further information and reference material

part Vfur ther informat ion and reference mater ia l

annexes

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

Annex A: Energy Units, Coverstion Factors, and Abbreviations

456

TABLE A1. ENERGY CONVERSIONS*

* IEA figures. Additional conversion figures available at http://www.iea.org/stat.htm

To:

From:

Terajoule (TJ)

Megatonne oil (equiv) (Mtoe)

Million British thermal units (Mbtu)

Gigawatt-hour (GWh)

Terajoule (TJ)

Multiply by:

1

4.1868 x 104

1.0551 x 10-3

3.6

Gigacalorie(Gcal)

238.8

107

0.252

860

Megatonne oil (equiv)

(Mtoe)

2.388 x 10-5

1

2.52 x 10-8

8.6 x 10-5

Million Britishthermal units

(Mbtu)

947.8

3.968 x 107

1

3,412

Gigawatt-hour(GWh)

0.2778

11,630

2.931 x 10-4

1

ANNEX A: ENERGY UNITS, CONVERSION FACTORS, AND ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE A2. UNIT PREFIXES

k kilo (103)

M mega (106)

G giga (109)

T tera (1012)

P peta (1015)

E exa (1018)

TABLE A4. UNIT ABBREVIATIONS

EJ Exajoule

GJ Gigajoule

Gtoe Giga tonnes oil equivalent

GWe Giga Watt electricity

GWth Giga Watt thermal

ha Hectare

km2 Square kilometre

kWh Kilo Watt hour

Mtoe Million tonnes oil equivalent

MWe Mega Watt electricity

PJ Petajoule

t Tonne

TWh Tera Watt hour

TABLE A3. ASSUMED EFFICIENCY IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION

(FOR CALCULATING PRIMARY ENERGY)

Type of power Assumed efficiency

Nuclear power . 33

Hydroelectric 1.00

Wind and solar 1.00

Geothermal .10


Annex B: Data Consistency

457

Energy is defined as the ability to do work and is measured in joules(J), where 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton (N) isapplied through a distance of 1 metre. (A newton is the unit of forcethat, acting on a mass of one kilogram, increases its velocity by onemetre per second every second along the direction in which it acts.)Power is the rate at which energy is transferred and is commonlymeasured in watts (W), where 1 watt is 1 joule per second. Newton,joule, and watt are defined in the International System of Units. Otherunits used to measure energy are tonnes of oil equivalent (toe; 1 toeequals 41.87 x 109 J) and barrels of oil equivalent (boe; 1 boe equals5.71 x 109 J), used by the oil industry; tonnes of coal equivalent (tce;1 tce equals 29.31 x 109 J), used by the coal industry; and kilowatt-hour (kWh; 1 kWh equals 3.6 x 106 J), used to measure electricity.See also annex A, which provides conversion factors for energy units.)

Studies on national, regional, and global energy issues use a varietyof technical terms for various types of energy. The same terminologymay reflect different meanings or be used for different boundaryconditions. Similarly, a particular form of energy may be defined differently. For example, when referring to total primary energy use,most studies mean commercial energy—that is, energy that is tradedin the marketplace and exchanged at the going market price. Althoughnon-commercial energy is often the primary energy supply in manydeveloping countries, it is usually ignored. Non-commercial energyincludes wood, agricultural residues, and dung, which are collectedby the user or the extended family without involving any financialtransaction. Because there are no records and a lack of data on actualuse, most energy statistics do not report non-commercial energy use.Estimates of global non-commercial energy use range from 23-35exajoules a year. In contrast, wood and other biomass sold in themarketplace is reported as solids (often lumped together with coal)and becomes part of commercial energy.

Traditional energy is another term closely related to non-commercialenergy. This term generally refers to biomass used in traditional ways—that is, in the simplest cooking stoves and fireplaces—and is often meantas a proxy for inefficient energy conversion with substantial indoor andlocal air pollution. But traditional does not always mean non-commercial:wood burned in a kitchen stove may have been bought commerciallyand be reflected in commercial data. Estimates of biomass used intraditional ways range from 28-48 exajoules per year.

The term modern (or new) renewables is used to distinguishbetween traditional renewables used directly with low conversiontechnology and renewables using capital-intensive high-tech energyconversion such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, or oceanenergy to produce state-of-the-art fuels and energy services.

Another issue concerns the heating value of chemical fuels assumedin statistics and analyses. The difference between the higher heatingvalue (HHV) and the lower heating value (LHV) is that the higher heatingvalue includes the energy of condensation of the water vapour containedin the combustion products. The difference for coal and oil is about5 percent and for natural gas 10 percent. Most energy productionand use are reported on the basis of the lower heating value.

Yet another source of inconsistency comes from different conversion

factors to the primary energy equivalent of electricity generated byhydropower, nuclear, wind, solar, and geothermal energy. In the past,non-combustion-based electricity sources were converted to theirprimary equivalents by applying a universal conversion efficiency of38.5 percent. More recently, hydropower, solar, and wind electricityin OECD statistics are converted with a factor of 100 percent,nuclear electricity with 33 percent, and geothermal with 10 percent.

The quality of data differs considerably between regions.Statistical bureaus in developing countries often lack the resourcesof their counterparts in industrialised countries, or data are simplynot collected. Countries of the former Soviet Union used to have different classifications for sectoral energy use. Data reported bydifferent government institutions in the same country can differgreatly, often reflecting specific priorities.

The composition of regions also varies in statistical compendiumsand energy studies. At times, North America is composed of Canadaand the United States—but it might also include Mexico. Except whereotherwise noted, the following countries joined the Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1961: Australia(1971), Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic (1995), Denmark,Finland (1969), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary (1996), Iceland,Ireland, Italy, Japan (1964), Korea (1996), Luxembourg, Mexico(1994), the Netherlands, New Zealand (1973), Norway, Poland(1996), Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the UnitedKingdom, the United States. Depending on when the data was collected,OECD data may or may not include the Czech Republic, Hungary, theRepublic of Korea, Mexico, or Poland.

Finally, a word on the efficiency of energy conversion. Energy efficiency is a measure of the energy used in providing a particularenergy service and is defined as the ratio of the desired (usable)energy output to the energy input. For example, for an electricmotor this is the ratio of the shaft power to the energy (electricity)input. Or in the case of a natural gas furnace for space heating,energy efficiency is the ratio of heat energy supplied to the home tothe energy of the natural gas entering the furnace. Because energyis conserved (the first law of thermodynamics), the differencebetween the energy entering a device and the desirable output is dissipated to the environment in the form of heat. Thus energy is notconsumed but conserved. What is consumed is its quality to do useful work (as described by the second law of thermodynamics).

What this means is that a 90 percent efficient gas furnace for spaceheating has limited potential for further efficiency improvements.While this is correct for the furnace, it is not the case for deliveringspace heat. For example, a heat pump operating on electricityextracts heat from a local environment—outdoor air, indoorexhaust air, groundwater—and may deliver three units of heat forone unit of electrical energy to the building, for a coefficient of performance of 3. Not accounted for in this example, however, arethe energy losses during electricity generation. Assuming a moderngas-fired combined cycle power plant with 50 percent efficiency, theoverall coefficient of performance is 1.5—still significantly higherthan the gas furnace heating system. ■

ANNEX B: DATA CONSISTENCY


Annex C: Energy Trends

458

ANNEX C: ENERGY TRENDS

TABLE C.1. PRIMARY ENERGY USE PER CAPITA BY REGION, 1971–97

1971 (gigajoules)

266

36

118

76

135

35

23

20

15

94

62

16112420

1980 (gigajoules)

276

42

134

108

178

61

26

25

17

113

69

17716525

1985 (gigajoules)

258

39

134

112

192

72

27

28

19

117

69

17317727

1990 (gigajoules)

263

40

137

108

195

77

27

32

21

142

70

18118029

1997 (gigajoules)

272

47

141

84

129

95

27

38

26

174

70

19412134

Change,1990– 97(percent)

3.7

15.4

3.3

-21.8

-33.9

23.9

0.1

18.8

18.9

23.2

-0.1

7.0-32.416.0

Change,1971– 97(percent)

2.4

27.7

19.9

10.6

-4.2

175.9

17.1

93.6

66.3

85.1

12.5

20.4-2.066.2

Annualgrowth rate,1990–97(percent)

0.5

2.1

0.5

-3.4

-5.7

3.1

0.0

2.5

2.5

3.0

0.0

1.0-5.42.1

Annualgrowth rate,1971–97(percent)

0.3

3.6

2.6

1.5

-0.6

15.6

2.3

9.9

7.5

9.2

1.7

2.7-0.37.5

Region

North America

Latin America

OECD Europea

Non-OECD Europeb

Former Soviet Union

Middle East

Africa

China

Asiac

Pacific OECDd

World total

Memorandum itemsOECD countriesTransition economiesDeveloping countries

a. Includes Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. b. Excludes the former Soviet Union. c. Excludes China. d. Includes Republic of Korea. Source: IEA, 1999a.

TABLE C.2. ELECTRICITY USE PER CAPITA BY REGION, 1980–96 (KILOWATT-HOURS)

Region

North America

OECD

East Asia

South Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa

Middle East

China

Transition economies

Least developedcountriesa

World

1980

8,986

5,686

243

116

444

485

253

2,925

74

1,576

1985

9,359

6,277

314

157

440

781

331

3,553

66

1,741

1990

20,509

7,177

426

228

448

925

450

3,823

60

1,927

1996

11,330

8,053

624

313

439

1,166

687

2,788

83

2,027

a. As defined by the United Nations. Source: World Bank, 1999.

TABLE C.3. ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION LOSSES BY REGION, 1980–96 (PERCENT)

Region

North America

OECD

East Asia

South Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa


Least developedcountriesa

World

1980

6.9

7.6

8.4

19.4

9.2

8.4

11.0

8.3

1985

6.8

6.8

8.8

19.1

8.6

8.9

15.8

8.0

1990

7.0

7.2

8.2

18.8

8.8

8.4

20.3

8.3

1996

7.6

6.4

10.1

18.7

9.6

11.0

20.9

8.5

a. As defined by the United Nations. Source: World Bank, 1999.



459

FIGURE C.1. CHANGES IN GDP, POPULATION, PRIMARY ENERGY USE, AND ELECTRICITY USE BY REGION, 1971–97 (INDEX: 1971=1)

Source: IEA, 1999a.

World2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.01971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.01971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.01971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

11971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

Electricity

GDP

Primary energy use

Population

China

Electricity

GDP

Primary energy use

Population

Developing countries

Electricity

GDP

Primary energy use

Population

Economies in transition

Electricity

GDP

Primary energy use

Population

Africa

Electricity

GDP

Primary energy use

Population

Latin America

Electricity

GDP

Primary energy use

Population

FIGURE C.3. DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY AND FINAL ENERGY INTENSITIES BY REGION, 1971–1997

FIGURE C.4. GLOBAL TRADE IN CRUDE OIL, OIL PRODUCTS, COAL, AND NATURAL

GAS, IN ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TERMS



460

FIGURE C.2. ENERGY USE BY SECTOR IN SELECTED REGIONS, 1980–97 (EXAJOULES)

Source: IEA, 1999a.

Transformation Non-energy Residential

Commercial Agriculture Transportation Industry

4003503002502001501005001971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

250

200

150

100

50

01980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

90807060504030201001980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

60

50

40

30

20

10

01980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

20

15

10

5

01980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

World

OECD

Total Asia

Africa

Exa

joule

s Perc

ent

Former Soviet Union

Note: Total traded shows share of total specific fuel use that is traded,that is total traded energy/primary energy.

Source: BP, 1999, IEA, 1999a, World Bank, 1999.

Source: IEA, 1999a.

% Coal % Oil % Gas % Total traded

Coal Crude oil Oil products Gas

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Megajo

ule

s per

1995 d

olla

r of

GD

P

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Megajo

ule

s per

1995 d

olla

r of

GD

P

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Former Soviet Union

Total Asia

Africa

Africa

Middle East

Middle East

World Latin America

Pacific OECD

OECD

Final energy intensities

Primary energy intensities

Former Soviet Union

Total Asia

WorldLatin America

Pacific OECDOECD



461

FIGURE C.5. MAJOR OIL IMPORTERS AND EXPORTERS, 1980–98

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Exa

joule

s Perc

ent

Importers

Source: BP, 1999.

Source: IEA, 1999b. Source: World Bank, 1999.

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Developing countries

Western Europe

United States

Japan

Rest of world

Exa

joule

s

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Exporters

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Africa

Middle East


North America

Rest of worldLatin America

FIGURE C.6. GROSS FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN FINANCING BY REGION, 1980–97

Perc

ent

of

GD

P

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

Gross foreign direct investment

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

Perc

ent

of

GD

P

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

Domestic and foreign financing

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

FIGURE C.7. ENERGY TAXES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1998

Light oil(industry)

Light oil(household)

High-sulphuroil (industry)

Electricity(industry)

Electricity(household)

Perc

ent

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1

2

3

4

56

81

23

4

5

6

7

8

4

5 7

1

4

5

8

7

1, France2. Germany3. Hungary4. Italy5. Mexico6. Norway7. Turkey8. United Kingdom

1

2

4

7

6

8

OECD

Leastdevelopedcountries

SouthAsia

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Latin Americaand Caribbean

East Asiaand Pacific

Domestic financing,

East Asia and Pacific

Foreign financing, East Asia and Pacific

Foreign financing, South Asia

Domestic financing, South Asia



462

FIGURE C.8. EFFICIENCY OF COAL-FUELLED AND NATURAL GAS–FUELLED ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY REGION, 1971–97

Source: Adapted from IEA, 1999a.

OECD Transition economies Africa China Asia Latin America World

Perc

ent

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

201971 1980 1990 1997

Coal

Perc

ent

45

40

35

30

25

201971 1980 1990 1997

Natural gas

Middle East and North Africa



463

FIGURE C.9. NATURAL GAS AND STEAM COAL PRICES FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY REGION, 1990–98

Source: IEA, 1999b.

U.S

. dolla

rs p

er

gig

ajo

ule

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Steam coal

Germany Hungary Japan Mexico Turkey United Kingdom United States

U.S

. dolla

rs p

er

gig

ajo

ule

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

01990 1995 1996 1997 1998

GermanyFrance Italy Japan Mexico Turkey United Kingdom United States

1990 1995 1996 1997 1998

Natural gas



464

FIGURE C.10. ELECTRICITY PICES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1990–98

Source: IEA, 1999b.

0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Industry Household

U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour

France

Germany

Hungary

Italy

Japan

Mexico

Norway

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States

South Africa

Taiwan

Thailand

Venezuela

1990

1995

1996

1997

1998



465

FIGURE C.11. OIL PRODUCT PRICES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1990–98

Source: IEA, 1999b.

Perc

ent

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Taxes on different fuels

GermanyFrance Italy Mexico Norway Turkey

Light oil industry Light oil household High-sulphur oil industry Electricity industry Electricity household

Hungary

U.S

. dolla

rs p

er

gig

ajo

ule

25

20

15

10

5

0

Light oil prices for industry

GermanyFrance Italy Japan Mexico Norway United Kingdom United States India

1990 1995 1996 1997 1998

Hungary

U.S

. dolla

rs p

er

gig

ajo

ule

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Light oil prices for household

GermanyFrance Italy Japan ThailandNorway United Kingdom United States India

1990 1995 1996 1997 1998

Turkey

United Kingdom



466

References

BP (British Petroleum). 1999. BP Statistical Review of World Energy. London.

IEA (International Energy Agency). 1999a. Energy Balances. Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris.

———. 1999b. Energy Prices and Taxes. Quarterly statistics (secondquarter). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-ment. Paris.

World Bank. 1999. World Development Indicators 1999. CD-ROM.Washington, D.C.

FIGURE C.12. UNLEADED GASOLINE PRICES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1998

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

United States

Canada

Australia

South Africa

New Zealand

Mexico

Taiwan

Poland

Czech Republic

India

Slovakia

Greece

Spain

Turkey

Hungary

Luxembourg

Ireland

Switzerland

Japan

Austria

Portugal

Germany

Belgium

Sweden

France

Italy

Denmark

Netherlands

Finland

United Kingdom

Norway

U.S. dollars per litre

Source: IEA, 1999b.

Tax component of price


Annex D: Carbon Emissions

467

The fossil energy used in 1998 contained about 6.5 gigatonnes ofcarbon, down slightly from 1997. The slight reduction was causedby the economic crisis in East Asia, which curbed energy use in thisfast-growing region, and China’s closure of inefficient and coal-intensive heavy industry enterprises. All this carbon essentially endsup in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, the inevitableby-product of any combustion process involving hydrocarbon fuels.

The energy sector emitted about 2.8 gigatonnes of carbon duringthe extraction and conversion of primary energy to fuels and electricity, and during transmission and distribution to final use. Therest, about 3.7 gigatonnes of carbon, was emitted at the point of enduse. Included are 0.4 gigatonnes of carbon embodied in durablehydrocarbon-based materials and products such as plastics,asphalt, lubricants, and pharmaceuticals. Although these materialsdo not necessarily contribute to carbon emissions in the year theyare statistically accounted for as energy or non-energy use, mostmaterials manufactured from hydrocarbons are eventually oxidisedto carbon dioxide.

Carbon is also released from the combustion of biomass. Annualnet emissions from biomass conversion are difficult to determineand depend on the extent to which the biomass use is truly renewable.The information presented here assumes that biomass-based energyservices are renewable and so do not result in net additions toatmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide.

Box D.1 reports the range of carbon emission factors found inthe literature and the IPCC factors used to calculate the past andcurrent carbon emissions shown in figure D.1. Global carbon

ANNEX D: CARBON EMISSIONS

BOX D.1. CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION FACTORS

Carbon dioxide emissions are measured in units of elemental carbon.For example, in 1998 global carbon dioxide emissions were 6.5gigatonnes (billion tonnes) of carbon. In the literature carbon dioxideemissions are often reported as the mass of the carbon dioxidemolecules (1 kilogram of carbon corresponds to 3.67 kilograms ofcarbon dioxide).

Note: HHV is the higher heating value, LHV is the lower heatingvalue. The difference is that the higher heating value includes the energy of condensation of the water vapour contained in thecombustion products (see annex A). Source: IPCC, 1996.

Carbon emission factors for some primary energy sources (kilograms of carbon per gigajoule)

Source

Wood

Peat

Coal (bituminous)

Crude oil

Natural gas

Heatingvalue

HHVLHV

HHVLHV

HHVLHV

HHVLHV

HHVLHV

OECD andIPCC, 1995

28.9

25.8

20.0

15.3

Literaturerange

26.8–28.428.1–29.9

30.3

23.9–24.525.1–25.8

19.0–20.320.0–21.4

13.6–14.015.0–15.4

FIGURE D.1. CARBON EMISSIONS BY REGION, 1965–98

Source: Calculated from BP, 1999 data using carbon emission factors of IPCC, 1996.

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Gig

ato

nnes

of

carb

on

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Asia

China

Pacific OECD

Former Soviet Union

North America

OECD Europe

Africa Middle East Non-OECD Europe Latin America


Annex D: Carbon Emissions

468

emissions effectively doubled between 1965 and 1998, correspondingto an average increase of 2.1 percent a year—not surprisingly, amirror image of the fossil fuel–dominated global energy use. Since1990 the average rate of increase has slowed to 0.7 percent a year,not because of carbon emission mitigation efforts but because of theeconomic collapse of the former Soviet Union and the financial crisisin East Asia. Although figure D.1 clearly identifies industrialisedcountries as the main source of carbon emissions, it also shows thegrowing emissions from developing countries.

The carbon intensity (carbon per unit of primary energy) of theglobal energy system fell by 0.3 percent a year in the 20th centurybecause of substitutions of oil and gas for coal, the expansion ofhydropower, and the introduction of nuclear power. Figure D.2shows carbon intensities for 1971–97. The drop in the carbonintensity of the energy system and the decline in the energy intensi-ty of economic production have reduced the carbon intensity of GDPby 1 percent a year. Carbon emissions per capita have not changedmuch since 1971. In 1997 the average carbon intensity was 16.3grams of carbon per megajoule, the carbon intensity per unit of

economic activity was 258 grams of carbon per 1995 U.S. dollar,and carbon emissions per capita were 1.15 tonnes.

Regional carbon emissions per capita vary considerably aroundthe average of 1.15 tonnes. In 1997 the average North Americanemitted 4.70 tonnes of carbon, while the average African emittedjust 0.28 tonnes—6 percent of the North American’s emissions(table D.1). ■

References BP (British Petroleum). 1999. BP Statistical Review of World Energy. London.

IEA (International Energy Agency). 1992. Energy Balances. Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris.

______. 1999. Energy Balances. International Energy Agency of theOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD/IEA). Paris, France.

IPCC. 1996. Primer. In Climate Change 1995 - Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses.R.T. Watson, M.C. Zinyowera, R.H. Moss, eds., Second AssessmentReport of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 879 pp.

FIGURE D.2. GLOBAL CARBON EMISSIONS, CARBON EMISSIONS PER CAPITA, AND

DECARBONISATION OF THE ENERGY SYSTEM AND OF ECONOMIC PRODUCTION, 1971–97

Source: IEA, 1999.

