import duties might have on domestic producers, or on suppliers benefiting from trade preferences - unless, of course, failure to reduce duty levels observed at the end of a negotiating round should have been due to a real, or perceived, lack of reciprocity in tariff concessions received by the country from which tariff concessions on wood and wood products were requested.

164. Tariff schedules may also have their technical intricacies. For instance, the reference in both the US and Canadian tariff schedules to Spanish cedar relates neither to the true cedar variety nor to Spain, but to a mahogany-like wood (species cedrella), growing south of the US border, which is appreciated, inter alia, for the fabrication of cigar boxes. Thuya, juniper and cypress are also commonly referred to in the United States as cedar. Trees of the real oak species grow virtually nowhere in the tropics; reference to tropical oak in one of the European tariff schedules examined for this note is, therefore, ambiguous. Trade designations such as African walnut may have no link whatsoever to the walnut (juglans) species. For Japan, someone consulting the tariff schedule may still be bewildered by the true meaning of tariff provisions, or the scope of tariff concessions made. For example, to understand the significance of tariff concessions made by Japan on coniferous lumber, a knowledge is required both of the coniferous varieties included in the botanical species pinus, abies,

In this connection, geo-tectonic movements, eons ago, resulting in the similarity of certain forest-vegetation in China, Japan and adjacent areas and the Americas (with some of the species found in these regions growing nowhere else naturally), may still be of some relevance. For example, the one and only exception in Japan's tariff schedule of a log still bearing m.f.n. import duty concerns a tree variety - Kiri - native to Japan, but also growing naturally in China, Canada and the US. This fast-growing tree, a member of the Pawlownia family, is planted in Japan mainly for its ornamental value (its leaves, flowers and stem form one of the two imperial crests of Japan (the other one is based on the chrysanthemum), but may also be grown for wood, as in Brazil, where Kiri plantations were established by Japanese settlers. GSP benefits notwithstanding, the main suppliers to Japan (m.f.n. duty on Kiri logs is 2.5 per cent) are Canada and the United States. Import duties on wood products made from Kiri have also proved resistant to change, but, compared with some other wood products, are relatively low.

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picea and larix - and, by implication, also of the species that are not included in the species sequoia, podocarpus, araucaria (the latter two of importance in southern-Hemisphere forests) taxodium, juniperus, cupressus and pseudotsuga. Once such an understanding is achieved, the rationale has to be sought for treating imports of given woods differently, depending on size specifications - which, in the mind of the reader, could then be crosslinked to whether or not the wood in question has been kiln-dried. Certain technical reasons may well exist, in the sense that small section lumber, properly kiln-dried, generally does keep all its technical strength characteristics, while kiln-dried larger section lumber may not (with the emphasis on may, depending on the way drying is done) retain all its initial strength characteristics. If this were only a matter of tariff classification, it would not be important, but, as the differences in tariff classification do entail differences in tariff treatment, this is a matter of concern to forest resource owners who possess timber resources which are more dependent on kiln-drying before shipment and use than producers possessing stands of certain other timber varieties . One possible assumption might be that these are merely technical matters, occurring in tariff schedules and in the non-tariff measure regulations coincidentally, or an account of a possible lack of technical information at the time the tariff or regulation was elaborated. In some cases this might well be so. In other cases such technical distinctions are there for a purpose and may prove to be true stumbling blocks for tariff dismantlement and trade liberalization.

165. Progress in tariff dismantlement notwithstanding, it may, for example, be no comfort for North American producers of spruce, pine and fir to know that dressed, green hemlock and douglas-"fir" (sometimes also, likewise incorrectly, referred to as Douglas spruce, -pine, -hemlock; botanically it is a pseudotsuga) are free of import duty in Japan, while their lumber varieties (dressed and kiln-dried) remain subject to an import duty of 10 per cent, thus putting spruce, pine and fir, which are used in the same end-market (mainly construction), at a competitive disadvantage not only vis-a-vis the equivalent Japanese product, but also vis-a-vis exporters (including those from North America) of hemlock and douglas-fir. At this point it will be generally realized that the subject is an extremely complex one, and that the threshold to the world of non-tariff measures or barriers may have been crossed.

Different tree species have different moisture contents when processed, (influenced also by site conditions and, inter alia, the season of felling and logging operations) and may hence require different lengths of time for air-drying, so that the latter option may not always be practical. Apart from technical reasons, there may be some underlying economic rationale for differentiation, namely the fact that kiln-drying is very energy-intensive. In saw-mills that kiln-dry, normally 60 - 85 per cent of total thermal energy used is accounted for by kiln-drying. It is, however, also relevant to note that saw-mill residues could be used for generating the heat and/or energy for kiln-drying. Part of the question may thus hinge not only on the relative cost of equipment and energy inputs (which may vary widely over time and/or mill location), but also on the possible alternative uses of saw-mill residues at the given location.

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166. While several of the references made above relate to Japan and, mainly, to North American export interests, the subject of technical standards and problems caused thereby, or, conversely, the trade opportunities they may open for other suppliers, is a subject of universal relevance. French saw-millers complain, for instance, that current French building standards virtually preclude the use of boards containing knots in the type of roof-truss construction (also known as "American") that has been common since the 1960s. French saw-millers point out that many of the French mountain forests produce trees that cannot be free of knots and that such wood was successfully used in ages past for (admittedly heavier-timbered post and beam) roof construction. Construction industry and wood processing industry users in France point out that much of the wood available from domestic sources does not correspond to their requirements under the current changed construction-and wood-industry-use conditions , thus obliging them to rely on imports.

167. Not only new regulations and new building techniques may be seen as a cause of problems - or of opportunities - for trade, depending on the interests involved. In Japan, for instance, the use of "two-by-fours'" (inches; nominally 5.08 x 10.16 cm. cross-section) lumber, was approved for residential construction only a decade ago. This most common lumber-size for residential construction in North America, in a recent year was used in not more than 2 per cent of single family house construction projects in Japan and only 12 per cent of Japan's housing can be classified as "prefabricated, modular or manufactured". The favourite construction method in Japan continues to be the traditional post-and-beam method. Under this system a central pillar, instead of exterior walls, supports the weight of the structure with overhead beams. This permits (in addition to at least one, traditional "clay wall") lightweight, airy partition walls, which give, among other things, an admirable flexibility to Japanese residences, but which may also heighten vulnerability to the spread of fire, thus prompting, perhaps, another wood-use restrictive regulation. Possibly, though not necessarily, linked both to traditional construction design and as an anti-fire measure, are various building codes which limit the market for wooden buildings to relatively low density units, i.e., precluding the construction of three- or four-storey apartment buildings from wood. (At about the time of the May 1986 Tokyo Summit meeting - a jointly-sponsored (by United States and Japanese industries and authorities) three-storey wooden demonstration house, especially anti-fire and anti-seism reinforced, "Summit House '86" was inaugurated in Tokyo.)

Association: "France - Promobois - Construction", Figaro, 16 Sept. 1983 and "L'Agriculteur du Sud-Est", op. cit.

2 Other typical lumber sizes are 2 x 10 for floor joists and also

2 x 6 (also 2 x 8 ) for outer walls in (the increasing number of) cases where thicker wall insulation material is to be installed.

3 Close to one million dwellings are constructed per year in Japan,

slightly less than one-half are wooden constructions, and 4-5 per cent of constructions out of the latter figure (according to some observers) are timber-frame (cf. also end of footnote 1 starting on page 103).

4 Ref: Wall Street Journal, 16 Feb. 1983 - ("Prefabricated" in the

"Western" sense. In fact, a large - probably the major - part of lumber going into traditional, residential construction in Japan is "pre-shaped" by processors and in carpenters' workshops.)

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168. The Japanese post-and-beam construction method has a tradition of many centuries, is scientifically proven to have good anti-tremor ductility (good tremor-energy dissipation and good overall stability and recovery - part of it due to the fact that most traditional houses rest loosely on foundation stones; there are, on average, three to four noticeable seismic tremors a day), but it is also costly. As many as, or even more than, 100 sizes of lumber may be needed to build a house by this method. (Lumber sizes used in traditional residential construction have been - for more than 300 years -standardized to an unusual, and almost nation-wide degree, involving, inter alia, very elaborate, ingenious, but not necessarily maximum-strength, groove and 'pin' joinery. For a real eye-opener on this subject, essential in the author's view for developing wood marketing in Japan, see "The Japanese House" by H. Engel - published by Ch.E. Tuttle Co., Rutland Vt. and Tokyo; 11th printing 1983.) As a consequence, Japanese wood-users (almost all of them professionals; wood-working "do-it-yourselvers" are rare in Japan) are unusually concerned with obtaining lumber cut to exact sizes and having particularly well defined processing characteristics (Japanese craftsmen have developed their very special methods and tools over the ages for fine, precision wood-working techniques and tools, which are not without admirers in other countries). This makes Japanese buyers of wood and wood products exacting clients, paying attention also to the wood's overall aesthetic aspects (as for many other products), not only for eventually to be exposed, varnished surfaces (with, reportedly, a preference for "white woods") and insistence on particularly close size tolerances, specific year-ring characteristics, the latter perhaps specified by reference to height above sea level at which given tree species grew, etc. Such specifications, in the eyes of certain producer/exporters, may seem to be still further complicated, by the insistence of buyers on metric specifications, obligatory in Japan, [but difficult to follow, even for Japanese builders, accustomed to measuring and lay-out in terms of "ken" grids and tatami (straw mat) multiples; the Tokyo Standard (but now often deviated from), tatami is about 0.90 x 1.80 metres], which many North American producers, geared primarily to supplying the vast domestic market (particularly United States producers, where metrication is progressing only slowly) may not always be in a position to supply immediately. Japanese market requirements as regards size and thickness specifications for plywood sheets have, in the past, also caused some difficulties for plywood exports from some of the developing areas, 1

whose export production was geared to United States market specifications. Suppliers of wood products which are new to the Japanese market may, likewise, run up against buyers' traditional views and concepts, until it is realized that, for instance, rapid tree growth - as for radiata pine -does not mean that the wood from species with rapid growth may not have good technical qualities. For certain woods (including oak) rapid early growth is, in fact, a prerequisite for high mechanical strength and resistance. (But then, sub-species and site conditions may make great differences; unlike most foreign oak wood, Japanese oak wood does not have a reputation of great durability.) For certain uses, easy processing characteristics may be sought, as might be associated with wood from certain slow growing tree varieties. The buyer's judgement of the technical characteristics of a given foreign wood is often fashioned by experience with using seemingly similar domestic woods. In Japan some of the domestic softwoods have very good technical characteristics, but perhaps as much as half of the domestic

R.A. Sedjo, in "United States-Japan Solidwood Trade", op. cit. -notes that "In a real sense the Japanese have a comparative advantage in wood processing as the result of their unique standards and requirements". - Many of the exporters have by now established ply-mills capable of producing sheet-sizes in demand in Japan - and plywood imports into Japan increased significantly in the recent past.

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coniferous tree species produce wood with relatively low technical strength characteristics. In the circumstances, it is perhaps not surprising, given also the easy availability of high-grade "South-Sea" hardwoods for plywood production, that coniferous-species plywood found approval and acceptance as a building material in Japan only some years ago, by which time it was realized, however, that certain coniferous plywoods are not only excellent construction materials generally, but are probably unsurpassed in some uses, for instance as concrete-casing.

169. The meeting of different technical standards, evolved in different national contexts, on the international market and in the negotiating arena, is not without problems. A given tropcial wood which may have excellent strength and performance characteristics in humid tropical climates often does not perform well in temperate-zone conditions and, conversely, some widely-used temperate-zone woods would fare badly, performance-wise, were they to be employed in tropical climates, or in such constantly humid climates as are found in large parts of Japan. (Another factor to be taken into account for Japan is that parts of many houses remain unheated in winter. Inside-to-outside thermal stresses on wooden construction may thus be reduced.) Countries relying largely on traditional mortise and tenon wood joinery methods have wood requirements that are different from those countries where wood to be used for "joinery" work is based largely on the use of various forms of metallic industrial fasteners, dowels and glue. Moreover, one thing leads to another. Large-scale recourse to nailed timber-frame construction also implies, using current construction methods, large needs for wood-based panels for joining studs, joists, rafters, etc. into a shell of sufficient rigidity. A wood species, or a wood product, evaluated by laboratory tests, and found adequate in one set of circumstances, may be found wanting in the context of other circumstances, in another country. The problem becomes particularly acute when introducing new wood varieties or products to the international market.

170. Increasing reliance on exporting woods of secondary species and products made thereof is a virtual necessity for most of the tropical wood- producing countries, for the reason that most tropical forests are composed of a large variety of wood species and that some of the varieties better known in the international market are nearing exhaustion. As new woods arrive on the market, tropical wood producers - the problem is, however, not entirely limited to tropical wood products - may try to assure potential clients of the qualities of their respective products, by categorizing them according to specified technical performance characteristics, or standards. However, as wood is essentially a composite product of various carbon polymers with different and complex molecular interlinking ("elongated cells wrapped in helical bands of cellulose and encased in lignin sheaths"), different from species to species, each wood^as its own combination of useful and of less desirable characteristics. The question thus arises which combination of characteristics should be specified for a given wood product. This, evidently, depends on the intended end-use and the possible end-use depends very much on the market characteristics and the

Some woods with high silica contents quickly dull saw blades, chippers, knives. Saw- and sanding-dust of certain woods causes skin rashes, or is outright toxic. Some woods are, perhaps strong, but not durable and do not readily absorb wood preserving materials. Some are difficult to glue, to nail, to polish or to paint, some have poor dimensional stability, etc., other woods may have exactly opposite characteristics, singly, or in various combinations; cf. also footnote 2 to paragraph 88.

MDF/W/52

domestic technical standards, or codes, for the use of wood products in a given market. This poses a real dilemma. As technical standards differ substantially from import market to import market, and even within a given regional or national market (with standards often set by regional professional associations or under prefectural- or even local building codes) a given product specification, valid for one market, may make the product relatively unattractive in another market. The establishment of, and grading to, relatively low performance requirements, that may have been drawn up by the importing country, is not a solution either. Countries which have a tradition of producing and exporting high performance products may feel (this is not a hypothetical example) that a lower standard may induce competitors to undercut their position in a given market by supplying a lower-standard, lower-cost product. This set of problems has been recognized and much international effort is going into trying to resolve these, through work being undertaken on the part of professional- and wood-industry associations, government departments concerned, the FAO, UN regional Commissions (notably ESCAP, as far as.the developing regions are concerned), and other international bodies. Mutually beneficial agreements are possible, as -presumably - the agreed North American technical standard for plywood for exports to Europe. Much work remains to be done, however, to overcome some of the real problems encountered with respect to technical standards.

171. In the context of GATT tariff negotiations, problems in the technical standards area concerning wood and products surfaced in the form of several notifications submitted for the Inventory on Non-Tariff Measures, and also, inter alia, in regard to the respective US and Canadian technical standards for softwood-plywood (with some of the tariff concessions on plywood exchanged between these two countries in the Tokyo Round being conditional, and the issues not yet resolved: cf. footnote to paragraph 145). In this connection it may, however, be pointed out that intended modifications of technical standards, or the introduction of new technical standards, are to be notified by the thirty-seven signatory countries, and the„EEC, of the MTN (Tokyo Round) Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade. Consultation facilities with respect to envisaged changes in technical standards exist, both at the GATT and at notified national consultation points. It is, however, not only new standards which may create problems for interested exporters and importers, but also existing standards and the way in which these are administered, providing in some instances for time-consuming and costly re-inspection, for instance on softwood_plywood, lumber etc. and, as a related issue, difficult customs formalities.

172. Closely linked to the question of technical standards is that of phyto-sanitary standards and regulations on imports and exports of logs, wood, wood products and wooden packing materials. Together with technical standard

For a summary description of construction regulations, codes of practice etc., attention is invited to a United Nations publication (Sales No. E.85.11.E.14) "Building Regulations in ECE Countries", New York, 1985. At the national level in Europe there is now a growing tendency to simplify and to weed out unnecessarily complex codes which act as a brake on construction and, hence, economic activity generally.

2 Notifications are being kept on file in the secretariat and can be made

available to signatories of the Agreement, on request. A reference listing of the standards notifications received so far (only a few notifications relate specifically to forest products) is contained in GATT document TBT/W/68 and revisions.

3 As regards the latter measure, cf. also GATT NTM Inventory,

No. 11,0.21

MDF/W/52

notifications (many of which related to various building-code regulations), notifications concerning phytosanitary measures were those most often cited as obstacles to trade in the submissions for the GATT Non-Tariff Measure Inventory. Many of these earlier notifications have been resolved in bilateral consultations, since many of the specific problems notified involved country-specific issues and were thus amenable to bilateral discussion, negotiation and solution. Some of the issues - presumably settled - may, and sometimes do, after a while, come back to life. The question of the nature and extent of phytosanitary regulations required for protecting flora, fauna and health (covered by GATT Article XX(b)), in a way which does not unduly affect trade flows, is a real one. Within the present century the major North American chestnut variety was wiped out by an insect pest, European elm stands are being preserved with difficulty by the introduction of a number of disease-resistant hybrid species, Pinus strobus (Weymouth Pine), re-transplanted from North America to Europe, has proved to be particularly vulnerable to disease in certain areas (notably in the United Kingdom). Several of the circum-Mediterranean coniferous varieties are not only threatened by recurring forest fires but also by plant diseases; some of the eucalyptus plantations in the Iberian Peninsula are also vulnerable to plant disease etc. etc. In the circumstances, it is not surprising that fairly severe phytosanitary regulations are being applied in many countries, limiting notably the importation of wood that is not debarked, and limiting also the number of ports or points of entry for wood and products, so as to ensure proper inspection, fumigation if necessary (certain wood-destroying insect larvae have very long latency periods from incubation to eclosion, while others have a very rapid development cycle). Given the need for having appropriate phytosanitary regulations, there is little else that can be said in this note, except echoing the hope, voiced in various GATT contexts, that regulations will be applied in1such a manner as not to affect trade more than is absolutely necessary.

173. Import controls, import licensing and quantitative restrictions are among the other major non-tariff measures often cited as affecting trade in wood and wood products. Most of these import controls and restrictions are not specific to the wood sector but, generally, affect a wide range of products - perhaps most products - for example, those which are part of import control measures applied for protecting the balance-of-payments, as is the case in many developing countries. In other cases, import controls, even import prohibitions, particularly in non-GATT countries, are applicable to all imports, while each actual import is treated as an administrative exception. Some sources report, for instance, that imports of wood into certain countries in the Middle East are prohibited. Yet, export statistics of their trade partners show that these countries are among major importers of wood, products. In certain cases, a large part of all imports of wood and wood-products is accounted for by government purchases; this is true particularly in a number of developing countries, when implementing development plan projects. There are some cases where large-scale transactions involving lumber, and more recently also plywood, are effected under counter-trade compensation arrangements. Imports of wood and wood products originating in some of the CMEA countries into some of the Western European countries may be subject to import quota. Exports from some of the CMEA countries, to Western European destinations, of logs and wood products and fibre-board

In this connection attention is invited to a summary of discussions relating to this subject, contained in document AG/W/13.

MDF/W/52

may be subject to voluntary export restraints and/or price undertakings. Some other suppliers of fibre-board to developed country destinations have also undertaken minimum export price commitments, sometimes in return for cessation of anti-dumping procedures. Certain CCCN Chapter 47 products - among others - have been, and perhaps are, the subject of surveillance measures and regulatory prescriptions. Certain log export controls in North America, agreed upon some time in the past, seem to have had as their purpose not only the ensuring of adequate and reasonably priced domestic supplies of logs and building materials made therefrom, but also the protection of certain foreign forest-producer interests. Other controls instituted at the State or Provincial-level may have been prompted primarily with a view to fostering local value-added industries.

174. Periodic consultations regarding production-levels, exports and export prices are held between various producer-, industry- and trade associations in producing-, exporting- and importing countries. The question of trade development and trade development planning for forestry products may also be the subject of consultation between industry associations, perhaps with government participation. where tariff quota facilities exist, such as in the EEC, for certain wood products, additional customs formalities are an inevitable by-product for implementing the tariff quota. In this connection, it has been pointed out that the opening of annual quotas tends to bunch imports into the first part of the year, forcing importers to keep large inventories and exporters to skew their production operations. Moreover, the quotas may be the subject of consultations between the administrations concerned and interested industries. Items subject to GSP quota ceilings also imply additional administrative controls for imports under quota. Quantitative import restrictions are imposed sometimes to limit imports so as to ensure domestic offtake of abnormally high domestic production volumes, such as might occur in the wake of large-scale damage to forests by high winds or excessive snow loads. Action along the same lines is apparently envisaged in one or more markets in response to "acid-rain-kill" damage. Measures for promoting increased offtake of domestically produced timber, perhaps together with measures aimed at improving the competitive position of wood as an industrial raw material and in consumer products, have been reported, or are planned to be introduced, for several countries.

For instance, between the South-East Asian Lumber Producers' Association (SEALPA) and the Japan Lumber Importers Association, or between members of the Federation of Plywood Manufacturers of Korea, Malaysia and Singapore (KOMASI).

2 Such as the Australian-New Zealand Joint Consultative Council on

Forest Industries - réf. unasylva, FAO, Vol. 32, No. 130, 1980.

MDF/W/52

E. ADDITIONAL NOTES RELATING TO CORK

175. Summary tariff data on pre- and post-Tokyo Round tariff treatment in major import markets of unmanufactured cork and of cork manufactures (CCCN positions 45.01-45.09) are contained in Table V-A. Import and export statistics relating to cork and cork manufactures for practically all of the countries covered by the present note are given in Tables III-A and III-B. Table V-B contains statistics based on customs data for imports of cork into some cork importing countries.

176. International data compilations for cork production and trade are much less abundant than those for wood and wood products. World production of raw cork in recent years has ranged between 350-390 thousand tons per year. Production of cork (from cork oaks; certain other trees also have cork-like bark) has been tried in various geographic regions (including the USSR and California), but commercial success in the new growing areas has, on the whole, been rather limited. Most of the cork grown for commercial purposes is produced in just a few countries. Portugal traditionally accounts for close to one half of world cork production, but production in Portugal has been trending down over the last two decades. Average annual production for the period 1964-1972 was about 218 thousand tons and the average for 1973-81 was 178 thousand tons. Production in 1982 is estimated at 167 thousand tons and for 1983 at 140 thousand tons. About 22 per cent of total forest land in Portugal is under cork oaks. Spain normally contributes somewhat more than one fourth of world cork production. The other main producers are Italy (peninsular Italy, Sardinia and Sicily; together, about 6 per cent), Algeria and Morocco (5 per_cent each), France (including production in Corsica, 3 per cent) and Tunisia 2 per cent. In the Mediterranean regions, there is also some limited cork production in Yugoslavia.

Banco de Fomente Nacional; according to the same source, production estimates are (thousand tons): for 1984 - 125; for 1985 -116; for 1986 - 178; 1987 - 162; 1988 - 124; 1989 - 130; 1990 -168.

2 Data compiled for the "Estadistica Forestal de Espana" show cork

production in the eary 1970s to have been of the order of between 62-125 thousand tons annually and in the second half of the 1970s annual production was between 81-89 thousand tons. Data available from official statistics for 1980 give widely divergent production figures, 76 and 111 thousand tons, respectively. Wide year-to-year fluctuations are, however, not uncommon, given the eight- to ten-year periodicity in harvesting of individual cork plantations.

3 Efforts by private forest owners (with the approval and support of

the government) are under way in France for rehabilitating part of French cork-oak resources. The overall acreage of cork oak stands involved is, however, quite limited.

As regards the cork "industry's" possible role in the EEC's forestry policies, attention is invited to "Memorandum Forêts", published by the EC Agricultural Information Service, Notes Rapides de l'Europe Verte, (Newsflash), No. 36, Brussels, 1986.