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

1971 =

1.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

Global carbon emissionsCarbon emissions per capita

Carbon emissions per 1995 U.S. dollar ofeconomic activity

Carbon emissions in primary energy use

TABLE D.1. CARBON EMISSIONS PER CAPITA BY REGION, 1975–97 (TONNES OF CARBON)

1975

4.84

2.42

2.06

1.71

3.16

0.53

0.78

0.15

0.35

0.21

1.14

1980

4.96

2.59

2.19

2.05

3.47

0.57

1.13

0.18

0.42

0.25

1.21

1985

4.54

2.41

2.14

2.10

3.53

0.50

1.34

0.20

0.50

0.29

1.16

1990

4.54

2.35

2.52

1.99

3.50

0.53

1.41

0.25

0.59

0.28

1.17

1995

4.55

2.26

2.86

1.45

2.36

0.57

1.62

0.31

0.72

0.28

1.13

1997

4.70

2.29

3.02

1.44

2.15

0.63

1.73

0.34

0.73

0.28

1.15

Region

North Americaa

OECD Europe

Pacific OECDb

Non-OECD Europe

Former Soviet Union

Latin America

Middle East

Asiac

China

Africa

World

a. Includes Mexico. b. Includes the Republic of Korea. c. Excludes China.Source: Calculated from IEA, 1999 energy data and IPCC carbon emission factors (see box D.1).

editorialboard

Brief biographies of Editorial Board members


Brief Biographies of Editorial Board Members

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Dennis Anderson is a Professor and the Director of theImperial College Centre of Energy Policy and Technology, London,and a visiting Professor at the University College, London. Andersonholds degrees in economics from the London School of Economics(1967) and in engineering from the University of Manchester(1963). He is a Research Associate at the Oxford University Centrefor the Study of African Economies and a Member of St. Antony’sCollege. A former Senior Economist for the World Bank and ChiefEconomist for Shell, Anderson has published several works on ruralenergy and development, economic and environmental interactions,and climate change technology. His current research interestsinclude economic and environmental interactions, energy pricingand regulation, and development policy. ■

Safiatou Franciose Ba-N’Daw is a former Minister ofEconomic Infrastructure in the Ministry of Energy of Côte d’Ivoire.She holds an M.Sc. in Economic Sciences from the University ofAbidjan, studied statistics at Georgetown University, Washington,D.C., and received an MBA from Harvard University. She is also aCertified Public Accountant. Ba-N’Daw has worked as FinancialAnalyst for the World Bank, and has extensive experience in thedevelopment of small and medium-sized businesses in Hungary,Turkey and Tunisia. She has served as Senior Financial Specialistwith the Central Bank of Pakistan and the Government of Pakistanon the development of financial institutions in that country. She alsoworked on financial issues in Sri Lanka until her promotion to theMinistry of Energy. ■

John W. Baker, Chairman of the World Energy Council from1995-98, currently serves as the Deputy Chairman of CelltechGroup, a pharmaceuticals company, and is a non-executive directorfor several other companies. He is also a member of the EducationStandards Task Force and the Welfare to Work Task Force for theBritish Government. An arts graduate of Oxford University, he spentten years dealing with transport policy and finance, and anotherdecade in the field of urban renewal and public housing. In 1979 hemoved into the energy sector to become the Corporate ManagingDirector of the Central Electricity Generating Board, and later ledthe man-agement of the UK electricity privatisation and restructuringprogramme. He was Chief Executive Officer of National Power sinceits establishment in 1990, then serving as its Chairman from 1995to 1997. ■

JoAnne DiSano is the Director of the Division for SustainableDevelopment for the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs.DiSano has a degree in psychology and sociology from the Universityof Windsor, Ontario, and a Masters of Education from Wayne StateUniversity (U.S.). Before joining the United Nations, she held severalsenior management positions with the Government of Canada, culminating in her work with the Department of Arts, Sport, theEnvironment, Tourism and Territories, where she served as the FirstAssistant Secretary, Environment and Conservation Policy Division,

and as Deputy Executive Director, Environment Strategies Directorate.From 1996 to 1998, DiSano was the Deputy Head of the EnvironmentProtection Group of that department. She has also held positionswith the Canadian Employment and Immigration Commission andthe Treasury Board in Ottawa. ■

Gerald Doucet is the Secretary General of the World EnergyCouncil, a position he has held since September 1998. A graduateof Ottawa University, with a Masters in Economics from CarltonUniversity, Doucet worked for the Government of Canada in variouseconomic and policy roles from 1967-1981. He then joined theRetail Council of Canada as Senior Vice President, and in 1988 hebecame the Agent General for Ontario in Europe for the Province ofOntario. From 1992 to 1994 he served as President and a FoundingDirector of the Europe-Canada Development Association, and from1994 – 98 as President and CEO of the Canadian Gas Association. ■

Emad El-Sharkawi is chairman of the Egyptian NationalCommittee of the World Energy Council, vice-chair of WEC’s executiveassembly for Africa, general coordinator for UN-financed energyprojects in Egypt, and advisor to numerous energy organizationsand commissions. He has a post-graduate diploma in electricalpower engineering from King’s College, University of Durham, and aPh.D. in electrical power systems from the University of Manchester.After supervising engineering projects in Egypt early in his career,he taught and led research on electrical power systems and energyat universities in Iraq. Returning to Egypt, El-Sharkawi joined theMinistry of Electricity and Energy and later the Nuclear Power PlantsAuthority as Manager of Technical Affairs (1977-78). Since that timehe has supervised many renewable energy programmes in Egypt and served as a member of the country’s specialised councils onenergies. In 1986 he was named Chairman of the Board of Directorsfor the Egyptian Electricity Authority. El-Sharkawi has co-authoredmany papers on energy and systems planning, and his efforts in thefield of energy led to his election to the Royal Swedish Academy forEngineering Sciences. ■

José Goldemberg is a member of the Brazilian Academy ofSciences and the Third World Academy of Sciences. Trained in physicsat the University of Saskatchewan (Canada) and the University ofIllinois, Goldemberg holds a Ph.D. in Physical Sciences from theUniversity of São Paulo. During his long academic career, he hastaught at the University of São Paulo (where he also served as Rectorfrom 1986–89), Stanford University, and the University of Paris(Orsay). He was a Visiting Professor at Princeton University in1993–94, at the International Academy of the Environment inGeneva in 1995, and at Stanford University in 1996–97. He servedthe Federal Government in Brazil as Secretary of State of Scienceand Technology in 1990–91, Minister of Education in 1991–92, andActing Secretary of State of the Environment in 1992. The author ofseveral books and technical papers, Goldemberg is an internationallyrespected expert on nuclear physics, the environment, and energy.



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In 1991 Goldemberg was the co-winner of the Mitchell Prize forSustainable Development, and in 1994 he was honoured with theestablishment of the José Goldemberg Chair in Atmospheric Physics at Tel Aviv University. In 2000, he was awarded the VolvoEnvironmental Prize, along with three of his colleagues on theWorld Energy Assessment. ■

John P. Holdren is the Teresa and John Heinz Professor ofEnvironmental Policy and Director of the Program on Science,Technology, and Public Policy in the John F. Kennedy School ofGovernment, and a Professor of Environmental Science and PublicPolicy in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard University. Trained in engineering and plasma physics atMIT and Stanford, from 1973–96 Holdren co-founded and co-ledthe interdisciplinary graduate programme in energy and resourcesat the University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of thePresident’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology(PCAST) and has chaired PCAST panels on protection of nuclearbomb materials, the U.S. fusion-energy R&D program, U.S. energyR&D strategy for the climate-change challenge, and internationalcooperation on energy. He is also a member of the U.S. NationalAcademy of Sciences (NAS) and National Academy of Engineering(NAE), Chairman of the NAS Committee on International Securityand Arms Control, and Chairman of the NAS/NAE Committee on U.S.-India Cooperation on Energy. ■

Michael Jefferson runs a consulting firm, Global Energy andEnvironment Consultants, in the United Kingdom. A graduate of theUniversities of Oxford and the London School of Economics,Jefferson has worked extensively in the private sector, from merchant banking to head of oil supply strategy and planning forEurope at the Royal Dutch/Shell Group of Companies. In 1990Jefferson was seconded to the World Energy Council (WEC) asDeputy Secretary General, and he later became director of studiesand policy development for WEC. He is the author of numerousbooks and articles related to energy and climate change, includingEnergy for Tomorrow’s World (written for a WEC commission in1993). He was a lead author and contributing author for theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) SecondAssessment Report, a member of the drafting team for the IPCC’sSynthesis Report, and an IPCC peer review editor for the ThirdAssessment Report. He is technical coordinator and lead consultantto the G8 Renewable Energy Task Force. He also participated in theUNDP report, Energy after Rio, written in 1997. ■

Eberhard Jochem is the Senior Scientist at the FraunhoferInstitute of Systems and Innovation Research (Karlsruhe, Germany)and Co-director of the Centre for Energy Policy and Economics(Zurich, Switzerland). Jochem holds degrees in chemical engineering(Aachen, 1967) and economics (Munich, 1971), and a Ph.D. intechnical chemistry (Munich, 1971). He was a research fellow at

Munich University and Harvard University. As an internationallyacknowledged expert in systems analysis, technical and socio-economic research, and policy evaluation, Jochem is a member ofseveral national and international scientific organizations and advisorycommittees, including the IPCC Bureau and the Enquête Commissionon “Sustainable Energy, Liberalization, and Globalization” of theGerman Parliament. He presented lectures at the universities inKarlsruhe and Kassel until 1999 and since then in Zurich andLausanne, Switzerland. He is a member of the Editorial AdvisoryBoard of Energy Environment and Climate Policy. ■

Thomas B. Johansson, who is on leave from the Universityof Lund in Sweden, is the Director of the Energy and AtmosphereProgramme of the Bureau for Development Policy of UNDP.Johansson, who holds a Ph.D. in nuclear physics from the LundInstitute of Technology, is International Co-Chairman of the WorkingGroup on Energy Strategies and Technologies of the China Councilfor International Cooperation on Environment and Development. Hehas served as Convening Lead Author, Energy Supply MitigationOptions (Working Group IIA of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change); Vice-Chairman, UN Committee on New andRenewable Sources of Energy and on Energy for Development;Chairman, UN Solar Energy Group for Environment andDevelopment; and Director of Vattenfall, the Swedish State PowerBoard. He is has authored or co-authored numerous books andarticles including Energy after Rio; Renewable Energy: Sourcesfor Fuels and Electricity; Electricity-Efficient End Use and NewGeneration Technologies and their Planning Implications; andEnergy for a Sustainable World. Along with three other membersof the editorial board, he was awarded the Volvo Environment Prizein 2000. ■

Hisham Khatib, an engineer and economist, serves as honoraryVice Chairman of the World Energy Council, as a member of theRoster of Experts for the Global Environment Facility’s Scientific andAdvisory Panel, and as the Advisory Editor to the Utilities Policy andEnergy Policy journals (U.K.) and the Natural Resources Forum(U.S.). Khatib received an M.Sc. from the University of Birmingham,and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of London,where he also received a B.Sc. in economics. Khatib has more than40 years’ experience in matters relating to electricity, energy, water,and environmental issues. He has consulted to the United Nations,UNDP, UNEP, Global Environment Facility, UNIDO, World Bank, ArabFund, Islamic Development Bank, and many other regional andinternational development agencies. Khatib also served as Ministerof Planning, Minister of Water and Irrigation, and Minister of Energyand Mineral Resources for the government of Jordan. He is theauthor of two books, Economics of Reliability in Electrical PowerSystems and Financial and Economic Evaluation of Projects, andof more than 100 articles and papers. In 1998 he was honoured withthe “Achievement Medal” of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. ■



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Kui-Nang Mak has been chief of the Energy and TransportBranch of the Division for Sustainable Development, UN Departmentof Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) since 1990. He holds a M.Sc.in electrical engineering from the University of Illinois, where he has completed all requirements except dissertation for a Ph.D. inelectrical engineering; an I.E. degree in industrial economics andmanagement from Columbia University and a Certificate from theExecutive Programme on Climate Change and Development fromHarvard University. He has worked for the United Nations since1975, acting as an Economic Affairs Officer specializing in energyfor DESA from 1978 to 1990. He is the author of several papers and reports on global energy issues, particularly on internationalcooperation and financing. His professional affiliations include servingas a member of the Sub-Committee on International Practices,Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; a member of theCommittee on Cleaner Fossil Fuel Systems of the World Energy Council;and an advisor for the China Coal Preparation Association. ■

Nebojsa Nakicenovic is the Project Leader of the Transitionsto New Technologies Project at the International Institute forApplied Systems Analysis (IIASA). He is also the Convening LeadAuthor of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios by theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and Guest Professor atthe Technical University of Graz. Nakicenovic holds bachelor’s andmaster’s degrees in economics and computer science from PrincetonUniversity and the University of Vienna, where he completed his Ph.D.He also received an honoris causa Ph.D degree in engineering fromthe Russian Academy of Sciences. Before joining IIASA, Nakicenovicworked with the Research Centre (Karlsruhe, Germany) in the fieldof nuclear materials accountability. He is the author or co-author ofmany scientific papers and books on the dynamics of technologicaland social change, economic restructuring, mitigation of anthropogenicimpacts on the environment, and response strategies to globalchange. Nakicenovic has been Associate Editor of the InternationalJournal on Technological Forecasting and Social Change and ofthe International Journal on Energy, and he serves as an advisor tomany groups, including the United Nations Commission on SustainableDevelopment. Currently, his research focuses on the diffusion ofnew technologies and their interactions with the environment. ■

Anca Popescu is the Director of the Institute of Power Studiesand Design in Romania. Popescu holds a B.Sc. in electrical engineeringand a Ph.D. University in high-voltage technique from the BucharestPolytechnic. An expert in energy policy, integrated resources planning,and power sector development and investment planning, she hasserved as a scientific and technical expert to the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change and was the Chief ScientificInvestigator on the role of nuclear power plants in greenhouse gasemission reductions in Romania in a study sponsored by theInternational Atomic Energy Agency. The author of numerouspapers on energy planning, policy, and development, Popescu hasalso served as a guest lecturer at Bucharest Polytechnic Universityand at the National Electricity Company Training Centre. ■

Amulya Reddy was President of the International EnergyInitiative until April 2000. Reddy received his Ph.D. in applied physicalchemistry from the University of London in 1958. From 1970–91 hewas a professor at the Indian Institute of Science, in Bangalore,India, and was a visiting Senior Research Scientist at the Center forEnergy and Environmental Studies at Princeton University in 1984.From 1990–93, Reddy was a member of the Scientific and TechnicalAdvisory Panel of the Global Environment Facility. He has also beena member of the Energy Research Group of the InternationalDevelopment Research Centre in Canada; the Economic andPlanning Council, Government of Karnataka; and a member of thePanel of Eminent Persons on Power for the Minister of Power, India.He is the author of more than 250 papers, and co-author and editorof several books on energy, rural technology, and science and technology policy. Reddy was awarded the Volvo EnvironmentalPrize for 2000, along with three other members of the World EnergyAssessment editorial board. ■

Hans-Holger Rogner is the Head of the Planning and EconomicStudies Section in the Department of Nuclear Energy in theInternational Atomic Energy Agency. He holds an industrial engineering degree and a Ph.D. in energy economics from theTechnical University of Karlsruhe. He specialised in applying systemsanalysis to long-term energy demand and supply issues and in identifying technologically and economically feasible paths to sustainable energy systems. At the International Atomic EnergyAgency, Rogner’s activities focus on sustainable energy developmentand technology change. He contributes to UN efforts targeted atAgenda 21, including combating climate change. ■

Kirk R. Smith is Professor of Environment Health Sciences,Associate Director for International Programs at the Center forOccupational and Environment Health, and Deputy Director of theInstitute for Global Health at the University of California, Berkeley.Smith holds a Ph.D. and M.P.H. in biomedical and environmentalhealth sciences from Berkeley. He has been a Senior Fellow at theEast-West Center’s Program on Environment (Honolulu), and wasthe founding head of the East-West Center’s Energy Program (1978-1985). Smith is the author of more than 200 articles and 7 books,sits on the boards of 7 international scientific journals, and is advisorto the governments of several developing countries on environment.He is also a member of the India-U.S. Academies of Science Energy/Environment Program and of the World Health Organisation’sComparative Risk Assessment and Air Quality Guidelines committees.In 1997, he was elected to the US National Academy of Sciences. ■

Wim C. Turkenburg is Professor and Head of the Departmentof Science, Technology, and Society at Utrecht University. He is alsoa member of the Council on Housing, Physical Planning, andEnvironment of the Netherlands, Vice Chairperson of the UNCommittee on Energy and Natural Resources for Development (UN-CENRD), and Chairperson of the Subcommittee on Energy of the



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UN-CENRD. He studied physics, mathematics, and astronomy atLeiden University and the University of Amsterdam, and received hisPh.D. in science and mathematics from the University of Amsterdamin 1971. Turkenburg is an expert on energy, the environment, andsystema analysis. He is author or co-author of many articles onrenewables (wind energy, photovoltaics, biomass energy), energyefficiency improvement, cleaner use of fossil fuels (decarbonizationtechnologies), and energy and climate change. He has been memberof a number of national and international boards, committees andworking groups on energy, energy research, and energy and environmental policy development, serving inter alia the Inter-national Solar Energy Society, the World Energy Council, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the Government of the Netherlands. ■

Francisco Lopez Viray is the Secretary of Energy in thePhilippines, and chairs its subsidiary agencies, including the NationalPower Corporation, the Philippine National Oil Company, and theNational Electrification Administration. Viray holds an M.Sc. in electricalengineering from the University of the Philippines and a Ph.D. inengineering from West Virginia University. His extensive career hasincluded advisory and research positions on a number of energyand power planning projects. A specialist in the areas of power systemengineering, computer applications in engineering and energy planningand management, Viray has received several citations and awards,including the ASEAN Achievement Award in Engineering, and theOutstanding Professional in Electrical Engineering from theProfessional Regulation Committee of the Philippines. ■

Robert H. Williams is a Senior Research Scientist at PrincetonUniversity’s Center for Energy and Environmental Studies, with aPh.D. in physics from the University of California, Berkeley (1967).He served on two panels of the President’s Committee of Advisors onScience and Technology: the Energy R&D Panel (1997), as chair ofits Renewable Energy Task Force; and the International EnergyResearch, Development, Demonstration, and Deployment Panel(1999), as chair of its Energy Supply Task Force. Since 1993 he hasbeen a member of the Working Group on Energy Strategies andTechnologies of the China Council for International Cooperation onEnvironment and Development. He was a member of the Scientificand Technical Advisory Panel for the Global Environment Facilityand chaired its Climate and Energy Working Group (1995-1998).He has written many articles and coauthored several books on awide range of energy topics. He is recipient of the American PhysicalSociety’s Leo Szilard Award for Physics in the Public Interest (1988),the U.S. Department of Energy’s Sadi Carnot Award (1991) for hiswork on energy efficiency, and a MacArthur Foundation Prize(1993). In 2000, along with three other members of the WorldEnergy Assessment editorial board, he received the VolvoEnvironmental Prize. ■

glossarySelected terminology


Glossary of Selected Terminology

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Acid deposition: fallout of substances from the atmosphere(through rain, snow, fog or dry particles) that have the potential toincrease the acidity of the receptor medium. They are primarily theresult of the discharge of gaseous sulphur oxides and nitrogenoxides from the burning of coal and oil e.g. in electricity generation,smelting industries and transport. "Acid rain" is the result of thecombination of these gases in the air with vapor. Acidifying depositioncan be responsible for acidification of lakes, rivers and groundwater,with resulting damage to fish and other components of aquaticecosystems, and for damage to forests and other harmful effects onplants. (Note: precipitation is naturally acid as a result of theabsorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.)

Agenda 21: a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally,nationally and locally in every area in which human impacts on theenvironment. It was adopted by more than 175 governments at theUN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 (alsoknown as the Rio Earth Summit).

Animate energy: energy derived from human or animal power.

Anthropogenic emissions: the share of emissions attributedto human activities.

API degree: the American Petroleum Institute has adopted ascale of measurement for the specific gravity of crude oils andpetroleum products that is expressed in degrees.

Biofuels: fuels obtained as a product of biomass conversion(such as alcohol or gasohol).

Biomass: organic, non-fossil material oil of biological origin, apart of which constitutes an exploitable energy resource. Althoughthe different forms of energy from biomass are always considered asrenewable, it must be noted that their rates of renewability are different. These rates depend on the seasonal or daily cycles ofsolar flux, the vagaries of climate, agricultural techniques or cyclesof plant growth, and may be affected by intensive exploitation.

Biogas: a gas composed principally of a mixture of methane andcarbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass.

Breeder reactor: a reactor which produces a fissile substanceidentical to the one it consumes and in greater quantity than the oneit has consumed, that is, it has a conversion ratio greater than unity.

Business-as-usual: the projected future state of energy andeconomic variables in the event that current technological, economic,political, and social trends persist.

Capacity building: developing skills and capabilities for technologyinnovation and deployment in the relevant government, private-sector,academic, and civil institutions.

Carbon sequestration: the capture and secure storage ofcarbon that would otherwise be emitted or remain in the atmosphere,either by (1) diverting carbon from reaching the atmosphere; or(2) removing carbon already in the atmosphere. Examples of thefirst type are trapping the CO2 in power plant flue gases, and capturing CO2 during the production of decarbonised fuels. Thecommon approach to the second type is to increase or enhance carbon sinks.

Carbon tax: a levy exacted by a government on the use of carbon-containing fuel for the purpose of influencing human behavior(specifically economic behavior) to use less fossil fuels (and thuslimit greenhouse gas emissions).

Carbon sinks: places where CO2 can be absorbed, such as forests,oceans and soil.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): is one of four‘flexibility’ mechanisms adopted in the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFramework Convention on Climate Change. It is a cooperativearrangement through which certified greenhouse gas emissionreductions accruing from sustainable development projects indeveloping countries can help industrialized countries meet part oftheir reduction commitments as specified in Annex B of the Protocol.

Cogeneration: see combined heat and power

Combined cycle plant: electricity generating plant comprisinga gas-turbine generator unit, whose exhaust gases are fed to a waste-heatboiler, which may or may not have a supplementary burner, and thesteam raised by the boiler is used to drive a steam-turbine generator.

Combined heat and power (CHP) station: also referredto as a cogeneration plant. A thermal power station in which all thesteam generated in the boilers passes to turbo-generators for electricity generation, but designed so that steam may be extractedat points on the turbine and/or from the turbine exhaust as back-pressure steam and used to supply heat, typically for industrialprocesses or district heating.

Commercial energy: energy that is subject to a commercialtransaction and that can thus be accounted for. This contrasts tonon-commercial energy, which is not subject to a commercialexchange, and thus difficult to account for in energy balances. The term non-commercial energy thus is technically distinct fromtraditional energy, but in practice they are often used interchangeably.

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD):was created in December 1992 to ensure effective follow-up of theUnited Nations Conference on Environment and Development, tomonitor and report on implementation of the agreements at thelocal, national, regional and international levels.



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Compressed natural gas (CNG): natural gas stored underpressure in cylinders and used as fuel for automotive engines.

Cost buy-down: the process of paying the difference in unitcost (price) between an innovative energy technology and a conventional energy technology in order to increase sales volume,thus stimulating cost reductions through manufacturing scale-upand economies of learning throughout the production, distribution,deployment, use, and maintenance cycle.

Developing countries: generally used in this report to referto the countries that are members of the Group of 77 Countries and China.

Digester: a tank designed for the anaerobic fermentation of biomass.

Dimethyl ether (DME): an oxygenated fuel that can be producedfrom any carbonaceous feedstock by a process that begins with syngas production.

Discount rate: the annual rate at which the effects of future events are reduced so as to be comparable to the effect ofpresent events.

Economies in transition: national economies that are movingfrom a period of heavy government control toward lessened inter-vention, increased privatization, and greater use of competition.

Energy innovation chain: the linked process by which anenergy-supply or energy-end-use technology moves from its conception in theory and the laboratory to its feasibility testingthrough demonstration projects, small-scale implementation andfinally large-scale deployment.

Energy intensity: ratio between the consumption of energy toa given quantity, usually refers to the amount of primary or finalenergy consumed per unit of gross domestic or national product.

Energy efficiency: the amount of utility or energy serviceprovided by a unit of energy (U/E), which can be used as a measureof energy efficiency in end-use applications. An increase in energyefficiency enables consumers to enjoy an increase in utility or energy service for the same amount of energy consumed or to enjoythe same utility of energy services with reduced energy consumption,U = (U/E) E. The usual situation is one in which an increase in energyefficiency (U/E) boosts both energy use and the utility derived fromeach unit of energy consumed.

Energy payback/time: the time of exploitation of an energyinstallation, necessary for recuperating all the energy consumed in its construction and operation during the projected lifespan of the installation.

Energy sector restructuring and reform: encouragingmarket competition in energy supply (often by transfer of ownershipfrom the public to the private sector), while removing subsidies andother distortions in energy pricing and preserving public benefits.

Energy services: the utility of energy is often referred to byengineers as energy services, although that term can be confusingsince units vary between applications and sometimes are not definedat all. For example, lumens is a natural unit in lighting services, andThomas Edison proposed charging for lumens rather than kilowatthours when electricity was first used for lighting; for practical reasonshe eventually settled on charging by the kilowatt hour instead. JamesWatt charged for his steam engines not by their motive power, butby the difference in the costs of fuel he and his customers savedwhen they substituted his engine for their old one. However, whenthe utility or ‘services’ provided by energy are felt through a hotshower, chilled drinks, refrigerated food, a comfortably warm orcool house, increased transport miles, or labour saved in washingand ironing or in producing an innumerable array of industrialgoods and services, it is only practicable to charge for energy inenergy units.

Environmental taxes (ecotaxes): levies on products orservices collected to account for environmental impacts associatedwith them.

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol): alcohol produced by the fermentationof glucose. The glucose may be derived from sugary plants such assugar cane and beets or from starchy and cellulosic materials byhydrolysis. The ethanol may be concentrated by distillation, and canbe blended with petroleum products to produce motor fuel.

Exergy: the maximum amount of energy that can be converted intoany other form or energy under given thermodynamic conditions;also known as availability of work potential.

Externalities: benefits or costs resulting as an unintendedbyproduct of an economic activity that accrue to someone otherthan the parties involved in the activity. While energy is an economic‘good’ that sustains growth and development and human well-being,there are by-products of energy production and use that have anundesirable effect on the environment (economic ‘bads’). Most ofthese are emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.

Final energy: is the energy transported and distributed to thepoint of final use. Examples include gasoline at the service station,electricity at the socket, or fuelwood in the barn. The next energytransformation is the conversion of final energy in end-use devices,such as appliances, machines, and vehicles, into useful energy, suchas work and heat. Useful energy is measured at the crankshaft of anautomobile engine or an industrial electric motor, by the heat of ahousehold radiator or an industrial boiler, or by the luminosity of alight bulb. The application of useful energy provides energy services,such as a moving vehicle, a warm room, process heat, or illumination.



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Foreign direct investment (FDI): is net inflows of investmentto acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more ofvoting stock) in an enterprise operating in an economy other thanthat of the investor. It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment ofearnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as shownin the balance of payments. Gross foreign direct investment is thesum of the absolute values of inflows and outflows of foreign directinvestment recorded in the balance of payments financial account.It includes equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-termcapital, and short-term capital. Note that this indicator differs fromthe standard measure of foreign direct investment, which capturesonly inward investment.

Fuel cells: devices that enable chemical energy to be converteddirectly into electrical energy without the intervention of the heat engine cycle, in which electrical power is produced in a controlled reaction involving a fuel, generally hydrogen, methanolor a hydrocarbon.

Fuelwood: wood and wood products, possibly including coppices, scrubs, and branches, bought or gathered, and used bydirect combustion.

Global Environment Facility (GEF): a financial institutionthat provides grants and concessionary financing to developingcountries and economies-in-transition for projects and activitiesthat provide global benefits in four topical areas: climate change;biological diversity; international waters; and stratospheric ozone.The GEF was established for the purpose of implementing agreementsstemming from the 1992 UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment including the UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange. The World Bank Group is one of the three implementingagencies for the GEF, together with the United Nations DevelopmentProgram and the United Nations Environment Program.

Green pricing: labelling and pricing schemes that allow consumers to pay a premium for environmentally friendly servicesand products if they choose.

Greenfield investment: starting up an entirely new plant, incontrast to rebuilding an older one.

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): heat-trapping gases in theatmosphere that warm the Earth's surface by absorbing outgoinginfrared radiation and re-radiating part of it downward. Water vapouris the most important naturally occurring greenhouse gas, but theprincipal greenhouse gases, whose atmospheric concentrations arebeing augmented by emission from human activities are carbondioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and halocarbons.

Grid extension: extending the infrastructural network that suppliesenergy, such as transmission wires for electricity.

Gross National Product (GNP): total production of goodsand services by the subjects of a country at home and abroad. In

national income accounting, it is a measure of the performance of thenation's economy, within a specific accounting period (usually a year).

Higher heating value (HHV): quantity of heat liberated bythe complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel in thedetermination of which the water produced is assumed completelycondensed and the heat recovered. Contrast to lower heating value.

Industrialized countries: for purposes of this report, thisterm refers primarily to high-income OECD countries. While manytransitional economies are also characterized by a high degree ofindustrialization, they are often considered and discussed separatelybecause of their specific development requirements.

Infrastructure: the physical structures and delivery systemsnecessary to supply energy and end-users. In the case of powerplants, the infrastructure is the high-tension wires needed to carrythe electricity to consumers; in the case of natural gas, it is thepipeline network; in the case of liquid fuels, it is the fueling stations.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):a multilateral scientific organization established by the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) and the World MeteorologicalOrganization to assess the available scientific, technical, and socio-economic information in the field of climate change and to assesstechnical and policy options for reducing climate change and its impacts.

Irradiance: the quantity of solar energy falling per area of planesurface and time.

Kyoto Protocol (to the UN Framework Conventionon Climate Change): contains legally binding emissions targetsfor industrialized (Annex I) countries for the post-2000 period.Together they must reduce their combined emissions of six keygreenhouse gases by at least 5% by the period 2008-2012, calculatedas an average over these five years. The Protocol will enter into force90 days after it has been ratified by at least 55 Parties to the ClimateChange Convention; these Parties must include industrialized countriesrepresenting at least 55% of this group’s total 1990 carbon dioxideemissions. See also Clean Development Mechanism.

Leapfrogging: moving directly to most cleanest, mostadvanced technologies possible, rather than making incrementaltechnological progress.

Liberalisation: the doctrine that advocates the greatest possibleuse of markets and the forces of competition to co-ordinate economicactivity. It allows to the state only those activities which the marketcannot perform (e.g. the provision of public goods) or those thatare necessary to establish the framework within which the privateenterprise economy cannot operate efficiently (e.g. the establishmentof the legal framework on property and contract and the adoptionof such policies and anti-monopoly legislation).



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Lifecycle cost: the cost of a good or service over its entire lifetime.

Light water reactor (LWR): a nuclear reactor in whichordinary water, as opposed to heavy-water, or a steam/water mixtureis used as reactor coolant and moderator. The boiling water reactor(BWR) and the pressurized water reactor (PWR) are examples oflight water reactors.

Liquefied natural gas (LNG): natural gas made up mainlyof methane and ethane and which, generally to facilitate its transport, has been converted to the liquid phase by having its temperature lowered.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): light hydrocarbons,principally propane and butane, which are gaseous under normalconditions, but are maintained in a liquid state by an increase ofpressure or lowering of temperature.

Lower heating value (LHV): quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel inthe determination of which the water produced is assumed toremain as a vapour and the heat not recovered. Contrast to higherheating value.

Macroeconomic: pertaining to a study of economics in termsof whole systems, especially with reference to general levels of outputand income and to the interrelations among sectors of the economy.

Marginal cost: the cost of one additional unit of effort. Interms of reducing emissions, it represents the cost of reducingemission by one more unit.

Marginal cost pricing: a system of setting the price of energyequal to the marginal cost of providing the energy to a class of consumer.

Market barriers: conditions that prevent or impede the diffusionof cost-effective technologies or practices.

Market penetration: the percentage of all its potential purchasersto which a good or service is sold per unit time.

Market potential (or currently realizable potential):the portion of the economic potential for GHG emissions reductionsor energy-efficiency improvements that could be achieved underexisting market conditions, assuming no new policies and measures.

Methanol (methyl alcohol): alcohol primarily producedby chemical synthesis but also by the destructive distillation ofwood. Methanol is regarded as a marketable synthetic motor fuel.

New renewables: used in this report to refer to modern bio-fuels, wind, solar, small hydropower, marine and geothermal energy.Geothermal energy cannot be strictly considered renewable, but isincluded for practical reasons.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx): oxides formed an released in allcommon types of combustion at high temperature. Direct harmfuleffects of nitrogen oxides include human respiratory tract irritationand damage to plants. Indirect effects arise from their essential role in photochemical smog reactions and their contribution to acidrain problems.

Nuclear fuel cycle: a group of processes connected withnuclear power production; using, storing, reprocessing and disposingof nuclear materials used in the operation of nuclear reactors. Theclosed fuel cycle concept involves the reprocessing and reuse of fissionable material from the spent fuel. The once-through fuelcycle concept involves the disposal of the spent fuel following its usein the reactor.

Opportunity cost: the cost of an economic activity foregoneby the choice of another activity.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD): a multilateral organization of 29industrialized nations, producing among them two-thirds of the world's goods and services. The objective of the OECD is thedevelopment of social and economic policies and the coordinationof domestic and international activities.

Pollution associated with energy use. This is usuallymeasured as pollution per unit of energy use, or P = (P/E)E.Modern methods of pollution control and emerging energy tech-nologies are capable of reducing the ratio P/E—and thus P—tovery low levels, sometimes to zero. This means that if environmentalpolicies focus on P rather than E, there is no reason why high levelsof energy use (and the utility derived from it) cannot be enjoyed andpollution virtually eliminated in the long term, a process known asdelinking environmental concerns from energy use.

Primary energy is the energy that is embodied in resources asthey exist in nature: chemical energy embodied in fossil fuels (coal,oil, and natural gas) or biomass, the potential energy of a waterreservoir, the electromagnetic energy of solar radiation, and theenergy released in nuclear reactions. For the most part, primaryenergy is not used directly but is first mined, harvested or convertedand transformed into electricity and fuels such as gasoline, jet fuel,heating oil, or charcoal.

Public Benefits Fund (PBF): a financial mechanism createdto serve the greater public interest by funding programs for environmentand public health, services to the poor and disenfranchised, energytechnology innovation, or other public goods not accounted for bya restructured energy sector.

Purchasing power parity (PPP): GDP estimates based onthe purchasing power of currencies rather than on currentexchange rates. Such estimates are a blend of extrapolated and



481

regression-based numbers, using the result of the InternationalComparison Program. PPP estimates tend to lower per capita GDPs in industrialized countries and raise per capita GDPs in developing countries.

Research and development (R&D): the first two stagesin the energy innovation chain. R, D & D refers to demonstrationprojects as well.

Reserves: those occurrences of energy sources or mineral that are identified and measured as economically and technicallyrecoverable with current technologies and prices (see chapter 5).

Resources: those occurrences of energy sources or mineralswith less certain geological and/or economic/technical recoverabilitycharacteristics, but that are considered to become potentially recoverable with foreseeable technological and economic development(see chapter 5).

Revenue neutral taxes: governmental levies placed on certaingoods or services that replace other taxes and thus do not add tototal revenues collected, but rather attempt to change behaviours.

Scenario: a plausible description of how the future may developbased on analysis of a coherent and internally consistent set ofassumptions about key relationships and driving forces (e.g. rate of technology changes, prices). Note that scenarios are neitherpredictions nor forecasts.

Standards/performance criteria: a set of rules or codesmandating or defining product performance (e.g. grades, dimensions,characteristics, test methods, rules for use).

Structural changes: changes in the relative share of GDPproduced by the industrial, agricultural or services sectors of aneconomy; or, more generally, systems transformations wherebysome components are either replaced or partially substituted byother ones.

Subsidies: publicly supported cost reductions that may begranted to producers and consumers – directly, through pricereductions, or in less visible forms, through tax breaks, market support or inadequate metering.

Sulphur oxides (S0x): oxides produced by the combustion offossil fuels containing sulphur. Sulphur oxides, the most widespreadof which is sulphur dioxide, a colorless gas having a strong andacrid odor, are toxic at a given concentration for the respiratory system and gave harmful effects on the environment, in particular onbuildings and vegetation. They contribute to the acid rain problem.

Sustainable energy: as the term is used in this document, isnot meant to suggest simply a continual supply of energy. Rather it

means environmentally sound, safe, reliable, affordable energy; inother words, energy that supports sustainable development in all itseconomic, environmental, social and security dimensions.

Syngas: a gaseous mixture composed mainly of carbon monoxideand hydrogen and synthesized from a carbonaceous feedstock suchas coal or biomass. It is used as a building block for the productionof synthetic liquid fuels. Syngas-based systems can make it possibleto extract energy services from carbonaceous feedstocks with verylow levels of pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions.

Transitional economies: see economies in transition

Unproven reserves: the estimated quantities, at a given date,which analysis of geologic and engineering data indicates might beeconomically recoverable from already discovered deposits, with asufficient degree of probability to suggest their existence. Becauseof uncertainties as to whether, and to what extent, such unprovenreserves may be expected to be recoverable in the future, the estimates should be given as a range but may be given as a singleintermediate figure in which all uncertainties have been incorporated.Unproven reserves may be further categorized as probable reservesor possible reserves.

United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC): a major global convention adopted in1992 that establishes a framework for progress in stabilizing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at safe levels. Itdirects that "such a level should be achieved within a time-framesufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner". It also recognizes the right of developing countries to economic development, their vulnerability to the effects of climate change, and that rich countries should shoulder greater responsibility forthe problem.

United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED): also known as the Rio EarthSummit. The first of a series of major United Nations conferences onglobal issues that were convened in the 1990s.

World Bank Group: a multilateral, United Nations affiliatedlending institution which annually makes available roughly $20 billion in loans to developing countries, mainly but not exclusivelyfor large scale infrastructure projects. The World Bank Group comprises five agencies: the International Bank for Reconstructionand Development, the International Development Association, theInternational Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral InvestmentGuarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre forSettlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The World Bank Groupraises capital from both public sources and financial markets.

contributorsWorld Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and peer reviewers


World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and Peer Reviewers

485

n initial draft of the World Energy Assessment formed thebasis for the first round of peer review at an Advisory Panel

meeting that took place in July, 1999 in Geneva. Based on commentsfrom working groups at that meeting, as well as comments receivedfrom hundreds of experts around the world, a second draft was prepared.

The second draft of the report was circulated to the AdvisoryPanel, energy experts, governments and NGOs by mail and via awebsite. With input from that second round of comments, as well asfrom careful scrutiny by the Editorial Board, the final versions of thechapters were produced. A list of Advisory Panel members and peerreviewers appears below.

Advisory Panel Mohamad Ali Abduli, Ministry of Energy, IranMohammed Taoufik Adyel, Ministère de l’Energie et des Mines, MoroccoJassim Al-Gumer, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting

Countries, KuwaitHani Alnakeeb, Organization for Energy Planning, EgyptBoris Berkovski, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural

Organisation, FranceRufino Bomasang, PNOC Exploration Corporation, PhilippinesHernán Bravo, Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, Costa RicaTimothy Brennand, University of East Anglia, U.K.Anthony Derrick, IT Power Ltd., U.K.Bernard Devin, ADEME, UN-CERND, FranceDaniel Doukoure, Ministère de l’Energie, Côte d’IvoireDanilo Feretic, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, CroatiaH.E. Irene Freudenschuss-Reichl, Austrian Mission to the United

Nations, AustriaZdravko Genchev, Center for Energy Efficiency EnEffect, BulgariaGustav R. Grob, CMDC-WSEC (World Sustainable Energy Coalition),

SwitzerlandFilino Harahap, Institute of Technology of Bandung, IndonesiaAnhar Hegazi, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, LebanonSawad Hemkamon, Ministry of Science Technology and Environment,

ThailandNesbert Kanyowa, Zimbabwe Mission, SwitzerlandChristian Katsande, Ministry of Transport and Energy, ZimbabweJean-Étienne Klimpt, Hydro-Québec, CanadaRon Knapp, World Coal Institute, U.K.Mansika Knut, Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, NorwayCatherine P. Koshland, University of California at Berkeley, U.S.George Kowalski, Economic Commission for Europe, SwitzerlandRaymond Lafitte, International Hydropower Association, SwitzerlandHans Larsen, RISØ National Laboratory, DenmarkKevin Leydon, European Commission, BelgiumPaul Llanso, World Meteorological Organization, SwitzerlandAlphonse MacDonald, United Nations Population Fund, SwitzerlandAndrei Marcu, United Nations Development Programme, U.S.Manuel F. Martínez, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, MexicoWilliam R. Moomaw, IVM Free University of Amsterdam, Netherlands

Mark J. Mwandosya, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, TanzaniaRaymond Myles, INFORSE, Integrated Sustainable Energy and

Ecological Development Association, IndiaGary Nakarado, United Nations Foundation, U.S.Merle S. Opelz, International Atomic Energy Agency, SwitzerlandJanos Pasztor, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change, GermanyNeculai Pavlovschi, Romanian Gas Corporation (Romgaz-S.A.), RomaniaH.E. Per Kristian Pedersen, Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NorwayAtiq Rahman, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies, BangladeshMorris Rosen, International Atomic Energy Agency, AustriaPranesh Chandra Saha, Economic and Social Commission for Asia

and the Pacific, ThailandT. Lakshman Sankar, Administrative Staff College of India, IndiaE.V.R. Sastry, Ministry of Non-conventional Sources of Energy, IndiaHari Sharan, DESI Power, IndiaSlav Slavov, Economic Commission for Europe, GenevaYouba Sokona, Environment Development Action in the Third World

(ENDA-TM), SenegalLee Solsbery, Foundation for Business and Sustainable Development, U.K.Istvan Tokes, United Nations Development Programme, HungaryEric Usher, United Nations Environment Programme, FranceDmitri Volfberg, Ministry of Science and Technologies, RussiaYasmin Von Schirnding, World Health Organization, Switzerland

Peer ReviewersMark Reed AberdeenDean E. Abrahamson, University of Minnesota, U.S.Jiwan Sharma Acharya, University of Flensburg, GermanyJim Adam, Executive Assembly, World Energy Council, U.S.Adam Edow AdawaAnthony O. Adegbulugbe, Obafemi Awolowo University, NigeriaBernard Aebisher, ETH Zentrum, SwitzerlandCarlos Alberto Aguilar Molina, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y

Recursos Naturales, El SalvadorHusamuddin Ahmadzai, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

(SIDA), SwedenRafeeuddin Ahmed, United Nations Development Programme, U.S.Francois Ailleret, World Energy Council, FranceAli Ainan Farah, Ministère de l’Industrie de l’Énergie et des Mines, DjiboutiArif Alauddin, Ministry of Water & Power, PakistanM. Albert, Union for the Coordination of Production and Transmission

of Electricity, PortugalIssam Al-Chalabi, Consultant, JordanAbdlatif Y. Al-Hamad, Arab Fund for Economic and Social