MDF/W/52

177. Known and used from the days of antiquity, demand for cork started to rise rapidly, alongside with the increasing availability of glass bottles, as from the end of the 17th century. As natural cork oak stands could not satisfy the rising demand, cork plantations were established, as from the middle of the 18th century, first in Spain and, in the century that followed, in France, Portugal, Italy and in North Africa. Some of the cork oaks still in production today (under conditions of normal exploitation, cork oaks can attain an age of at least 150 years) go back to the period of the first plantations. Cork oaks reach the productive stage in about fifteen years after planting and are then partly peeled every eight to ten years. The best yield, and the commercially most valued cork, is obtained from, and following, the third harvest.

178. Cork harvesting and the subsequent processing is a skilled and relatively labour-intensive operation. In Portugal most of the cork-producing units are small-scale. Some modern processing plants also exist, particularly in the Lisbon area, and there are plans by the government for modernizing the cork sector, which, in recent years, has been beset by various structural problems, leading to the closure of many of the smaller cork producing/processing units.

179. In the production of high-quality bottle-corks, considerable waste material is produced. Since about 1910, cork waste has been processed (much of it in the US) with natural, and in later years also with synthetic, resins into agglomerated cork and cork products. While natural cork is mainly used for high-quality stoppers, and, to some extent, as flotation material, and in certain sports goods, fishing pole handles etc., agglomerated cork is used in a wide range of products, ranging from cork disks in crown-corks for bottles, thermic- and acoustic insulating sheets, and in various technical articles, including motor joints and gaskets (this kind of use is responsible for some of the higher import duties found in some tariff schedules for certain agglomerated cork products). Ground- cork and cork granules may also be used in conjunction with latex in floor coverings and as an essential constituent-part of linoleum. In its raw state, cork is inodorous and impermeable. While it loses its non-odorous quality once carbonized, to close any open pores, cork is highly heat resistant and it is rot-resistant. Cork was used already in the Middle Ages as an insulating material, a use which is increasingly being rediscovered, but which is not yet appreciated sufficiently to assure the cork industry the brilliant future it deserves.

180. The value of world exports of cork and cork manufactures in recent years was of the order of US$350-400 million. Exports of Portugal account for more than one half of the total, followed by Spain, the EEC, Sweden (cork manufactures only) and the United States. Main importers for raw cork are the EEC, Portugal (domestic production in recent years was not sufficient to meet domestic and export demand for raw and manufactured cork), the United States, Argentina, Japan, Brazil and Yugoslavia. The main importers of manufactured cork products are the EEC, the United States, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Japan, Yugoslavia, the USSR, Romania, Czechoslovakia and Sweden.

ANNEX I . A

TABLE H U B

HD#/V/52 l'âge 139

COUNTRY', 'YEAR

[?) ARGENTINA /'80

(3) AUSTRALIA /'80

IMPORTS and EXPORTS of «BOD, CGRK and PROOUCTS THEREOF and of WOOD-PULP

Data in l i l l i o n US dollars for the years shown against the

respective countries Abbreviations: Country-name abbreviations used Source: Data derived from -

i re ISO-Codes. An explanatory l is t ing is given Series D, various volumes. JN S t a t i s t i c a l Papers,

Data shown are the

at the end of the Table. latest available in print/or on micro-film, unless " „ > .

• - • .

DVG .

SITC/Rev.

not available otherwise irdicated. less than J50.000 developing • as used in UN Stat ist ics; designation used here without prejudice as to the status i f any country or terr i tory.

2 - No. Codes and da

DIVISION - 24 -COR

:a covered are:

K and WOOD. ( a l l . i . o . a lso covers fuelwood and pulpwood)

- group - 244 • CORK, natural, raw and waste, - also ,244 in SITC/Rev.l, or CCCN headings 45.01, -02. - arouo - 247 - OTHER WOOD in the rough or rouahlv sauared - corresponds to 242 in SITC/Rev.l and to CCCN headings - 44.03 B.-C.-D and 44.04 A

veneer-logs, pitprops, poles, pil ing and other wood, in the rough, n.e.s. - oroup - 248 . W000 SIMRY WORKED and RAILWAY SLEEPERS of wood - corresponds to 243 in SIlC/Rev.l and to CCCN headings 44.05 - A and B. 44.07.

and B - or saw- and

«4.13 A and B - or ,

sleepers, wood sawn, planed, tongued, grooved, etc., sliced or peeled i f thickness exceeds 5 mm., blocks, str ips, pieces for parquet or wood block flooring, not further manufactured.

DIVISION - 25

- group - 251 - PULP and WASTE PAPER - also 251 in SITC/Rev.l. or CCCN headings 47.01. -02.

DIVIS ION- 63

- group - 633 - CORK MANUFACTURES - also 633 in SITC/Rev.l, or CCCN headings 45.03, -04. - group - 634 • VENEERS. PLYWOOD (including blockboard. lamin.board. etc.. cellular wood panels). OTHER RECONSTITUTED WOOD, wooden shells, tool

onlv - for details see relevant SIÏC explanatory notes) and OTHER WOOD, n.e.s. - corresponds to 631 in SITC/Rev.l. or CCCN headi -15 A, B, C, 44.16, -17, - IB, and 44.19.

- group - 635 - WOOD MANUFACTURES, n.e.s. - corresponds to 632 in SITC/Rev.l and to CCCN headings ex 44.11. 44.20. -21 . -22. -23. -24. -25. -26. packing cases, drums, casks, barrels, vats, other coopers' products, riven staves of wood - builders' carpentry and joinery (inc and sectional buildings (Note: of some importance in trade in the form of works'-barracks, exported to major construction sites the Middle-East, North Africa, etc.) and assembled parquet flooring panels, manufactures of wood for domestic or decorative use, articles of furniture (other than those fal l ing within CCCN heading 94.01, 02 or SITC Division 82), tool handles, spools, caps, blocks, match splints, etc. - and articles of wood, n.e.s.

WOOD and W000 PROOUCTS

IMPORTS

24

KMO,

LUHBER,

CORK

World

153.9

DVG

137.0

LAFTA

134.1

CHL 51.8

PRY 35.0

BRA 33.0

BO. 14.1

US 6.5

CAN 3.4

PRT 3.0

ESP 3.0

World

216.3

OVG 77.1

CAN 59.9

HYS 45.8

NZL 38.5

US 37.5

PHL 16.0

SGP 5.6

PNG 3.7

BUR 1.3

1247(242)

1000,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

World

4.7

DVG

3.3

LAFTA

0.6 COG

2.1 US

1.0 CHL

0.6 EEC

0.4 CIV

0.2

World

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKEO

World

143.1

DVG

133.7

LAFTA

133.5

CHL 51.2

PRY 35.0

BRA 33.0

BOL 14.1

US 5.5

CAN 3.4

SWE 0.4

HND 0.2

World

215.9

OVG 77.1

CAN 59.9

MYS 45.8

NZL 38.5

US 37.5

PHL 16.0

SCP 5.6

PNG 3.1

BUR 1.3

634(631)

VENEER,

PLYWOOD,

ETC.

World

15.9

OVG

11.8

LAFTA

11.4

BRA 8.3

PRY 2.6

FIN 0.4

ITA 0.7

OEU 0.5

US 0.5

BOL 0.4

ZAP 0.4

World

55.6

OVG 40.7

NZL 9.1

HYS 6.5

PNG 4.6

PHL 3.8

SGP 3.2

EEC 1.9

US 1.3

THA 1.2

635(632)

WOOD

MANUFAC

TURES

World

15.5

DVG

5.6

LAFTA

4.9 FIN

8.1 BRA

1.8 PRY

1.4 URY

0.8 BOL

0.6 US

0.5 CHL

0.3 ITA

0.2

World

33.2

DVG 15.4

OAN 9.9

KZL 8.9

EEC 4.7

HYS 2.5

US 1.4

P'!L

1.3 CAN

1.1 THA

0.6

EXPORTS

24

(COD,

LUHBER,

CORK

World

0.6

OVG

0.3

LAFTA

0.3 JPN

0.3 URY

0.3

World

239.1

OVG 7.6

JPN 212.3

EEC(9)

14.0

OAH 3.5

NZL 2.9

W 1.5

PHL 0.9

NCR 0.6

GRC 0.5

247(242)

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

World

0.4

OVG

0.1

LAFTA

0.1 JPN

0.3 URY

0.1

World

1.2 OVG

0.3 B l

0.7 PHL

0.3 EEC(9)

0.2

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKEO

World

0.1

DVG

0.1

LAFTA

0.1 URY

0.1

World

20.5

DVC 1.7

EEC(9

13.8

HZL 2.2

NOR 0.6

JPN 0 . '

GPC 0.5

US 0.5

IDN 0.5

HKG 0.5

634(631)

VENEER,

PLYWOOD,

ETC.

World

World

7.1 DVG

3.8 SSP

1.9 JPN

0.9 OAN

P.8 HKG

0.")

US 0.3

EEC 0.2

PN-;

•1.1

635(632)

WOOD

MANUFAC

TURES

World

0.1

World

2.2 OVG

1.5 PK

0.4 IRQ

0.2 EEC

0.1 SAU

C.l

WOOD-PULP

IMPORTS

251

PULP,

WASTE

PAPER

World

G9.9

DVG

52 . 7

LAFTA

52.7

CHL 33.6

BRA 19.1

US 6.2

CAN 7.6

PUT 0.4

FIN 0.4

SWE 0.3

ZAF 0.1

World

123.7

OVG 1.3

NZL 56.7

CAN 30.5

FIN 8.6

SWE 5.3

PRT 1.6

BRA 1.2

JPN 0.3

JAM 0.1

Exponis

251

PULP,

WASTE

PAPER

World

World

2.6 OVG

0.4

NZL 1.5

JPN 0.8

INC 0.2

THA C.l

bandies (simply worked

ngs 44.09 8, 44.12, - 1 4 ,

- 2 7 , - 2 8 , - or ; wooden

uding p re fabr ica ted

f o r instance those in

boxes, t r a y s , cases,

Dobbins, wood par ing

CORK and CORK MANUFACTURES

IMPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

- WASTE

World

6.1

PRT 3.0

ESP 3.0

World

0.3

PRT 0.3

633

CORK

MANUFAC

TURES

World

0.4

FRT 0.2

World

11.1

PRT «.1

ESP 1.5

EEC 1.1

US C.2

JPN C.l

EXPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

- WASTE

World

World

-

633

CORK

MANUFAC

TURES

World

World

0.9 CVS

0.4 BL

0.5

S:P 0.2

Numbering corresponds to nuiber assigned for purposes of Tables I and I ! .

MDF/W/52

SPC:

COUNTRY1,

'TEAS

' * ] AUSTRIA

,"ei

5) BANGLADESH

/ '7S

Ï] BARBADOS

1 3ELI7Î

« 0 0 and UOO PROOUCTS

IHP0RT5

24 | 247(242)

BOO,

LUHflER,

CORK

Worl d

274.3

0V3

2A.6

EFTA

EEC

65.1

CSF.

107.1

SVE

14.°

I'SS?

11 . "

POL

i r . 4

10.3

;r> 5.5

•:s

Korl d

' . 4

C2

«o-l d

?.? Dv=

3.2

US

2.7

H'.O

i . - :

CAK

1.2

3"0'

c.r 5?.;

0.6

F t :

1

i ! i i

uoo, SOUGH.

SQUARED

«•orld

1C6.3

DVG

2.9

EFTA

C.5

EEC

31.2

CSF

44 .A

USSR

11.2

FOI

6.1

HUN

3.1

US

2.5

CIV

i.r

1.?

».-.rld

C.2

DVG

C.l

«Vic

C.2

. — I :

1

248(243)

HOD,

SHAKO,

kORKEfi

Korld

115.2

DVG

21.7

EFTA

21.6

EEC

22.1

CSR

34.6

SSE

14.B

10.3

US

5.3

FIS

4.2

PHL

A.C

ICI;

2.9

V I d

0.1

DVG

0.1

DVG

3.1

US

2.7

HUD

1.6

CAN

1.2

0.6

K ï

0.5

i t :

0.2

: . i

> " V

614(631)

VENEER.

PlYUOO,

£IC.

«orl d

46.5

DVG

0.?

EFTA

10.4

EEC

X'.S

DEV

K . I

CHE

6.7

FIN

3.1

2.7

IT(

2.3

Fr.A

V.9

0.9

«orld

«orld

2.1

DVG

2.0

BRA

1.?

US

C.2

CAS

C 2

EEC

G.2

OA'.

C. l

. .or ld

C. l

635(632)

UOO

WUUFJC

TURCS

«orld

67.=

DVG

2.3

EFTA

11.5

EEC

45.7

DEV

25.4

!TA

11.1

S£

6.2

DR*

Y'JG

3.9

F IK

2.4

P.i';

1.2

«orld

1.0

US

0.5

«orld

DVC

0.2

US

0.3

EEC

o. :

Wo-ld

EXPORTS

» UOO,

LUHBÊR,

CORK

World

•"11.4

DVG

42.6

EFTA

39.4

EEC

574.4

YlC

42.5

LB"

13.3

IRK

B.S

HL't;

E.l

SYP

' . 7

SAL

5.C

SOI.

2.5

0.7

DVC

0.4

SSC

C.4

K0R(0.R.l

C.3

1.0

DVC

C."

JA>:

0.Ç

' ; C. l

247(242)

UOO,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

«orld

30.3

DVG

4.9

EFTA

0.9

EEC

7C.5.

YUC

3.5

I'M

3.5

SYR

C.5

HUT:

0.4

Korld

C.7

DVG

0.4

SOP

0.4

K3RÎD.RJ

0.3

World

0.1

248(243)

Ul« ' ,

SHAPED,

WORKED

«or ld

£24.0

DVG

37.7

EFTA

33 .0

EEC

497.2

YUG

40.0

L5Y

12.3

HUN

7.7

SYR

7.3

IRI'

5.3

SAU

4 . 1

YEK

1.E

World

Korl d

W;r1d

C.9

DVG

C . '

JA'-

634(631)

VENEER,

PtYkDOO,

ETC.

World

12E.E

DVG

2.6

EFTA

20.0

EEC

96.1

HUN

4.1

GOR

2.3

CSR

1.3

E6Y •

C.9

IPO

SAU

C.3

ROM

0.3

'«•orld

«o r ld

World

635(632)

«on MUUrAC*

TlffiES

World

109.4

DVG

1C.2

EFTA

3E.e

EEC

59.6

IBY

3;1

IRO

3.1

SAU

1.3

EH

0.9

0.9

C2A

C.6

IRIi

C.5

World

World

•orld


IKPORTS

244

CORK,

RAN,

. VASTE

World

C.2

EFTA

0.1

EEC

0.1

m C.l

World

« V I d

*o-1 d

633

CORK

KAMJFAC

IURES

«or l d

6.5

ERA

4.3

EEC

1.1

4.1

:SF

1.5

« V I d

« o r V

W-.'V

EXPORÎS

244

CORK,

RAW,

. VASTE

World

0.2

EFTA

0.1

PPT

0.1

World .

n'srli

« : r l :

63

CORK

KANUFAC

TURES

World

C.5

HIM.

C.A

««•Id

«or ld

i.:-1c

VDOO-FULP

IKPORTS

251

PULP,

VASTE

PAPER

«or ld

139.6

CVC

6.0

EFTA

34.0

EEC

22.5

EXPORTS

251

PULP.

VASTE

PAPER

World

130.2

DVG

1.7

EFTA

6.6

EEC

74.2

YUG

HUN

POL

2 . "

5K

1 . "

RDV

OZA

1.2

ESF

0.4

World

4.6

US

CAK

1.1

S«

l.C

World

0.4

US

C.4

VorU'

«orld

World

«rrld

MDF/W/52

« 0 0 n id HMO PROOLCTS

I WORTS

247(242)

«000, une», CO»

World

«orld 19.8

OVG

13.4 LAfTA

13.3 PRT

13.1 US

3.5

ESP

1.8 PRT

1.1

•orld

.orld

0.1

tooo, ROUGH, SflUARCO

Morld

«orld 3.9

OR

0.4 LAF1A

0.3 US

3.5

PRT

0.3

«orld

C.2 OVG

0.1 INO

0.1

«orld

0.2 DV6

0.1 1»

0.1

«orld

«orld

248(243)

«000,

SHAPED,

MOO

«orld

«orld 12.9

OVG

12.8 LAFTA

12.8 PRT

12.8

«orld

«orld

«orld

634(631)

VErEER, FIYIOOO,

nc.

«orld

«orld

11.1 DVG

0.9 LAFTA

10.2 EEC

0.8

«orld

«orld 0.1

635(632)

«ODD NUUFAC

TtRES

«arid

«orld 0.5

EEC

US 0.2

0.2

«orld

«orld 0.1

«orld 0.7

EEC 0.7

EXPORTS

«000-PtilP

24

«000,

U1H3ER,

COM

«orld

«orld 141.6

OVG 27.4

LAFTA

22.2 EEC

64.3 US

27.5 ARG

10.0 VEH

8.2 2AF

7.2 EFTA

5.6

PRT

4.5 URT

3.6 JPN

3.1 ESP

2.6

«orld

«orld 5.2

0V6

0.3 EEC

4.9 CIV

0.3

«orld

247(242)

«000, ROUGH, SQUARED

«orld 1.3

OVG

J «

1.1 PRT

0.2

«orld

«orld

«orld 144.2

OVG 2.2

EEC(9)

90.9 ESP

23.1 JPI

9.9 >RC

5.1 JSSR

4.9

ruG 3.3

>RT 3.3

«O 1.2

.at 0.4

248(243)

«000,

SHAPED,

«ORttD

„ IMPORTS

634(631)1 U 5 ; £32)

VENEER. , « X I P l T » 0 0 , ; ."ANUFAC-CTC. I TUBES

«orld

«orld 139.9

DVG

27.3 LAFTA

22.2 EEC

64.2 US

27.5 ARG

10.0 VEH

8.2 EFTA

5.1 PRT

4.3 URT

3.6 ESP

2.6 JPN

2.1 HT

1.8

wrlo i «orld

0.; 0.7

CIV 0.1

«orld 108.3

OVG

28.7 LAFTA

9.2 EEC ' 40.0 IIS

32.4 «A

8.8 VEN

4.7 ISR

2.2 ZAF

2.2

1.8

no 1.6

ARG

1.5 SAU

«orld

«orld

«arid 110.8

|0V( OJ

EEC(9) 64.3

ESP 18.5

JPI 9.8

ÎRC 5.0

USSR

4.9 TUG

3.2

>RT

3.2

IB* 0.4

|E6T 0.4

«orld 33.3

DVG

1.3 EEC(9)

31.5 ESP

4.6 REX

1.2 OS

0.4

1.3

«orld

«orld

«orld 21.5

OVG 1.8

EEC (9) 19.3

KA 0.6

FI I 0.3

E6T

0.1

MIS

0.2

. °-2

0.2

«orld

24.5 DVG

7.1 LAFTA

5.6 EEC

12.2 US

4.0 URT

2.8 VEN

1.6 PRT

0.6 NG«

0.5 SAU

0.3 ESP

0.2

«orld

«orld

«orld

251

PULP. HASTE PAPER

«orld 10.4

OVG 5.5

CM.

EXPORTS

251

PULP, VASTE PAPER

«orld

5.0

4.0

SKE 0.7

ARG 0.2

BOL 0.2

CAN 0.2

1,

«orld 278.7

OVG 35.5

EEC

117.0 JPN

63.1 US

43.2

ARG

18.1 NOR ,

10.

VEN 6.9

COL

2AF 4.4

3.5

ncluots pulp for hleacrinc^under contract, row <3xcired.

«orld

«orld

«orld

«orld

«orld

«orld 0.1

EEC

0.1

CORK ud CORK -»WF«; : : :S :

IPIPORTS

244

CORK, 1

RAW,

. ÏASTE

«orld

«orld 3.0

ESP

1.8

PRT

1.1

«orld

«orld

«orld

633

CORK IVUUFAC

IURES

«orld

«orld 0.3

EEC

0.2

«orld

0.1

«orld

«orld

I 1

EXPORTS

244 ! 633

CORK, ,

RAU,

- «ASIE

-

«orld

«orld

«orld

«orld

CORK

HAKJFAC-

IURES

«orifl

«orld

0.1

US

0.1

«orld

«orld

«orld

MDF/W/52

1 COUHTRV,

'TEAR

(13) CANADA / • 8 1

(14) CENTRAL A/RIC. REP.

/ 'BO

(15) CHAD / •75

WOO tnd WOO PRODUCTS

IMPORTS

24

WOO, LUH8ER, CORK

World 337.0

OVG 16.1

US 317.4

BRA 9.5

UTS 1.8

FIN 1.1

PHL 1.6

SEP 1.0

EEC 0.7

IOK 0.5

Norld

Norld 0.6

OVG 0.8

CAF 0.8

247(242)

WOO, ROUGH, S3JARE0

Norld 61.1

US 60.6

FIN 0.5

Norld

.

Norld

248(243)

WOO, SHAPED, WRKED

Norld 252.5

OVG 16.1

US 233.6

BRA 9.5

UTS 1.8

pa 1.6

FIN 1.3

SSP 1.0

EEC 0.6

ION 0.5

Norld

.

Norld 0.8

OVG 0.8

CAF 0.8

634(631)

VEfEER, ttrwoo, ETC.

Norld 138.5

OVG 41.1

US 83.4

OAN 18.4

KOR 13.2

PHI 3.6

J"N 3.0

S6P 2.0

EEC 1.6

FIN 1.6

Norld

.

Norld 0.3

OVG 0.3

CM 0.2

GAB CI

£15(632)

WOO HAJI1F AC-TIRES

Norld 112.4

DYG 20.3

US 62.9

OAN 7.0

UTS 5.2

EEC 4.9

HKG 2.6

PU 2.6

JH 2.0

SGP 0.6

Norld

.

Norld

EXPORTS

24

WOO, LUMBER, CORK

Norld 2,716.2 OVG

140.7 US 1,762.2 J>N

377.7 EEC

346.6 JUTS

61.5 D2A

33.3 SAJ1

30 .1 LBT

26.5 KNT

8.1 TUG

6.2 CUB

5.5

cm 4.2

Norld 33.2

OVG 1.3

EEC 21.9

ERA 1.1

TUG 4.5

ESP 3.0

ROK 0.7

CIV 0.7

SON 0.4

TO 0.3

Norld

247(242)

WOD, ROUGH, SQUARED

Norld 54.6

DVG 1.5

.FN 30.1

US 20.6

EEC 1.3

Norld 27.4

DVG 0.7

EEC 19.6

EFTA 0.4

TUG 3.6

ESP 2.0

CIV 0.7

ROH 0.6

ZAF 0.3

Norld

248(243)

WOOD, SHAPED, WRKED

Norld 2,554.0 OVG

139.1 US 1,684.3 EEC

340.7 J>N

309.6 AUS

61.5 02A

33.3 LBT

26.5 EGT

18.6 KNT

8.1

Norld 5.8

DVG 0.7

EEC 2.2

ERA 0.7

ESP 1.0

TUG 0.9

SON 0.4

TCD 0.3

ROH 0.1

Norld

634(631)

VENEER, PLTWOO, ETC.

Norld 185.4

DVG 4.7

EEC 95.8

US 77.2

J-N 3.8

OAN 2.9

AUT OJ

FIN 0.6

SHE 0.8

CHL 0.5

Norld

.

Norld

635(632)

won IUMJFAC TURES

Norld 339.4

DVG 7.7

US 306.6

EEC 19.9

AUS 2.0

NGA 1.5

CHL 1.0

SAD 0.9

TTO 0.7

HEX 0.6

Norld

.

Norld

WOD-PULP

IKPOflTS

251

PULP. VASTE PAPER

Norld 58.3

US 58.3

Norld

.