Development (AFSED), KuwaitSuleiman Abu Alim, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, JordanHugo Altomonte Popescu Anca, Institute of Power Studies and Design, RomaniaPer Dannemand Andersen, DenmarkDean Anderson, Center for Economic Analysis r.e. (ECON), Norway

A



486

Dean Anderson, Royal Institute of International Affairs, U.K.Michael J. Antal, Jr., University of Hawaii at Manoa, U.S.H.E. Bagher Asadi, Permanent Mission of the Islamic Republic of

Iran to the United Nations, U.S.Mie Asaoka, Yanaginobanba-dori, JapanHarry Audus, International Energy Agency, FranceMohamaed M. Awad, Egyptian Electricity Authority, EgyptKazi Obaidul Awal, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, BangladeshA. Awori, Kenya Energy and Environment Organisations (KENGO), KenyaEmine Aybar, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, TurkeyMurfat Badawi, Arab Fund for Economic & Social Development, KuwaitSheila Bailey, NASA Glen Research Center, U.S.Venkatrama Bakthavatsalam, Indian Renewable Energy Development

Agency, Ltd., IndiaJuraj Balajka, Profing, s.r.o., Slovak RepublicGuillermo R. Balce, Asean Centre for Energy, IndonesiaAlexander Barnes, World Energy Council, FranceFritz Barthel, World Energy Council, GermanyA. Bartle, International Hydropower Association, U.K.Reid Basher, International Research Institute for Climate Prediction

(IRI), U.S.Sujay Basu, Jadavpur University, IndiaBauer, Mexican Autonomous National University (UNAM), MexicoPierre Beaudouin, Federation Rhone-Alpes de Protection de la Nature

(FRAPNA), FranceCarol Bellamy, United Nations Children’s Fund, U.S.Abdelali Bencheqroun, Ministry of Energy and Mines, MoroccoNatan Bernot, World Energy Council, SloveniaGustavo Best, Food and Agriculture Organization, ItalyJos Beurskens, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN),

NetherlandsSomnath Bhattacharjee, Tata Energy Research Institute, IndiaZbigniew Bicki, Zbigniew Bicki Consulting, PolandJakob Bjornsson, IcelandEdgar Blaustein, Energy21, FranceArie Bleijenberg, Centrum voor Engergiebesparing en Scvhone

Technologie, NetherlandsKornelis Blok, Ecofys Cooperatief Advies- en Onderzoeksbureau,

NetherlandsDavid Bloom, Harvard Institute for International Development, U.S.Brenda Boardman, St. Hilda’s College, University of Oxford, U.K.Teun Bokhoven, NetherlandsBert Bolin, Stockholm Environment Institute, SwedenJames Bond, World Bank, U.S.Pal Borjesson, SwedenDaniel Bouille, Hydro-Québec, CanadaMessaoud Boumaour, Silicon Technology Development Unit, AlgeriaJean-Marie Bourdaire, International Energy Agency and Organisation

for Economic Co-operation and Development, FranceChristophe Bourillon, European Wind Energy Association, U.K.Gunnar Boye Olesen, International Network for Sustainable Energy

(INFORSE), DenmarkDuncan Brack, Royal Institute of International Affairs, U.K.Adrian John Bradbrook, University of Adelaide, Australia

Rob Bradley, Climate Network Europe, BelgiumRoberto Brandt, World Energy Council, U.K.Klaus Brendow, World Energy Council, SwitzerlandHenri Bretaudeau, World Bank, U.S.Lucien Y. Bronicki, ORMAT Industries Ltd., IsraelJenny Bryant, United Nations Development Programme, FijiTommy Buch, INVAP, ArgentinaMarites Cabrera, Asian Institute of Technology, ThailandAndre Caille, Hydro-Québec, CanadaMartin Cames, Institute for Applied Ecology, GermanyAllen Chen, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S.Viravat Chlayon, Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, ThailandJoy Clancy, University of Twente, NetherlandsGerald Clark, Uranium Institute, U.K.Andrew Clarke, World Association of Nuclear Operators, U.K.Denis Clarke, World Bank, U.S.Suani Teixeira Coelho, National Reference Center on Biomass

(CENBIO), BrazilGerry Collins, Canadian International Development Agency, CanadaHelene Connor, Helio Global Sustainable Energy Observatory, FranceStefano ConsonniMichael Corrigall, World Energy Council, South AfricaJos Cosijnsen, The Environmental Defense Fund, NetherlandsTeodorescu Cristinel-Dan, Romanian Gas Corporation (Romgaz

S.A.), RomaniaJames Currie, European Commission, DG XI, BelgiumZhou Da Di, Energy Research Institute, State Planning Commission, ChinaAnibal de Almeida, University of Coimbra, PortugalPiet de Klerk, International Atomic Energy Agency, AustriaDmitry Derogan, UkraineJean Pierre Des Rosiers, International Energy Agency, FranceV. V. Desai, ICICI, IndiaEric Donni, European Commission, DG VIII, BelgiumSeth Dunn, Worldwatch Institute, U.S.Knut Dyrstad, Statkraft, NorwayAnton Eberhard, University of Cape Town, South AfricaSimon Eddy, Ministry of Energy, Cote d’IvoireDominique Egré, Hydro-Québec, CanadaMohamed T. El-Ashry, Global Environment Facility, U.S.Mohamed El-Baradei, International Atomic Energy Agency, AustriaBaldur Eliasson, ABB Corporate Research, SwitzerlandR. Bryan Erb, Sunsat Energy Council, U.S.Andre Faaij, Utrecht University, NetherlandsMalin Falkenmark, Stockholm International Water Institute, SwedenUgo Farinelli, Conferenza Nazionale Energia E Ambiente, ItalyLilian Fernandez, Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, JapanSusan Fisher, University of California at Berkeley, U.S.Pamela Franklin, University of California at Berkeley, U.S.Jean-Romain Frisch, Environmental Defense Fund, FranceYasumasa Fujii, University of Tokyo, JapanHoward Geller, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, U.S.Shokri M. Ghanem, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting

Countries, AustriaMarc Georges Giroux, International Atomic Energy Agency, France



487

S. Goethe Vattenfall, SwedenDonna Green, AustraliaReg Green, International Federation of Chemical, Energy & General

Workers’ Unions, BelgiumInna Gritsevich, Center for Energy Efficiency, RussiaVioletta Groseva, European Commission Energy Centre Sofia, BulgariaGaétan Guertin, Hydro-Québec, CanadaShen Guofang, Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China

to the United Nations, U.S.H.E. Ali Hachani, Permanent Mission of Tunisia to the United

Nations, U.S.Oystein Haland, Statoil, NorwayRichard Heede, Rocky Mountain Institute, U.S.Peter Helby, University of Lund, SwedenSam Holloway, British Geological Survey, U.K.Ian Hore-Lacy, Uranium Information Centre, AustraliaRoberto Hukai, BVI Technoplan, BrazilHassan Ibrahim, Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, JapanIstrate Ioan Ilarie, Romanian Gas Corporation (Romgaz S.A.), RomaniaJon Ingimarsson, Ministries of Industry and Commerce Arnarhvoli, IcelandH.E. Samuel Rudy Insanally, Permanent Mission of Indonesia to the

United Nations, U.S.Karin Ireton, Industrial Environmental Forum of Southern Africa,

South AfricaA. Jagadeesh, Nayudamma Centre for Development Alternatives, IndiaAntero Jahkola, Finnish Academies of Technology, FinlandRodney Janssen, Helio International, FranceGilberto Januzzi, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S.Tamas Jaszay, Technical University of Budapest, HungaryKarl Jechoutek, World Bank, U.S.Sathia Jothi, New Clean Energy Development Society (NERD), IndiaTian Jun, ChinaYonghun Jung, Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, JapanOlav Kaarstad, Statoil R&D Centre, NorwayVladimir Kagramanian, International Atomic Energy Agency, AustriaDaniel M. Kammen, University of California at Berkeley, U.S.Owen MacDonald Kankhulungo, Ministry of Water Development, MalawiRené Karottki, International Network for Sustainable Energy, ZimbabweArun Kashyap, The Rockefeller Foundation, U.S.Badr Kasme, Syrian Mission to the United Nations, SwitzerlandMartti Kätkä, World Energy Council, FinlandYoichi Kaya, World Energy Council, JapanWilliam Kennedy, United Nations Fund for International Partnerships, U.S.Andrzej Kerner, Energy Information Centre, PolandNancy Kete, World Resources Institute, U.S.Hyo-Sun Kim, Korea Gas Corporation, KoreaEvans N. Kituyi, Kenya National Academy of Sciences, KenyaTord Kjellstorm, Health and Environment International Consultants,

New ZealandIsrael Klabin, Fundacao Brasileira Para O Desenvolvimento

Sustentavel, BrazilHans Jurgen Koch, International Energy Agency, FranceSerguei Kononov, International Atomic Energy Agency, AustriaKeith Kozloff, World Resources Institute, U.S.

Tom Kram, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN), NetherlandsFlorentin Krause, International Project for Sustainable Energy Paths

(ISEP), U.S.Emilio La Rovere, Federal School of Rio de Janeiro, BrazilOddvar Lægreld, Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NorwayAri Lampinen, University of Jyvaskyla, FinlandJonathan Lash, World Resources Institute, U.S.Tõnu Lausmaa, Renewable Energy Center TAASEN, EstoniaGerald Leach, Stockholm Environment Institute, U.K.Barrie Leay, New ZealandThierry Lefevre, Centre for Energy-Environment Research & Development;

Asian Institute of Technology, ThailandJostein Leiro, Permanent Mission of Norway to the United Nations, U.S.Stella Lenny, Hydro-Québec, CanadaJip Lenstra, Ministry of the Environment, NetherlandsAndre Liebaert, European Commission, DG VIII/E/5, BelgiumKrister Lönngren, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, FinlandLaurraine Lotter, Chemical and Allied Industries’ Association, South AfricaPhilip Lowe, European Commission, DG VIII, BelgiumHaile Lul Tebicke, TERRA plc, EthiopiaJoachim Luther, GermanyErik Lysen, University of Utrecht, NetherlandsRobert Mabro, Oxford Energy Policy Club, EnglandTim Mackey, Department of Industry, Science and Resources, AustraliaBirger Madson, DenmarkPreben Maegaard, Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, DenmarkMaswabi M. Maimbolwa, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), ZambiaAlexj Makarov, Energy Research Institute, RussiaMarkku J. Makela, Geological Survey of Finland, FinlandJose Malhaes da Silva, Developing Countries Committee, BrazilJulio Torres Martinez, Ministerio de Ciencia Technologia y Medio

Ambiente, CubaJohn Michael Matuszak, U.S.Charles McCombie, Pangea Resources International, SwitzerlandGene McGlynn, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development, FranceJ. F. Meeder, International Gas Union, NetherlandsAnita Kaniz Mehdi Zaidi, Pakistan Public Health Foundation, PakistanWafik M. Meshref, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for

Development (UN-CENRD), EgyptTim Meyer, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, GermanyAxel Michaelowa, FranceJoseph Milewski, Hydro-Québec, CanadaDavid Mills, University of Sydney, AustraliaSandor Molnar, Systemexpert Consulting Ltd., HungaryBarros Monteiro, Ministry of Economy, PortugalClaus Montenem, Technology for Life, FinlandRobert B. Moore, U.S.José Roberto Moreira, Biomass Users Network, BrazilJohn O. Mugabe, African Centre for Technology Studies, KenyaSurya Mulandar, Climate Action Network South East Asia, IndonesiaPablo Mulás del Pozo, World Energy Council, MexicoJ. M. Muller, International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers

(OICA), France



488

Michel Muylle, World Bank, U.S.Emi Nagata, JapanWeidou Ni, Tsinghua University, ChinaLars J. Nilson, Lund University, SwedenAinun Nishat, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,

BangladeshM. Nizamuddin, United Nations Population Fund, U.S.Richard Noetstaller, Registered Consulting Office, AustriaKieran O’Brien, EirGrid, Ireland Jose Ocampo, Economic Commission for Latin America and the

Caribbean, ChilePeter Odell, Erasmus University Rotterdam, NetherlandsAndy Oliver, International Petroleum Industry, U.K.Derek Osborn, U.K.Richard Ottinger, Pace University, U.S.Nataa Oyun-Erdene, MongoliaRajenda K. Pachauri, Tata Energy Research Institute, IndiaJyoti P. Painuly, RISØ National Laboratory, DenmarkClaudia Sheinbaum PardoAlain Parfitt, Energy Charter Secretariat, BelgiumJyoti Parikh, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, IndiaJean-Michel Parrouffe, ENERZONIA, CanadaMaksimiljan Peènik, Slovenian Nuclear Safety Administration, SloveniaStanislaw M. Pietruszko, Warsaw University of Technology – Solar

Energy – Photovoltaics, Polish Society for Solar Energy (ISES), PolandAsif Qayyum Qureshi, Sustainable Development Policy Institute, PakistanPierre Radane, Institut d’Evaluation des Strategies sur l’Energie et

l’Energie et l’Environnement, FranceJamuna Ramakrishna, Hivos, IndiaRobert L. Randall, The RainForest ReGeneration Institute, U.S.Chris Rapley, British Antarctic Survey, U.K.Jean-Pierre Reveret, Université du Quebec à Montreal, CanadaJohn B. Robinson, University of British Columbia, CanadaZoilo Rodas, Environmental Assessment, ParaguayHumberto Rodriguez, National University, ColombiaCarlos Rolz, Guatemalan Academy of Sciences, GuatemalaFelix A. Ryan, Ryan Foundation, IndiaJacques Saint-Just, Gaz de France, FranceHiroshi Sakurai, The Engineering Academy of Japan, JapanLiam Salter, Climate Network Europe, BelgiumAngelo Saullo, ICC Energy Commission, ItalyFulai Sheng, World Wildlife Fund, U.S.Ralph E.H. Sims, Massey University, U.S.Rajendra Singh, Pricing Energy in Developing Countries CommitteeWim C. Sinke, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN),

NetherlandsDoug SmithEddy Kofi Smith, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for

Development (UN-CENRD), GhanaBent Sørensen, Roskilde University, DenmarkManuel Soriano, PT Hagler Bailly, IndonesiaS. Kamaraj Soundarapandian, Non-conventional Energy and Rural

Development Society, India

Randall Spalding-Fecher, University of Cape Town, South AfricaHelga V.E. Steeg, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, GermanyAchim Steiner, World Commission on Dams, South AfricaJeffrey Stewart, U.S.Andy Stirling, University of Sussex, U.K.Peter Stokoe, Natural Resources Canada, CanadaCarlos Enrique Suárez, Fundación Bariloche, ArgentinaBudi Sudarsono, National Nuclear Energy Agency, IndonesiaR. Taylor, International Hydropower Association, U.K.Teng Teng, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences; Tsinghua University, ChinaJefferson Tester, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, U.S.Jacques Theys, Ministère de l’Equipement, du Logement, des Transports

et du Tourisme, FranceSteve Thorne, Energy Transformations cc, South AfricaYohji Uchiyama, Central Research Institute of Electric Power

Industry, JapanMatthew Vadakemuriyil, Malanadu Development Society, IndiaGiap van Dang, Asian Institute of Technology, ThailandMaarten J. van der Burgt, Energy Consultancy B.V., NetherlandsNico van der Linden, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation

(ECN), NetherlandsFrank van der Vleuten, Free Energy Europe, NetherlandsJean-Marc van Nypelseer, Association for the Promotion of

Renewable Energies (APERE), BelgiumRangswamy Vedavalli, U.S.Toni Vidan, Green Action, Zelena Akcija Zagreb, CroatiaAntonio Vignolo, Regional Electrical Integration Commission

(CIER), UruguayDelia Villagrasa, Climate Network Europe, BelgiumArturo VillevicencioMichael S. Von Der, United Nations Development Programme, IranShem O. Wandiga, Kenya National Academy of Sciences, KenyaXiaodong Wang, Global Environment Facility, U.S.Werner Weiss, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Erneuerbare Energie – AEE, AustriaJohn Weyant, Stanford University, U.S.H.E. Makarim Wibisono, Permanent Mission of Indonesia to the

United Nations, U.S.Quentin Wodon, World Bank, U.S.Nobert Wohlgemuth, RISØ National Laboratory, DenmarkBeth Woroniuk, Goss Gilroy Inc, CanadaErnst Worrell, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S.Raymond M. Wright, Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica PCJ Resource

Center, JamaicaAnatoli Yakushau, Institute Power Engineering Problem, National

Academy of Sciences, BelarusRemko Ybema, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN),

NetherlandsKeiichi Yokobori, Asia Pacific Research Centre, JapanS. Zarrilli, United Nations Commission on Trade and Development,

SwitzerlandGuocheng Zhang, Ministry of Science and Technology, ChinaZhongXiang Zhang, University of Groningen, NetherlandsFengqi Zhou, State Development Planning Commission, China


Index

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Note: Page numbers followedby letters b, f, n, and t indicatematerial presented in boxes,figures, notes, and tables,respectively.

a-Si. See Amorphous siliconABB/Combustion Engineering

System, 313Absolute poverty, 44, 59nAbsorption cooling, 249ABWR. See Advanced Boiling

Water ReactorAccess

to electricity, global populationand, 374t

market liberalisation andincrease in, 409–410

to modern energy forms, benefits of, 397–399

poverty and, 47to urban transportation

systems, 55widening

and energy regulation, 410responding to challenge

of, 420–422strategies for, 421

Acid deposition, 83–84causes of, 81, 83impacts of, 11, 83–84, 83bprojections for, 102, 359, 361f

Adequacy, and security, 114,115–118

Adsorption cooling, 249Advanced Boiling Water Reactor

(ABWR), 313Advanced energy technologies,

14–18, 273–318fossil, 14–17, 274, 275–306nuclear, 17–18, 274, 306–318residual problems of, 379

Advanced Reciprocating Engine Systems (ARES) programme, 286

Aerosols, impacts of, 95on climate change, 86on global energy balance, 88tprojections for, 360–361

AFBC. See Atmospheric pressurefluidised-bed combustion

Affordabilityconcept of, 382of energy servicesfactors limiting, 383and sustainable development,

383–384Africa. See also specific countries

acid deposition in, 84biogas experience in, 373biomass potential in, 158t, 159carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f

changes in, 444tcoal resources in, 148t, 149tconsumption in, 395t

of primary energy, 33, 33tratio to GDP, 398f

economic efficiency potentialin, 197–200, 197t

GDP inand consumption, 398fper capita, 343t

geothermal energy inpotential of, 165tuse of, 255t

household fuel choice in, 65thydroelectricity in

dams for, 79potential of, 154, 154t,

155f, 253timproved cooking stoves in,

dissemination of, 371, 371tintensity trends in, 180–181, 180tleaded fuel in, 76bnatural gas resources in,

145t, 146toil exportation by, projections

for, 357f, 358oil reserves in, 139t,

140t–141tsolar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions in, 82thorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151turban population in, 421urbanisation in, 54–55water balance in, 153twater resources in, 159twind energy resources in, 164t

programme for, 231tAgenda 21, 26n, 419, 443

on energy in sustainabledevelopment, i, 3

on need for change, 3, 42–43Programme for the Further

Implementation of, 419, 445Agriculture

vs. biomass production, 158efficiency of

barriers to, 205in China, 194, 194tin India, 193, 193tpolicies on, 210

environmental impacts of, 64f, 161

productivity of, climatechange and, 90–91, 105n

residues from (See Crop residues)water use in, 155

Agrochemicals, biomass energysystems and, 226

Air conditionersgeothermal heat pumps for, 257solar, 249

Air pollution. See also specificpollutantsfrom biomass consumption, 397in China, 374, 384–385from crop-residue burning,

66, 384–385from fossil fuels, cost of,

277, 277thealth effects of, 97indoor, 11, 66–69, 67f, 70fnear-zero

promising technologicaloptions for, 278, 279

technologies and strategiesfor, 279–302

projections for, 359–360regional, 80–86

urban, 49, 49f, 73–77in developing countries,

76–77in industrialised countries,

74–76long-term control of, 77

Air quality, value of, 98–100Air travel, efficiency of, 177, 205, 211Alcohols

as alternative automotivefuels, 293–294

biomass production of, 225emissions from, 293–294

Aluminum, production intensityfor, 178b

Americas. See also Latin America;North America; specific countrieswind energy programme in, 231t

Ammonia emissions, regionalimpacts of, 81

Amorphous silicon (a-Si), photo-voltaic cell, 238t

Anaerobic digestion, of biomass,224t, 224–225

Animal biomass, 156. See also DungAntarctica, water balance in, 153, 153tAnthracosis, 72APERC. See Asia Pacific Energy