Norld

EXPORÎS

251

PULP, HASTE PAPER

Norld 3,213.8 DVG

146.0 US 1,676.9 EEC

B7D.4 J>N

324.5 CNN

73.9 KOR

48.8 ESP

27.1 AUS

26.0 HEX

15.9 TUG

13.9 SHE

10.6 TUA

9.3

Norld

-

Norld

CORK and CORK HAKUFACTURES

IHTORTS

244

CORK, RAN, . HASTE

Norld

Norld

Norld

633

CORK KARUFAC TUBES

Norld 6.8

PRT 2.8

US 2.6

EEC 0.9

ESP 0.6

Norld

Norld

EXPORTS

244

CORK, RAN, • VAS1E

Norld

632

CORK HAJUFAC TURES

Norld

World

Norld

1

«orld

«rid

MDF/W/52

CCSK j-w CCÎK « « * ï " i , ï ;

rPCP.TS !

1 l

244 1 633

CORK, 1 CORK

RAV. 1 MHJFAC-

. HASTE j runs 1

1 5 - 1 :

1.3

DVG

c : un*

C.2

ESP

1.6

HEX

0.2

World

C.2

PRT

-.2

World

World

• s r l j

ESP

0.2

PHT

«o r id

C.4

E3P

C.2

World

;

i

1

ES»!!!I5

:•*>• , HI

CORK. . COR*.

RM, j fllfj tt-

- WASTE TURE3

«oris

1

Wcrld

i*orl d

World

0.6

DVG

un»

VE.K'

:.6

World

Horid

WOOD-PULP

iHPonis

2S1

PULP.

HASTE

PAPER

World

1.8

DVG

C.2

UFTA

0.2

US .

1.6

World

26.5

DVG

23.9

un* 23.8

CHI

19.5

FIN

2.1

World

World

UP0RÏS

a i

PULP.

VASTE

PAPER

World

128.2

DVG

L»n» 76.1

ARC

32.6

EEC

24.4

BRA

17.2

KOR

13.9

VEH

8.3

CCL

7.9

JPN

7.6

«EX

5.7

World

' World

World

courtr. 'ma

%) CHILE/

•76

i l l ) COLCWI»/

•SI

(1!) CC'CG

SEP./

'79

('!) CUBA/

WOOD «id WOOD PRODUCTS

1 WORTS

24

«03,

mua, C D »

?.C

OVG

C.2

un* C.2

ESP

1.6

KEX

0.2

US

' o r l d

DVG

: . 3

HUD

P?.T

M

World

247(242)

BOO,

ROUGH.

SOUAftEO

Wo-IH

World

World

«orld

241(243)

«000,

SHAPED,

WORKED

« : - i :

US

0.1

World

DVG

:.3

HNO

C.2

World

World

634(631)

VENEER,

arvooo, ETC.

. : r l !

• !

L4/TA

«G

: . i

KU

-.1

Wlrld

6.2

OVG

6.3

u n A 6.7

ECU

4.7

PER

1.4

HSO

0.3

CAN

World

635(632)

WOO

MJIFAC-

TURE5

0.6

IIS

0.4

World

World

EXPORTS

24

«300,

LUrSED,

CORK

World

81.C

:Y3

u n * :o.7

r.n 17.3

EEC

n.2 ARG

13.7

YEN

6.3

SAU

6.6

JPN

6.3

OCK

4.5

ARE

1.4

World

2.1

DVG

2.0

unA 2.0

VEN

2.0

World

16.C

DVG

1.3

EEC(9)

B.6

PRT

2.3

ESP

2.1

USSR

1.0

GRC

0.8

JPN

C.7

ZAf

0.5

POL

0.3

World

247(24211 24*1243)

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

Wsrlc

DVG

: c ?

LAn»

KCR

17.3

JPN

5.0

EEC

2.7

VEN

2.4

LKA

0.8

CAN

0.5

ARG

0.2

PER

0.1

World

World

14.2

OVG

0.6

E£C(9)

6.7

PRT

2.3

ESP

1.3

USSR

1.0

GRC

0.8

JPN

0.7

ZAf

C.3

*RG

0.2

World

WOO,

SHAPED,

WORKED

World

: 2 . 0

DVG

33.6

unA 16.C

EEC

14.5

ARG

13.5

SAU

6.5

m 4.5

VEN

4.4

E6Y

1.4

ARE

1.4

JPN

1.3

World

2.0

DVG

1.9

unA 1.9

VEN

1.9

World

3.7

OVG

0.7

EEC(9)

1.9

ESP

0.9

RIU

0.7

ZAF

0.2

World

634(631)

VENEER,

PLYUOD,

ETC.

World

7.9

DVG

2.0

unA 1.4

VEN

1.4

EEC

0.8

KOR

0.6

World

1.4

DVG

0.7

unA 0.6

VEN

0.6

US

0.6

World

12.1

DVG

1.3

EEC(9)

9.5

TUN

1.3

US

0.3

World

635(632)

WOO

HANUFAC-

TURES

World

11.8

DVG

11.8

unA 11.6

VEN

11.6

PAN

0.1

Wrr ld

8.3

OVG

4.E

un* 4.3

VEN

4.1

US

3.2

no 0.3

ECU

0.1

EEC

0.1

CAN

0.1

World

• World

1

MDF/W/52

COUNTRY1,

' T E A R •

(?:) cypsus.'

(?1) CECHC-

SLCVAKIA/

'51

( " ) DOKINICAN

REPUBLIC/

•El

WOO md WOOD PRODUCTS

IMPORTS

24

HMD.

LUMBER,

CORK

15.5

DVG

l .E

ERA

5.6

USSR

5.D

CSS

1.6

GHA

ce SGP

t . 6

EEC

0.4

YUG

C.4

RCH

c:<

W:r ld

23.6

DVG

USSR

24.5 CIV

: . i

CHE

i.r PST

C.5

E3P

C :

GA5

C.5

World

I E . ?

DVG

US

11.5

:HL 2.1

HI;: 1.5

:TK C.6

c.r ITT

:°i

247(242)

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

World

1.3

FIN

1.1

ESP

C.2

World

E.l

DVG

USSR

CIV

: . i

CHE

l .C

GAS

C.5

E.5

DVG

1.? US

E.E

CHL

1.1

H;:D C.7

24B(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKED

World

H.2 DVG

l.E USSR

5 .0

SWE

3.3

CSR

1.6

FIS

0.9

GHA

O.B

SGP

C.E

TUG

C.4

RDM

C.3

World

zcr

USSR

?c :

W='ld 7.6

m

L'S "

4 .?

CHL

l .C

W;D CE

CE SUS

C? i n

63*1631)

VENEER,

PLTUJOO,

ETC.

World

7.9

DA

2.6

EEC

3.5

SGP

1.5

OAK

ce BUL

O.li RCK

0.3 CSR

0.3 ESP

0.2 MYS

C2

World U.5

YUG 7.9

ROM

o ALT

1.6

AL3

0.3

FIS

cr

5.A

DVG

_ 3 . 2

l .E

GAS

1.9

CRI

C.4

Hlffl

C.2

SCR

C. l

FI I .

C . l

633(632)

WOO

MJUFAC

TURES

World

1.4

DVG

0.4

CAN

0.4

EEC

0.4

RDM

0.2

PRT

0.1

World

4.4

GOR

4.3

FIN

C.2

«c r l c

1.1

OVG C.2

US

EXPORTS

24

WOOD,

LUMBER,

CORK

World

0 .1

World

296.1

DVG

E.5

EEC

136.5

EFT; 117.5

YUG

24.6

HUK'

6.6

IRN

6.3

CYP

1.2

World

247(242)

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SOU AXED

World

World

14.0

DVG

l .C

Ain

6 5 . 1

EEC

4E.P

TUG

16.6

CHI

3.2

HUN

3.C

IRN

l . C

World

248(243)

WOO,

SHAFEO,

WRKEO

World

World

155.7

DVG

7.9

EEC

88.5

AUT

45.B

TUG

8.0

IRN

5.3

HUN

3.6

SWE

1.7

World

634(631)

VENEER,

PIYWOO,

ETC.

World

World

12.6

DVG

0.4

EEC

11.3

SWE

0.9

KEN

C.4

World

635(632)

won MNUTAC

TURES

World

8.4

DVG

8.3

IRQ

5.6

LBY

1.5

LBN

0.6

S AU

0.3

SYR

0.2

SEN

0.1

World

34.9

DVG

4.9

EEC

7.6

YUG

7.8

HUN

6.4

GDR

3.3

PCL

2.1

IR3

2.0

World

WOD-PULP

IMPORTS

251

PULP,

WASTE

PAftR

World

0.6

DVG

C.2

SWE

C.2

LBN

C.2

World

53.7

USSR

2C.2

FIN

17.2

SWE

13.2

AU1

3.1

World

US

C.5

Eiponis

251

PULP.

HASTE

PAPER

World

World

11.5

ALT

5.7

GDR

2.6

YUC

2.5

DEL

CS

World

CORK i n d CORK MANUFACTURES

IMPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

. WASTE

World

World

1.5

PS1

CE

ESP ; . 7

World

633

CORK

MXUFAC-

TURES

• orld C3

PR!

«o- l :

World

EXPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

- WASTE

• o r l c

«;rl:

633

CORK

MANUFAC

TURES

World

W:rld

K D P A 7 5 2

C0UN7RY,

'YEAR

EEC/10/

' 8 1 '

3LX

ONX

FRA

C€U

GRC

IRE

ITA

NLD

UK

(") Total of

recorded

I n t r a - E E C

exchanges i n

the fo l low ing

tables fo r

EEC-countries

(231/BELGIUH-

(24) LUXEM

BOURG/

'81

(includes

intra«EEC

trade)

(25) DENMARK/

'81

WOOD and MOD PRODUCTS

IMPORTS

24

WOOD,

LUMBER,

CORK

Extra-EEC

5,739.6

264.7

187.6

857.3

1,128.3

97.1

105.5

1,433.8

502.6

1,162.6

(660.1)

World1

445.8

DVG

73.7

EFTA

65.6

(EEC

181.1)

US

48.8

CAN

29.3

USSR

27.6

KYS

24.9

cm 16.3

SGP

9.9

CIV

6.9

World '

192.6

OVG

16.4

EFTA

155.8

(EEC

5.0)

USSR

6.7

BUR

6.6

JPN

3.3

US

2.6

HYS

i.e PHL

1.6

POL

T.4

247(242)

WOO,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

Extra-EEC

960.0

26.6

7.6

245.0

211.5

38.0

8.1

36e.8

23.0

31.4

(224.5)

World

73.2

OVG

21.4

EFTA

0.2

(EEC

46.6)

cm 9.0

CIV

5.5

US

4.9

CCG

1.7

ZAR

1.7

LBR

1.2

BUR

1.2

World

8.5

OVG

3.5

EFTA

3.9

(EEC

0.9)

COG

1.0

CIV

0.6

CHR

0.6

BLR

0.8

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKED

Extra-EEC

4.552.C

235.9

178.1

537.1

867.7

58.7

99.5

978.8

472.1

1,124.1

(330.8)

World

319.0

DVG

52.0

EFTA

64.9

(EEC

83.9)

US

43.5

CAN

29.0

USSR

27.5

HYS

24.9

SGP

9.9

CHR

7.2

AUS

5.9

World

181.5

DVG

12.7

EFTA

151.0

(EEC

3.4)

USSR

6.7

BUR

5.8

JPN

3.2

JS

2.4

MYS

1.8

?HL

1.6

>0L

1.3

634(631)

VENEER,

PLYKJOO,

ETC.

Extra-EEC

1.422.3

67.4

82.0

134.7

327.4

0.7

22.1

128.6

117.5

541.9

(821.3)

World

130.8

OVG

27.0

EFTA

9.4

(EEC

63.4)

US

18.1

KCR

5.3

SGP

4.4

PHL

3.9

CIV

3.7

USSR

3.4

CAN

3.3

World

110.9

DVG

19.3

EFTA

32.2

(EEC

28.9)

US

25.0

SGP

3.6

BRA

3.3

THA

3.1

MYS

3.0

KCR

2.4

POL

1.8

635(632)

kOOO

MANUFAC

TURES

Extra-EEC

658.8

134.3

21.4

65.3

197.4

4.6

8.4

52.4

43.4

131.6

(633.8)

World

147.6

DVG

5.5

EH A

4.9

(EEC

133.0)

OAN

3.0

US

1.2

ESP

0.8

SGP

0.5

BRA

0.4

GDP

0.4

CAN

0.3

World

26.5

DVG

1.3

EFTA

17.7

(EEC

5.D CSR

0.5

HUN

0.3

US

0.1

GDR

0.1

EXPORTS

24

WOOD,

LUMBER,

CORK

Extra-EEC

383.9

7.4 !9.6

86.9

188.7

1.0

4.0

' 1 . 9

7.7

36.7

(693.5)

World

123.0

DVG

3.5

EFTA

1.6

(EEC

118.8)

DZA

1.8

ESP

0.6

EGY

0.5

TUN

0.4

ISR

0.4

LBN

0.4

World

55.0

OVG

3.1

EFTA

25.9

(EEC

25.4)

GRL

2.6

AUS

0.4

ZAF

0.2

INO

0.2

YEH

0.2

247(242)

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

Extra-EEC

64.3

3.6

2.6

10.1

43.6

1.3

0.8

2.3

(169.9)

World

50.5

OVG

2.3

EFTA

0.7

(EEC

46.9)

DZA

1.7

EGY

0.3

ESP

0.2

TUN

0.1

World

6.0

OVG

0.1

EFTA

2.5

(EEC

3.4)

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKED

Extra-EEC

185.7

' . 7

15.3

47.0

92.7

1.0

19.6

4.6

2.8

(364.7)

World

66.3

DVG

1.3

ERA

0.9

(EEC

65.6)

ESP

0.4

TUN

0.3

DZA

0.2

EGY

0.2

World

36.3

OVG

3.0

EFTA

11.7

GRL

2.5

AUS

0.4

ZAF

0.2

IND

0.2

YEM

0.2

634(631)

VENEER,

PLYWODO,

ETC.

Crtra-EEC

489."'

181.2

48.6

41.1

96.9

6.9

86.9

5.2

20.4

(805.7)

World

240.5

DVG

6.5

EFTA

2.5

(EEC

228.1)

US

1.1

TUN

1.1

SYR

1.0

DZA

0.7

EGY

0.5

CYP

0.5

SAU

0.5

World

48.6

OVG

3.1

EFTA

14.4

GRL

2.3

QAT

0.4

HUH

0.2

CAN

0.1

635(632)

WOOD

MANUFAC

TURES

Extra-EEC

613.5

10.1

115.6

118.5

149.8

1.0

1.1

148.8

14.6

64.0

(666.2)

World

59.3

OVG

6.7

ERA

2.1

(EEC

49.2)

SAU

2.6

DZA

2.6

US

0.8

MAR

0.2

CIV

0.2

IRQ

0.2

SON

0.2

World

238.4

DVG

77.4

ERA

30.0

(EEC

122.8)

OZA

65.9

GRL

4.6

US

3.7

ESP

1.6

SAU

1.4

CAN

1.3

LBY

1.2

Cf.(23)


IHPORTS

244

CORK,

RAH,

- WASTE

Er.tra-EEC

0.5

C.3

6.4

5.3

0.3

7.1

1.1

2.6

(0.9)

World

C.5

DVG

ERA

0.3

(EEC

-) PRT

0.3

World

0.3

DVG

0.1

ERA

0.2

PRT

0.2 KCR

0.1

633

CORK

MANUFAC

TURES

Extra-EEC

145.?

3.6

2.6

36.C

2.2

0.5

14.8

3.2

16.0

(13.3)

5.9

DVG

ERA

3.2

(EEC

2.1)

PRT

3.2)

US

0.3

ESP

0.2

World

4.7

OVG

0.2

ERA

2.3

(EEC

2.1) PRT

1.7

SWE

0.6

KOR

0.1

EXPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

- WASTE

Extra-EEC

K5

0.8

0.5

(C8)

World

World

633

CORK MANUfAC-TURES

Extra-EEC

HA

2.6 5.1

0.2 11.5

(9.3)

ilorld

DVG

ERA

(EE;1

0.4)

World

0.4

ERA

0.2

(EEC

0.2)

WOOO-PULP

IHPORTS

251

PULP,

WASTE

PAPER

Extra-EEC

4,313.9

202.6

55.9

824.6

1,260.4

45.3

17.6

767.?

763.8

868.5

(259.2)

World

228.6

OVG

13.3

ERA

80.2

(EEC

26.0)

CAN

51.1

US

49.3)

BRA

12.5

ESP

5.8

USSR

2.3

MAR

0.3

CHR

0.3

World

' 5 7 . 4

DVG

1.0

ERA

48.1

(EEC

1.5)

SWE

29.3

FIN

11.1

NOR

7.6

ESP

2.3

BRA

1.0

USSR

0.7

CSR

C.2

EXP0R1S

251

PULP,

WASTE

PAPER

Extra-EEC

105.4

K ' . l

8.2

41.3

35.2

0.1

0.8

1.7

7.B

(326.1)

World

90.2

OVG

0.2

ERA

9.6

(EEC

79.9)

ESP

0.3

MAR

0.2

ZAF

0.1

World

26.9

DVG

1.1

ERA

7.1

(EEC

18.7)

HAR

0.5

SDN

0.5

Data f o r 1982 also ava i lab le

MDF/W/52

1 COUHTRY,

'TEAR •

(26) FRiNCE

/ ' B l

(27) F.f t .

GERR'N'

/'81

WOOD i n d « D O PRODUCTS

IHPORTS

24 1247(242)

WOO,

lurazp, CO»

Wtr ld 1

906.2

DVG 369.3

EFTA

216.4

(EEC

46.9)

CIV 96.0

GAB 95.3

CAN 90.6

IE 73.5

USSR

6 3 . 1

PHL 5 7 . 1

RYS 37.0

CUR 27.9

PCL 19.2

LBR 18.5

World

1,?79.6

DVG 295.6

ERA •iZb.3

(EEC

151.3

US 142.5

rrs 9C2

USS°

89.7

CSR 71.1

CAN 43.7

CIV 4C1

PCL 23.7

LBR 22.6

a' 2C.7

SGF 16.7

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SOUAREA

Wor lc

257.4

DVG 234.5

ERA 3.6

(EEC

12.4)

6AE 92.9

CIV 77.2

LBR 17.0

PHL

15.0

CMP 13.4

COG 6.5

IS 5.0

CAF

1.5 ESP

1.3 SLE

1.2

World

264.9

DVG 121.9

ERA C.l

(EEC

53.4)

US 51.6

CIV 34.5

LBR 19.5

m 18.4

CSP 16.5

SHA 7.2

ZAP 5.5

POL 3.4

BUR 3.4

JP4

1.5

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKED

Wor ld

5 9 3 . '

DVG 131.2

ERA 205.0

(EEC

26.8)

CAN 63.6

US 66.3

USSR

47.1

PHL 39.3

UTS 36.2

POL 19.1

CIV 18.7

SGP 14.8

CAR 7.5

ION 7.5

World

042.2

DVG 171.8

ERA 41C9

(EEC

74.5)

RYS 94.6

US 89.2

USSR

86.5

CAN 42.9

SGP 16.5

POL 16.5

SRA 13.7

RCK 11.7

CHL 7.5

PHL 5.3

634(631)

VEIEER,

Ftrwooo, ETC.

World

240.5

DVG 58.2

ERA 31.0

(EEC

105.8)

GAB 25.0

ESP 17.0

OAN 7.6

HTS 4.6

O.R 3.9

USSR

3.5 KOR

3.4

World

24C.5

DVG 59.2

ERA 31 .r.

(EEC

105.8)

GA9 25.0

ESP 17.0

OAN 7.6

RYS 4.6

CRR 3.9

USSR

3.5 KOP

3.4

635(632)

VOX K A A U F A C

TURES

Wor ld

190.7

DVG 1B.5

ERA 17.B

;EEC 125 A)

ESP 12.5

DAN

12.4

US 3.7

ROR 2.5

CHN 2.1

IND 1.3

BRA

1.2

World

190.7

DVG 18.5

EFT»

17.9

EEC 125.4)

ESP 12.5

OAN 12.4

US 3.7

RCf 2.5

CHN 2.1

IND 1.3

BR4

1.2

EXPORTS

24

«00, LUHBER,

CORK

World

355.4

DVG 21.7

ERA 41.0

(EEC

275.2)

ESP 23.6

RAP 5.1

E6Y 3.7

OZA

2.7 TUN

1.7 NGA

1.3 1RS

C.7

World

359.4

DVG 21.7

ERA 41.0

(EEC

272.5)

ESP 23.6

RAR 5.1

EGY 3.7

DZA 2.7

TUU 1.7

NGA 1.3

IRJ 0.7

247(2A2)

WOOD,

ROUGH,

SOUAJtED

Wor ld

113.2

DVG 10.0

ERA 12.8

(EEC

103.1)

ESP 5.7

RAR 4.4

EGY 1.9

NGA 0.9

SOR C.3

SEN C.3

ROR 0.2

World

112.2

OVG ICO

ERA 12.9

(EEC

103.1)

ES" 5.7

RAR 4.4

EGY 1.9

CA 0.9

SOR C.3

SEN 0.3

ROR 0.2

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WORKED

Wor ld

171.3

UVG 11.6

ERA 17.3

(EEC

124.3)

ESP 17.8

DZA 2.5

EGY 1.7

IRQ 0.7

SAL'

0.5 CA

0.3 US

0.1

World

171.3

DVG 11.6

ERA 17.3

[EEC

124.3)

ESP 17.6

DZA 2.5

E5Y 1.7

IRQ 0.7

SAU C.5

CA C.3

US 0.1

634(631)

VERIER,

PLYWOOD,

ETC.

World

229.8

DVG 16.?

ERA

11.1

<E£C

186.7)

YUG 5.1

VEN 3.9

US 2.6

OZA 2.3

IRQ 1.7

ESP 1.7

USSR

0.9

World

229.8

DVG 16.2

ERA 11.1

(EEC

IBM) YUG

5.1 VEN

3.9 US

2.6 DZA

2.3 1RS

1.7 ESP

1.7 USSR

C.9

635(632)

unon RAHUFAC-

TURES

World

191.5

OVG 95.8

ERA 10.4

:EEC 73.0)

DZA 41.3

SAU 17.7

US 7.3

IRO 6.7

CA 6.3

RAR 3.9

ESP 1.9

World

191.5

DVG 95.6

EFTA

10.4

(EEC

73.0)

DZA 41.3

SAU 17.7

US 7.3

1RS 6.7

CA 6.3

RAR 3.9

ESP 1.9

WOOD-PULP

IMPORTS

251

PULP.

HASTE

PAPER

World

913.4

DVG

61.7

ERA

376.6

(EEC

76.6)

CAN

192.6

US

146.4

USSR

33.7

BRA

25.1

CHL

23.B

ESP

19.6

RAR

7.5

World

1,343.4

DVG

86.2

ERA

562.?

(EEC

69.0)

CAN

2RC3

US

253.6

BRA

59 .C

USSR

29.2

ESP

23.B

CHI

19.2

YUG

2.?

RAP

2.C

CSP

1.2

EXPDRIS

251

PULP,

WASTE

PAPER

Wo'ld

124.7

DVG

3.B

ERA

3.7

[EEC

63.4)

ESP

31.3

KOR

1.6

RAR

0.3

OZA

0.2

SEN

0.1

POL

C. l

World

124.7

OVG

3.8

ERA

3.7

(EEC

83.4)

ESP

31.3

KCR

1.6

RAR

C.2

OZA

0.2

SEN

C. l

POL

C. l

CORr m d CORK HANUFACTUK!

IHPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

. WASTE

World

6.4 DVG

0.? ERA

4.2

PRT 4.2

ESP 2.0

World

6.4 DVG

C.2 ERA

4.2

PR1 4.2

ESP 2.C

633

CORK

WJWFAC

1URES

World

6 7 . :

DVG CC

ERA 48.1

EEC

1.1) PRT

47.3

ESP 12.1

World

67.2

DVG 5.6

EFTA

45.1

(EEC

1.1) PRT

47.3

ES° 12.1

EXPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW,

- WASTE

Worl,J

C.4

(EEC

C4)

Kc- ld C.4

(E-C 0.4)

633

CORK

HANUFA^

TUBES

krrlt! 7.1

DVG C.5

EFT» t . :

EEC

'.=! US

1.0 SAL

0.2

LGSF

ISR

0.1

W r r l '

7.1

ov: CE

EFT*

i.3 (EEC

4.5)

LE 1."

S»'.

c?

0.1

ISfc

C. l

1Cf. (23)

MDF/W/52

aunr' 'TEA»

(7!) GREECE /Ml

(?') IRELAND / ' S I

(K) IT;LT

/ ' F l

! WOOD w d BOO PRODUCTS

IHFORTS

• 14 247(242)

IliiWE.'. JCMK

1 : G

m»

( E E C " ' : . - )

'4B

CIV

9.5 USSR

9.2 US

f.5 ROM

5.4 COG

3.7 CHR

3.5

Wor ld ' 111.3

OVG 2«.4

EFT» 53.9

(EEC 6.3)

CAN

17.5 CIV

U.9 3RA

9.3 US

3.2 USSR

1.8 GH»

1.8 PHI

1.6

World1

1,573.9 DVG

302.2 EFTA

709.3 (EEC

140.1 CIV

136.0 THi

121.9 LSSR

102.1 US

90.9 ION

77.3 CAN

3B.2 CSR

32.2 HUN

16.6 COG

14.7

, K M ) , ROUGH, SQUARED

Wc-ld

13 . : •7G

if'u

w" GAS

Î.7 CIV

9 . : COG

3.7 WR

PHL 1.4

CSR 1.2

ION 0.5

World

8.1 OVG

0.6 EH»

4.2

CAN

L.8 GH»

0.2 CIV

0.2 9RA

0.1

World 455.?

OVG 173.3

EH* 145.9

(EEC

87.1) CIV

127.2 TUG

22.7

etc 14.5

CSR

10.6 US

10.4 CUR

1C.2 SAB

9.9

248(243)

toco. SHAPED, WORKED

Wc- J

! *£. (EEC

USSR

US

r.n

TIG 1.5

C«N

C.8 BUR

C.8 ZAF

0.4

World 103.5

OVG 27.6

EFTA 49.7

(EEC

4.0) CAN

16.7 CIV

13.7 BRA

9.7 US

3.1 USSR

1.7 GHA

1.6 PHI

1.5

World 1,024.?

OVG 127.4

EFTA 545.0

[EEC

45.2] TUG

89.2 US

80.5 IDN

75.6 USSR

67.4 CSR

20.1 CIV

10.B NTS

10.4

634(631)

VEKER. PUVOOO, ETC.

i -.'i

E T A "

0.1 (EEC

' . ' ) ?cn

0.1 OAsii

0.1 US

0.1

World 46.5

OVG 10.4

EFTA 6.2

(EEC

2*.6) NTS

2.7 CAN

2.1 CAN

2.0 SGP

1.8 US

1.7 KCR

0.7 IDH

0 . *

World 179.9

DVG 29.7

En» 49.C

(EEC 51.3)

TIC 14.0

US 12.8

CTR 12.5

USSR

8/1 CAD

6.8 OAR

6.7 ESP

4.6

(35(632)

WOOD MRUFAC TURES

world

7.„ OVG

1.1 EFTA

i . l (EEC

2» TO

?.2 OAN

0.5 TUB

0.4

in 0.3

CKN 0.2

World 27.0

OVG

2.2 EFTA

2.7 (EEC

18.6) US

1.5 CAN

1.2 OAN

1.2 SGP

0.3 IDN

C.3 BRA

0.2 USSR

0.2

World 85.3

0V6 15.9

EFTA 17.8

(EEC 32.9)

TUG 7.8

OAN 6.0

CIV 2.3

SGP 1.6

IND

1.4 BRA

1.4 CHN

1.4

EXPORTS

24

1000. LUMES, CORK

World 1.0

OVG l.C

SAU 0.5

LBN 0.2

XR 0.1

CTP

0.1

World 13.7

EFT» <..o

(EEC 9.7)

UK 9.C

World 26.5

OVG 8.7

En» 8.6

EEC

4.6) LST

5.5 Tin

3.0 SAU

1.4 IRQ

0.6 OU

0.4 ALT

0.3 XR

0.1

247(2*2!

WOO, ROUGH, SQUARED

World

World 1.9

(EEC

1.9) UH

1.9

World 2.0

OVG 1.0

EnA

0.2 EEC

0-7) LBT

0.8

2M(243)| 634(631!

wooo, SHAPED, WORKED

World 1.0

OVG

1.0

SAU 0.5

LBN C.2

XR

0.1 CTP

0.1

World

7.1

(EEC

7.1) UK

6.9

World 23 . *

DVG 7.7

En» 7.6

(EEC

1.8) LBT

4.7 TUG

3.0 SON

0 . * OU

0.3

VEKER. PLYUDOO,

ETC.

Work 12.2

DVG 7.2

(EEC 3.3)

IRN

2.8 SAU

1.3 CTP

i . l HIT

0.5 TIC

0.5 LBN

0.* XR

0.4

World 1.9

(EEC

1.9) UX

. 1.9

World 150.9

DVG 2B.7

En» 12.3

(UC 63.6)

TUG 14.9

US 3.5

ESP 3.5

EGT 2.8

IRQ

2.3 SAU

1.7 SGP

1.5

635(632)

wnon iUNUFAC-

TURES

a«G

(UC

M ) LBT

0 . ' KWT

0.2 CTP

0.2

World 11.4

OVG 0.9

EnA

0.6 (EEC

10.3) LBT

0.9 AUS

0.1

World 288.8

OVG 98.3

EnA 28.7

(EEC 140.0)

OU 47.6

LBT 29.6

IS 13.0

SAU

5.1 1RS

3.1 RAR

2.6 CAN

1.0

i

«. (2?)

WOOD-PULP

1 WORTS

251

PULP. WASTE PAPER

K- i o^"J i

_v ! EFT» !

(EEC"

.-•5] US

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EH* 219.5

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HTS 92.2

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CAN 15.5

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DVG 214.6

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CIV . 14.7

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DVG 198.3

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15.7

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170.1)

US 19.1

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CAK 11.9

OAN 6.7

COG 5.9

ESP 5.7

PHI 5.0

World

692.1

DVG 206.4

EFTA

159.1

(EEC

150.2)

CAN 52.2

ESP 49.3

SGP 46.7

US 41.1

«TS 35.2

COR 30.9

PHL 24.5

OAN 17.0

BR* H.8

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World 180.7

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(EEC

49.1)

OAN 34.3

CAN 13.9

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IB* 2.5

SDN 1.5

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EEC. 0.6

CM 7.2

2Af 4.8

BRA 0.6

ROM 0.4

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DVS 45.1

EFTA 40.3

USSR 117.2

CSR 15.0

CHU 13.5

ION 13.1

ESP 10.6

JPN 9.8

GOR 8.4

ISR 8.1

World

World

dorld

PROOUCTS

EXPORTS

24

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Wor ld i , : ? : . :

OVG 213.0

EfTA 140.1

EEC 696.2

EST 55.5

DU 33.7

IRQ 28.7

LBT 23.6

1» 22.0

ISR 20.4

SAU 17.8

Wtrld 112.5

DVG 9.5

EEC(9) 66.2

6RC 12.8

ISR 10.2

ESP 7.9

m 4.7

LB« 3.5

JPN 2.1

EFTA 2.0

dorld

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DVS 2.7

EEC 49.9

USSR 2.6

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TUG 1.9

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EGT 0.9

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247(242)

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DV6 61.3

EFTA

24.6

EEC 22.0

EGT 18.4

IRN 10.9

SAU 8.9

LBT 8.3

STR 7.4

HUN

5.1 LBN

1.2

d.rld 111.4

OVG 9.3

EEC(9) 65.3

GRC 12.8

ISR 10.1

ESP 7.9

HAR 4.7

LBN 3.3

JPN 2.1

EFTA 2.0

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DVG 1.2

EEC 32.3

USSR 2.6

TUG 1.8

ESP 0.9

EGT 0.9

STR 0.3

US 0.2

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WOOD, SHAPED, WORKED

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DVG 151.7

EFTA 49.8

EEC 673.9

EGT 37.1

DZT 31.0

IRQ 27.6

ISR 19.8

TUN 16.2

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ESP 14.9

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EFTA

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EEC 197.9

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IRQ 15.0

USSR 10.5

US 9.6

IRN 8.6

EGT 6.2

GOR 5.7

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0.5

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DVG 34.3

EFTA 27.3

EEC 22.2

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IRQ 11.5

ARG 10.2

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24 j 247(2421 i 248(243)

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EFIA 3.0

EEC 4.8

USSR 114.2

US 9.8

p a 3.5

CAN 1.5

CHR 1.0

CIV 1.0

JPN 0.5

World 2.0

DVG 1.0

EEC 1.0

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World

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EFTA

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EEC

2.5

CAR

1.5

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1.1

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JPN 0.5

BUR 0.5

POL 0.5

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World

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EFTA 3.0

EEC 5.3

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CAN 0.7

THA 0.3

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World

635(632)

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EFTA 14.3

EEC 4.3

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HUN 1.2

TUG 0.6

GDR 0.3

OAK 0.2

RTS 0.2

KOR 0.2

Wtrld 1.5

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SUR 0.1

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Nil 7.4

CSR 5.2

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SUE 1.6

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EFTA 6.8

ROH 4.7

EEC 3.1

CSR 2.3

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POL 0.2

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EFTA 6.2

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EFTA 12.4

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CAN 1.4

FRA 0.8

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EEC 0.2

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EEC 0.3

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TUG 6.6

ROH 2.4

UK 1.8

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SGP 0.8

HAG 0.5

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BRA 0.8

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JPN 278.3

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l.C S6P

0.6 SON

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JPN 239.6

OAR 49.3

KOR 16.7

SGP 12.3

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248(243)

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0.6

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0.3

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JPR 37.3

SGP 32.4

THA 15.9

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HKG 7.9

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SAU

Norld 0.4

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634(631)

VENEER, PLVWDO0,

tie.

Norld i i . ;

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Norld 316.1

OVG 203.9

SEP 61.6

US 55.5

SAU 37.5

EEC 36.6

JPN. 19.4

KNT 8.5

BUL 3.3

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Norld 12.6

DVG 0.9

RLD 7.5

UK 3.0

BLX 0.5

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ITA 0.2

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635(632)

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Norld 7.3

DVG 5.0

KNT 1.8

EEC 1.1

ARE 0.8

JPN 0.7

IRQ 0.5

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SAU 0.4

QAT 0.3

Norld 6.7

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EEC 3.0

JPN 1.4

US 0.9

SGP 0.6

HKG 0.4

Norld 0.9

EEC 0.4

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NOOO-PULP

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251

PULP.

NA5TE

PAPER

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30.7

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0.2 US

9.8 CAN

9.8 SNE

8.2 FRA

1.0 NOR

0.9 FIN

0.6 CHE

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0.2

Norld 83.1

DVG 25.4

US 28.4

OAK 17.1

FIN 3.2

SNE 5.7

BRA 4.6

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CHL 2.4

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Norld 38.0

SNE 13.5

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251

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244 ; 533 . 244 ! 633

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24

WOO,

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CAR 6.4

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6.5

THA

6.1

World

..

World

64.2

DVG

22,7

EEC

24.6

EFTA

14.7

PST

13.7

HAR

9.2

OZA

5.7

ARG

3.1

BRA

1.3

TUN

1.1

World .

3.51

DVG

0.2

EEC

2.0

JPN

0.3

VUG

C.3

YEM

. o r : .

247(242)

WOOO,

ROUGH,

SQUARED

• -rlo [

' .3 ! i>VG 1

S.I |

-AN

3.6 '

JPN : -

2.3

K.S

1.3

World

..

Worii

3.2

DVG

3.4

DZA

2.4

EEC

1.9

TUN

1.4

ESY

0.2

CIV

C.l

CYP

0.1

World

0.1

EEC

C.l

iorV

248(243)

WOOD,

SHAPED,

WRKEO

'30.3

98.3

:E: 66.4

ier Africi

2C.4

Î4U

18.0

ARE

11.0

JS

8.8

AUS

6.5

JPN

6.4

m 5.1

World

• •

World

21.3

DVG

14.C

HAR

9,2

EEC

5.8

OZA

3.3

TUN

C.7

EGY

0.4

EFTA

C.3

JCR

0.2

YEM

0.1

World

EEC

C.l

i d ' '

634(631)

VEHEER,

PLYWOOD,

ETC.

« V d

2:7.0

3VG

130.3

EEC

71.2

KWT

20.4

SAU

20.3

HKG

18.3

ARE

16.1

MYS

8.8

US

. 6.2

AUS

6.0

World

••

World

77.7

DVG

3.2

EEC

64.3

EFTA

2.3

cue 1.3

IRN

1.0

OZA

0.7

TUN

o.-> CHL

0.7

EGY

0.2

World

Wîr ld

635(632)

WOOD

MANUFAC

TURES

World

77.7

DVE

10.6

JPN

1.5

US

1.4

MYS

1.0

CHN

0.6

SAU

0.5

World

••

World

' 2 . 4

DVG

3.0

EEC

33.2

EFTA

3.2

LBY

1.9

US

1.9

HAR

1.2

SAU

1.2

oa 1.2

USSR

0.8

World

2.4

DVG

0.5

EEC

0.9

US

C.5

EFTA

JPN

C.l

.io r id

MDF/W/52


IMPORTS

244

CORK,

RAW, . VASTE

« r i d 0.3

Em C.2

PRT

»?rl t 1.1

E H ;

EE:

C.7

EST

H:rTd

t u

CORK AAKUFAC-TURES

Em 3.9

EEC

°RT 3."

ESr '

«?-ld 17.4

C". E H ;

EXPORTS

244

CORK, RAH, . VASTE

fc-.rlr

. - 1 :

633

CORK KAWC TURES

wrl< M

;.i EEC

:> '.'S

[,3

.3'1C

- 1 :

1 •

BOO-PULP

IKPOfiTS

251

PULP,

VASTE

PAPER

•-rid SE.:

0V3 7.4

E m

EEC"" 3E.4

cut 9.C

BR:

7.7

US

1.5

GDR

1.3

EST n#5

• e l d 15Î.C

DVC 2.7

En; iP3. :

EEC 30.5

CAA 17.1

L'S 5.f

ESP 5.1

BRA 2.5

Tli: 0.1

korld 0.5

E m

0.1 rsss

EXPORTS

251

PULP. VASTE PAPER

norld 1,345.1

cv; 74.3

Em n c

EEC 973.3

ES» 37.4

RDF i-:.4

YL:G

14.4 pa

H.5 L'S

10.7 CS'

10.-' .Fli

1C? IR:

io . : sur.

• H d

DVG

E F T ;

o . 7

EEC ?C3

3D?

YL'O

ESP 0.7

SYR

Varld

COUNTRY, 'TEAR •

[V] S.EDEK •IÇ1

;7 r ' urns. L'-:3.''31

;?3) T A I ; : ; ' ; I ;

''CO

WOOD md VODO PRODUCTS

IMPORTS

24

VDOD, LUHBER, CORK

402 . " DVG

7 . ' En;

i s : . : EEC

51.7

LS 7 - : . A

P : :

74 . 7

Ie .3 '.'SS"

13.7 CAV

l . t IKJI;

«•rid

DVG

73.0 E m

EEC 57.:

4.5 CIV

i.:

Y V :

••yt,

CF.:

1.4

1.1

C.5

COO C.3

Vnrlr

247(2421

VDOD, ROUGH, SOUAREO

•orlc

DVG 2.4

E n ; 24.1

EEC 0.3

LSSS 1.7

1.1 C!V

C.7

CIS C.4

31.7 DVG

K.3 Em

C.4 E E :

15.5 CIV

L'3

CT 1.4

JFE

i . : C"3

C'.e

cs-

« T V

248(243)

V X D , SHAPED, WORKED

«orl r 47.C

DV: 4.3

Em

EEC

US

5.3

FUR '

1.7

l . :

JPF

1.1

CIV

o.e "YS

*";

• •.rid 14r.5

DVG 4.7

ERA 74.4

EEC 31.1

CAN

YL'G

ITfô

1.3 LB?

0.5 PDV

0.4

?4f •

CI'.'

G'-tf

c :

c :

Vjrld

634(631)

VENEER, PLYVO00, ETC.

«C.7 DVG

5.4 Em

41.1 EEC

l t . 5 USSR

4.5 CW

3.5 ( • ; : :

2.4 SF

PCF 7.0

R"K r.c

0.5

«:rld 57.4

DVG 1.5

EFTA 4:.3

EEC 43.5

YL'G 4.4

C:'; C.7

KOP

PHL C.4

cc: C.4

CA;;

: . I

S3F C.l

«y C.l

*>rld 0.5

DVG C.3

: Y C:

635(632)

WOD M1IIFAC TURES

Verld 53.C

DV3

Em '

EEC ice

PCL

OA.'.

2 . : CSr

1.1

GDR

1.1

I'S

1.1

ws

!TS

!?rlc 113.3

DVG 2.7

Em 75.4

EEC

UK t.?

JF!, C.P

Ta: C.3

IliD C3

GDR : .?

ES-C7

C.l

•orl d 1.5

OVG l . t

3R: l . t

JPI ;

0.2

EXPORTS

24

WOD, LUMBER, CORK

«orld 1,033.1 DVG

173.2 Em

153.7 EEC

7K.3 EGY

47.7 SVL

45.3 ESC

41.7 LEY

13.E IRC

9.3 V f

f .3 SOt:

6.3 J"?.

TL'I. 3.7

Verld 77.1

DVG C.l

E n ;

EEC 73.7

ESP 0.7

iv\i 1.C

DVG C.3

EEC 0.7

247(742)

VDOD, ROUGH,

SDUARED

V H d

DVG ' 3.7

E n ; IO . '

EEC 3.E

IR\ 2.0

OK: CE

TIP C.3

SAL' 0.3

ISR

Korld 61.1

E m

EEC '

•orld 0.?

DVG 0.3

248(243)

WOD, SHAPEO, WRKCD

1,031.3 DVC-

159.4 ERA

113.4 EEC

699.3 EGY

47.7 s;u

43.: 1RS

LBY 15.6

IRQ 9.4

WW

S3'. E.7

JOt

TL'I. 2.7

a"

Vrrld 14.t

DV3 C.l

Em 2.1

EEC

i : . i ESC

«or l :

r r -

.7

634(631)

VENEER, PLYVDOD, ETC.

k^rld

DVG

1.9 E m

35.3 EEC

64.4 GDR

5.1 JS

0.5 LBY

C.R IR

0.4 CS?

0 . "

k'orld 33.7

m 1.4

ERA

EEC 44.7

DZ1 C.5

L'S C.7

SA'J

S!l C.l

I R :

C.l

» ; » 1 :

635(632)

vnon MANUFAC-TURES

V:rld ISC. 3

DVG

E m 77.C

EEC 83.9

I R :

1C.C L3Y

4 . " US

7.0 STP

1.8 SAC

1.7

1.7 GDR

1.0

k:rl c 33.7

DVG C.7

En* 3.0

EEC 14.6

DZJ 1.7

LEY 1.5

IRC 1.3

US 0.5

SA'J C.4

ISA! 0.7

FïT

c :

«•rrld 0.3

" r . l

MDF/W/52

taunt, 'TOI

W) mjz

:m T.G.

!!7) RIMDAD

Î7C3ACC

/ ' !1

!0) TUKISK

,"51

—

«aOat f lMO

:wons

a :2«(aa !:*•(»«

MOO.

LUIBEI,

con

• - r ' •

Yj

Iffll '

IE."

:SP

EEC

All

au

« rV

•'.ra

!.*

3?M

m.

« r i d

ore 5.C

EFTA

22.7

EEC

FIN ' "

l l . A

YL'3

USSR

7 . ;

CHL

3.7

PCL

2.1 :AN

1.3

laoo, TOJGK,

SOUAŒD

. . - 1 :

53

:. i ioa

-

HIQ

:.3

1EL

C2

« r i d

H.2

DVG

3.3

PCL

1.5

EEC

C 3

EFTA

0.6

ESP ; , i

CIV

C.i. GAS

0 . *

«CO,

SHAKO,

IORKCD

T S

UN* '

33P

LAC

C.t

EEC

CAS

«rl<!

OVG

C.i

GHA

C.3

4Ô.1

ce* us

HID

I f . *

CAN

2. !

?EL

2. :

GUY

1.2

6=A

3ZL

3.1

« r i d

«.6

DVG

* . l

EFTA

2.1

FIN

18.2

TUG

5.5

USSR

7.0

CHL

3.7

CAS

1.3

ESP

0.9

PCI

0.6

1

& » ( U 1 )

VEKER,

PLTUOO,

nc.

m 3.3

VZL

C.2

CAN

US

C.I

C.I

« r i d

OVG

EEC

C.2

« r i d

1 1 . '

OV3

5.-

US

2.1

CAN

3.C

SUR

1.1

3°A

C.3

EFTA

C.6

KCR

C *

CAN

0.3

Vorlrf

E.3

MB

*.C

MAR

1.7

PRT

0.8

CCG

0.5

ESP

CE

PHL

615(632)

IOOD

MJtlF AC

T U M

-orlii

1.5

C.7

JP;I

cc us

EFTA

3.1

« r ' d

EEC

C.2

iorld

3.5

OVG

3.5

EEC

3 . '

BRB

2.5

JAM

0.7

CAN

C o

US

GAH

. C 2 GUY

0.2

" r(2.0

EEC

CHN

EFTA

0.4

=HMXTS

EXPORTS

» [ 2*7(7*2)

ma, Uitea, CORK

.-- Id

c.-ri Î .C

MYS

1.3

S3P

O.S

HK'

C.*

JPV

PAK

C.2

EEC

« r i d

« r i d

1.1

EFTA

0.5

EEC

• 0.1

BUL

'3.2

USSR

0.1

WOO,

ROUGH,

SOUAffiD

«orld

DVG

we 3.C

PAT,

~ p

EEC

« r i d

« r i d

« r i d

»!(2*3)

«000,

SHAKO,

mm

0.3

C2

-

« r i d

« - Id

63*1631)

VENEER,

FlYVDOD,

ETC.

. - r id

r . 3

DVG

EEC

7.*

iUS

KCR

1.6

US

1.3

SGP

JPN

HKG

0.3

ESP

-

«- '3

« r i d

635(632)

vnoo HANUFAC-

TURES

••-.rlo

DVf,

EEC "

l ' . l

US

13.1

HKC

6.5

JP!I

6 . *

WT

*.: CAN

AUS

CE

3GP

C.6

« r i d

« r i d

DVG

1.8

CCI

1.8

HDOB-PULP

IMPORTS I

251 !

PULP.

HASTE

PAPER

DV1

1 5 . :

•is

EPA '

15.3

CAN

11.1

«3

10.5

JCI

6.J

USSR

'.: NIL

2.7

33P

l.P

2AF

1.8

CHL

C.2

« r i d

C*

US

C*

'« r id

•«.2

SHE

*.3

US

1.6

CAN

I . *

EEC

0.9

UPOBIS

251

PULP,

HASTE

PAPER

«- Id

« r l :

6.8

•FC 1.5

EFTA

1.3

US

YU3

E3P

CCRK m i CCR

••ram * '

2<* • 633 ;

CORK, i con |

RAH. 1 MNUf AC

. USTE 1 TURES

« r i d

« r i d

Horld

'•-.-

« r i d

Korld

Hdrld

"WiCTlTtS

:.IP0«T5

•U 1 533

CORK, ! CORK

RAH, | NAHUFAC.

- .ASIE TURES

u r ' d

< : - ; d

EFT;

EEC

3UL

U53S

: . i

« r i d

« - 1 :

MDF/W/52

COUkTRY.