Research CentreAppliances

efficiency oflabels regarding, 428, 429obstacles to, 203policies on, 208–209, 209t

fuel cycle of, 100in United States, 57

Aquifer(s), deep, carbon dioxidestorage in, 289–290, 319n–320n

Aquifer gasdefinition of, 147resources of, 146t, 147

Arctic Ocean, in global water balance, 153t

ARES. See Advanced ReciprocatingEngine Systems

Argentinaeconomic efficiency potential

in, 195geothermal electricity

generation capacity in, 256tintensity trends in, 180tmarket reform in, 426rural energy development

in, concession schemefor, 382b

urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f

Armenia, intensity trends in, 179Arrhenius, Svante, 86Asia. See also specific countries

acid deposition in, 84, 97bprojections for, 359, 361f

ammonia emissions in, 81biomass energy in

conversion of, 224potential of, 158t, 159use of, 227–228

carbon dioxide emissions in, 92fchanges in, 444tcarbon monoxide

emissions in, 83climate change in, sulphate

aerosols and, 86coal energy in

resources of, 148, 148t, 149tsecurity of, 126

coalbed methane resourcesin, 145, 146t

consumption in, 397tof primary energy, 33, 33t

economic efficiency potentialin, 189–190, 189t

environmental policies in, effects on sulphurdioxide emissions, 403f

GDP in, per capita, 343tgeothermal energy in

potential of, 165tuse of, 255t

household fuel choice in, 65fhydropower in, 77

potential of, 154t, 155f, 253tintensity trends in, 180–181

projections for, 343, 344fmarket in

liberalisation of, 129trade patterns of, 34

natural gas energy ingrids for, 125resources of, 145t, 146t

nitrogen oxide emissions in, 83nuclear power in, 126oil energy in

importation of, 120reserves of, 139t, 140t–141t

ozone concentrations in, 85particulate concentrations in, 85regional emissions in, 80tsolar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions

in, 82, 82f, 403fthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151turban population in, 421urbanisation in, 54–55water balance in, 153twater resources in, 159twind energy in

programme on, 231tresources for, 164t

Asia Alternative Energy Program(ASTAE), 432

Asia Least Cost Greenhouse GasAbatement Strategy, 189

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC), 122, 123b

Asia Pacific Energy ResearchCentre (APERC), 122

Assistance, developmentconditionality in, 432decline in, 440inadequacy of, 420–421official, 6, 37

ASTAE. See Asia AlternativeEnergy Program

Atlantic Ocean, in global waterbalance, 153t

Atmospheric pressure fluidised-bed combustion (AFBC), 303–304and carbon dioxide

emissions, 321nAustralia

in APEC, 123bcoal reserves in, 148

A


Index

492

coalbed methane productionin, 145

geothermal electricity generationcapacity in, 256t

intensities infor automobile fuel, 429btrends in, 179f

oil shale resources in, 141solar collectors in, 248tsolar energy technologies in, 246solar thermal electricity

developments in, 244bthorium resources in, 152tidal current model

demonstration in, 260urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fwater balance in, 153twind energy in

potential of, 164tprogramme on, 231t

Austriabiomass energy in, 162, 226, 227tenergy research and

development funding in, 448solar collectors in, 248turban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fAutomobiles

alternative, 77, 78bfuels for, 293–294CIDI hybrids, 294costs of environmental damage

from, 278t, 279tfuel cell, 17, 280b, 299–302gasoline hybrids, 294hybrid internal combustion

engine, 301–302pollution from

in developing countries, 77health costs of, 99–100in industrialised countries, 74

in United States, 57Azores, geothermal electricity

generation capacity in, 256t

Bachu, Stefan, 290Backyard industries, in urban

areas, 55Balance, global energy, 168f

history of changes in, 88fBalance-of-system (BOS), term, 238Bangladesh

financing of renewable energyin, 432

photovoltaic programme in, 383brural electrification cooperatives

in, 381Baruch plan, 310bBasic human needs, energy

requirements for satisfying,369–370, 420

Battery-powered electric vehicle(BPEV), 300

Beijing Fourth World Conference onWomen, 26n

Belarusintensity trends in, 179, 180turban PM10 concentrations in, 75f

Belgium, urban PM10 concentrationsin, 75f

Benzene, reducing levels of, 293BIG/CC. See Biomass integrated

gasification/combined cycle systems

Bilateral insurance schemes, 430Bio-oil, biomass production of, 225

performance data for, 226tBiocrude, 225Biodiversity

on biomass plantations, 162, 226hydropower impact on, 252

Biofuelsparticulate emissions from, 85regional impacts of, 80–81, 85

Biogashousehold use of

for cooking, 373greenhouse gas emission

from, 70, 71flimitations of, 379production of, 225, 373

Biomass, 222–230advantages of, 222–223, 224, 230air pollution from, 66–67, 66b,

372, 397anaerobic digestion of, 224t,

224–225biogas derived from, 225, 373vs. charcoal, in cooking stoves,

371–372combustion of, 224, 224t, 226

emissions from, 66–67, 66b,372, 395

commercial collection of, 70–71competitiveness of, 225consumption of, 4–5

household, 65–70, 396fcontribution of, 220, 222,

222t, 223conversion routes for, 223f,

223–225, 224tas cooking fuel, 371–372relative to GNP per capita, 396fcosts of, 15t, 162, 220, 223, 227,

228, 402tdefinition of, 221, 222and demographic indicators,

53, 53teconomics of, 226–227and electricity production, 223f,

224, 224tenvironmental aspects of, 46,

161–162, 225–226ester production from, 225ethanol production from, 225externalities offered by, 230fossil energy technology

advances and, 277fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b, 103band fuel production, 223f, 225performance data, 226tgasification of, 224, 224t, 225, 226health risks with, 46, 49and heat production, 223f,

223–224, 224thydrocarbon production from, 225hydrogen production from, 225implementation issues, 227–230industrial uses of, 228bland use requirements for,

222b, 228

methanol production from, 225modern, 222

contribution of, 220plantation production of,

157–162, 160tcosts of, 162environmental impacts

of, 161–162polygeneration strategy for,

229–230producer gas derived from,

373–374resource base of, 156–162

adequacy of, 117–118potential of, 14, 157–160,

158t, 222t, 223problems with, 157

risks of, 31sources of, 156–157, 157t

degradation of, 47, 59ntechnologies, 221t, 223–225

current status of, 266ttraditional

contribution of, 220sustainability of, 222

transportation of, 160Biomass integrated gasification/

combined cycle (BIG/CC) systems, 224, 224t

Birds, wind turbines and, 233Births, desired number of, 52Bitumen, natural (tar sands), 141t,

142, 142bBituminous coal, 147

resources of, 148, 148t, 149tBlack carbon, 85Black shale deposits, uranium

concentrations in, 151BOOT. See Build-own-operate-transferBOS. See Balance-of-systemBOT. See Build-own-transferBPEV. See Battery-powered

electric vehicleBrazil

biomass energy inconversion of, 225, 227t, 228production of, 162, 169n

biomass integrated gasification/combined cycle (BIG/CC)project in, 224

consumption in, 396tdemand in, income and, 7, 9f, 45fefficiency in

economic potential of, 195,196, 197b

programme for, 428electricity conservation

programme in, 427electricity subsidies in, 425ethanol production in, 157, 439eucalyptus plantations in, 227foreign direct investment in, 431gasification-based projects

in, 298thydroelectricity in, 154intensity trends in, 180tLPG programme in, 372, 410market reform in, 426PRO-ALCOOL programme

in, 225, 229bthorium resources in, 152urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75f

BRG. See Bundesanstalt fürGeowissenschaften undRohstoffe

Brine gas, 147Brundtland Commission, 449n

definition of sustainable development, 419

Brundtland Report, 26nBrunei Darussalam, in APEC, 123bBuild-own-operate-transfer

(BOOT) schemes, 433Build-own-transfer (BOT) schemes, 433Building(s)

design of, and passive solarenergy use, 250

efficiency ofobstacles to, 203policies on, 208, 208bpotential for, 188

Bulgariageothermal energy production

in, 257tintensity trends in, 180turban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fBundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften

und Rohstoffe (BRG) (FederalInstitute for Geosciences andNatural Resources), 139

Burundi, improved cooking stovesdisseminated in, 371t

Bush, George, 57–58Buy-down programmes,

technology, 437in developing countries, 439

Cadmium emissions, sources of, 10t, 64t

Cadmium telluride (CdTe), photo-voltaic cell, 238thealth concerns regarding, 240materials availability for, 239

CAFE standards. See CorporateAverage Fuel Economy standards

Canadain APEC, 123bBay of Fundy, tidal energy

potential of, 259carbon dioxide emissions in,

changes in, 444tconsumption in, 395tefficiency in

economic potential of,187–189, 187t

policies on, 209theavy crude oil resources

in, 142hydroelectric dams in, 78intensities in

for automobile fuel, 429btrends in, 177, 179f

research and development indecline in support for, 406bprivate sector spending

on, 447tar sands in, 116, 142thorium resources in, 152urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fwind energy programme in, 231t

B

C


Index

493

Capacity 21 Programme, UNDP, 431Capacity building

and sustainable energy technologies, 440–441

World Bank and, 431Capacity Development Initiative

(CDI), 431Capacity factor, definition of, 262Car(s). See AutomobilesCarbon, emissions of

from deforestation vs. dams,79–80

fates of, 86–87, 87tvs. fossil fuel resource base,

148–149sources of, 87t, 91–92, 91t

Carbon dioxide emissionsatmospheric pressure

fluidised-bed combustion(AFBC) and, 321n

changes in, 443–444, 444tin coal mining, 72from direct coal liquefaction, 305from fossil fuels, options for

reducing, 278–279geographic distribution of, 91–92from geothermal fields, 258and global energy balance, 88tas greenhouse gas, 86history of, 86–87, 87ffrom hydrogen production, 299ocean thermal energy conversion

(OTEC) and, 261optimism about elimination

of, 408pressurised fluidised-bed

combustion and, 321nprojections for, 91–94, 92f,

93t, 361–363, 362f, 363f,405–406, 407f

recovery and disposal ofalternative strategies for,

performance and costcalculations for, 290t,291–293

fuel cells and, 288–289savings

photovoltaic solar energyand, 239

solar thermal electricity and,246–247

sequestration strategies for, 289–293, 423deep aquifer, 289–290,

319n–320ndeep ocean, 288b, 289

sources of, 10t, 11, 63, 64ttaxes on, 264, 423, 424, 424b

Carbon monoxideemissions

in coal mining, 72regional impacts

of, 80–81, 80tfuture of, 83, 101–102

poisoning, risk ofcharcoal and, 372producer gas and, 374, 379

Cardiovascular disease, householdsolid fuel use and, 69, 69b

Caribbeanbiomass potential in, 158tcoal resources in, 148t, 149t

geothermal potential in, 165thousehold fuel choice in, 65fhydroelectricity in, potential

of, 154t, 253tnatural gas resources

in, 145t, 146toil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tsolar energy potential in, 163tthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159twind energy resources in, 164t

Cars. See AutomobilesCarter, Jimmy, and synfuel

development efforts, 275Cascaded energy use, 199Catalytic converters, reduced air

pollution with, 74, 76bCDI. See Capacity Development

InitiativeCdTe. See Cadmium tellurideCement, final energy use for, 181tCentral America. See Latin AmericaCentral Europe. See also

specific countriescarbon dioxide emissions in,

changes in, 444tcoal resources in, 148t, 149tGDP in, per capita, 343thydroelectric potential in,

154t, 253tintensities in, projections for, 344fnatural gas resources

in, 145t, 146toil reserves in, 139t,140t–141tsolar energy potential in, 163tthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159t

Central receiver, solar, 245–246Ceramic Jiko initiative (Kenya), 198bCetane number, 320nCFCs. See ChlorofluorocarbonsChains, energy

definition of, 4efficiency of, 32example of, 5f

Charcoalproduction of, and wood resource

depletion, 66stoves, 371–372

Chernobyl accident, 308Children, as wage earners, and

desired number of births, 52Chile

in APEC, 123beconomic efficiency potential

in, 195urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fChina

acid deposition in, 84air pollution in, 374, 384–385

from biomass consump-tion, 397

in APEC, 123bbiogas experience in, 373, 439biomass potential in, 158tcarbon dioxide emissions in, 92f

reductions in, 443–444climate change in, sulphate

aerosols and, 86

and coal-based polygenerationstrategies, 297

coal reserves in, 148coal use in

delivery costs of, 148health costs of, 98–99mining deaths from, 73pollutants from, 68, 98–99projections for, 276security of, 126

coalbed methane resourcesin, 145

consumption in, 396tof primary energy, 33, 33tratio to GDP, 398f

crop-residue-derived modernenergy carriers in, 384–388

demand in, shifts in, 118fefficiency in

economic potential of,194–195, 194t, 195b

obstacles to, 205programme for, 428

electrical grids in, 385foreign direct investment in, 431fossil fuel subsidies in, 425gasification-based projects

in, 298tgasifiers used in, problems posed

by, 374GDP in

and consumption, 398fper capita, 343t

geothermal energy inelectricity generation

capacity for, 256tpotential of, 165tproduction of, 257t

greenhouse gas emissions in,win-win strategies for, 97b

heavy crude oil resources in, 142household use in

fuel choice for, 65–66, 65fwind systems for, 377

hybrid wind, battery, anddiesel systems in, 233b

hydropower indams, 77, 78, 79small-scale stations, 375

intensities inhistory of, 8fprojections for, 343, 344frecent trends in, 180t

NMVOCs in, 81nuclear forecasts for, 321noil shale resources in, 141ozone concentrations in, 85producer gas option in, 374projections for, 360brural regions of, 378solar energy in

collectors for, 248, 248tfor cookers, 250market for, 248

stove programme in, 370b, 371sulphur dioxide emissions

in, 82, 82fthorium resources in, 152Two Control Zone policy of, 82urban areas of

air pollutant concentrationsin, 76–77

PM10 concentrations in, 75f

wind energy inprogramme for, 231tresources for, 164t

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), asgreenhouse gases, 87

Choice, fuel, poverty and, 45CIDI. See Compression-ignition

direct-injectionCIGS. See Copper-indium/

gallium-diselenideCirculation, atmospheric and oceanic,

climate change and, 90CITES, 440Cities. See Urban areasClean Air Act (United States)

and acid deposition, 84and sulphur dioxide

emissions, 82, 360Clean Development Mechanism,

Kyoto Protocol, 431, 433, 444CLFR. See Compact linear

fresnel reflectorClimate change, 86–95

awareness of, 41computer models of, 88, 105nconsequences of, 89–91forms of, 88fossil fuels and concerns

about, 278greenhouse gas emissions as

cause of, 81, 86–89international agreements on,

94–95, 96international cooperation on,

443–445magnitude of, 88–89, 103mitigating, 404–408observations of, 88–89population growth and, 51projections for, 88–89, 91–94,

102, 360–364rate of, 103regional, 86, 90technological options for

mitigation of, 422win-win strategies for reduction

of, 96–98Clinch River Breeder Reactor

demonstration project, U.S., 323nCo-combustion, cost of, 227Coal

cost of, 276direct liquefaction of, 305drawbacks and attractions of, 276electricity from, cost of, 292t,

292–293energy density of, 370fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b, 103bgasification of, 15–16, 282–

284, 303health costs of, 99, 99thousehold use of, 65–67, 370

emissions from, 66b, 67–68hydrogen manufacture from, 320nmining of

health risks with, 71–72, 73mortality rates for, 73

power production based on, vs.biomass energy, 224

price of, 35, 36, 276production of

global, 35, 148health risks with, 72


Index

494

regional impacts of, 85resource base of, 116t, 147–150,

148t, 149tadequacy of, 117units for, 139

supplies of, 276security of, 126

trade of, 35, 148transportation of, health risks

with, 72types of, 147versatility of, 114

Coal dust, health hazards of, 72Coal integrated gasifier combined

cycle (IGCC). See Integratedgasifier combined cycle

Coal plantsair pollutant emissions from,

costs of, 277tcarbon dioxide emissions

from, alternative strategiesfor reducing, 290t, 291

Coalbed methanedefinition of, 145resources of, 145, 146t

Coale, A. J., 52Cogeneration strategies, 15–16

with conventional steam turbinetechnology, 283–284, 285t

forms of, 198–199with integrated gasifier

combined cycle, 283, 285tin Japan, 190bwith natural gas combined

cycle, 282, 282tfor near-zero emissions, 279obstacles to, 205output ratios of electricity to

steam, 281f, 281–282policies on, 210–211for rural areas, 380tvs. separate production of

electricity and steam, 282tsmall engines for, 284–287

Coke, conversion of coal to, healthrisks with, 72

Colombia, urban PM10 concentrationsin, 75f

Combustionbiomass, 224, 224t, 226

pollution from, 66–67, 66b,372, 397

cost of, 227fuel-cycle analysis of, 103bin households, 66–70emissions from, 66–70, 66b

Commercial energy, consumption ofdata on, 4global rate of, 4impacts of, 64t

Commercial use of energy, economicefficiency potential forin Asia, 189–190, 189tin Eastern Europe, 190t, 191in Latin America, 195, 196tin Western Europe, 186, 186t

Commission on SustainableDevelopment (CSD), ninthsession of, focus of, i

Commonwealth of IndependentStates. See also Soviet Union, former

efficiency ineconomic potential of, 191–

192, 192b, 192tobstacles to, 202policies on, 207

intensity trends in, 177–179, 180tCommunities, environmental and

health risks in, 73–80projections for, 101

Compact linear fresnel reflector(CLFR), 246

Comparative risk assessments,100–101, 102b–103b

Competition, market barriers to, 423encouragement of, 426introducing in energy sector, 426and sustainable energy

development, 417Compressed natural gas vehicles, 78bCompression-ignition direct-

injection (CIDI) engines,hybrids based on, 294

Compression-ignition engines, syngas-derived fuels for, 294–295

CONAE programme, 428Concentrating solar power tech-

nologies, 243key elements of, 244

Concessionsrenewable energy, 235rural energy, 382, 382b, 422and technological innovation, 438

Construction, in urban areas, 56Consumption

approaches toconventional, 41new, 41–43

early advances in, 3, 41economic development and,

34, 34fenergy

vs. conversion, 31and economic well-being,

395–399efficiency as limitation on, 58global, 116, 116tincome level and, 396t,

399, 399tincreases in, and

environmental protection, 400–408

population size and, 51–52, 398t

in rural areas, 52–53poverty and, 46projections for, 5, 395ratio to GDP, 398f, 399, 428urbanisation and, 54by world region, 395t

environmental problems from,awareness of, 41

GDP and, 5, 7f, 34, 34f, 58industry vs. residential, taxes

on, 36per capita, and demand, 51trends in, 58

Conti, Piero Ginori, 255Contract markets, 36Convention on Climate Change.

See United NationsFramework Convention onClimate Change

Convention on Nuclear Safety, 127Conventional energy. See also

Traditional energydefinition of, 26nsubsidies for

phasing out, 264, 424–425problems with, 382, 425

Conversionvs. consumption, 31technology in, 32

Cookingbiogas for, 373with biomass

combustion in, 66–67and demographic indicators,

53, 53tclean fuels for, 276, 277,

373–374improving access to, 421

dimethyl ether for, 379electricity for, 374energy ladder for, 45fuel choice for, 65, 65ffuel demand for, 65fuel preferences for, 411nneeds, energy requirements

for satisfying, 369, 420producer gas for, 373–374

case study, 385solar, 250synthetic liquefied petroleum

gas for, 379Cooking stoves

biomass, 371–372charcoal, 371–372combustion in, 66–68, 69with commercial and

non-commercial fuels,comparison of, 370f

efficiency of, 198emissions from, 66–70, 66b, 67fhealth effects of, 68–69energy flows in, 67fimproved, 371–372kerosene, 372–373liquefied petroleum gas, 372–373

Cooling devicesgeothermal heat pumps for, 257solar, 249

Cooperationinternational, 441–445encouraging, 446–447policies for, 25–26regional, 442–443

Cooperatives, rural electrification, 381COP-6 (Sixth Conference of the Parties

to the Climate Convention), 444Copenhagen Social Summit, 26nCopper-indium/gallium-diselenide

(CIGS), photovoltaic cell, 238thealth concerns regarding, 240materials availability for, 239

Corporate Average Fuel Economy(CAFE) standards, 204, 428

Cost(s). See also Environmental costsof biomass energy, 15t, 162, 220,

223, 227, 228, 402tbiomass integrated

gasification/combinedcycle (BIG/CC) unit, 224

of carbon dioxide emissionsavoided, 290t, 291

of coal, 98–99, 148, 276of electricity

with alternative engine-generators, 386t

from coal and natural gas,292t, 292–293

in rural areas, 369security with, 115, 115bstorage, 263, 263t

of externalities, 423fixed vs. variable, 45of geothermal energy, 220, 256direct use, 256of health impacts, 99–100from emissions, 319nof hydropower, 220, 251, 254to marginal producers, and

prices, 35of marine energy, 260, 260tof modern energy options, 382of NGCC operation, 280of non-fossil fuel technologies,

uncertainties about, 405of nuclear fuel, 307–308of pollution control, 402–403polygeneration strategies and

reductions in, 276vs. prices, 36of renewable technology, 15t,

220, 402t (See also specific technologies)

of solar energy, 236photovoltaic, 240t,

240–241, 241t, 402tsolar domestic hot water

system, 248–249solar thermal electricity, 220,

246, 402tspace-based, 243

technology, buying down,437, 439

of wind energy, 230, 234potential reductions in, 234f

and women, 47Cost efficiency, and energy

regulation, 410Cost Reduction Study for Solar

Thermal Power Plants, 243Costa Rica

geothermal energy inelectricity generation

capacity with, 256tuse of, 255, 256


Credit schemes, innovative, 432Croatia, urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fCrop drying, solar, 250

world practical potential estimation for, 250t

Crop residuesas biomass, 160burning of, air pollution from,

384–385harvesting of, environmental

impact of, 66household use of, greenhouse

gas emissions from, 71fthermochemical gasification

of, 384–388Crude oil

heavy, 140t–141t, 141–142, 142b


Index

495

prices of, 35projections for, 123, 123tas source of insecurity,

122–124resource base of, adequacy

of, 116security with, 119–124importance of, 114stocks of, 121trade of, 34–35transportation of, 122versatility of, 114