(84) T N U T

/ '81

(85) UEUDA /•76

(86) IMITEO STATES

/ '81

(87) UPPER VOLT;

IV,

moo Md moo RODUCTS

IRP011S

24

mo, U M E I , CDU

•orld 0.9

USSR 0.4

P«T 0.3

«orld 0.1

OK 0.1

«A 0.1

•or Id

2,223.0

DVÔ

158.5

CAD

2,050.0

tRA

61.2

PU

27.7

HTS 16.1

ta 8.2

PRT

6.5

80L

6.3

SEP

5.6

BUR

4.9

HKE

3.5

OU

2.8

•or Id

1.1

1.1

•fee

0.9

0.9

247(242]

•OUCH,

SOURED

hor ld 0.4

USSR

0.4

hor ld

hor ld

35.4

OK

1.4

CM

33.9

CIV

0.5

EUT

0.3

E l *

0.2

•or le

248(243)

mm, SHAPtO,

«DRIED

wr ld

horld

horld 2,013.0 OK

152.9 CM 1,943.1 8RA

61.2 PH.

25.4 HTS

16.6

ECU

6.2

BOL

6.3

SGP

5.5

WO

4.9

BUR

4.8

IKE

3.5

OM

2.6

PER

1.7

EEC

1.7

hor ld

1.1

OK

1.1 ÔW

C.9

CIV

C.9

(34(631)

VECER,

rvnooo, ETC.

horld 2.3

US 2.1

EEC 0.2

horld 0.3

OK 0.2

KEN 0.2

USSR 0.1

horld 789.0

DVG 540.8

OM 172.9

CM 160.0

KOR 140.7

PM. 188.0

JPh 52.8

HEX 28.9

BRA 21.3

EEC 14.7

EFIA 14.5

UTS 13.0

PER 5.1

USSR 4.1

CRI 3.1

•orld C.7

OK 0.7

ÔK» C.4

CIV C.3

635(632)

uoo HAW AC

TIDES

horld

hor ld

0.3

OK

0.3

• E l

0.3

hor ld

529.6

OK

272.5

CM

194.0

OM

138.5

REX

44.4

EEC

31.6

UTS

19.8

PIE

13.2

THA

12.4

IKE

11.2

PHL

10.8

HHO

7.6

KOR

6.1

EFTA

5.9

cm 5.5

BRA

4.4

horld

1.3

OK

0.9

CIV

C.S

0.3

EXPORTS

M

«000.

una, con

horld 7.9

OK 6.9

in 3.7

LIT 1.3

EEC 1.1

STR OJ

LH 0.3

SU 0.2

X I 0.2

horld

horld 2,372.5 OK

290.3 JPI 1,257.0 EEC

297.9 CM

285.8 CH*

89.2 HEX

60.6 KOR

56.5 SHE

49.6 US

48.9 SW

29.6 E6T

16.7 ESP

15.6 no

12.3

00H

11.6

VE«

9.3

horlo

247(242)

vow, ROUGH,

SOUttED

«•rid 4.3

OK 4.1

in 3.1

STR 0.7

EEC 0.2

LB» 0.1

horld

horld 1,125.9 OK

67.2 .PI

832.2 CHN

89.2

EEC

56.3

CM

54.4

KOR

49.5

SU

7.1

HEX

4.1

OM

4.1

BRA

4.0

horlc

248(243)

«000,

SHAKO,

«DRKO

«orld

3.6

DK

2.7

LIT

1.3

EEC

0.9

i n 0.6

STR 0.2

LH 0.2

«orld

horld 932.9

DK 199.6

EEC 236.5

CM 215.8

JPI 188.7

HEX 55.5

US 48.7

SAU 22.3

EET 16.2

ESP 13.6

no 12.0

DDK 10.1

VEI 7.3

JA." 7.0

KB 5.9

I w r l d

i 1

634(631)

VEREER,

PLTVDOO,

ETC.

«•rid 8.0

DK 7.1

IRV 7.3

LIT 0.4

EEC 0.2

«orld

horld 343.6

DK 57.8

EEC 183.6

CM 75.3

HEX 18.2

EFTA 12.6

SU 11.6

JPI 7.1

CM 3.5

US 2.3

BHS 2.2

no 1.5

hc- ld

635(632)

«on I W U F t C

TURES

«or ld

11.4

OK

10.9

LIT

8.6

LB»

0.9

sm 0.5

i n 0.4

X I 0.3

SU 0.1

horld

horld 252.4

DVG 126.0

SU 65.6

CM 64.9

EEC 31.7

JPI 15.7

HEX 15.4

VEI 6.5

BHS 4.2

US 3.1

ESP 2.9

DC* 2.5

TIM 1.7

«arid

«DOO-PULP

IHPORTS

251

PULP,

MSTE

PAPER

horld 25.7

US 9.9

SHE 6.2

CM 3.9

FII 1.2

SU 1.2

EEC 0.3

horld

horld 1,819.6 DK

61.1 CAN 1,692.1 BRA

59.3 EH A

19.3 EEC

3.2 TUR

1.6 JPI

1.4

«orld

i i

EXPOItlS

251

PULP, USTE PAPEI

«orld 1.2

KOH 1.2

•orld

«orld 2,015.0 DK

56.1 EEC

895.2 JPh

315.6 HEX

139.0 KOR

129.3 cm

68.6 OM

62.2 VEI

61.4 ZAF

42.4 EFTA'

35.7 ESP

27.8 THA

19.0 ID!

17.2 Pl l

15.7

horld

1

CORK ind CORK NUUFACTVRES

IMPORTS

244 633

CORE,

IAD,

. HASTE

«orld 0.4

PIT 0.3

«orld

horld 7.6

OVE 0.5

PRT 6.5

TUA 0.5

ESP 0.4

«orld

CMK MIFAC TIRES

•orld

horld

•orld 33.3

PR! 24.3

ESP 4.4

EEC 1.6

CHA 0.8

CM 0.6

TX 0.3

KOR G.I

horld

EXPORTS

244

CORK,

IW, -VASTE

horld

•orld

•orld C.7

DK

0.4

CM

C.l

SAU

0.1

LAF1A

G.l

hor ld

633

•Ml

MJUFAC

IUKS

horld

. . - c

«or ld

4.3

DVG

2.8

HEX

1.2

CM

0.9

SU

G.3

ISA

0.3

EEC

G.3

ZAF

0.2

JAR

G.1

E6T

0.1

hor ld

1

1 1

1

Of »hich: CHE 19.8, AVT S.1 rliior..

MDF/W/52

3XW ind^R

imrrs

2 «

CORK.

RAH,

. HASTE

• or Id

0.3

ESP

0.2

PRT

0.1

Horld

1.1

PIT

0.7

ESP

0.2

GDR

0.1

•o r ld

•orld

Horld

••

••

63J

CORK

MHJFC

TIMES

Korld

•o r ld

5.9

PRT

4.7

ESP

0.7

EEC

0.4

Hor Id

Horld

Korld

••

"

( K

1

VSCTJRES

EXPORTS

244

coin, «tv, . MSTE

Kona

Korld

Korld

•orld

«•rid

••

"

613

CORK

M I V IC

TUSES

Korld

0.3

USSR

0.3

•orld

•orld

••

••

COMTÏT,

'TEA*

,'U) LdUSUAT

/ • « i

(89) TU60-

SLAVIA

/ • B l

190) ZAIRE

/ ' 7 8

(91) ZAMBIA

I'n

(92) ZMSABHE

CHIN*

USSR

HOOD » d HOOD PRODUCTS

iprari

« mo, UIHEJt.

COU

• o r l d

11.0

OVG

I C C

LAFTA

9.8

BRA

5.7

CH.

2.1

PRT

1.3

US

0.7

• o r l d

199.4

DVG

35.2

USSR

78.4

CSR

35.7

KIM

15.4

CAN

14.0

AUT

11.2

GAB

10.8

CIV

9.4

IBS

5.0

CHR

4.0

CAF

2.7

Korld

0.1

• o r ld

2.6

DVG

0.5

EEC

1.2

ZAF

0 J

KM

: .s SHE

O J

0.3

A U

0.1

Korld

••

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247(242)

« M O . ROUGH,

SOUAKO

• o r l d

0.4

OVG

0.2

LAFTA

0.2

US

0.2

AUG

0.1

Korld

125.5

DVG

32.3

USSR

35. i

CSR

22.9

HUN

14.6

CAR

14.0

GAB

10.S

CIV

9.4

MR

4.0

13R

4.0

138

3.4

AUT

2.9

• o r l d

• o r l d

1.2

ZAF

0.6

SHE

0.5

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••

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248(2421

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SHAPES,

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Korld

ic: OVG

9.6

LAFTA 9.9

BRA

5.7

CH.

2.1

PRT

1.7

US

0.6

• o r l d

71.5

OVG

2.6

USSR

42.5

CSR

12.8

AUT

8.3

EEC

2.5

GDR

1.6

LBR

1.1

ION

0.9

POL

0.5

• o r l d

• o r l d

1.4

NOR

0.6

ZAF

0.3

TZA

0.3

' • « 0.1

• o r l d

••

••

634(631)

VENEER,

PLTUOO,

ETC.

Korld

1.2

CVG

1.1

LAFTA

1.1

BRA

1.0

Korld

31.9

DVG

0.5

EEC

27.5

US

1.5

EFTA

1.3

0.4

BUL

0.4

HUN

0.3

RON

0.3

Korld

0.2

EEC

0.1

•o r ld

1.1

OVG

0.3

EEC

0.4

ZAF

0.3

DM

0.2

CAN

0.1

Korld

••

••

635(632)

VDOO

MftlFAC-

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•o r ld

4 J

DVG

4.7

LAFTA

4.6

3RA

4.1

ARG

0.4

• o r l d

2.4

CSR

1.2

BUL

0.4

EEC

0.3

GOR

0.1

ALB

0.1

Korld

1.0

EEC

1.0

Korld

0.2

ZAF

0.1

Korld

••

••

EXTORTS

24

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LIMER,

au ;

•or Is I

Korld

292.8

OVG

59.6

EEC

179.9

USSR

26.4

EGT

24.0

EFTA

14.9

TUN

8.8

STR

5.5

SAU

5.4

HAR

4.6

KHT

3.0

ESP

2.1

•o r ld

7.0

OVG

0.1

EEC

6.9

J>«

0.2

ESP

0.1

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Korld

••

••

247(242)

H000,

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SOUAKO

• o r l d | 1

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42.3

DVG

0.2

EEC

38.0

AUT

4.1

IRN

0.1

Korld

2.7

EEC!9)

2.4

JPN

0.2

ESP

0.1

Korld

Korld

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241.3

OVG

59.3

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147.7

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28.5

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24.0

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8.8

ISR

5.8

HAR

4.6

KHT

3.0

ESP

2.1

Korld

4.3

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4.0

IS

0.1

Horld

Horld

••

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VENEER,

PLTHDOO,

ETC.

Horld

Korld

. 77.6

OVG

7.9

EEC

35.2

USSR

16.6

CSR

7.7

CHE

5.4

AUT

2.0

IRQ

1.9

ISO

1.8

STR

1.7

Korld

0.5

EEC

0.4

Horld

Horld

••

••

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HANUFAC

TURES

Korld

0.4

OVG

0.4

AUG

0.4

Korld

118.7

DVG

42.4

EEC

53.6

IRQ

32.1

ISR

10.0

LBT

9.1

AUT

4.4

US

1.0

CSR

0.5

GOR

0.5

Korld

2.1

EEC

1.4

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0.4

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(uc;

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«OO-PULP

IMPORTS

2S1

PAP, HASTE

PAPER

Kor ld

4.6

CVG

3.7

CM.

2.1

BRA

1.5

US

0.9

Horld

137.2

DVG

0.6

USSR

43.3

EFTA

60.4

AUT

41.4

CAN

11.6

US

9.5

EEC

7.5

CSR

2.9

TUN

0.6

Korld

Korld

• o r l d

••

••

EXPORTS

251

PULP.

HASTE

PAPER

Horld

Horld

56.1

HUN

25.7

EEC

17.9

AUT

6.7

GOR

5.7

Horld

Horld

Horld

••

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MDF/W/52

!B°PEV'ATI0N5 USED IN T A5l i Ml - 5

FOR DESIGNATING SOURCES OF IMPORTS AND

EIFORT DESTINATIONS

AFGHANISTAN

ARGENT IMA

BURUNDI

BAHAMAS

BRAZIL

CENTRAL AFRICA* REP.

CHI «A

COLOMBIA

CUBA

DOMINICAN RXPVSL IC

EFIA

FIJI GHANA

EQUATORIAL 6UMEA

GUATEMALA

HAITI

IB l« 1ŒLAN0

JORDAN

KUNAIT

LIBERIA

MOROCCO

MALTA

HAL A ï 1

mCAAASUA

KAURU

PAKISTAN

PAPUA MEN GUINEA

QATAR

SIC All

EL SALVADOR

StfDEN

THAILAND

TURKEY

URUGUAY

VENEZUELA

YUGOSLAVIA

ZIMBABWE

A/G Affi

act BHS BRA OAF C * ML CUB DOM ETTA

FJI SW sa GTH KTI 1» ISL JOR

vn LBS UN

ItT H.I

NIC mai PAK ?m QAT SOU SLV S * THA TUB URY YEN YUG ZNE

ANGOLA

AUSTRALIA

BED III

BELGIUUUXEmOURS

8ARBA00S

CAIACA

IVORY MAST

CAPE VERDE

CYPRUS

ALGERIA

E6YPT (U.A.R. )

FIANCE

GUINEA

GREECE

GUYANA

HUNGARY

IRELAND

ISRAa

JAPAN

LAFTA

LIBYAI ARAB JAMAH IR.

MADAGASCAR

MOZAMBIQUE

HAUTS 1A

NETHERLANDS

HEN ZEALAND

PARANA

POLAMO

ROMANIA

SENEGAL

SOMALIA

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

TONGA

TANZANIA, UNITEO REP.

UNITED STATES

VIET «AH

SOUTH AFRICA

AGO ALS BE» BLi eps CAN

CIY CPV

a? ou EGY FRA GIN SRC GUY HUH IRL ISR JPN LAFTA

LBY HOC Ml «YS NLO BTZL

PA* POL

Rasa sw SYR TOK TZA US VNM ZAF

ALBANIA

AUSTRALIA

BANGLADESH

BELIZE

BULGARIA

SWITZERLAND

UNITED REP. CAMEROON

COSTA RICA

GERMANY, FEDERAL REP.

ECUADOR

SPAIN

GABON

GAMBIA

GRENADA

HONG KONG

UPPER VCLTA

IRAN

ITALY

KENYA

LAO PEOPLE'S OEM. REP.

SRI LANKA

KALDIVES

MAURITANIA

NIGER

NCR-NAT

OTHER ASIA N .E .S .

PERU

PORTUGAL

RUANDA

SINGAPORE

SAO TOME i PRINCIPE

CHAD

TRINIDAD ; TOBAGO

UGANDA

USSR

SAMOA

ZAIRE

ALB A'jSf

BSD BLZ BUL CK£ CUR CSi DEO ECU ESP 6AS GM CRD

mi KVO

in ITA KEN LAD UU MOV

vn NFR N ^ SAN PER PRT RNA SGP STP TCD

no LEA USSR

VSM ZAR

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

AUSTRIA

BAHRAIN

BOLIVIA

BURMA

CHILE

CONGO, REPUBLIC

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

DENMARK

EEC FINLAND

GERMANY, DEMOCR. REP.

GUINEA-BISSAU

GREENLAND

HONDURAS

INDONESIA

IRAQ

JAMAICA

KOREA, REP. OF

LEBANON

MACAO

MEXICO

MAURITIUS

NIGERIA

NEPAL

OMAN

PHILIPPINES

PARAGUAY

SAUDI ARABIA

SIERRA LEONE

SURI NAME

TOGO

TUNISIA

UNITED KINGDOM

ST. VINCENT

YEMEN

ZAMBIA

APE

ALT BHR BOL SUR

:n :oc ca M EEC FIN GDk GN£

GRL WD ION IRC JAM KM LBN MAC HEX MUS «A «PL OMN PHL PRT SAJ SLE SUR TCO TUN UK VCT YEM 2M8

Includes alto 111. of Tiivan

MDF/W/52

Annex I - B P a 9 e

Volume of production, exports and imports in 1963, 1973, 1979 and 1981 of:

Industrial roundwood

Pulpwood

Sawnwood

Plywood

Particle board

Fibre board

Wood pulp

166

167

168

169

170

171 172

MDF/W/52

fniamll.r, an. Trada. I.cn»lr l . ' fr.»r.«.ad

(HI 111.» Cable Halm)

(!) ««ru 1,051.41

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I W W H

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(Tt lCnn. (21) C i K a | l . . i k l l (72) b . l a t u a U a k l l a

UC . ( l»t f~UC) (« ) (23/74) b l a l a / u i a a w i

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(33) ltt»t I») h . l .a (35) H I M (* ' • l 4 l i l

(37) Skaa (31) U n l i t ) b l t l (40) l . aa r f (»1) lealaa (42) M i l (»3) M a i l ! (u ) l i n t l (tS! l-r-r b a i t (4a) Jcalca («7) Jiaaa ( i l ) U n i I t ! ) b r a , laak ' lc af (50) b a i t (51) k k w H i r (52; «a la.I (S3) blarala (St) I kU l .a i (SS) Haiti (Si) barltaala (57) bart t laa • (SI) laa l a l a a (51) H e r n i a l (50) llaar (51) l l aa r l l (57) l . r . . , (51) Paklatli IS») tm (55) f k l l l a l a l (55) M i n t (51) PartMll (51) b a i l l (59! I . .H» (70) S a a a a l

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0.17

15.0?

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93.7. 0.25 0.32 2.» 7.1? 0.12 0.4» I . t t

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55.71 2.21

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13.17 0.05 0.11 0.11

5.91 ».91 0.59 0.73

39.70 2.53 0.11 3.*5 O.t» 0.09 0.05 2.71 0.11

351.39 0.37 0.71 9.07 1.50 0.31

o.to

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0.0? 0.0? C.3S

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0.71 1.5» 0.01

0.09 0.t3

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0.01

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0.57 0.03 0.01 0.1?

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717.71

33.57 751.30

C.ll 0.15 0.11

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o.oi

111.55

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11.03

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11.31

11.01

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21.03 1.H 0.01 1.31

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13.51

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15.51 7.11 Î . 0 3

29.72

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C65 C»? 6.C1 I .H 3.71 CO?

36.01 2.15 CCI ?.»! OJ* 1.1» 7.1?

14.9C 71.30 0.05 5.65 0.05

11.51 0.11 1.71

0.7? 0.01

0.67 0.01

6.57 0.»5 0.15 1.03

CO? l.M 0.11 0.01 CO?

t.St

C»? 0.09

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0.05 7.B

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0.70

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111.53 177.55

1.55 0.69 0.20 3.07 2.07

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11.39 3.7» 0.1» 2.11 3.11 0.16 0.05 S.St 1.05 0.71 0.05 J . 12

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3.50

0.55 0.29

26.79

0.0»

cc? lO.tt 0.75 0.11 1.53 1.11 0.61 1.27

17.51 11.32 6.10

16.16 0.06 C»l 0.13

l . t l 1.31 0.«9 0.16

J6.IJ 3.71 0.91 S.l l 0.1? C10 0.0? (.42 1.21

122.21 O.t! 0.21 9 .» 2.70 0.12 0.53

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45.9* S 4 . l l

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0.13 0.70

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1.13 0.05 1.51

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0.0» 0.01 1.75 0.11 0.71 6.11 1.15 0.5? 1.64 9.13

11.90 1.73

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9.76 10.69 0.60 0.35

49.51 3.72 0.65 6.7? 0.15 0.06 0.12 6.96 1.31

355.21 0.30 0.»3

70.40 2.21 0.46 1.15

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0.1» 3.33 0.1!

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1.17 0.73 0.51 2.96 2.32

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0.51

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103.17 1.064.11

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64.94 775.90

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FrodjfUnn and Ir.oo: Pol.-'oiod

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II) «orld

(?) Argentina (1) C l l r . H l (*) C t r l . (SI Bang1.<io>> (0 B.rb.a». (7) k l l » ! ' ! B.Mr. (9) Br.,11 (10) Sana 111) Bomndt (17) Cooaroon (13) Canada (U) Control Africa, ««.bi le (IS) Chad (Ul Chllo

117) Coloohla (11) Cango (19) Cub.

(71) Cmho.lo.aklo (7?) Ooalnleon Ropobl Ic

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. (30) Hair (31) oathnr land l

(32) Unl tad Mngdon

(33) Egypt

(34) Finland US': (.ban (3b) (aabla (37) (nana (38) Coram

(39) Haiti (40) Hangar, (41) lea! and (.7) India (.3) lndom.1. (44) Itraal (45) Lory C u l l 1*6) Jaulu («7) Japan 1*8) «an,. (49) «or... Rap. (SO) «aoall (SI) Dadagascar (S7) M a u l (S3) ftalfflla (M) «a id»» (551 «alia (Si) • . . - . - . (57) «aarltioa (51) l a . 7aala»d (59) licaragoa ISC! Hoar (61) l laarla (b?) «or.,, ((3) ••• • . ib*: Faro it5i Philippin.. [bb, 'aland ((7) Portng.l (68) Roaanta ((9) ««and! (70) Sanagal (71) Sl . r r . laono (17) Slncaeoro (73) Sao in Krica (ft) Spain (75) Sri Ian.. (7(1 (17) Soada» (78) Saltmlana (79) lavanla ItC) Ibailand !B1) logo [87) lrlnldad and labaga 181) laalala ( M ) lor t r ,

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B u r u n d i Cameroon

C e n t r a l A f r i c a n R e p u b l i c Chad C h i l e C o l o a b l a Congo, R e p u b l i c o f Cuba Cyprus C z e c h o s l o v a k i a Dominican R e p u b l i c IEC - ( E x t r a - EEC) (10)

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S r i Lanka S u r l n a a e

S w i t z e r l a n d T a n z a n i a T h a i l a n d

T r i n i d a d and Tobago T u n i s i a Turkey

U n i t e d S t a t e a Upper V o l t a Uruguay Y u g o s l a v i a Z a i r e Z a a b i a Zlababwe

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0.02

0.09 0.07 0.01 0.20 0.05 0.07

0.10 0.03 0.07

0.(0 0.0»

0.05

0.01

0.02

O.OS

0.01

0.29

1.3?

-

C.36

-

COI

0.01

-

0.39

COI

1.12

-M » COI

ces

0.07

0.0»

-0.03

0.11

0.0b

-5.31

0.95

0.3?

1 l a p .

I.b»

0.05

0.01

0.01

0.35

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.01

2.05

0.09

0.11

0.19

0.31

0.01

0.0»

0.03

0.1»

l . » l 0.0»

0.02

0.01

0.01

-0.07

l .K

0.0»

0.01

g.o i

•

0.O»

C.Ob

-- '

0.13

0.03

COI

0.01

0.01

0.01

7.20

0.01

-' . 79

o.ot

Prad.

»7.3?

0.05 0.09 0.01

O.lt 0.12

0.01 2.51

0.07 0.05

0.30

1.(2 0.05 0.(0 0.5» O.U 0.01

0.»1 0.0» 0.07 0.O1 CM 0.0»

0.0»

0.01

0.11

es: 0.07 0.0*

1.53 0.02 2.3»

-

0.19

-

0.0» 0.02

0.09 0.O1

0.0» 0.52 0.73 0.0? C.J0

-o.u 0.01 0.13

0.0? 0.09 0.07

0.09

0.01 0.05

17.13

0.01 0.19 0.01

0.07

11.11

1.5» 1.99

1179

la».

LOS

D.01

0.11

0.01 0.»9

0.0»

0.09 0.11 0.03 0.17 0.05 0.03

0.1? 0.05 0.05

0.5» 0.01

0.01 0.70 O.C? 0.0?

0.15

1.M 0.01

0.»?

-

0.03 0.01

• 0.01 o.«? 0.05

0.13

-0J? 0.01 0.0»

0.01

o.u 0.01

0.2*

0.0»

5.(7

1.09 0.32

lap.

7.11

0.01 0.01 0.02

0.02

0.15

0.0? 0.0? 0.02 0.01 2.5» 0.2? 0.11 0.32 0.52

0.05 0.O9 0.5» 1.21 0.0* 0.01

0.02 0.01

-0.01 0.10

0.01

0.02

0.01

-0.07 0.07

0.05

-0.01

0.71

0.01

0.10 0.01

0.03

1.77

0.01

1.1»

. 0.05

1911

Prad.

31.97

0.05 0.09

0.13 0.12

0.01 2.09

0.0? 0.0»

0.71

1.51 O.OS

0.03

0.52

0.35

0.05

0.50

O.OS

0.02

0.01 0.(0 0.0»

0.0»

0.01

0.11 1.55 0.07 0.07

7.10 0.0? 1JSO

•

O.aJ

-

O.OS

0.01

0.09 0.01

0.0» o.«* 0.11 0.0?

:.rt

-:.•: 0.01 0.11 0.01 0.0? 0.01 0.0?

0.11

0.0»

11.10

0.01 0.15 0.01

0.01

33.1»

1.31 7.0C

(ap.

7.01

0.01

0.11

0.01 M l

0.0?

0.1» 0.1? 0.01 0.11 O.OS

0.01

0.OI

C.03

O.OS

0.57

0.07

0.01 0.5» 0.0» 0.01

0.11

1.01 0.01

0,»7

•

0.0» 0.01

-

M l 0.03 0.01 0.11

0.59 0.11 0.0»

0.0? 0.01 O.ol

0.»»

0.03

5.70

0.1? 0.3?

la».

(.»?

0.01 0.01 0.0?

O.C*

0.75

0.03 0.01 0.01

1.9? 0.2? 0.0? 0.7* 0.»1

0.0» 0.10 0.»5 1.01 0.09

0.03

-0.0» 0.0»

0.OI

0.02

0.01

•

0.07 0.01

0.0»

0.01

0.32

0.0?

0.0» O.U

0.0»

1.73

0.01

5.?9

•

U»

riraaad, aaavpar plpaad. tara plaaaad Imladina. aaaaarad aaad, blackboard, laaliaaaard and tallanbnard. IraaVa data I V ladialdaal ( U avatar Stalaa In t l .d . latra-UC Irada.

Othnr pltvaad aach aa callalar baard and caapaalta plyaaad.

Saartai: la». Taaraoak al farail Prad.rla. («matai. «naMical Tabla» .1 f.ralan Irada. «I.Caaaaadlli Irada Slal lat l ia.

http://dfrlcaalap.HU

http://lr.ra.gr

MDF/W/52 Production ami I rada: Partlclt Board

(Htlllon Cubic " . t rès!

(11

(2) ( J ) (•" (5 ) (6 )

I1

( 6 ) (9) (10 ( l l (12 ( U ( 1 1 ( 15 (16

dé (19 (20 (21 (22

(25/ (23 (26 ( 2 1 128 (29 (30 (31 (32 (33 (3» (35 (36

"I (39 (DO (41 (42 (43

(-» 1*5 («6 (47 («8 (49 (50 (51 (52 (53 (5»

1" 56 (51

5* (59 (60 (61 (62 (63 (61 (65 (66

|3 (69 (70 (71 (72 (73 (74 (75 «76 K77

76

8o 61 0? 65 84 65 d6 E7 3 »9 90 91 92

World

Argen t ina A u s t r a l i a

Bangladesh Barbados B e l l a s

Bra t i l

Burundi Cajaeroon

C e n t r a l Afr ican Republic Chad C h i l e Colombia Congo Rep. of Cuba

Csechoa lovak la Dominican Republ ic

EEC - (Ext ra -EEC) (10) '24) Belgium/Luxembourg

Germany. Fed. Rep. of

I r e l a n d I t a l y N e t h e r l a n d s Uni ted Kingdom

EgTPt F in l and

Gambia

H a i t i Hungary I c e l a n d I n d i a I n d o n e s i a I s r a e l I r o r y Coast

Korea, Rap. of

Madagascar Malawi

Maldives Malta M a u r i t a n i a M a u r i t i u s Mew Zealand Nicaragua Nige r N i g e r i a

P a k i s t a n Peru P h i l i p p i n e s

P o r t u g a l Romania

S i e r r a Leone S i n g a p o r e South Afr ica

S r i Lanka Surlname

S w i t z e r l a n d Tanzania T h a i l a n d

T r i n i d a d and Tobago

Turkey

u n i t e d S t a t e s Upper Vol ta Uruguay Yugoslavia Z a i r e Zambia Zimbabwe

TOTAL (?) t h rough (92)

China USSR

1963

Prod.

6. On

0.03 0 03 0 13

0 .01

0 .09

0.01 0 .01

0 .10

2 71 o.»5 0.06 0.51 1.22

0 22 0 .25 O.o6 0 I t 0 01 0.12

0 .04

0 01

0 .01

0.16

0 .01

0 .09

0.13 0.02 0 .15

0.02 0.06

0.02 0.13 0 1 *

0 .01

0.86

0 09

5 .20 0.02 o.u.-.

l l » .

0 . 6 0

.

0.01

0.03 0.27

0 03 0.07

0 02

0 .01

0 .04

0.02 0 01 0.0J

0 .01

0.02 0.03

0.57

0.02

lap.

0 .54

0 .01

0.17 0.03 0.02 0 G? 0 16 0.01

0.01 0 .10 0.07

0.02

0 01

0.01 0 .01

0.50

1973

Prod.

31 95

0.17 0.34 0 .68

0 .31

0.56

0 03 0 .01

0 .40

12.06 1.80 0 37 1.96 5.57 0 17 0 13 1.70 0.07 0.30 0.03 O.89

0 19

0.01

0.06 0 .01 0.01 0.65

0.12

0.12

0.39 0 03 0.01

0 46 0.16 0 55

0.21 0 91

0.01 0.84 o.ui

0.01

0.01 0.14

6 35

0.01 0.32

27-70 0.04 3 .0 ' !

l i p .

4 14

. 0.01 0.41

O.OJ

0.14 1 14 0.02 0.27 0 36

C 04 0.05 0 05 0.01

0.48

0.03

0.01

0.09

0.16

O.03 O.Ob 0.16

0.02

0 .01 0.33 0 .01

;

0 16

0.01

5 9:

0 1-

lap.

4 .22

0.01 0.02

0 20

0 01 0 .04

1.13 0.13 0 .18 0.24 0.46

0 01 0 16 O.56 1.26

0.01

0 02 0.01

0.O5

0.05

0 .18

0 03

0 08 0.12

0.04

0.11

4 . 0 0

1979

Prod.

41 .23

0.25 0.53 1.16 0.01

0.55

1.28

0.05 0.03

0.56

13 .21 1.70 0 .40 2 . 1 9 6 37 0 29 0 05 1.50 0 10 0 .60 0 .04 0.8O

0.01

0.25

C.02

0.06

1.26

0.05

0 12

0.04 0.35 0.04

1.01 0.32 1 03

0.20 1.36

0.01 1.24 0 .65

0.01

0.02 0.43

7-20

0.01 0.73

0 02

34 92 0 04 4 . 7 0

txp.

5.62

0 66

0.01

0.15 1.22 0.02 0 39 0.72 0.01 0 01 0.05 0 ,08 0.05

0.32

0 01

0.05

0 05

0 .05

0.01 0.11 0 .30

0.01 0.17

0.55 0.29

0 .18

0.05

5.35

0.27

lap.

5.86

0.03

0.06

0 .01 0.07 0.03 1.84 0 11 0.17 0.43 0 90

0.07 0.41 0.55 1.54 0.01

0.C3 0 C2

0.03

0 .08

0.21

0 .01

0.06 0 .07

0.01

0 45

0.05

5.41 0.02

Fred.

39-67

0.27 0.64 1.16 0 .01

0.66

0.72

0.07 0 .04

0.62

13 .09 1.61 0 .31 2 2 9 5-74 0 .30 0.04 2 . 2 0 0.77 0.54

. 0 .04 0-71

0 .01

0 24

0 02

0.06

1 14

0.07

0 .16

0 .05 0.39 0 04

0 .01 1.04 0 .38 0 .90

0 20 1-30

0 01 1.09 0 .60

0 .01

0.02 O.JJ

6 . 10

0 01 0 .79

0.02

3 . 03 0 04 5 .00

1911

txp .

5 .15

0 01 0 .58

0 01

0.01

0.46 1.02 0.05 0.37 0 .65 0 02

0 04 0 .05 O.O7

0.34

0.02

0 05

0 .05

0 .01

0.07 0.16

0.01 0.01 0.33

0 .35 0 .20

0 .25

0.07

4 fo 0 01 0.36

lap.

5 55

0.03

O.08

0 .01 0 05

1.63 0 .10 0 17 0.43 0 67

0 .09 0 41 0 .49 1.32 0 01

0 .09 0 01

0 .01

0 .09

0.14

0.03

0.03 0 .09

0 .01

O.52

0 02

5 1 1 0.04

USES A sheet mate r ia l manufactured from small pieces of wood or otl .er l l g n o - c e l l u l o s l c mater ia ls (e g oh lp , r l akes , s p l i n t e r s . ! ! h s " ! ? * v , shred», etc I agglomerated by use of an organic b lnuer , together w i th one or more »r the fo l l ow ing agents; heat , pressura, nu i t . io iw. . , . , 1 . . . »»e Trade data foe I nd i v i dua l EEC member States Include Intra-EECtrade

asllIStt: » ï ! i « r . o o k o î ^ o r a . t produce Euro.t.t . Analytical table, of foreign trade. UK. Commodity. Tr.de S t . t l . t l c s .

http://Tr.de

MDF/W/52

Production and Usde: HbMboani

(«.II Hon Cutiaic M r t » )

(1) World

(2> Argent ina (31 A u s t r a l i a (It) Aus t r i a (51 Bengledeah (6) Barbados (7) B a l l » (6 ) Benin (9) B r a z i l (10) Burma (11) Burundi (12) Cameroon (13) Canada (11) C e n t r a l Af r i can Rap. (15) Chad (16) Ch i l e (17) Colombia (18) Congo Pep. o f (191 Cuba (20) Cyprue (21) Czechos lovak ia (22) Donlnioan Republ ic

EEC" (Ejttra-EKC) (10) (23 /21) Balglun/Luxanbourg (25) Denmark (26) Franoa (27) Germany, FeO Rap of (28) Greece (29) I r e l a n d (30) I t a l y (31) N e t h e r l a n d e (32) U n i t e d Kingdom (33) Egypt (31) F i n l a n d (35) Oabon (30) Oambla (37) Ghana (36) Guyana (39) H a i t i (HO) Hungary (11) I c e l a n d (12) I n d i a (13) Indones i a (14) I s r a e l (15) I»o ry Coast (16) Jamaica (17) Japan ( l e ) Kenya (11) Korea. Rep. of (50) Kuwait (51) Hadagaaoar (52) Halawl (53) Malayala (51) H a l d l r a a (55) Malta (5f) M a u r i t a n i a (57) H a u r i t l u e (56) Haw Zealand (59) Nicaragua (60) N i g e r (61) N i g e r i a (62) Norway (63) P a k l e t a n (61) Peru (65) P h i l i p p i n e s (66) Poland (67) P o r t u g a l (68) Romania (69) Ruanda (70) Senega l (71) S i e r r a Leone (72) S i n g a p o r e (73) Sou th Afr ica ( 7 D S p a i n (75) S r i Lanka 7b) Surlname 77) Sweden 76) S u l t i c r l a n d 79) Tanzania

(60) T h a i l a n d 81 ) Togo

182) T r i n i d a d and Tobago [63) T u n l a l a 84) Turkey

165) Uganda 66) U n i t e d S t a t e s 07) Upper Volta be) Uruguay 69) Yugoslavia 90) Z a i r e ?1) Zambia 92) Zimbabwe

TOTAL (2) t h r o u g h (921 abo

China USSR

UiTTP. Tha i s r ^ a t c I n c l u d e s C

Prod.

1 1 . 2 9

0 02 0 11 0.12

0 .11

0 78

0 .01

0 .06

0 .09

1.01 0 .08

0 28 0 . J 8

0 02 0 .08

0 .15

0 15

0 .04

0 . 4 0

0 06

0 25

0 .02

o!o9

0 .04

0 9 2 0 .05

5-05

0.07

>< : 10 27

0 12 0 . 0

nrrprenaed a

1963

txp.

1.62

0.02 O.05

.

0.07

. 0 02

0 03 0 . 0 1

0.06 0.06

0 .01 ;

0.03

0 .29

-

-

0.14

0 .01 0 .01 0 .01

0.07

0.56

0.0S

0.03

1.59

0.02

nrt n o n - c

1973

tar.

1 13

:

-

0.04

-

0.01

0.83 0 .05 0 .08 0 .08 0.17

0.01

0^23 O.36

-

-

0 03

-

-

-

-

-

0.01

0 .21

-

1.34

-

NTipresaefl

Prod.

1 7 5 2

0.06 0.17 0.15

0 .35

1.13

0.01

0 11

1 39 0 13

0.37 0.37

0.02 0.35

0 40

0.05

0 .75

0 .09

0 .31

0 .08

0 .29

0 .09

0 .98 0 07

0.03

0.04

7 53

0 .10

15 15

0 .21 1.88

r i b m n o e r d

tx».

2 57

0.02 0.06 0 .08

0 09

0 .15

0 01

0 .04 0.07

0.16 0 .01

0 01 0 02

0.22

0 01

C.01

0 01

0 .11

0 2 3

o!o9

0 01

0.52 0 .01

0 .16

0 04

2 . 3 9

0 .18

Fibre

la<).

2 .57

0.01

0 .11

-O.06

l ! l 1 0 09 0.13 0 .05 0 .30

0 .01 0 .11 0 21 O.56

-

0 03

0 . 0 1

0 02

-

0 01 0 . 0 1

0.13

-

0.03

-

0 .01 0 .01

0.54

-

2 .44

-

board ( f l l

1979

Prod. Exp.

18 .05 2 . 3 1

0.06 0.12 0 12

0.72

0.87

0 . 0 1 0.02

0 .01

0 22

0.91 0.02

0 .29 0 31 0.02

0 .18 0.C4 0 .05

0 27

0 .09

0.03

0.01

0 65

0 02

0 . 1 1

0.22 0 .01

0.07 0 .68 0.07 0 . 3 0

0.-07 0 . 35

0 .69 0 05

0.03

0.07

7 19

0 10

11 .20

0.32 3 01

ro hi i l ldlr ,

9.01 O.Ol 0.O8

0 16

0.07

0 02

0.03

0 . 0 1 0.02 0.01 0 15 0 07

0 .05 0 03 0.02

0 .10

0 02

0 .01

0.02

0 .07

0.21 0.02 0 05

0 .01 0.02 O.O7

0.36 0 02

0 .01

0 .19

0 05

1.96

0 31

A board

IIP.

2 06

0 01

0.01

0 .09

-0.02

O.85 0.07 0.07 0.07 0 28 0 .01 0 01 0 .05 0.11 0 13

-

-1 0.02

-

0.02

-

0.06 0. 01

0.16

-

0.02

-

0.01 0.02

0 .01

0.33

-0.01

1.90

-

1981

Pred. Exp.

1 5 . W

0.07 0.11 0 .11

0 .84

0 7»

0 . 0 1 0.02

0 01

0.22

0?8B 0.0

-0.27 0 . 2 1 0 . 0 1

0.22 0.03

. 0 .05

0.22

0 10

0.03

0 01

0 .55

0 01

0.13

0 .21 0 .01

0 07 0 . 5 1 0.07 0 . J 1

0 .07 0 11

0.i»9 0 .06

0.03

0.07

4 . 9 0

0 11

11 .44

0 .19 3 . 0 0

e l manufael . l i a i r 1 nf.

2 .12

0.02 0.01 0 06

0 .21

0 .08

0.02

-0 02

0 01 0 05

0 . 1 1 0 .05

0 « 0 01 0.02

0.12

O.TO

0.03

0.03

0 .07

0.16 0.02 0 06

0.02 0.02 0.13

0 . 2 1 0.02

0 01

0 31

0 .05

2 .07

0 32

ured froi • rent, atlt

•P.

; 01

0.03

0 .01

-

0 . 1 0

-0 02

0 84 O.O6 0 06 0 11 0 .24 0 .01 0.02 0 .10 0.12 O.JO

0 .01

0.02

O.06 0.01 0 .01

0 .17

:

0.02

0.02 0 . 0 1

0 .01

0.27

: 0 01

1.89

-

i f ibr i l e(

e- tve . . wood or a t h e r l l a n o - c e l l u l o . 1 . s u t . . l . l = - 1 t h i w « r i * . r j »<«•<• £• ' i * l l * ï g " f ffi p r i a a a l . b u t ' - V ÏÏ p r o p e r t i e s . Bonding m a t e r i a l s a n d / o r a d d i t i v e s «ay b . added . I t l a u s u a l l y n a t p raaaeu , EEC member S t a t e s I n c l u d e l n t r e - K C t r a d e . . . . . . . . . _ • »

l d u a l

MDF/W/52

Production gwj Tn t tn . KoaQ Pulp

ID

(2) 131 1*1 15) 14)

(') 1» (II I») I») 112) I") t U ] U5| (HI ("J (ID 11») 1») (21)

ta)

m) (») 115) (34)

m) mi I») 1*0) 1*1) (*2) l«l I**) 1*5) 1*4) 1*7) (41)

(•J) (50)

(51)

(52) (53)

(54)

1») (54 |

(57)

15») 159) (40) 1*1) 142) (43) (4*) its) (44) (47)

(n> (49) (10) (71) 17?)

(73)

(7*1 (75) (7k) 177)

('•) (7!) (to) (•I) I B ) H3) 1») 1») l h ) 1171 (W IBS) I » ) H I )

(«) i , i

M l

araa.tia. « • t r a l l a

(aaaladait lartadaa •alia» laala

•mil 1 » karaadl

Cauda Unir»! Africa* I t w t l l c I U M h Calaatia

Can Cr»r»» Ciacbaalaaahla Ouiaica. wpablic EIC • (Ea(ra-aC) (10)

(23/2») (ataiWUiaateara. 125) Oaaaark (2a) F r a n (27) faraaa, I , , . | w . (21) Craaca (29) Irai ana I X ) Hair 131) aatharlaada (32) n l t ad liaaaaa l l i a t Faalaaa M M

( M i l faaaaa

aaattl aaaaam Icalaad M i a

Uraa! Ivary Cent

Xaraa, Sap. af laaalt Radagaacar h l w l

laldlaaa Dalla Haaritania •aarlllaa «a. Zaalara)

I l j a r

Pa» lata»

PMllppil»! Palaad Par t ia l

M i

Starr» Uana

Santa afrlea Spain Sri lank. Sarlaaaa Saaaaa Saltiarlaad

lu l land laga Irlaidad awl lacaga Taniila

Uganda

llnitad Sli lai Ifeaar «alia Uragaar Taaatlavia

l a b i a Jlataaaa

M a l , 12) lla-aagh IS2I abaaa:

CM» ItSSC

Prad.

70.01

CCI 0.36

0.41 0.03

0.42

11.32

CIS 0J2

O.U

3.92 0 .1 / 0.02

u» 1.44

CCI O.U 0.14 C27

4.11

0.N

0.02

4.57

0.02

0.31

1.59

0.03 0.49 0.11 0.21

0.44 C24

l . U 0J5

CO!

27.33

0.33

-44.31

0.12 3.91

1943

(>p.

11.31

0.14

3.03

CC2

0.03

0.03

0.01 CO! 0.09

1.93

0.04

0.71

0.07 0.04

0.13 0.01

1.21 0.02

U 9

0.04

-11.02

0.25

l«P.

11.37

0.10 0.21 0.04 0.01

CO»

0.07

0.01 0.05

0.04

0.0*

(.29 0J3 0.11 0.9a 0.91 0.07 0.04 0.(4 0.43 2.M

c:s

0.05

0.12

0.47

0.04

0.02

0.05 0.0) 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.05 0.01

0.02 O.lt

0.01 0.15

0.01

2.5!

0.01 0.04

-10.91

0.01 0.O9

•raal.

114.31

0.24 0.S1 0.91 0.03

1.15

11.54

C.3S C.C7

0.(5

5.70 0.41 0.10 1.9* 1.74

0.04 0.12 0.11 0J4

4.41

0.09

0.27

10.10

0.01

0.12

2.0b

0.17 0.75 0.54 0.50

0.11 0.K

0.44 0.25

0.32

41.22

0.01 0.M

O.U?

103.7»

1.19

7.73

1973

( « p .

11.49

0.09

0.19

5.91

O.lt

C.C2

0.04 C l i 0.09 0.25 0.13

0.C1

l . U

0.01

0.0»

0.14

0.91

0.01 0.01 0.4» 0.03

0.39 0.0»

4.77 0.02

2.13

0.04

• 1/.7*

0.02 0.52

la».

ia.02

0.11 0.31 0.11 0.02

t . l »

O.U

0.01 C.C2

0.03

0.09

CO! 1.2»

0.44

0.09

1.41

1.90

0 .11

o.os 1.50 0.12 2.5* 0.04 0.01

0.15

0.04

o.os

1.11

0.21

0.01

0.30 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.17 0.02 0.0!

0.11 0.10 0.01

0.05 OJS

0.01

0.01 0.04

3 .»

0.01 0.11

-14.95

0.24 0.24

1979

Pra t .

123.50

0.39

0.45

1.27

0.03

1.99

19.52

0.70

0.12

C E

5.51 0.14 0.0/ 1.91 1.97 C:J CO] 0.70 0.15 0J2

7.0»

0.10

0.41

9.25 0.02 0.14

0.01

1.04

1.53

0.19 0.44 0.70 0.72

1.00 1.10

9.08 OJ7

0.29

45.32

0.02 0.41

0.02

110.72

2.11 1.73

E x .

20.41

0J3

O.SJ

7.11

0.43

0.01

O.OS

0.1»

0.04

0.22

0.12

0.03

0.01 C.C3

1J3

CO!

O.U

0.»7

0.5!

0.35 0.03

0.4» 0.12

3.92 0.03

2.42

CO»

-19.41

0.04

lap.

20.04

0.12 OJê 0.14 0.01

CM

C l l

CO*

0.04

0.09

1.7» 0.43 0.10 1.48 2.30

:.:; 0.04 1.71 0.49 2.20

CC2

0.17

O.U

0.0»

l . K

O.U

0.01

0.14 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.2» 0.0» 0.10

0.11 0.29 0.02

0.04 C.24

0.11

0.01 0.03

3.88

0.0! 0.11

•

18.90

0.23 0.11

Prad.

12SJ!

0.31 0.70 1J7 0.03

3.14

0.04 19 JS

0.74 0.11

O.U

5.IS 0J4 0.01 1.47 2.02 C02

0.70 : . ; • :

0.17

7.33

COS

0.41

0.27

7.90 0.02 0J1

0.01

U l

1.41

0.1» 0.44 0.47 0.70

1.00 1.29

8.51 0.30

0.29

44.19

0.02 0.41

0.0!

112.40

2.3» U2

1911

la».

7o.se

0.24

ess

4.7»

O.U

CCI

O.U O.U 0.04 0.1» 0.11

0.01

0.04

1.4t

0.C1

O.U

0.51

0.54

0.44 0.02

0.4» 0.19

2.09 0.1/3

3.32

0.10

• 19.43

0.03 0.(4

lap.

19.49

0.12 0.21 C20 0.01

0.C3

O.U

CO!

COS

0.13

1.14 0.42 0.11 M l 2.42 CCI 0.03 1.5* C M 1.(4

CO*

OJ!