Crystalline silicon films (f-Si), photovoltaic cell, 238t

CSD. See Commission onSustainable Development

Current energy, tidal and marine,259–260current status of, 260t

Cyprus, solar collectors in, 248tCzech Republic

gasification-based projects in, 298t

IGCC project in, 283t, 284intensity trends in, 179, 180tsulphur dioxide emissions in, 402furban PM10 concentrations

in, 75f

Dams, hydroelectricconstruction of, advanced

technologies for, 252energy densities of, 156impact of, 77–80

on ecosystems, 79, 79tfuture of, 102on greenhouse gas

emissions, 79–80on humans, 78–79, 156

prevalence of, 77–78Debt, national

vs. natural debt, 94boil prices and, 23, 41

Decentralisationregulatory options for, 425–427of rural energy planning, 375–379,

381, 421–422Deforestation

greenhouse gas emissionsfrom, 91

vs. dam systems, 79–80household fuel demand and, 66

Demand, energyclimate change and, 91in developing countries, rise

in, 394economic development and,

shifts in, 118ffactors affecting, 399–400focus on, vs. supply, 41–42and GDP (See Intensity)by households, for woodfuel, 66per capita use and, 51population growth and, 51, 409projections for, 127–128, 395, 399

efficiency and, 199–200spatial distribution of,

352, 352frecent trends in, 178b

Demand-side management, andenergy efficiency, 428

Dematerialization, and demand,178b

Demographic transitions, 7, 9t,50–51, 340b

Demonstrated resources, 138Demonstration projects, 437

in developing countries, needfor, 439

Denmarkbiomass energy conversion in,

224, 227t, 228efficiency in, policies on, 209tenergy R&D in, funding for, 448intensity trends in, 179frenewables obligation in, 427solar district heating in, 249urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fwind energy programme

in, 231t, 266costs of, 234f

Desertificationcauses of, 66fuel demand and, 66

Desiccant cooling, 249Developing countries. See also

specific countriesair quality goals in, challenge

of addressing, 319ncarbon dioxide emissions in

changes in, 444tscenarios of, 405–406, 407f

carbon emissions in, 92, 92f,93–94

comparative advantage inusing renewable energy, 405

consumption in, 33–34, 33tprojections for, 395rates of, 4–5by wealthy, 51

definition of, 26ndemand in

projections for, 23rise in, 394

demographic transition in, 51demonstration projects

in, need for, 439efficiency in, 399

intensity trends and, 180– 181, 180t

measures to increase, 428obstacles to, 202–205policies on, 207

technology transfer and, 181–183environmental problems in, 23, 51and global warming, 402health concerns in, for women, 49improved cooking stoves in,

dissemination of, 370b, 371intensities in, 127, 180–181, 180tinvestment needs of, 430living standards in, 44oil trade and, 34–35, 35fpolicies for, 25pollution in

from biomass consump-tion, 397

options for reducing, 401–404in urban areas, 76–77

population growth in, 51

poverty in, 43–46private investment in power

sectors of, 409t, 431conditions for attracting,

430b, 431privatisation of electric sector

in, 254and research and development,

435, 449rural areas of, 21–22

energy needs of, 368–388lack of adequate energy

services in, 369security in

economic growth and, 127problems with, 114–115of supply, 118

technological innovation in,encouraging, 438–441

technology transfer in, private-sector led, 440

transportation in, 55under-pricing of electricity in, 425urban areas of, air pollution

in, 76–77Development

economic (See Economicdevelopment)

of energy systems, 6–7, 36–37human, 3, 44, 340–341

Development assistanceconditionality in, 432decline in, 440inadequacy of, 420–421official, 6, 37

Diesel-engine generators, electrifi-cation with, 375, 376b

Diesel fuelesters suited to replace, 225prices of, 74

Diesel vehiclesair pollutant emissions, costs

of, 278texhaust from, in coal mining, 72particulate emissions from, 85

Diffusion, technologicalprojections for, implications of,

353–355, 356–357supporting, 439–440

Digestion, anaerobic, of biomass,224t, 224–225

Dimethyl ether (DME), 294, 295advantages of, 379applications of, 276crop residues converted

into, 387, 388production of, liquid-phase reactor

technology for, 298Direct current, renewed interest

in, 261Direct investments, foreign, 6, 37, 37f,

430b, 431Disease(s)

burden ofdefinition of, 104nglobal, 70ffrom household solid fuel

use, 69, 69bclimate change and, 90, 91hydroelectric dams and, 79

Dish/engine power plants, 246Distributed utility (DU), concept

of, 261–262

District heating, solar energy and, 249DME. See Dimethyl etherDominican Republic, photovoltaic

system in, 377Droughts, climate change and, 89DU. See Distributed utilityDung

harvesting of, environmentalimpact of, 66

household use of, greenhousegas emissions from, 71f

EAR-I resources, 151EAR-II resources, 151Earth Summit, 419, 443

goals developed in, 3, 42–43Eastern Europe. See also

specific countriescarbon dioxide emissions in, 92f

changes in, 444tcoal resources in, 148t, 149tefficiency ineconomic potential of, 190–

192, 190tobstacles to, 202, 205policies on, 207GDP in, per capita, 343tgeothermal potential in, 165thousehold fuel choice in, 65–

66, 65fhydroelectric potentials in,

154t, 155f, 253tintensity trends in, 177–179, 180t

projections for, 343, 344fnatural gas resources in,

145t, 146toil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tregional emissions in, 80tsolar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions in,

81–82, 82fthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159twind energy resources in, 164t

Economic costs. See Cost(s)Economic development

assistance for, inadequacy of, 420–421

consumption and, 34, 34fand demand, shifts in, 118fdistribution of, 341, 342fand electrification, 375energy access and, 421and environmental risk

transitions, 95–96projections for, 340–342, 342f

Economic efficiency, and energyregulation, 410

Economic potentials, definition of, 138Economic prosperity

energy and, 23–24, 393–402environmental policies and, 394

Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC), 138

Economy, energy intensity of, 399ECOSOC. See Economic and

Social CouncilEcuador, urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75f

D

E


Index

496

Edison, Thomas, 261Education

liberal market policies and, 408bof women, 50, 53

Efficiency, energyand consumption, 58definition of, 26nand demand, 400in developing countries, 399economic

and energy regulation, 410increasing, 423–429

end-use (See End-use efficiency)funding for, 435improvements in, poverty

reduction with, 46and intensity, 128market barriers for, 427raising, 427–429security and, 128transition to modern fuels and

gains in, 398Egypt

consumption in, 396teconomic efficiency potential

in, 198solar thermal electricity

developments in, 244burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fEl Niño/Southern Oscillation, global

warming and, 90El Salvador

geothermal development in, 256geothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256tElectric vehicles, 78bElectricity

access to, global populationand, 374t

biomass conversion routes, 223f,224, 224tcost of, 227

from coal and natural gas, costof, 292t, 292–293

for cooking, 374coproduction with synthetic

liquefied petroleum gas, 387–388

costs of, with alternativeengine-generators, 386t

diesel-engine generators for, 375, 376b

fuel-cycle analysis of, 103bgeneration of, efficiency of, 36–37grids for, regional, 130hydrogen compared with, 280bhydropower generation

of, 251–255small-scale, 375–376

lack of, health impacts of, 7nuclear, costs of, 307–308photovoltaics for, 376–377price of, 36in rural areas, 374t, 374–379

costs of, 369technological options for, 380t

security with, 113, 114–115cost of, 115, 115b

solar thermal, 243–247storage of, 262–263

costs for, 263, 263t

supplies of, unreliable, dysfunctional marketsand, 423b

Electricity systemdesign, rethinking of, 262institutional innovations and, 261pillars of, 261technical innovations and, 261

Electrification programmes, 374–379centralised approach, 374–375decentralised approach, 375–

379, 381, 421–422Electropaulo, 421, 425Emissions. See also Air pollution;

specific typescontaminant content of fuels

and, 66health damages from, cost

of, 319nfrom households, 66–70, 66b, 67fphysical form of fuels and, 66trading of, greenhouse gases, 424

Encephalitis, hydropower and,252–253

Encyclopaedia of OccupationalSafety and Health (Stellman), 70

End-use efficiency, 13–14, 173–211intensities and, 13, 175–181obstacles to, 13, 200–205, 206fpolicies on, 14, 24–25,

205–211, 206fpotentials for, 13–14, 175,

176f, 184blong-term, 199–200by region and sector, 184–198systemic approach to,

198–199types of, 183–184, 183f

technology transfers for, benefitsof, 181–183

Energy Charter Conference, 125Energy Charter Protocol on Energy

Efficiency and Related Environ-mental Aspects, 211

Energy Charter Treaty, 12, 26n, 114,122, 124–125, 442

Energy Efficiency and RelatedEnvironmental Aspects protocol, 122

Energy Research Corporation, 287Energy after Rio: Prospects and

Challenges (UNDP), 43Energy sector

components of, 32liberalisation of, 24, 32occupational hazards in, 70–73restructuring of, 24, 425–427

regulations for, 25trends in, 261–262

Energy technology innovation pipeline, 265

Energy for Tomorrow’s World(World Energy Council), 83

Energy Work Group, 122Environmental costs

with biomass use, 46of fossil fuels, 277t, 277–278, 278tinternalising, 264, 423–424of nuclear power production, 306reductions in

policies for, 422–423transition to modern fuels

and, 398

of technological innovation, 438Environmental policies

and economic prosperity, 394market liberalisation and, 409trade and, 420

Environmental protectionenergy efficiency and, 400increased energy consumption

and, 400–408Environmental quality, 61–104

awareness of problems with, 41impacts on, 9–11, 10t, 63, 64t

community-level, 73–80cross-scale, 95–101future of, 101–104global, 86–95household-level, 65–70projections for, 358–360regional, 80–86

population growth and, 51and security, 128urbanisation and, 54, 55win-win strategies for, 96–98and women, 49

Environmental risk transitions,95–96, 95f

EPR. See European pressurisedwater reactor

Equity issueseconomic development

and, 340–342, 342fphotovoltaic technology

and, 377bErosion

biomass energy systems and, 225

on biomass plantations, 161–162Eskom, photovoltaic programme

of, 376–377, 421Ester, biomass production of, 225Estonia

intensity trends in, 179oil shale resources in, 141

Ethanolas alternative automotive

fuel, 293–294biomass production of, 225emissions from, 293–294

Ethiopiaeconomic efficiency potential

in, 198improved cooking stoves

disseminated in, 371tEucalyptus plantations, 162, 169n

cost of, 227energy production from, 224water-use efficiency of, 225–226

Europe. See also specific countriesacid deposition in, 83–84biomass potential in, 159coal prices in, 276consumption in, 395tgeothermal energy use in, 255thealth impacts in, costs of, 99, 99thydroelectric dams in, 78ozone concentrations in, 85solar collectors in, 248tsolar domestic hot water systems

in, 248tsolar energy market in, 248water balance in, 153twind energy programme in, 231t

European Business Council forSustainable Energy Future, 444

European Energy Charter, 122European pressurised water reactor

(EPR), 314European Union

carbon dioxide emissions in, changes in, 444t

geothermal energy use in, 255tphotovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bEvaporation

climate change and, 89in global water balance, 153t

Experience curves, 435, 436fwith renewable technologies,

14, 16fExportation, security and, 118

projections for, 357–358Externalities

biomass energy and, 230including in energy prices, 423–424

f-Si. See Crystalline silicon filmsF-T process. See Fischer-

Tropsch processFast breeder reactors (FBRs), 315–316Federal Institute for Geosciences

and Natural Resources, 139Feedbacks

in climate change, 86, 89, 105ndefinition of, 104n

Fertilisers, biomass energy systems and, 226

Fertilitybenefits and costs of, 7, 52–53commercial energy use and, 42fdefinition of, 59ntransitions in

and population size, 50–51preconditions for

decline, 7, 52–53Final energy

conversion of, efficiency of, 32requirements of, projections

for, 348–351, 350fFinancing

of hydroelectric power projects, 254

of pollution control, 403private sectorattracting, 431–432in developing countries, 409tfor R&D, 435, 447–448public sector, for R&D, 433–434,

437, 448–449of renewable energy technolo-

gies, 264, 431, 435of research and development, 435trends in, 447–449of rural energy projects, 382–383,

383b, 422of sustainable energy

systems, 430–433Finland

biomass in energy system of, 227t

research and development in,funding for, 448

F


Index

497

solar crop drying in, 250sulphur dioxide emissions in,

trends in, 402furban PM10 concentrations


in, 231tFires, forest, particulate emissions

from, 85Firm capacity, solar capacity

transformed into, 246fFischer-Tropsch (F-T) process, 295,

298, 387syngas requirements for, 321n

Fish, impacts onwith hydropower, 252with marine energy technol-

ogies, 261Fissile materials. See also

specific typesreserves and resources

of, 150–152Fission, vs. fusion, 317Fixed costs, 45Fixed tariff systems, as incentive

for renewable energy use, 235Flooding

climate change and, 89from dams, 78–79

Flows, capital, 37Fluidised-bed gasifiers, 284, 321nFood security, 43Foreign direct investments, 6, 37,

37f, 431conditions for attracting, 430b

Forest(s)acid deposition in, 83–84depletion of, fuelwood

demand and, 66fires in, particulate emissions

from, 85Forestry

health hazards of, 71mortality rates in, 73number of workers in, 70–71, 73residues from, as biomass, 160

Fossil energy technologies,advanced, 14–17, 274, 275–306goal-setting for, 276–279and sustainable development,

14, 276Fossil fuels

vs. bio-energy, 230carbon dioxide emissions from

atmospheric concentrationsof, 86

changes in, 443–444, 444toptions for reducing,

278–279competition with renewable

energy, 407consumption of, 149tcosts of

vs. costs of renewableenergy, 405

environmental, 277t, 277–278, 278t

regional impacts of, 80–81resource base of, 116t, 148–

150, 149tadequacy of, 115–118, 148projections for, 166–167

risks of, 31shortages due to resource

constraints, projectionsregarding, 264

vs. solar thermal electricity, 247subsidies for, 423supply considerations, and fossil

energy innovation, 275–276transition away from, 167

Foundries, efficiency of, 193bFrame 7H technology, 283Framework Convention on

Climate Change. See UnitedNations Framework Conventionon Climate Change

Franceconsumption in, 119b

ratio to GDP, 398fFPR prototype in, 323nfuel ethanol programme in, 225geothermal energy in

electricity generationcapacity for, 256t

production of, 257tIGCC projects in, 283tintensity trends in, 179fnatural gas importation by, 124nuclear power in, 126RD&D in, decline in, 406bsecurity in, enhancement of, 119bsolar collectors in, 248ttidal barrage in, 259uranium recovery from seawater

in, 151burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fvehicular pollution in, health

costs of, 99, 100twind energy programme in, 231t

Franchises, and technologicalinnovation, 438

Free-rider problem, energy R&Dand, 435, 449n

Fuel(s). See also specific fuelsadvanced, 293–302

policy framework needed for, 294

alcohol, 293–294biomass conversion routes,

223f, 225cost of, 227performance data for, 226t

oxygenated, 293in rural areas, 370–374, 380tsolar, research on, 246

Fuel cell(s), 17, 287–289and carbon dioxide recovery

and disposal, 288–289hybrid, with gas turbine/steam

turbine, 288vs. microturbines, 286types of, 287–288

Fuel cell vehicles, 78b, 280bcompetitiveness of, 301–302efforts toward development

of, 301t, 320ncompetition in, 300

gasoline, 300hydrogen, 299–302

efficiency gain of, 320nmethanol, 300

Fuel choice, poverty and, 45

Fuel cyclesanalysis of, 100–101, 102b–103bdefinition of, 100insults vs. impacts of, 100

Fuelwood. See WoodfuelFunding. See FinancingFusion, 17, 317

Garbage, burning of, air pollutionfrom, 77

Gashydrates, 146–147, 146t, 147bnatural (See Natural gas)tight formation, 146, 146t

Gas-fired combined-cycle powerplant, costs of, 402t

Gas turbines, experience curvefor, 16f, 436f

Gasificationof biomass, 224, 224t, 225, 226of coal, 15–16, 282–284, 303

Gasifiers, efficiency of, 388nGasoline

air pollutant emissions, costsof, 278t

benzene levels in, reducing, 293coal-derived, 305lead in, 76, 76bvs. natural gas, 78bprice of

vs. diesel fuel, 74leaded vs. unleaded, 76bin United States, 57

processing onboard cars, 300GCC. See Gulf Cooperation CouncilGDP. See Gross domestic productGEF. See Global Environment FacilityGenerators, insecurity and use

of, 114Geological reservoirs, carbon

dioxide sequestration in, 289–290Geopressed thermal energy, 165Geopressured gas, 146t, 147Georgia

efficiency in, barriers to, 201geothermal energy production

in, 257tGeothermal energy, 255–258

costs of, 15t, 220, 256, 402tdefinition of, 165, 221direct application of, 255,

255t, 256electricity production, 255t,

255–256environmental aspects of, 258heat pump applications of,

256–257market developments, potential,

257t, 257–258potential of, 255resources for, 165, 165ttechnologies, 221t, 255–257

current status of, 266ttypes of, 165

Germanyconsumption in, 396t

ratio to GDP, 398fefficiency in

economic benefits of, 185bpolicies on, 208b

FPR programme in, 323ngasification-based projects

in, 298tgeothermal energy production

in, 257tIGCC project in, 284industry use in, 175market liberalisation in, 426photovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bRD&D in, decline in, 406bsolar collectors in, 248tsolar district heating in, 249urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fvoluntary agreements in, 429wind energy programme

in, 231t, 427Ghana

consumption in, 396teconomic efficiency potential

in, 198urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fGlobal Environment Facility

(GEF), 405, 432recommendations for, 430and solar thermal electricity

development, 244bGlobal Knowledge Partnership, 431Global Scenario Group, 335Global warming. See Climate changeGlobalisation, 24

and capital flows, 37implications for energy

industry, 408–409and security, 128and trade, 34–35

Goalsdefinition of, 59policy, for sustainable devel-

opment, 417t, 418–423Government, role in

markets, 129–130Government programmes

for energy research and development, 433–434,437, 448–449

need for, 417–418short-term orientation of, 423

Grameen Shakti, 383b, 432Granite rocks, uranium

concentrations in, 151Greece

solar collectors in, 248tsolar thermal electricity



in, 231tGreen Light Programme (China), 195bGreenhouse gas. See also

specific typesdefinition of, 86

Greenhouse gas emissions. See also Climate changecomparative risk assessment

for, 103bcurrent vs. cumulative, 94bby households, 67f, 69–70, 71fhydropower and, 79–80, 152, 251

G


Index

498

mitigation of, costs of, 402as natural debt, 94bnear-zero reduction in, goal

of, 279projections for, 91–94, 360–364trading, 424win-win strategies for reduction

of, 96–98Greenland, thorium resources in, 152Greenpeace, 336Grid(s)

and efficiency improvements,201, 202

for electricity, regional, 130supplies for, costs of, 402t

Grid-connected electricity systems,value of renewables for, 263

Grid-connected ground-basedphotovoltaic systems, energypayback time of, 239

Grid-connected rooftop photovoltaicsystems, energy payback timeof, 239, 239t

Gross domestic product (GDP)and consumption, 5, 7f, 34,

34f, 58demand and (See Intensity)ratio to energy consumption,

398f, 399, 428and research and development

funding, 448tGround-based photovoltaic systems,

energy payback time of, 239Ground source heat pumps, 256Groundwater contamination

from methanol, 320nfrom methyl tertiary butyl

ether, 293, 294Guadeloupe, geothermal electricity

generation capacity in, 256tGuatemala



Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)states, and oil security, 120

Gulf region, oil exportation in, 120,121f, 123

Gulf War, and energy security, 120

H2-O2 Rankine cycle plant, 290t, 291Habitat II (United Nations

Conference on SustainableHuman Settlements), 26n, 54

Halocarbons, and global energybalance, 88t

Harvesting, of woodfuel, forhouseholds, 66

HDI. See Human Development IndexHealth, 61–104

impacts on, 9–11, 10tassessment of, 98–101biomass stoves and, 372in communities, 73–80costs of, 99–100cross-scale, 95–101by emissions, 319nfuture of, 101–104

global, 86–95in households, 65–70hydropower and, 252–253photovoltaic solar cell

modules and, 240producer gas and, 374regional, 80–86in workplaces, 70–73

improvements in, modernenergy forms and, 397

value of, 98–100of women, 49

Hearing loss, among coal miners, 72Heart disease, household solid

fuel use and, 69, 69bHeat, biomass conversion routes,

223f, 223–224, 224tHeat pumps

geothermal, 256–257ground source, 256solar, 248, 249

Heating systemsefficiency of

obstacles to, 205technology transfer and, 182

solar energy and, 247, 249Heavy crude oil

definition of, 141extraction of, 142, 142breserves and resources of,

140t–141t, 141–142Hedonistic pricing, 423Heliostats, 245Helsinki Protocol, 82High-efficiency concentrator

cells, 238tHigh-efficiency tandem cells, 238tHigh-temperature gas-cooled

reactors (HTGRs), 314–315,322n–323n

High Temperature Winkler gasifier, 284Hitachi, heating system in, 190bHonduras, urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fHong Kong (China)

in APEC, 123burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fHot dry rock energy, 165House(s), size of, 57, 175Households, 65–70

combustion in, 66–70economic efficiency potential for

in Africa, 197t, 198in China, 194–195, 194tin Commonwealth

of IndependentStates, 191t, 192

in Eastern Europe, 190t, 191in India, 193, 193tin Japan, 189, 189tin Latin America, 195, 196tin North America, 187tin Southeast Asia, 189, 189tin Western Europe,