O.U

0.04

1.49

CS2

0.01

0.28 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.1» 0.01 0.10

0.13 0.27 0.01

0.01 0.2»

O.U

0.01 CO]

3.49

0.01 C21

-11.00

0.3? 0.21

•ala: lha tallaalaf caaaaditlai ara iadadad la lata aggragata: «achaaleal, aaal-cajaltal, eaaalcal arc dlaaalvlag aaad pulp. Figara» ara gt»w la aalfat (air-do • 10 par cam ao i i t . r . ) . Irada data far tadialdaal l i i . aaabar Statai ladada lalra-l t l . trada.

SevrttI NO. Taaraaak af Faratl Praa.cli. tarailal aai l i l lcal labial af faralca Iraoa. 0» Caaaoditi Irada Staliallca.

http://7o.se

MDF/W/52

Annex II Page

Import o r ig ins by countries and areas, of wood and wood semi-manufactures and wood pu lp , fo r selected import markets - 1963 / 1973, 1981 namely:

EEC (10)

United States

Japan

Canada

EFTA (7)

Austria

Finland

Sweden

Switzerland

Australia

New Zealand

Korea Rep.

Singapore

Spain

Egypt

Tunisia

Yugoslavia

Saudi Arabia

Total developing countries

Total developed countries

Total

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

New Zealand = 1964

MDF/W/52

ANNEX II

IMPORT ORIGINS,, BY COUNTRIES AND AREAS, OF WOOD/ WOOD SEMI-MANUFACTURES AND WOODPULP•

Area abbreviations used:

EC (10)

EFTA (7)

ANZSA

OT.WE

DVP

DVG or LDC

CAR.LAM

E.ASIA

MIDEAS

ETA

: (excluding intra—trade) Belgium/Luxembourg, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, United Kingdom

: Austria, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the associate member Finland)

: Australia, New Zealand, South Africa

: Other Western Europe (Spain, Malta, Turkey, Yugoslavia)

Developed countries

Developing countries

South America and Central America

South and East Asia

West Asia

Eastern Trading Area

Data derived from: United Nations trade data tapes

r l - » o n i i »

I K O U I T R I U ROUND wnno 1461 I k ? . » * 1 « 7 ! 4 1 7 . 7 * H I ] 1067 .16

!«.(.;

S*NN*rno âND M.EFPERS 1961 1 0 * 7 . 0 0 44.*"» 1473 1 0 7 7 . 1 * 140.7% m i 4 5 4 1 . 1 7 1 1 4 . 4 1

» i r i , r o n 1 9 6 ! 1 9 7 ! 1111

1 0 7 . 7 1 0 .99 1 0 4 . 9R 4 0 . 1 1 • 1 0 . 4 7 171 .44

4 4 4 7 K I F 4 0 * 4 0 1461 4 . 4 0 0 . 0 4 1 9 7 ! I l l . l t 0 .01 1441 7 9 3 . 5 6 0 .47

P U I P N O O O 1*41 4 1 . 4 « 0 . 0 4 1975 1 4 . 0 1 0 . 0 1 1901 1 1 3 . 4 1 0 . 4 1

1 1 . 4 7

« . 1 4 1 9 1 . 0 5 44 0 . 4 1

0 . 0 1 t . 10 1 . 4 1

1 1 . 4 7 J . 0 1 9 . 0 V

»RFAS »N0 CCWNOUI77 CROUPS FC ( I K MILLION DOLLARS US I

r»N IO» J*P»N FC f101 F F I i *USTR| F1NLAN SWFOFN 0 1 . UF

0 .14 1.09 J .JO

5 . 7 0 1 4 . 4 0 l a . j i

1 4 . 4 0 1.14 7 4 . 4 1 1 4 . Bt 4 1 . 4 7 1 . 9 *

0 . 0 0 0 .01 0 . 0 1

o .oo 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

4 4 . «7 I 9 J . 75

0 . 0 0 4 9 1 . 7 9 0 . 0 0 1501 .04 0 .00 2 1*4.7?

0 . 0 0 « 1 . 4 1 0 . 0 0 121 .57 0 .00 1 7 * . # 7

0 . 0 0 1 .51 0 .00 110 .40 0 . 0 0 2 2 1 . 5 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

1 1 . 9 4 2 . 1 5 4 . 4 1

7 . 1 5 7 0 . 01 t l . 4 1

1 0 1 . 1 1 2 7 5 . 1 1 5 2 4 . 4 0

0 . 9 0 1 .11 2 . 9 1

0 . 1 9 2 8 . * 9 9 1 . 1 0

0 . 1 7 1 .01 4 . I T

1 0 . 7 4 1 7 . 1 1 7 6 . « I

102 .11 394 .14 714.47

3 9 . 4 3 110 .77 143 .74

1.41 3 4 . 9 9 3 4 . 2 »

1 7 . 2 4 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 1

7 . 4 9 4 . 2 2 1 5 . * 0 19 .97

S.44 3 4 . 4 4

I 9 4 . 9 t 1 1 . 2 4 7 4 4 . 5 4 9 7 . 7 1 7 * 4 . 4 0 106 .73

0 . 6 3 9 . 5 5 6 . 3 2

1.74 0 . 4 3 0 . 0 1

2 .14 7 1 . I B 7 1 . 3 7

1.43 0 . 1 0 7 4 . 0 7 1.61 6 0 . 7 9 5 1 . 1 5

7 .<? 1 .01

0 . 1 . 2 .

0 1 J* 71

e i . 1 7 4 . 3 1 7 .

, 51 ,44 ,9»

0 . 7 8 6 6 4 . 0 * 1 0 . 4 1 1 4 6 * . T 9 2 0 . 0 4 3 0 9 0 . 0 2

0 . 3 6 6 4 . 3 7 0 . 3 6 2 S 2 . 3 3 2 .23 * 2 2 . 1 0

0 . 2 9 3 . 9 1 1.29 1 2 1 . 4 1 0 . 0 0 2 6 4 . 9 7

0 . 0 0 2 « . * 7 0 . 0 1 « , . 4 2 2 . 3 1 3 0 . 3 4

MDF/W/52

HOOD PULP 1961 1971 1941

COMMODITY

7 6 7 . 6 2 9 7 . 1 6 1614 .43 1 9 0 . 0 7 4 2 4 7 . 7 4 7 0 3 . 9 0

5 3 . 4 9 2 7 9 . 0 3 91T .04

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 * 0 .04

0 . 0 0 5 7 1 . 9 9 0 .00 1 0 7 5 . 0 9 0 . 0 0 1 9 7 1 . 2 9

I 5 . T 9 1 4 . 6 1 7 1 . 6 4

163 .04 1 1 0 . 6 0 2 1 1 . 4 9 4 * 6 . 5 0 5 6 4 . 3 0 1 0 1 1 . 3 4

4 . 7 0 1 4 . 3 2 4 0 . 3 0

1 8 . 8 8 7 4 3 . 4 1 3 5 . 0 1 1 6 0 2 . 5 4 1 4 . 7 9 1 0 0 1 . 4 4

TEAR C » R . l » N HONOUR M H I 1 CHI IC ECU4D0 P»R»GU E . I S I I BURMA INDONE H»t»YS PHIL IP 5INGAP 7H41L6 FORFA. M IMAS

INDUSTRIAL ROUNO WOOD 1463 5 . 4 7 0 . 3 7 1973 » . 3 4 0 .44 1901 7 . 4 6 0 .72

SAWNWOOD iNO StFFPERS 1963 1 0 . 1 4 4 . 5 1 1971 0 1 . 0 2 10 .92 1931 1 3 7 . 1 7 4 . 2 1

2 . 7 2 4 . 2 * 0 . * l

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 4 5

2 3 . 2 3 0 .43 6 4 . 4 3 0 . 5 4

1 1 4 . 3 1 1 1 . 3 1

PlYNOOD 1461 1971 1941

P « K I I C t € FJ01S0 1463 1471 1981

PULPkDOD 1963 1973 1981

•000 PULP 1963 1473 1911

0 . 4 4

2 6 . 0 1

0 . 1 6 0 . 1 6 0 . 1 3

0 . 7 * 1 9 4 . 7 2

0 .00 0 . 1 1 0 . 0 0

. 0 0

. 0 0

. 0 0

. 0 0

. 0 0

7 . * 7 2 5 . 9 2

0 . 0 0 0 . 1 6

0 . 0 0

0 .00 1 * 6 . 9 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 .00 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

• 7 . 1 0

0 . 0 1 O.OS 0 .02

0 . 5 3 4 . 3 1 2 . 4 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 0

0 .00 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 9 0 0 . 0 0

0 .00

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 1 2 . 3 4 0 . 0 0 1 1 4 . 7 7 0 . 0 5 3 3 . 4 *

0 . 0 0 3 5 . 9 3 0 . 1 0 3 2 6 . 0 * 0 . 3 1 6 0 2 . 5 *

. 0 0 0 .72

. 0 0 110 .16 . 0 0 1 0 2 . 5 6

15 .64 14 .57

4 . 4 9

0 . 4 T 5 0 . 1 4

« . 5 7

9 . 1 2 7 . 7 6 9 . 7 5

0 . 5 1 7 1 . 7 7

1 2 * . 7 «

0 . 0 0 5 . ( 2 1 0 . 3 5 3 3 . 5 6

1.29 1 9 . 3 2

0 . 00 0 . 27 7 7 4 . 2 4 9 . 3 7 20 3 .69 9 9 . 1 9

0 . 3 3 0 . 6 4 1.20

1 .51 5 1 . 9 2 7 * . 19

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 9 0 . 0 9 4 3 . 1 5 4 . 5 3 5 2 . 0 3

3 0 . 4 3 4 > . 0 « 3 0 . 7 5 5 3 . 9 0

O.OO 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

o . o o COO 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 * 0 . 2 6

. 0 1

. 0 1

0 .26 0 .20 * . 0 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 2 0

o . o o 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 1 0 . 0 0

0 .00 0 . 0 1

0 . 0 0 0 .00 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 1 8 1 .21

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 0 . 1 7

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 9 6 1 . 1 5 0 . 0 0

5 . IT 6 . 3 3 1.14

0 . 0 1 0 . 0 4 0 . 1 3

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 3

COMMODIFY i n n CAMFRO C F N T . A CONES CABON GHANA i v o * r n a m MOROCC O C E A N I A P A P U A • SOLOMON A L I i o c

INDUSTRIAL ROUND WOOD 1963 1 8 7 . 4 6 1971 3 9 4 . 0 9 1981 5 7 B . 9 0

SAWNNDOD «ND SLEEPERS 1961 1 1 . 7 9 1971 1 0 » . 9 4 19R1 1 1 5 . 3 9

PLYWOOD 1961 1ST» 1981

P4RTICLF 80ARD 1 4 6 ! 1471

PUIPNOOO 1961 19 71 1 4 ( 1

«TOO PULP 1963 1971 1441

CPNWOOITY

I J . * 4 1 1 . 5 1 7 1 . 7 1

0 . 0 1 0 . 1 9

0 . 7 * 0 . 7 6 0 . 5 7

1 1 . 5 6 1 5 . 6 1

1 0 . 7 4 « 5 . 1 1

7.46 ' 7 . 8 5

0 . 0 0 J . « l 3 . * 1

O.OO 0 . 0 0

o . o o O.f t*

0 . 0 0 7 . 3 9

C . 0 1 1 . 9 8 2 . 1 »

0 . 3 6

0 . 0 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

COO

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

15 .79 2 8 . 9 0 • 3 . 7 7

0 . 0 3

0 . 1 2

0 . 0 0 0 .00 0 . 0 2

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

* 0 . « 1 111.68 130 .19

0 . 6 5 0 . 4 7 1.40

5.19 1 1 . 8 8 2 0 . 9 5

0 . 0 4 0 . 0 0 COO

0 . 0 0 O.OO 0 . 0 3

2 6 . 0 0 6 6 . 0 * 6 4 . 7 6 2 7 7 . 0 7

9 . 1 6 2 6 * . 8 1

1 5 . 8 9 5 . 2 0 3 5 . 4 1 3 6 . 0 7 1 8 . 0 6 6 2 . 6 0

2 . 4 4 9 . 3 0 0 . 0 8

0 . 1 4 0 . 0 0

o . o o 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 1 2 . 1 9 0 . 4 3

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1

0 . 0 * 0 . 5 2 C O *

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 .«9 2 7 . 9 0 * 6 . 3 0

0 . 0 1 0 . 2 * 7 . 5 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 * 0 . 0 *

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

1 . 1 0 C O S

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 5 !

3 . 3 7 1 . 1 0

2 4 . I T

C 0 1 1.03 1.86

C O O 0 . 1 3 1 .05

0 . 0 0 C O ! C 0 1

COO c o o c o o

c o o o . o o c o o

c o o c o o 0 . 0 0

C.01 C O I 1.77

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1

- c o o

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 c o o 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 c o o 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 2 2 7 . 1 7 0 . 0 0 7 2 1 . 0 3 C 6 0 6 2 2 . * *

COO 9 9 . 5 3 COO 5 1 9 . 2 7 C 0 7 8TT .04

0 . 0 0

O.OO

0 . 0 0 COO

COO 0 . 0 0 c o o

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

1 8 . 4 9 181 .38 3 6 6 . « 6

0 . 2 8 0 . 2 3 1 . 1 8

0 . 7 4 0 . 0 0 0 . 4 4

4 . T T 1 4 . 1 8

7 1 1 . 4 5

FT* C J ' C H . P0L4M) I O R H I I HUNCIRT CHINE

INDUSTRIAL RntlNn MOOD 1»61 1 1 . 6 6 14T1 8 7 . 7 5 1981 1 7 6 . 7 1

1 1 . 2 7 1 0 . 6 2 4 2 . 9 * 2 6 . 8 5 54 .08 5 2 . « 2

SAWNWOOD ANO 5 l fFPE«S 1 9 * 1 7 7 4 . 4 1 1 * 7 . 1 7 1471 5 1 4 . 7 * 1 1 7 . 4 0 I4R1 4 1 7 . 6 0 4 1 1 . 8 4

P H N O M 1 4 4 ! 1471 I 4 « l

P4R1ICIF «n 1 4 * 1

PUIPNOOO

1471

WOOD Put P 1461 1971 1411

1 4 . 4 5 1 4 . 5 4 * 1 . 0 R 7 6 . 3 7 9 4 . 7 * 7 4 . 5 0

0 . 1 7 0 . 7 6 1 . T6

« 5 . 1 5

I .9R I . « 0

0 . 0 6 1.3R

7 4 . 7 4 1 7 . 0 * 1 . 8 * 1 0 . 7 4 1 7 . 3 1 1 0 . 7 6 • 7 . 1 7 3 0 . 3 ? 7 1 . 4 «

1 4 . 4 1 1 3 . 7 7 7 1 . 7 1 1 3 . 9 5 9 4 . 7 7 9 0 . 9 ?

7 . 9 7 7 . 4 7 1.4T

1.69 1 C 4 5 1 0 . 1 4

1 3 . 1 2 7 1 . 5 0 • 0 . 1 2

0 . 1 5 7 . 4 8 4 . 1 6

0 . 1 0 1.62 0 . ! »

0 . 0 7 3 . * T 0 . 0 3

* - * l 7 .41 3 .29

4 4 . 1 1 78 .88 74 .07

1.83 5 . 4 1 7 . 4 3

0 . 2 6 3 . 4 3 3 . 4 2

3 .46 0 . 4 4 2 .48

1.10 c o « 1 . 1 9

1.11 3 . 6 0 1.38

7 . 4 4 7 0 . 3 1

a .65

. 0 0

. 5 7

. 0 2

O.OO 0 . 0 5 0 . 0 1

0.8? 1.39 0 .73

0 . 3 R C O ?

O.07 0 . 0 4 0 . 2 4

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 6 0 . 1 6

0 . 4 6 1.65 o .2a

0 . 0 0 0 .0?

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 6 0 . 0 0 0 . 3 1

COO 0 . 0 0 0 . 2 5

. 0 0 . 0 0 . 1 3

0 . 0 1 3 . 7 8

6 2 . 4 9

. 0 0

. 0 2

. 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 c o o

e . « i O . T l o . « o

0 . 0 1 0 . 0 8 0 . 5 4

4 . T 9 9 . 5 9

1 1 . 9 5

0 . 1 2 0 . 0 2 0 . 5 9

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 .00 0 . 0 3

http://Ill.lt

MDF/W/52

c r ^ m i it

I H P O F T S «v â«F»s t i n c m » m i T T r.«r>ups UN H i l l I9N DOll *RS L".l

U.S. C4N40» J1P4N ECIIOI 4US1P1 FIN16N SWEDEN OT. «F

I K-nuSl» I *l »••'«" wni9 1»M 1*.1*. 0.00 76.3» 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 1971 ?0.«» O.ai 14.02 0.00 0.11 0.02 0.00 !»fll 46. OT 0.00 44.4ft 0.00 0.0S 0.00 0.00

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 0 .00

0 .00

0 .00 2 6 . 4 1 0 .01 1 4 . I S 0 .06 4 4 . 6 1

SAWN4911 4N1 SL r FP r PS 1961 1 6 7 . 1 1 1 9 7 ' 1444 .55 | o p | ?19? .»7

O.00 177 .41 0 . 0 0 l l » l . 7 1 0 . 0 0 1 * 4 1 . 0 6

7.57 1.24 0.15

0 . 1 * 7. )0 1.48

0 .09 0.10 0.14

0 .06 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 7

0.00 0.01 0.01

0 .15 1 1 S . 5 ) 0 . 6 0 1 ) 9 6 . 3 1

p m r . n o

1*73 l»"l ' 2 2 . 1 7

F 1 » 1 I ( L E P04P9 1*71 1.72 1*11 4 1 . 6 4

» u i P k n n o I * * ) 1*71

l»B|

«ooo nit»

l « 7 J i » e i

CDHhOOITT

7 1 . 55 F. 01

10.64

1 2 7 . I S 6 1 6 . 7 1

H H 5 . 1 *

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 .00 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

1 7 . 1 1 7 0 . 4 »

1.40 4 0 . 6 *

14.14 1. 71

10.61

1 1 . 6 0 1 5 . 7 0 5 2 . 4 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 O.00

O.BO 1 0 2 . 1 1 0 . 0 0 6 2 4 . 0 1 0 . 0 0 1 6 1 0 . I T

. 0 1

.16

1.04 1.20 n.B.3

0 . 0 0 0 . 2 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 .30

0 .22 0 . 3 1 0 . 4 4

7.3»

12.02

0.00 0 .01

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

24.12 19.52 1*. 26

0 .00 0 .01 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

7 .12 I I . 35 1 1 . * «

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 .00 0 . 0 0

7 . M 4.17 * .41

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

1 6 . 0 4 14.»* • •)*

0.27 0 .43 0.02

0 .02

e.oe

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0.00 1.05 0.00

0.00 C. 07 0.04

0.00 0.41

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.16 11.71 • 2.52

7 1 . S3 F t .22 • 1.F1

1.41 6 1 . 4 )

JB.34 3.75

10.44

327.07 656.66

1744.15

YE*» C 4 F . l t » HDHOIW « « « M l CHUE ECU40O P»««CU E . t S I I «UP»» INDONE « H I T S PHILIP SIKC1F I H 4 I 1 4 «OFE l .

INDUSTPI I l IOUN1 «SOD 1*63 1*71 l » « l

sawNwonn »sn 1*61 1*73 1*61

PLYWOOD

1*73 l » S l

6 . 3 7 4 . ( 7 0 . 5 )

S l f «PE»S 16 .12 1 5 . 14 « 7 . 5 1

7 .41 1 .51

1 2 . 7 6

P4PTICLE F04F9 1*71 11B1

PUIPWOOO 1*41 1971 l ? M

«OOO FUI F 1*63 1*71 1»F1

t o ^ w i m i ï TF»F

0 .7» 0 .16

1 .20 4 . 2 7 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

5 * . I F

1FFIC»

I N n u S T I t l i l F O U N D « i n n 1*61 1*73 1»«1

S4WNW0OD 4ND 1*61 1*7 ) 1»S1

PLYWOOD 1*61 1 *7 ) 14F1

1.52

0 . 5 1

SlEEPf«S 2 . 6 5 4 . F 2 4 . 1 5

0 . 6 *

0 . 0 0

P«FTICLE nn»»o 1*71 1»B!

PUlPkOOD 1*6 ) 1 *7 ) 1*»1

noon P U L P 1*61 1*71 l « « l

CONPWlltY Vf » •

n.oo

0 . 0 0 n . 0 9 0 . 1 9

o.oo

1.57

0 . 0 1 0.02 0 . 0 1

1 .31 T.52 4 . 0 *

0 . 0 0 0 .06 0 .64

0 . 0 0 0 .00

0 . 0 0 0 .02 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

C « x t « n

0 .04 0 . 0 2 0 .02

0 . 0 5 0 . 1 3 0 . ) 4

9 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 9 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

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1963 1973 1961

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0 . 0 6 1.73 1.31

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u r n o f u l l » 1963 1973 1981

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o . o n o . o o 0 . 0 0

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151.02

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0.02 3.13 0.71

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0.00 11.51 0.00 61.16 0.00 124.»3

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FUI'WOOD 1 » 6 ' l » 1 3 l»«l

WOOD PULP 1»6S 1»T3 1981

CtlMMCiOIlT

3 1 . 5 1 9 9 . I T

403.55

3 3 . 3 3 170 .03 6 7 8 . 0 5

0 .00 0 . 0 0 0 .00

1.64 4 . 3 7

1 2 . 7 3

1 .15 0 . 0 0 3 .94

1.07 1.75

47 .25

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YEAR r i i . i i * xrmoup. « » i n t C H H C ECUADO P A R A G U E.ASIA OURXA I N O O N E H A I A Y S F H I I I F S I N G A F I H A I L A F O R E » , P I D E A S

I N D U S T F l l l FOUND WOOD 1»63 0.BT 1»T3 16 .2» 1»81 5 . 3 »

SAWNWOOO 1ND SLEEPERS I » 6 3 0 . 4 2 1»T1 1 . 4 * 1»81 4 . 1 »

0.05 0.01 0.00

0.02 0 . 1 ! 0.05

0 . 7 1 1 6 . 0 6

0.11

0 . 2 4 0 .»5 7 . 6 1

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 D.00

0 . 1 ! 0 .22

0 . 0 1 0 . 0 7

3 . 0 1 2 .13 J .85 2.0» 2.»4 0.T6

6 .6T 4 . 8 5 1 1 . 6 4 2 . 4 0 1 0 . 3 0 1 .00

0 . 0 ! 0 .42 1.66

0.00 1.01 0 .05

0 . 1 1 0 . 0 0 1.06 7 . 7 ] 4 . 2 7 15 .15

0 .18 0 . 1 2 0 .42

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0.00 0.01 0 .01

0 . 0 » 1.22 2 . 1 1

0 .01 0 .00

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 .12 0 . 1 1 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

F iYnnoo 1»61 1 » 7 ! 19B1

PAPTICLE BOARD 1963 1 9 7 ! 19B1

PULP WOOD 1 9 6 ! 1 9 7 ! 1961

WOOD FUIP 1 9 6 ! 1973 15>*1

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0.23 1.10

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AFRICA CAXERO CENT.» CONGO GABON CXANA 1Y0RY IIBEF.1 MOROCC OCEANIA PAPUA N SOLOMON 4 U IDC

INDUSTRIAL FOUND WOOD 1963 12 .51 1973 3 0 . 1 ! 1981 9 0 . 9 0

SAWNWOOO AND SLEEPERS

1961 2 . 5 4

1981 9 . 0 4

PLYWOOD 1 9 6 ! 0 . 1 * 1 9 1 ! O .K . 1981 0 . 0 1

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PULFWOOD 1961 0 . 0 0 1 9 1 ! 0 . 0 5 1981 0 . 1 !

Noon PULP 1961 0 . 4 0 1 9 1 ! 0 .F9

0 . 4 9 0 .86 1.52

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1.95 3.08

0 .18 0 .28 0 . 0 8

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

1.00 1.22 1.17

1.55 9 .8?

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 C.OI

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 1.90

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1 6 . 5 * 5 0 . 1 6

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9 . 6 1 2 2 . 5 5 4 7 . 5 8

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0.40 22 .4» 52.0»

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COXX001TT TEA» UPSS C7ECM. POLAIO FOXANI» HUNGARY CHINE

lNOUSTFiAi PotMn wnon l » 6 1 1* .T9 1 2 . T 6 1 9 T ! 8 1 . 1 0 5 3 . 5 5 19R1 7 T 1 . 6 1 1 3 * . 4 3

5AXNXO0D AND UFE»E»S 1463 7 .09 1.5» 1971 14 .47 I . 7 1 19» ! 5 1 . 5 0 3 . 9 *

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PAFTICLF FOAFO 19*3 1973 1 ! ! 1

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0 . 1 1 0 . 1 * 0.72

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1.97 1.7* » . ! 0

0 . 1 2 0 .00 4 . 2 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 * 0 . 0 1

n. oo 0.01

0 .07 7. »?

0 .42 0 . 0 0

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IMPnPTS BY *Rf«S iND C(l"w0DITV CROUPS *UST»I< I IN H i t ION ' I X l « S US»

J i P l H EC I 10» EfTA IDSrR I F I N l k N SwFDEN OT. W£

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1 1 3 . 1 9

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13. 1 I

P « » T I C i r ADABD 1973 1.91 | 9 « 1 1.71

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HOOD PULP 196) 1 9 7 ) 19B1

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0. JO

PAPT1CLF BDAKO 197) 0 . 0 0 1961 0 . 0 0

PUIPKOOO

1975 19 (1

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1N0US7KIAL Ml 1963 197) 1981

SAVNMOOD AND 1963 1973 1961

PLYHOOD 196 ) 1971 I9B1

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

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DUND Noon 1 .94 4 . 4 1 2 . 7 1

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0 . 0 0 9 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

PAP.T1CLE BOAP.D 197 ) 0 . 0 0 I9P.1 0 . 0 0

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MOOD PUIP 196 ) I 9 T 3 1961

C O N N O O I T Y YF*9

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 .?? 1.71

0 . 5 ) 1.97 2 .54

1.77 5 .14

0 . 0 0 0 .01 0 .14

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0 . 0 0 0 .04

1 9 . 5 3

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0 .00 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 .01 0 .0?

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0 . 0 0 0 .15 0 . 1 5

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 1 4

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I N D U S T R I A L POUND unno 1 9 6 ) 7 .99 I 9 T 3 9 6 . 6 9 19 SI 9 9 . 4 9

SAuNwnnn A N D 1963 19 73 1 " M

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P A P T K i r PDAPO 197 ) 0 . 0 0 1961 0.O9

PULPNOOD |9A9 1971 19 (1

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3 . 7 ) l ? . 9 > 3 1 . 9 7

0 . 1 ? 0 . 9 ?

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1.4» 9 . 5 5

1 1 . 6 3

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0 .60 0 . 0 0

1 3 . 2 7

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0 . 0 0 4 . 6 9 0 . 0 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 0 . 1 4

FIDE IS

0 . 5 7 0 . 1 2 0 . 4 0

0 . 0 1 0 . 1 0 0 . 61

5 .44 9 . 1 1

1 2 . 0 *

0 . 1 2 0 . 0 ! 0 . 6 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 6 0 . 0 0 0 . 1 0

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I N D U I I " I » I RHINO wo"n 1 9 6 1 4 1 6 . 0 7 1 1 7 . 1 4 | « 7 1 * » ! ? . 1 1 1 1 7 6 . 8 1 1 9 8 1 6 7 6 0 . 7 1 1 * 7 6 . 7 7

6 1 . 6 3

I S » . « I

1 1 . 7 1 3 0 . 8 6 1 6 1 . 7 4

4 2 0 . 7 4

7 . 3 6 2 3 . 4 1 4 7 . 7 ?

4 0 . 3 0 1 7 . 4 6

152.42

2 0 . 2 0 3 . 1 1 7 1 . 3 0 7 4 . 3 6 6 7 . 3 1 4 4 . 7 4

s«y».fcnnn i«n SLET»FRS 1 9 6 1 1 6 6 1 . 1 7 9 4 . 8 5 4 4 7 . 9 2 1 9 7 1 5 7 1 7 . 4 1 6 4 9 . 4 8 1 7 7 7 . 7 2 1 4 8 1 9 4 7 0 . 1 1 1 0 0 8 . 1 1 2 9 0 2 . 7 *

8 1 7 N 0 0 D 1 4 6 1 7 * 4 . 8 5 1 9 7 1 1 ? « » . * 1 1 9 8 1 7 1 8 2 . * *

P » » T | C l f « 0 » » D

1 9 7 7 1 9 1 . 0 * 1 9 8 1 4 7 1 . 0 4

PULPNOOO 1463 1973 1481

wnon PULP

118.93 735.13 672 .71

1 . 7 2 7 7 . 5 9

0.89 14.14 19.45

2 . 6 7 3 . 3 4

1 4 . 3 3

7 6 . 1 4 4 3 . 6 5

1 7 4 . 4 1

0 . 0 1 4.51

6 4 . 3 3

3 1 . 6 9 4 . 2 4

37.71

1 8 . 2 4 1 4 . 9 1 7 3 . ( 9

8 7 . 7 2

0.01 0.45

0.01 0 .00 0.00

7 4 . 6 9 3 4 0 . 8 9 1 1 2 . 7 5 1 9 7 . 7 9 7 2 2 . 2 6 4 3 . 6 6 7 0 . 3 2 1 6 5 6 . ( 1 3 0 2 . 9 7 6 3 0 . 7 6 8 2 8 . 1 0 1 2 3 . 0 1

1 6 5 . 1 4 2 7 5 3 . 0 3 6 0 0 . 8 2 4 7 0 . 4 1 1 0 2 6 . 7 3 1 8 6 . 1 5

2 2 . 3 8

53.80

0 . 8 0

2 1 . 3 5

0.51 3.40

102.57

53.54 160.05 294.45

4 .42 14 3 .70 7 8 1 . 3 3

3 3 . 6 3 6 7 . 2 2

1 3 3 . 0 0

1.10 4 .11

2 2 . 7 6

0 .23

110.45

0 . 1 T 1 . 3 9 7 . 1 3

3 1 . 1 5 1 5 6 . 0 6 2 3 4 . 7 0

7 . 1 8 4 3 . 2 7 4 5 . ( 9

1 8 . 9 6 4 . 4 3

6 3 . ( 6

0 . 7 7 2 . 7 1

1 2 . 4 3 2 7 . 9 9 1 5 . 6 4 3 1 . 4 7

1 . 4 3 0 . 1 0 3 0 . 0 5 1 . 4 * 7 4 . 4 * 5 2 . ( 5

1 7 . 0 * 3 . 0 8 4 4 . 4 4 2 . 7 1 7 8 . 4 2 1 0 . 4 1

7 . 1 7 3 0 0 . 4 8 7 4 . 6 0 1 * 3 8 . 6 4 5 4 . 7 7 2 7 3 1 . 3 8

3.12 1173.36 30.41 4143.13

105.06 7164.13

0 . 3 8 1 6 0 . 3 3 2 . 7 9 6 ( 1 . 6 4

1 4 . 1 2 7 ( 0 . ( 3

0 . 7 4 7 . 0 1 2 . 1 5 1 ( 0 . 6 3 6 . 4 7 4 4 6 . 0 1

0 . 0 3 7 1 . 5 4 1 . 0 4 ( 4 . 4 4 2 . 3 2 3 0 1 . 1 0

1 4 6 3 1 4 7 3 1 9 8 1

C O N N n D I T Y

I N D U S T R I A L 1 9 6 3 1 9 7 3 1 9 8 1

1 3 1 1 . 7 6 7 1 5 7 . 5 0 8 * 7 3 . 0 7

C » » . l » N

POUND WOOD 1 9 . 1 8 « 1 . 8 2 7 3 . 6 9

S6WNH00D * N D S L E E P E R S 1 9 6 3 7 6 . 2 0 1 9 7 3 2 7 7 . 1 5 1 9 8 1 3 9 8 . 0 9

PLYWOOD 1 9 6 3 1 1 7 3 1 4 8 1

3 . 1 1 1 3 . 6 6 6 5 . ( 6

8 * 8 7 K L E BO»RD 1 9 6 3 0 . 1 7

1 9 8 1 9 . 5 3

PULPWOOD

1 9 7 3 1 9 8 1

WOOD P U t 8

1 9 7 3 1 9 8 1

C O N H P n l T Y

I N D U S T R I A L

1 4 7 1 1 9 8 1

3 . 2 0 « . 3 3 0 . 5 8

1 . 6 9

» P « 1 C «

ROUND WOOD 7 1 0 . 7 6 7 6 * . 0 7 8 3 * . 7 5

6 1 4 . 7 0 1 * 1 4 . ( 5

HONOUR

0 . 7 1 0 . 7 5 6 . 1 5

8 . 1 7 3 1 . 7 8 2 5 . 0 0

0 . 2 ?

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 7

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

C . N E . n

1 1 . 6 1 » 8 . 9 3

3 8 7 . 5 7 1 1 0 3 . 8 4 7 1 8 9 . 4 6

• « 4 1 1 1

4 . 3 8 2 7 . 2 1

2 . 4 1

1 3 0 . 1 1 2 2 6 . 7 1

0 . 5 3 1 0 . 6 5 4 3 . 1 6

0 . 7 1 0 . 7 8

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 6

0 . 3 1 ? ( . l o

3 5 4 . 1 9

CE N T . A

3 5 . 1 7 1 1 . 7 1

0 . 4 1 1 0 . ( 7 3 4 . 4 4

C H I L E

0 . 0 1 0 . 0 1

5 1 . 1 4

7 . 0 0 4 . 4 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 2 7

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 2

1 . 2 9 2 5 . 1 5

1 * 9 . 9 5

CON CO

1 7 . 1 3 3 6 . 0 * 8 0 . 7 8

6 . 7 2 2 9 . 6 8 4 0 . 2 2

E C U 6 D O

0 . 1 7 0 . 0 7 0 . 1 0

1 . 8 8 9 . 3 (

1 2 . 5 7

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 5

1 3 . 2 2

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 7 . 8 8

o°:SS

0 . 0 0

« t o .

1 2 0 . 5 1 1 7 4 . 3 8

4 7 4 . ( 8 1 3 7 4 . 7 2 2 4 7 t . 2 (

P 4 R » C U

4 . 3 5 1 . 5 0 0 . 9 7

0 . ( 1 1 1 . 8 0 4 0 . 6 5

0 . 3 8

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 3 0

0 H 4 N 4

2 6 . 2 2 ( 2 . 3 3 1 2 . 0 6

1 8 . 9 5 1 9 . 4 8

1 1 8 . 9 0

E . 4 S I 4

7 9 6 . 8 1 1 8 8 8 . 7 6 7 4 6 4 . 2 3

7 2 . 7 7 5 9 1 . 6 7

1 2 2 5 . 4 5

3 7 . 0 3 6 8 3 . 3 8

1 1 7 5 . 7 1

0 . 0 1 4 . 7 6 1 . 7 5

0 . 1 5 6 . 2 0 3 . 2 1

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1 9 0 8 7

6 9 . 0 2 3 5 7 . 6 4 1 4 7 . 7 4

1 4 4 . 3 5 7 5 8 . 4 4 6 ( 6 . 4 8

B U R N »

1 4 . 3 1 3 6 . 7 4 6 1 . 2 3

1 5 . 6 1 1 6 . 1 4 4 1 . 5 8

0 . 1 2

o.oo

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 3 2

L I B E R I

0 . 5 7 3 3 . 8 3 5 6 . 7 4

3 7 7 . 4 1 8 5 0 . 9 1

1 2 ( 7 . 0 5

I N DO NE

2 . 1 5 ( 1 9 . 9 3

0 . 8 7 7 5 . 4 ?

1 9 3 . 5 4

O . O O 0 . 1 0

1 2 2 . 2 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 1 8

0 . 0 0 3 . 8 4 3 . 7 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

NOROCC

0 . 0 1

0 . 5 4

7 . 1 1 I B . 4 3

1 0 8 . 7 6

HILAYS

0 . 0 1 1 1 7 . 9 4

1 4 0 2 . 7 4

0 . 0 4 2 7 7 . 4 4 5 9 1 . 3 2

0 . 0 0 5 1 . 0 1

1 5 4 . 0 9

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 0 . 3 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 1 . 0 1

0 . 0 0 o.oo 0 . 0 0

O C F t N I t

2 4 . 6 5 9 5 . 3 0

P H U I P

1 7 1 . 7 0 3 7 * . 6 6 2 3 7 . 6 9

5 . 0 6 3 5 . 1 6

1 8 6 . 8 6

1 5 . 4 3 3 5 . 7 2

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 2

0 . 1 4

0 . 0 6

O . O O 3 . 3 7 4 . 9 3

P » P U » N

1 . 3 5 1 9 . 4 1

2 6 . 4 5 ( 1 . 9 3

2 3 4 . 6 7

S I N G » »

0 . 4 4 1 . 3 2 3 . 5 5

2 . 6 1

1 1 4 . 2 0

1 3 0 . I B

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 0 . 2 3

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 2 4

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

SOLONON

0 . 0 0 4 . 1 0

2 4 . 1 3

1 2 ( 3 . 0 7 3 0 3 4 . 1 9 7 3 2 9 . 2 4

7 H 1 I 1 4

1 . 9 8 1 5 . 1 1

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5 . 3 0

0 . 0 1 0 . 1 4

0 . 0 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 8 0 . 0 8 0 . 5 1

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5 2 6 . 6 2 2 7 2 5 . 5 6 3 * 6 8 . 6 »

« O R E » .

0 . 0 0 0 . 1 3 3 . 6 0

0 . 0 0 3 4 . 3 1 2 3 . 7 7

5 . 6 1 2 6 6 . 5 5 2 B 3 . 9 3

0 . 0 0 4 . 6 3 0 . 3 5

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 6

0 . 0 0

0 . 1 9

P I D E » S

0 . 7 3 1 . 2 2 0 . 7 4

1 . 9 7 3 . 5 6 1 . 5 *

5 . 5 2 4 . 9 0

1 3 . 0 2

0 . 1 2 0 . 0 3 0 . 9 5

0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0

0 . 1 7 0 . 1 0

SRWNHDOD » N 0 S L E E P E R S 1 9 6 3 4 0 . D * 1 4 7 3 1 2 3 . 6 1 1 9 B 1 1 7 7 . 7 2

PLTWOOO 1 9 6 3 1 9 7 3 1 9 8 1

P » » T I C L F e n » « D 1 9 6 1 1 9 7 ! 1 9 8 1

P u t P w n r i D 1 9 6 3 1973 1461

KPOO P U L P 1 4 6 1 1 4 7 3 1 4 8 1

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 ?

4 . 1 3 1 7 . 7 4 4 1 . 4 7

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1.85 7 . 6 *

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 4

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

3 . 6 4 4 . 1 4

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

o.oo 0 . 0 0 o.no

0.»1 4.51 ( . 5 4

0.03 0.4B 0 .15

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 2

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 9

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 8 3 1 . 1 4

12.05 20.45

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1

1 8 . 4 9 5 . 3 6 4 0 . 9 6 4 4 . 7 0 2 1 . 4 5 7 7 . 2 5

2.61 4 .42

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0.00 1.05 0 .24

0.01 2 .53 0 . 7 6

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 1

0 . 0 4 0 . 5 2 0 . 1 3

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0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 0 o.oo 0 . 0 0

0 . 0 4

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1.12 ( . 3 4

24 .17

0.57 4 .54

10 . (1

1 . 7 2 4 . 5 4 5 . 1 6

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0.00 0 .25 0 .03

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0 . 5 S 3 . 7 2 4 . 4 5

1 . 7 2 4 . 5 9 «.((

0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0

0.00 0 .25 0 .00

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0 . 0 0 1 9 1 . 4 8 0 . 0 9 9 4 9 . 6 9 1 . 3 0 1 ( 1 4 . 3 8

0 . 0 0 4 1 . ( 4 0 . 0 0 7 4 6 . 1 4 0 . 0 0 1 2 ( 6 . 0 4

0 . 0 0 0 . 3 1 0 . 0 0 S . 2 ( 0 . 0 0 1 2 . 7 1

0 . 0 0 3 . 5 4 0 . 0 0 1 2 . 5 2 0 . 0 0 4 . 4 3

0.00 7 .13 0 .00 ( 0 . 2 5 0 .00 179.74

U » S S C t E C H . P O L A N D « O N A N I A H I T I U " C H I N E

I N D U S T R I A L ROUND MOOD

1 4 6 3 1 0 7 . 7 7 7 4 . ( 4 1 4 7 3 4 7 7 . 3 ? 4 1 4 . 0 0 1 4 ( 1 4 4 1 . 7 0 4 ( 2 . 4 1

S»NNW0O0 «NO S I F F P F » $ 1 4 6 3 7 4 6 . 7 0 1 7 4 . 3 4 1 4 7 1 6 1 4 . 7 1 3 6 8 . R » 1 4 8 ] 1 0 0 1 . 7 » « 1 0 . 7 4

1 4 6 1 1 4 7 1

7 1 . 1 ? 1 4 . 4 6

1 0 4 . ? « « 6 . 6 6

P » R 7 I C i r • 0 » » 1 1 4 6 1 1 . 0 4 0 . 1 7 1 4 7 1 1 1 . 7 4 0 . 1 « 1 4 » ! 1 1 . 7 0 7 . 8 7

P U l R 6 0 0 0 1 4 6 3 1 1 7 1 1 9 8 1

NT f lO P U L P 1 4 6 1 1 4 7 1 1 4 8 1

« 3 . 5 1 3 0 . 6 1 1 1 » . 1 1 4 7 . 7 6 1 6 * . 8 * 7 1 6 . 0 8

2 0 . R 1 1 6 . 6 6 1 1 . 1 0 R 3 . 2 7

1 7 0 . 0 1 1 5 * . 1 7

1 2 . 6 7 «5.74

1 6 2 . 0 5

2 3 . 5 6 « 6 . 3 0

1 1 6 . 1 1

0 . 0 4 1 . 7 ? 0 . 1 0

7.«7 14.80 6 « . l ?

3 . 0 1 7 . 4 7 7 . 1 6

3 . 9 6 1 1 . 3 8 3 6 . « 3

1 7 . 6 6 ( 0 . 7 6

100.73

0 . 4 ( I . » ?

1 1 . 1 7

0 . 1 4 1 . 7 3 0 . 7 (

3 . 4 0 4 . 3 «

« 1 . 4 3

0 . 0 ? 3 . ( 7 0 . 0 1

4 . 2 1 8 . 3 8

2 2 . 3 4

4 4 . 4 4 1 0 8 . 2 * 1 0 3 . 4 3

1 . 4 1 7 . 4 0

2 7 . 4 4

0 . 3 1 7 . 0 3 7 . 4 0

1.73 O.Ot 3.«0

1.44 4 . 4 1

23 .34

3.2? 24 .25 12.3?

5 . 1 7 1 9 . 4 3

0.0? 1. 74 0 .0?

0 . 1 3 4.41 1.15

0 .14 0.73

10.18

1 . 2 5 5 . 7 7 5 . 4 (

0.00 0 .01

0 . 0 4

0 . 0 6 0 . 0 1 0 . ( 2

MDF/W/52

Text of headnotes to Summary Table I (reference page 42)

TABLE 1

FOREST RESOURCES, WOOD PRODUCTION - Total, per ha., per caput -IMPORTS, EXPORTS - TRADE BALANCE (1979)

Note; COMPOSITE FIGURES - COLUMNS (8) and (9) INDICATE ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE ONLY, SEE TEXT EXPLANATIONS FOR OTHER DATA

Area and population data based on UN and national data. Data for total area include in some cases significant areas of inland waters and waterways. Area data do not imply a judgement by the secretariat as to the legal status of territories. As regards the year chosen, please see paragraph 9. Data on forest areas, forestry production, disposition, and trade are derived from FAO forestry statistics, supplemented by national, or EEC-data, as appropriate. The annotations "TS" - Tropical Survey, and "EC" in column (2) respectively indicate that forestry data for the country in question have benefited either from the FAO/UNEP tropical forest surveys or are covered by forestry review data compiled by the ECE/FAO - Timber Section (cf. paragraph 51). The annotation "P" - Producer - and "C" - Consumer refer to a classification established in the context of the 1983 International Tropical Timber Agreement (cf. paragraph 52). Data for many countries are provisional. All the data are subject to amendment and correction, as may be required. Trade and other data are rounded and should be considered indicators of magnitude only.

II. Text of column headings for Table II (reference page 79)

3 3 (Units, as shown: m , kilogrammes; million m , million tons)

Column 1

Column 2

Column 3

Column 4

Column 5

Country

3 Total Wood Removals - Per Caput, m

3 Total Industrial Roundwood, Production - Per Caput, m

Total Industrial Roundwood, Availability (Production, Net Trade), Per Caput, m E - net exports I - net imports

Total Sawnwood - Particle-Board - Plywood, Domestic Availability (Production - Net Trade) per Caput, m

MDF/W/52

II. Text of column headings for Table II (cont'd) (reference page 79)

3 3 (Units, as shown: m , kilogrammes; million m , million tons)

Column 6 : Total Domestic Woodpulp, Availability (Production, Net Trade), Kilogrammes, Per Caput

3 Column 7 : Total Industrial Roundwood, Production - Million m

3 Column 8 : Net Trade Industrial Roundwood - Million r»i -

E - net exports I - net imports

3 Column 9 : Net Trade Pulpwood - Million m -


Column 10: Total Industrial Wood (including Pulpwood) Availability Million m

3 Column 11: Total Sawnwood Production Million m

3 Column 12: Net Trade, Sawnwood - Million m -


3 Column 13: Total Particle-Board Production - Million m

3 Column 14: Net Trade - Particle-Board - Million m .


3 Column 15: Total Plywood Production - Million m

3 Column 16: Net Trade - Plywood - Million m


Column 17: Total Domestic Availability of Sawnwood, Particle-Board, Plywood - Million m

Column 18: Total Production - Woodpulp - Million tons

Column 19: Net Trade - Woodpulp, Million metric tons E - net exports I - net imports

Column 20: Total Domestic Availability of Woodpulp - in million metric tons

MDF/W/52

III. Title and headnote to Tables V-A and V-B (reference page 117)

TABLE V-A

PRE- AND POST- TOKYO ROUND MFN IMPORT DUTIES OF SELECTED IMPORT MARKETS

Duties shown in per cent ad valorem

1 Source: GATT Tariff Study Files:

Pre-

'Pos t -

Post-Tokyo-Round rates are final rates (i.e. as of 1.1.1987 [or applied as of 1.1.1986] -minor exceptions). Most of the final rates GATT bound rates, except for Australia and, extent, New Zealand, which effected a series unilateral reductions in recent years. Pre base rates differ somewhat from country to c Temporary duty reductions are not shown. Wh percentage figures apply, this indicates rat different sub-positions within a four-digit Rates shown for the US and Canada are alloca headings on a provisional basis. All rates information only. For contractual rates ref 1979 Geneva Protocol.

applicable with certain shown are to some of

Tokyo-Round ountry. ere several es for heading. ted to CCCN shown are for er to the

TABLE V-B

IMPORTS FROM WORLD IN MILLION US DOLLARS BY CCCN HEADING (1980 or 1981 - as shown) AND PERCENTAGE SHARE IN

TOTAL OF IMPORTS FROM MFN AND GSP ORIGINS

Symbols: .. = not available - = less than $50 thousand

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON /flugu" 1986 - WTO Documents ...

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