185–186, 186tenergy ladder for, 65fuel choice in

income and, 45by region, 65f

greenhouse gas emission by, 69–70, 71f

harvesting for, 66indoor air pollution in, 11, 66–68

health effects of, 69, 70fpoverty in, 43–47projections for, 101requirements of, calculation

of, 58taxes on use by, 36

HTGRs. See High-temperaturegas-cooled reactors

HTU. See Hydrothermal upgradingHuman development

definition of, 340–341energy in, 3poverty and, 44

Human Development Index (HDI), 44Human disruption index, 9–10,

10t, 63, 64tHuman energy, on energy ladder, 369Human poverty index, 44Hungary

electricity subsidies in, elimination of, 201b

geothermal energy productionin, 257t

intensity trends in, 179, 180tsulphur dioxide emissions in,

trends in, 402furban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fHurricanes, climate change and, 90Hybrid vehicles, 78b, 294, 301–302Hydrates, gas

definition of, 146, 147brecovery of, 146–147, 147bresources of, 146–147, 146t

Hydrocarbon(s)biomass production of, 225

performance data for, 226tnon-methane emissions,

sources of, 10t, 11, 64tpolycyclic aromatic emissions,

with coal use, 72Hydrogen

as energy carrier, 17strategic importance of, 280b

fuel cell vehicles, 299–302and near-zero emissions, 299production

advanced technologiesfor, 302

from biomass, 225from coal, 320nfrom fossil fuels, 299from syngas, 321n

removal, by inorganic membranes, 293

safety considerations, 299, 299bstorage for motor vehicles, 300b

Hydrolysis, ethanol productionthrough, 225

Hydropower, 251–255. See also Damsconstraints to expansion

of, 155–156contribution of, 220cost of, 15t, 220, 251, 254economic and financial

aspects of, 254environmental and social

impacts of, 152–153, 251,252–253, 254

fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b

occupational hazards with, 72potential of, 251, 253tprevalence of, 4, 77resource base for, 152–156

adequacy of, 117economic potential

of, 154–155, 154ttechnical potential

of, 153–154, 154ttheoretical potential of,

153, 154tsmall-scale, 375–376system aspects of, 253technologies, 221t, 251–253

current status of, 266tHydropower complementation, 253Hydropressured gas, 147Hydrothermal energy, 165Hydrothermal upgrading (HTU), 225

IAEA. See International AtomicEnergy Agency

Ice, sea, global warming and, 90Iceland


geothermal energy use in, 255,256, 257t


Identified resources, definition of, 138IEA. See International Energy AgencyIEP. See International Energy

ProgrammeIGCC. See Integrated gasifier

combined cycleIIASA. See International Institute

for Applied Systems AnalysisIlliteracy. See LiteracyIllumination of Mexico (ILUMEX)

programme, 209bImpacts. See also under

Environmental quality; Healthdefinition of, 26n, 104nscale of, 63

Incentive programmesfor renewable energy use, 235,

250, 264–265for solar energy use, 250for wind energy use, 235, 235t

Incomeand energy requirements, 7, 58growth in, and energy

consumption, 399, 399tper capita, and modern energy

forms, 396t, 397poverty of, 44

Indiaair pollution from biomass

consumption in, 397biogas in

experience with, 373production of, 225

biomass use in, 227climate change in, sulphate

aerosols and, 86coal reserves in, 148coal use in, costs of, 148coalbed methane production

in, 145

H

I


Index

499

cogeneration in, 205consumption in, 396t

ratio to GDP, 398fin rural areas, 52, 60n


194, 193b, 193tobstacles to, 205policies on, 209, 210btechnology transfers and, 182

financing of renewable energyin, 432

gas hydrates in, 146gasification-based projects

in, 298thousehold fuel choice in, 65f

health effects of, 69, 69bpollutants from, 66b, 70, 71f

intensities inhistory of, 8frecent trends in, 180, 180t

LPG programme in, 372, 381microfinance scheme in,

proposal for, 382natural gas grids in, 125nuclear energy installations

in, safety status of, 322nozone concentrations in, 85photovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bphotovoltaic technology for

rural areas in, equityissues relating to, 377b

plutonium recycling in, 322nproducer gas in, 378rural electrification programme

in, 375solar collectors in, 248tsolar cookers in, 250solar thermal electricity

developments in, 244bstove programme in, 370b, 371thorium resources in, 152urban areas of

air pollutant concentrationsin, 76–77

PM10 concentrations in, 75fwind energy programme in, 231t

Indian Ocean, in global water balance, 153t

Indicated reserves, 138Indonesia

in APEC, 123bappliance use in households

with electricity, 397tbiomass energy conversion

in, 224financing of renewable energy

in, 432fires in, particulate emissions

from, 85geothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256tgeothermal energy use in, 255intensity trends in, 180tphotovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fIndoor air pollution, in house-

holds, 11, 66–68, 67fhealth effects of, 69, 70f

Industrial collaboration, and technology transfer, 440

Industrialised countries. See alsospecific countriesbiomass use in, projections

for, 157carbon dioxide emissions in, 92,

92f, 93–95consumption in

and environmental problems, 51

rates of, 4definition of, 26ndemographic transition in, 51low-polluting technologies in, 402nuclear power in, 126poverty in, 46–47urban areas of, air pollution

in, 74–76Industry, energy, occupational

hazards of, 70–73Industry energy use

economic efficiency potential forin Africa, 197t, 198in China, 194, 194tin Commonwealth


in Eastern Europe,190–191, 190t

in India, 192–193, 193tin Japan, 189, 189tin Latin America, 195, 196tin North America, 187t, 188in Southeast Asia, 189, 189tin Western Europe, 185, 186t

taxes on, 36Infant mortality

commercial energy use and, 42fand desired number of births, 52reductions in, energy technologies

and, 53Inferred reserves, 138Inferred resources, 138Infrastructure, projections

for, 348, 348fInner Mongolia, household wind

systems in, 377Innovation, energy

in developing countries,encouraging, 438–441

policy options for promoting, 25,437–438

public policies in support of,rationale for, 435–437

spending on, 435Innovation chain/pipeline, energy,

265, 434–435stages in, 433, 434t

Inorganic membrane reactors,293, 302

Insolation, average monthly, variations in, 236, 236f

Institution building, and sustainableenergy technologies, 440–441

Institutional structures, for ruralenergy services, 422

Insults, environmental. See alsospecific typesdefinition of, 26n, 104n

Insurance schemes, bilateral, 430Integrated gasifier combined

cycle (IGCC)

biomass, 387coal, 15, 282–284, 303

air pollution emissionsfrom, costs of, 277t

carbon dioxide recoveryfrom syngas in, 291

carbon dioxide separationand disposal in, costof, 292

cogeneration with, 283, 285tcommercial-scale plants,

world-wide, 283tcost and performance

characteristics of, 281tsolid waste management

advantages of, 283Integrated rural development, 380–381Intensity

definition of, 33efficiency and, 13, 175–181projections for, 127, 342–

344, 344frecent trends in, 7f, 175–181security and, 127–128

Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC), 43on biomass use, 157on fuel efficiency, 205projections by, 88–93, 278, 280b

Interlaboratory Working Group on Energy-Efficient and Low-Carbon Technologies, 188

Intermittent renewablesand energy storage, 262–263grid integration of, 262vs. stable, 262

Internal combustion engine, vs.fuel cell vehicle, 301

Internal combustion engine vehicles, hybrid, 301–302

International agreements. Seealso specific agreementson climate change, 94–95, 96on energy efficiency, 211on nuclear non-proliferation, 310and security, 122

International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), 127, 150–151, 310b, 322n

International cooperation, 441–445encouraging, 446–447

International Energy Agency (IEA), 122, 335expenditures in, 406b

International Energy Programme(IEP), 122

International Fuel CycleEvaluation, 312

International industrial collaboration,and technology transfer, 440

International Institute for AppliedSystems Analysis (IIASA),scenarios by, 335, 337–340,338t, 339t

International Labour Organisation, 442Investments, energy, 36–37

capital flows in, 37conditions conductive to,

430b, 431current status of, 36and efficiency improvements,

200–201, 203foreign direct, 6, 37, 37f

government role in, 129longevity of, 36in natural gas, political risks

with, 125official development

assistance, 6, 37policies on, 25private, 37

attracting, 431–432in developing countries,

409t, 431projections for, 355–356public, in energy R&D, 437returns on, 36, 37in sustainable development,

430–433, 446and system development, 6–7vs. total investments, 36

Invisible trees, 66IPCC. See Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate ChangeIran, Islamic Republic of

oil resources in, 120urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fIraq

heavy crude oil resources in, 142invasion of Kuwait by, 120–121oil resources in, 120

Irelandurban PM10 concentrations


IS92a scenario, 278, 280bIsrael


solar collectors in, 248tItaipu dam, 77Italy

aquifer gas in, 147geothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256tgeothermal energy use

in, 255, 257tIGCC projects in, 283tphotovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bresearch and development in

decline in, 406bprivate sector spending

on, 447urban PM10 concentrations


Japanadvanced light water reactors

in, 313–314in APEC, 123baquifer gas in, 147cogeneration in, 190bconsumption in, ratio to

GDP, 398fefficiency in, economic potential

of, 189–190, 189t, 190bFPR programme in, 323ngas hydrates in, 146gasoline hybrid vehicles in, 294

J


Index

500


geothermal energy use in, 255, 257t

intensities inautomobile fuel, 429bhistory of, 8frecent trends of, 175, 179f

nuclear forecasts for, 321nnuclear power in, 126photovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bplutonium recycling in, 322nRD&D in

decline support for in, 406bspending on, 447, 448

solar collectors in, 248tsolar energy market in, 248technological experience

curves in, 16f, 436ftidal current model demonstration

in, 260uranium recovery from seawater

in, 151burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fjiko (stove), 371Joint Implementation and Clean

Development Mechanism, 405Jordan, oil shale resources in, 141

Kazakhstan, FPR programme in, 323nKeeling, Charles, 104nKenya

air pollution from biomassconsumption in, 397

Ceramic Jiko initiative in, 198beconomic efficiency potential

in, 198geothermal development in, 256geothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256timproved cooking stoves

disseminated in, 371tphotovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242brural electrification in, 421urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fKerosene, household use of, 68,

372–373greenhouse gas emissions

from, 71fKorea, Republic of

in APEC, 123bconsumption in, 396tenergy efficiency programme

in, 428energy transition in, 372,

372f, 397nuclear power in, 126urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fKuwait

heavy crude oil resources in, 142invasion by Iraq, 120–121oil resources in, 120

Kuznets, Simon, 96bKuznets curve, 96b, 412n

Kyoto Protocol, 443Clean Development Mechanism

of, 431, 433, 444criticism of, 95and efficiency, 211goals of, 351implementation of, 128status of, 95

Kyrgyzstan, intensity trends in, 179

La Rance scheme, France, 259Labelling, efficiency

for appliances, 428, 429for buildings, 208

Laboursavings in, modern energy

forms and, 397by women, 48, 48f

Ladder, energy, 45for households, 65leapfrogging on, 369, 379

barriers to trade and,439–440

developing countries and,438–439

encouraging, 422movement along, 370poverty and, 45rungs on, 369rural populations and, 22

Land availability, for biomass production, 158–159

Land usebiomass energy and, 222b, 228current global patterns of, 158thydroelectricity generation

and, 253, 254solar thermal electricity and, 247

Landfill gas, conversion to electricity, 225

Large gasification, of biomass,224, 224t

Latin America. See also specific countriesacid deposition in, 84biomass potential in, 158t, 159carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f




197, 196tobstacles to, 205

GDP in, 343t, 398fgeothermal energy in


household fuel choice in, 65fhydropower in, 77potential of, 154t, 155f, 253tintensity trends in, 180–181liberalisation and privatisation

in, effects of, 426LPG programmes in, 372natural gas resources

in, 145t, 146t

oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tphotovoltaic system in, 377solar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions in, 82thorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151turban population in, 421urbanisation in, 54water balance in, 153, 153twater resources in, 159twind energy in

programme on, 231tresources for, 164t

Latitude, solar radiation by, 163Latvia

intensity trends in, 179urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fLeach, Gerald, 66Lead emissions

from gasoline, 76, 76bhealth effects of, 76sources of, 10t, 64t

Leadership, technological, opportunities for, 439

Leapfrogging, on energy ladder, 369, 379barriers to trade and, 439–440developing countries

and, 438–439encouraging, 422

Liberalisation, market, 24constraints on, 425and education policies, 408band environmental policies, 409implications for energy

industry, 408, 426and increased energy

access, 409–410in Latin America, 426and security, 129

Life expectancycommercial energy use and, 42fincreases in, 51poverty and, 44

Lifestyles, 57–58Light water reactors (LWRs), 274,

308, 322nadvanced, 313–315vs. fast breeder reactors

(FBRs), 315fuel-reprocessing

systems, 310–311safety of, 17

Lignite, 147resources of, 116t, 148, 148t, 149t

Liquefaction, direct, 305Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

for household use, 372–373preferences for, 411nresidual problems of, 379synthetic (SLPG), 379

crop residues convertedinto, 387–388

Liquid-metal cooled fast breederreactor (LMFBR), 315

Liquid natural gas (LNG) facilities, 298Liquid-phase reactors, 297Literacy

commercial energy use and, 42fpoverty and, 44among women, 50

Lithuania, urban PM10 concentrationsin, 75f

Living standards, in developingcountries, 44

LMFBR. See Liquid-metal cooledfast breeder reactor

LNG. See Liquid natural gasLoans, energy, 432Low-polluting technologies, 402

relative pollution intensitiesand costs of, 401t

Low-temperature solar energy, 247–251active conversion, 247cost of, 15timplementation issues, 250–251market developments, 247–

248, 248tpassive conversion, 247potential of, 247technologies, 248–250

current status of, 266tLPG. See Liquefied petroleum gasLung cancer

coke production and, 72household solid fuel use and, 69b

LWRs. See Light water reactors

Macedonia FYR, geothermal energyproduction in, 257t

Magma geothermal energy, 165Malaria

dam systems and, 79hydropower and, 252–253

Malaysiain APEC, 123bbiomass energy conversion

in, 224gasification-based projects

in, 298tsynthetic middle distillate

plant in, 295urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fMali, diesel engines in, 376bManufacturing, insults caused by, 64tManure, biomass energy systems

and, 226Marginal producers, costs to, and

prices, 35Marine energy, 258–261

cost of, 15tdefinition of, 221economic aspects of, 260, 260tenvironmental aspects

of, 260–261implementation issues, 261potential of, 258–260technologies, 221t, 259–260

current status of, 260t, 266tMarket(s)

vs. administered systems, 423benefits of, 129competitive, and sustainable

energy development, 417contract vs. spot, 36dysfunctional, and unreliable

electric supplies, 423befficiency of, increasing, 423–

429, 445

K

L

M


Index

501

and energy efficiencyimprovements, 200–201

government role in, 129–130liberalisation of, 24, 32, 129

constraints on, 425and education policies, 408band environmental

policies, 409implications for energy

industry, 408and increased energy

access, 409–410policies for, 24–25privatisation of, 426projections for, 349fand security, 12, 121–122,

128–130short-term orientation of, 423

Mbeki, Thabo, 420–421MC Power, 287mc-Si. See Multi-crystalline siliconMCFCs. See Molten carbonate

fuel cellsMcKelvey box, 137f, 138Megacities, 369Mercosur customs union, 442Mercury emissions, sources

of, 10t, 64tMetal-cooled fast reactors, 316Meters, barriers to, 202Methane

coalbed, 145, 146temissions of

in coal mining, 72from dam systems, 79–80and global energy

balance, 88tas greenhouse gas, 86history of, 87from households, 69regional impacts of, 80–

81, 80tsources of, 10t, 64t

Methane clathrate hydratecarbon content of, 321ntechnology, 277

Methane hydrates, 146, 146bnatural gas resources associated

with, 275–276Methanol

as alternative automotive fuel, 293–294

biomass production of, 225performance data for, 226t

DME production from, 295emissions from, 293–294processing onboard cars, 300toxicity of, 294trigeneration vs. separate

production of, 296tMethyl tertiary butyl ether

(MTBE), 293groundwater contamination

from, 293, 294Mexico

in APEC, 123befficiency in

economic potential of,195, 196–197

policies on, 209bprogramme on, 428

foreign direct investment in, 431


geothermal energy use in, 255heavy crude oil resources in, 142intensity trends in, 180tlead content of fuel in, 76bsolar thermal electricity



Microcredit schemes, 432Microfinance schemes, 382–383, 383bMicroturbines, 286–287, 378Middle East. See also

specific countriescarbon dioxide emissions in, 92f


of primary energy, 33, 33tGDP in, per capita, 343tgeothermal potential in, 165thousehold fuel choice in, 65fhydroelectric potentials in,

154t, 155f, 253tintensity trends in, 180–181leaded fuel in, 76bnatural gas resources

in, 145t, 146toil exportation by, projections

for, 357f, 358oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141toil resources in

exportation of, 120and security, 120

solar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions in, 82thorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159twind energy programme in, 231twind energy resources in, 164t

Mixed-oxide uranium-plutonium(MOX), 310–311

Mobility, in urban transportationsystems, 55

Modern energy formsaccess to, benefits of, 397–399conflicting perspectives on, 395transition to, 396–397

Molten carbonate fuel cells(MCFCs), 287

Monazite, as source of thorium, 152Monopoly, public, challenges of

breaking up, 425Monsoons, global warming and, 90Montreal Protocol, 440, 443bMorocco

solar thermal electricity developments in, 244b

uranium resources in, 151Mortality

from air pollution, 97infant, 42f, 52, 53occupational, for energy pro-

duction and distribution, 73transitions in, and population

size, 7, 50–51MOX. See Mixed-oxide

uranium-plutoniumMozambique, economic efficiency

potential in, 198

MTBE. See Methyl tertiary butyl etherMulti-crystalline silicon (mc-Si),

photovoltaic cell, 238tMultilateral agencies. See also

specific agenciesrole of, 431

Multilateral Investment GuaranteeAgency, 430

Municipal waste, as biomass, 160–161

National Board for Industrial and Technical Development(NUTEK), 429

National Energy Strategy, 207Natural bitumen (tar sands), 141t,

142, 142bNatural debt, 94bNatural gas

alternatives to, need for, 275consumption of, 124

projections for, 124electricity from, cost of, 292t,

292–293fuel-cycle analysis of, 103bnational markets for, 125–126occupational hazards with, 72pipeline grids for, 125political risks with, 124–125preferences for, 411nproduction of, global

cumulative, 144recovery of, 144–146

enhanced, carbon dioxideinjection for, 289

resource base of, 116t, 144–147adequacy of, 116conventional, 144–145, 145tunconventional, 145–

147, 146tunits for, 139

shortages due to resourceconstraints, projectionsregarding, 264

supplies of, 275supply security of, 124–126trade of, 35transportation of, 124, 125versatility of, 114

Natural gas combined cycle(NGCC), 275, 280–282air pollution emissions from,

cost of, 277tcarbon dioxide separation and

disposal in, cost of, 292cogeneration with, 282, 282tcost and performance

characteristics of, 281teconomic and environmental

benefits of, 282health costs of, 99, 99t

Natural gas vehicles, compressed, 78bNEA. See Nuclear Energy AgencyNear-zero emissions

hydrogen and, 299promising technological

options for, 278, 279technologies and strategies

for moving toward, 279–302

Needs, basic human, energyrequirements for satisfying,369–370, 420

Nepalair pollution from biomass

consumption in, 397biogas experience in, 373burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fNetherlands

efficiency in, barriers to, 204electricity storage systems in,

studies of, 262–263IGCC projects in, 283tintensity trends in, 179ftax incentives for renewable

energy use in, 265urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fvoluntary agreements in, 429wind energy programme in, 231t

New renewables, definition of, 26nNew Zealand

in APEC, 123bgeothermal electricity generation


in, 255, 257turban PM10 concentrations


NGCC. See Natural gas combined cycle

NGOs. See Nongovernmentalorganisations

Nicaraguaelectricity production from

bagasse in, potential for, 228b

geothermal development in, 256geothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256turban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fNigeria

economic efficiency potentialin, 198

generator use in, 114urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fNitrogen, in soil, biomass production

and, 161Nitrogen dioxide emissions, in

urban areas, 74Nitrogen fixation, sources of, 10t, 64tNitrogen oxides emissions

from automobiles, 279tas greenhouse gas, 86history of, 87from hydrogen production, 299from NGCC operation, 280from reciprocating engines, 286regional impacts of, 80–81, 80t

future of, 83, 101–102sources of, 10t, 64t

NMVOC. See Non-methanevolatile organic compounds

Non-commercial energy, definitionof, 26n

Non Fossil Fuel Obligation,England, 235

Non-methane hydrocarbon emissions, sources of, 10t, 11, 64t

N


Index

502

Non-methane volatile organiccompounds (NMVOC), regionalimpacts of, 80t, 81future of, 83, 101–102

Non-OECD Europe, primary energyuse in, 33, 33t

Nongovernmental organisations(NGOs), and sustainabledevelopment, 445

North Americaacid deposition in, 84ammonia emissions in, 81biomass potential in, 159coal resources in, 148, 148t, 149tcoalbed methane resources

in, 145, 146tconsumption in, of primary

energy, 33, 33teconomic efficiency potential

in, 187–189, 187tGDP in, per capita, 343tgeothermal energy in


hydroelectric potentials in, 154, 154t, 155f, 253t

intensities in, projections for, 344fnatural gas resources

in, 145t, 146toil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tozone concentrations in, 85regional emissions in, 80tsolar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions

in, 81–82, 82fthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater balance in, 153twater resources in, 159twind energy resources in, 164t

Norwayenergy R&D in, private sector

spending on, 447intensity trends in, 179fmarket liberalisation in, 426solar crop drying in, 250urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fNuclear Energy Agency

(NEA), 150–151Nuclear energy parks,

internationalised, 317Nuclear energy technologies

advanced, 17–18, 274, 306–318nuclear weapons proliferation

risks posed by, 309bNuclear-explosive materials, 322nNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 17,

309, 310bstatus of, 127

Nuclear powerchallenges related to, 307–313confidence in, 126cost of, 126, 131ncurrent status of, 17environmental cost of, 306fuel-cycle analysis of, 102bfuture technology

development, 315–317history of, lessons from, 407peaceful vs. military uses of, 17prevalence of, 4, 126

proliferation risks with, 17,127, 308–311, 322n

prospects for, 321nrationale for reconsidering,

306–307resource base for, adequacy

of, 117risks of, 31

to community, 80occupational, 72–73

routine emissions from, 80safety issues, 308security of, 12, 126–127and waste disposal, 17–18,

311–313, 322nNUTEK. See National

Board for Industrial andTechnical Development

Nutrients, biomass energy systemsand, 226

Nutritionconnection with energy, 43fuelwood shortages and, 68b

Obligations to buy, for renewablespromotion, 265successful examples of, 427

Obligations to supply, for renewables promotion, 265

Occupational hazards, 70–73in biomass collection, 70–71in coal industry, 71–72mortality rates for, 73with nuclear power, 72–73in oil and gas industries, 72projections for, 101with renewable power, 72

Occurrences, other, definition of, 138Ocean(s)

carbon dioxide sequestrationin, 288b, 289

oil in, sources of, 10t, 64tOcean energy

resources of, 166, 166ttypes of, 166

Ocean thermal energy, 166, 166tOcean thermal energy conversion

(OTEC), 260current status of, 260tenvironmental impact of, 261

Oceaniageothermal energy use in, 255twater balance in, 153t

Octane ratings, 320nOECD. See Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development

OECD countries. See alsoPacific OECDcarbon dioxide emissions in,

changes in, 444tdemand by, shifts in, 118fdevelopment assistance from,

decrease in, 440efficiency in

obstacles to, 200–201,203–204

policies on, 207hydroelectric potential in, 253t

intensities in, 127recent trends in, 175–

177, 177foil importation to, 120, 120tRD&D in, 435

decline in public supportfor, 406b

security in, markets and, 118, 129trade patterns in, 34use by, 33–34, 33t

Oil. See also specific typesalternatives to, need for, 275costs of, 143, 149enhanced recovery of, carbon

dioxide injection for, 289industry health hazards with, 72in oceans, sources of, 10t, 64tprices of

OPEC influence on, 122projections for, 12, 143, 149

resource base of, 139–144conventional, 139t,

140–141, 149–150distribution of, 118economists' view of, 142–144geologists' view of,

139–142, 143–144global, 116tproduction and, 139–140,

144, 144fprojections for, 149–150unconventional, 140–144,

140t–141t, 142b,149–150

units for, 139security with, 118shortages due to resource

constraints, projectionsregarding, 264

supplies of, 275Oil products, trade of, 34–35Oil shale

definition of, 141extraction of, 141, 142breserves and resources

of, 140t, 141Oilseeds, ester production from, 225One kilowatt per capita scenario

and population growth, 53–54in poverty alleviation, 46

OPEC. See Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

Organic photovoltaic cells, 238tOrganisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development(OECD). See also OECD countrieson uranium reserves, 150–151

Organisation of the PetroleumExporting Countries (OPEC)control of market by, 34–35influence on oil prices, 122

Oscillating water column (OWC), 259Oslo Protocol, 82OTEC. See Ocean thermal

energy conversionOur Common Future (World

Commission on Environmentand Development), definitionof sustainable developmentin, 31

Output, world, women’s contributionto, 48, 48f

OWC. See Oscillating water columnOxygen-blown coal gasification, 282–

284, 303Oxygenated fuels, 293Ozone

stratospheric, depletion of,86, 88t

tropospheric, increases in, 84–85, 87, 88t

Pa Mong Dam, 78Pacific Ocean, in global water

balance, 153tPacific OECD

coal resources in, 148t, 149tconsumption in, of primary

energy, 33, 33tGDP in, per capita, 343thydroelectric potentials in,

154t, 155fintensities in, projections for, 344fnatural gas resources

in, 145t, 146toil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tsolar energy potential in, 163tthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159t

PAFCs. See Phosphoric acid fuel cellsPakistan, urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fPanama, urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fPaper production, final energy use

for, 181tPapua New Guinea

air pollution from biomassconsumption in, 397

in APEC, 123bParabolic dish systems, 246Parabolic trough system (solar

farm), 245Particulate emissions, 278

costs associated with, 294and global warming, 87–88,

95, 104nhealth effects of, 74, 95as indicator of air quality, 74projections for, 92, 360–361provisional guidelines for,

74–76, 76fregional impacts of, 80–81,

85, 95sources of, 10t, 11, 64tstrategies for reduction of, 98

Partnership for a New Generationof Vehicles (PNGV), 294

Passive solar energy use, 250Payments system, definition of, 26nPBMR. See Pebble bed

modular reactorPebble bed modular reactor

(PBMR), 17, 314–315, 323nelectricity generation cost for, 315t

PEMFCs. See Proton exchangemembrane fuel cells

Persian Gulf, dependence on oilfrom, 275

Peru, in APEC, 123b

O

O


Index

503

Pest(s), global warming and, 90Pesticides

biomass energy systems and, 226

impacts of, 161Petroleum-based liquid and

gaseous fuels, household useof, emissions from, 68

Petroleum gas, liquefied, house-hold use of, 68greenhouse gas emissions

from, 71fPew Center on Global Climate

Change, 444PFBC. See Pressurised fluidised-

bed combustionPhilippines

in APEC, 123benergy efficiency programme

in, 428geothermal electricity generation


in, 255, 256urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fPhosphate(s), biomass energy

systems and, 226Phosphate deposits, uranium

concentrations in, 151Phosphoric acid fuel cells

(PAFCs), 287Photovoltaic panels

fuel-cycle analysis of, 102brisks of, 31

Photovoltaic solar cell modulescarbon dioxide mitigation

potential of, 239components of, 238cost of, 240, 240tefficiency of, 237, 238, 238tenergy payback time of, 239, 239thealth issues regarding, 240materials availability for, 239performance ratio of, 239storage needs of, 238–239types of, 237–238

Photovoltaic solar energy, 235–243economic aspects of, 15t,

240t, 240–241, 241t, 402tenvironmental aspects

of, 239–240equity issues, 377bexperience curve for, 16f, 436fimplementation issues, 241–242market development of, 237, 237fnational and international

programmes, 242bpotential of, 236t, 236–237for rural areas, 22, 241, 376–

377, 382source characteristics, 236system aspects of, 238–239technologies, 237–238, 238t

(See also Photovoltaicsolar cell modules)current status of, 266t

Pinon Pine IGCC Power Project,Nevada, 321n

Plant(s)as biomass, 156, 157tglobal warming and, 90

Plantations, biomass, 157–162,160t, 222costs of, 227impact on biodiversity, 226land availability for, 223

Plutoniumfast breeder reactors, 17,

315–316recycling of, 310–311, 322nwaste repositories, recovery

from, 312–313PM10 concentrations, 104n

in cities, 74, 75fhuman development and, 96b

Pneumoconiosis, coal workers, 72Pneumoconiosis silicosis, 71–72PNGV. See Partnership for a New

Generation of VehiclesPoint absorber, 259

current status of, 260tPoland


consumption in, increase inGDP and, 428


intensity trends in, 179, 180turban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fPolicy(ies), 24–26

definition of, 59on end-use efficiency, 205–

211, 206ffor international

cooperation, 25–26on investments, 25perspectives on, 409–411scenarios and, 353for sustainable

development, 416–449goals, 417t, 418–423

on technological innovations, 25and women, 47–48

Policy instruments, for sustainabledevelopment, 418

Pollution. See also Air pollution; Emissionslocal and regional, options for

reducing, 401–404, 422prevention and control

costs of, 402–403potential for, 411

reductions inand economic output, 410modern energy forms

and, 397, 400–408Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

emissions, with coal use, 72Polygeneration strategies, 15–16

for biomass energy, 229–230and cost reductions, 276for near-zero emission, 279for synthetic fuel production,

277, 295–299, 296tcoal-based, 297natural gas-based, 297–298

Polymer, production intensity for, 178bPopulation(s), 50–54

and consumption, 51–52, 398tin rural areas, 52

and demand, 51, 409

demographic transitions in, 7,9t, 50–51, 340b

growth rate of, 50–51projections for, 340b

momentum of, 51nexus with energy, 51–52

at global level, 53–54rural, 52, 369urban, 421urbanisation and, 54

Portfolio approach, to technologydevelopment, 438

Portugalgasification-based projects

in, 298tgeothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256tsolar collectors in, 248turban PM10 concentrations


Potentials, technical vs. economic, 138

Poverty, 43–46consumption patterns with, 7in developing countries, 7, 43–46

strategies for alleviationof, 9t, 23, 45–46

dimensions of, 43–44energy ladder and, 45eradication of, and sustainable

development, 419and fuel choice, 45in industrialised countries, 46–47nexus with energy, 9, 44–45as obstacle to widening energy

access, 420prevalence of, 44prices of energy and, 9

Poverty index, human, 44Power stations, coal use in, health

risks of, 72Power tower, solar, 245–246Precipitation

climate change and, 89in global water balance, 153t

Pregnancy, adverse outcomes of, household solid fuel useand, 69, 69b

Pressurised fluidised-bed combustion(PFBC), 290t, 291, 303–305and carbon dioxide

emissions, 321nPressurised water reactor (PWR), 313Price(s), 35–36

changes in, effects of, 5, 35of coal, 35, 36, 276vs. costs, 36

to marginal producers, 35of crude oil, 35, 122–124,

123, 123tand developing countries,

economies of, 35, 35fof diesel fuel, 74of electricity, 36of gasoline, 57, 74, 76bhigh, effects of, 5, 35including externalities in, 423–424marginal producer costs and, 35of oil, 122

projections for, 12, 143, 149privatisation and, 426of renewable energy sources, 14

role in sustainable development, 442

of uranium, 322nPrice efficiency, and energy

regulation, 410Primary energy

consumption ofglobal, 6t, 33, 33t, 345fgrowth in, 33–34, 33tintensities for, 5, 8fper capita, 4, 6f

conversion efficiency for, 13, 32requirements and supply of

history of, 345fprojections for, 20, 20f, 22f,

23, 344–348, 345f, 346fPrivate investments, 37

attracting, 431–432in developing countries, 409t, 431in research and development

(R&D), 435, 447–448Private sector, and technology

transfer, 440Privatisation, of energy markets, 426PRO-ALCOOL programme,

Brazil, 225, 229bProbable reserves, 138PROCEL programme, 197b, 427, 428Producer gas

combined heat and powerusing, 385–387

cooking with, 373–374case study, 385

electrification with, 377–378limitations of, 379

Production, environmental problemsfrom, awareness of, 41

Programme for the Further Implemen-tation of Agenda 21, 419, 445

Proliferation, nuclear, risks of, 17,308–311, 322n

Proton exchange membrane fuelcells (PEMFCs), 287competitiveness of, 301vs. microturbines, 286

Prototype Carbon Fund, WorldBank, 444

Public benefits fund, 427Public monopolies, challenges of

breaking up, 425Public-private partnerships, for

technology innovation, 431–432, 438

Public procurement policies, andenergy efficiency, 429

Public sector use, economic efficiency potential forin Asia, 189–190, 189tin Eastern Europe, 190t, 191in Latin America, 195, 196tin Western Europe, 186, 186t

Pulp and paper production, finalenergy use for, 181t

PWR. See Pressurised water reactorPyrolysis, bio-oil production

through, 225

Qataroil resources in, 120synthetic middle distillate (SMD)

plant in, plans for, 295

Q


Index

504

Quadgeneration, 296t, 297Quality of service, and energy

regulation, 410Quota systems, as incentive for

renewable energy use, 235

Radiation exposure, as occupational hazard, 73

Radioactive products, fromnuclear fission, 80

Radon, in uranium mining, 73RAINS-ASIA model

on nitrogen oxide emissions, 83on sulphur deposition, 97bon sulphur dioxide emissions, 82

Rankine cycle, 291Rape methyl esters. See RMERCC. See Roller compacted concreteR&D. See Research and developmentRD&D. See Research, development,

and demonstrationReciprocating engines, 284–286

nitrogen oxide emissionsfrom, 286

Recoverable resourcesdefinition of, 138oil, 139–142

Recycling, of biomass remainders, 226

Refuse, burning of, air pollutionfrom, 77

Regional climate change, 86, 90Regional cooperation, 442–443Regional pollution, impacts on

ecosystems and humans, 80–86projections for, 101–102,

358–360Regulation(s)

air quality, vs. actual emissionlevels, 278, 279t

economic efficiency and, 410and energy sector

restructuring, 425–427and security, 129–130

Relative poverty, 44Renewable energy sources, 219–267

abundance of, 404–405advantages of, 221competitiveness of, 222consumption of, 117

global, 4, 14fuel-cycle analysis of, 103bincentives for use of, 235,

235t, 264–265intermittentand energy storage, 262–263grid integration of, 262vs. stable, 262new, definition of, 26npolicies regarding, 264–267, 427prices of, 14resource base for, 138, 167t

adequacy of, 12, 117–118potential of, 14, 220, 221–222

types of, 221 (See also specific types)

value of, 263Renewable energy technologies, 14

barriers to, 14

categories of, 221t (See alsospecific categories)

competition from fossil fuels, 407costs of, 15t, 220, 404t

vs. costs of fossil fuels, 405current status of, 266tdevelopment of, 264–267, 427experience curves with, 14, 16ffinancing of, 264, 431, 435occupational hazards with, 72policies regarding, 410–411system aspects of, 261–264transition to, 220

Renewables. See Renewableenergy sources

Research, development, anddemonstration (RD&D), publicsupport for, decline in, 406b

Research and development (R&D)funding for

GDP and, 448treturns on, 435trends in, 447–449

government programmes for, 433–434, 437

interpreting data on, 447bpolicy initiatives to support, 433returns on, 435

Reservesdefinitions of, 115, 138economic potentials of, 138global, estimates of, 116tproduction costs of, 138vs. resources, 138types of, 138

Residential use. See HouseholdsResource(s), 135–167. See also

specific typesadequacy of, 12–13classification of, 137f, 138cost estimates for, 138definitions of, 115, 138distribution of, 118, 167global, estimates of, 116t, 166tvs. reserves, 138technical potentials of, 138types of, 138units of, 139

Resource basedefinition of, 115global, 116tand women, 47

Respiratory diseases, householdsolid fuel use and, 69, 69b

Rio Declaration, 443Rio Earth Summit, goals

developed in, 3, 42–43Risk assessments, comparative,

100–101, 102b–103bRisk transitions,

environmental, 95–96, 95fRivers, dam construction on,

advanced technologies for, 252RME (rape methyl esters), biomass

production of, 225performance data for, 226t

Rock energy, hot dry, 165Roller compacted concrete (RCC)

dams, 252Romania


intensity trends in, 180t


Rooftop photovoltaic systems, energypayback time of, 239, 239t

Runoff, in global water balance,153t, 155

Rural areasaccess to electricity in, 374tbiopower in, 377–378consumption in, and population

growth, 52–53in developing countries, 21–22

energy needs of, 368–388lack of adequate energy

services in, 369diesel-engine electricity

generation in, 375, 376belectrification programmes

for, 374–379, 431barriers to, 421centralised approach

to, 374–375decentralised approach to,

375–379, 381, 421–422examples of successful, 421

energy development inaccelerating, 380–381time horizon for, 379–380

energy services inlack of adequate, 369strategies for

expanding, 381–382strategies for making

affordable, 382–384fuels in, 370–374, 380thydropower in, small-

scale, 375–376photovoltaic electricity

for, 22, 241, 376–377, 382equity issues in, 377b

pollution in, 49, 49fpopulation in, 369renewable energy projects in, 431sustainable development

goals for, 22technological options for, 380twind power in, 377woodfuel harvest in, 66

Russia. See also Russian Federation;Soviet Union, formercoalbed methane production

in, 145efficiency in

economic potential of, 191–192, 192t

obstacles to, 201, 202policies on, 207

fossil fuel subsidies in, 425FPR programme in, 323ngeothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256tgeothermal energy production

in, 257tintensity trends in, 179, 180tplutonium recycling in, 322nsubsidies in, 202

Russian Federationin APEC, 123bcoal resources in, 148oil shale deposits in, 116urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fRwanda, improved cooking

stoves disseminated in, 371t

Salt gradient energy, 166, 166tSalter Duck, 259Sanitation, 49Saturation, consumption, income

and, 58Saudi Arabia, oil resources in, 120sc-Si. See Single crystal siliconScenarios, 18–21, 333–365

alternative development pathsin, 335–336

definition of, 335descriptive vs. normative, 335economic development and

equity in, 340–342, 342fenvironmental issues in, 358–360final energy requirements

in, 348–351, 350fhistory in, 352–353of IIASA/WEC study, 19t,

337–340, 338t, 339timplications of, 353–364intensities in, 342–344, 344finternational trade in, security

and, 357–358, 357fand policies, 353primary energy in, requirements

and supply of, 344–348,345f, 346f

review of literature on, 336–337spatial scales of, 351–352, 352fsustainability in, 20, 21t, 336technology in, 348, 348ftemporal scales of, 335, 351–352

Schistosomiasisdam systems and, 79hydropower and, 252–253

Scotlandnorthwest coast of, wave

energy potential of, 259tidal current model

demonstration in, 260SDHW. See Solar domestic hot

water systemSea level, climate change and, 90, 91Seasonal storage, of solar energy, 249Seawater, uranium recovery

from, 150, 151, 151b, 316–317Secretary-General, United Nations,

1997 report of, 419–420Sector, energy. See Energy sectorSecurity, 11–12, 111–130

adequacy and, 114, 115–118challenges of, 113–115costs of, 120definition of, 11, 113dimensions of, 113–115efficiency and, 128enhancement of, 11–12, 115

long-term, 119environment and, 128intensity and, 127–128markets and, 128–130

projections for, 357–358, 357f

significance of, 113of supply, 118–128

Sedimentation, hydropower and, 252Self-reliance, 59n

importance of, 41

R

S


Index

505

Separations Technology andTransmutation Systems(STATS), committee on, 312

Separations and transmutation(S&T) proposals, 312

Serbia, geothermal energy production in, 257t

Services, energycomponents of, 32definition of, 4demand for, 32–34driving forces in, 32–33priorities in, 41–42

Shares, of energy in trade, 34Siemens Westinghouse, and

SOFC development, 288Sierra Leone, economic efficiency

potential in, 198Silica, in coal mining, health

risks of, 71–72Singapore

in APEC, 123bIGCC projects in, 283tleaded gasoline in, 76burban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fSingle crystal silicon (sc-Si),

photovoltaic cell, 238tSixth Conference of the Parties

to the Climate Convention(COP-6), 444

Slovak Republicgeothermal energy production

in, 257turban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fSlovenia, intensity trends in, 180tSLPG. See Synthetic liquefied

petroleum gasSmall gasification, of biomass,

224, 224tSmall-particle pollution. See

Particulate emissionsSMDs. See Synthetic

middle distillatesSNA. See System of

National AccountsSocial issues, 7–9, 9t. See also

specific issuesapproaches to, 41–43, 43f

SOFC. See Solid-oxide fuel cellSoil, on biomass plantations, 161–162Solar capacity, transformed into

firm capacity, 246fSolar domestic hot water system

(SDHW), 247, 248–249costs of, 248–249energy payback time of, 249

Solar energycost of, 236fuel-cycle analysis of, 102blow-temperature, 247–251occupational hazards with, 72photovoltaic, 235–243potential of, 221, 236–237resource base for, 162f, 163, 163tsolar thermal electricity, 243–247source characteristics, 236space-based, 242–243technologies, 221t (See also

specific technologies)current status of, 266t

value of, 263Solar farm (parabolic trough

system), 245Solar insolation, developing

countries and, 405Solar radiation, 236Solar thermal electricity

(STE), 243–247advantages of, 245costs of, 15t, 220, 246, 402tdish/engine system, 244dispatchable applications,

243–244distributed applications, 244environmental and social

aspects of, 246–247market introduction of, 243–

244, 245fpotential of, 243technologies, 244–246

current status of, 266tSolid fuels. See Biomass; CoalSolid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 287–

288, 290t, 291Soluz, photovoltaic programme

of, 377Somalia, improved cooking stoves

disseminated in, 371tSources of energy, early, 41South Africa

coal reserves in, 148gasification-based projects

in, 298tnuclear disarmament of, 310bphotovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bphotovoltaic systems in, 376–377R&D spending in, 448urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fSouth America. See Latin AmericaSoviet Union, former. See also

specific statescarbon dioxide emissions in, 92fcoal resources in, 148, 148t, 149tcoalbed methane resources

in, 145, 146tconsumption in, 395t


economic efficiency potentialsin, 191–192, 191t

GDP in, 343t, 398tgeothermal potential in, 165theavy crude oil resources in, 142household fuel choice in, 65fhydroelectricity in

dams for, 78potential of, 154, 154t,

155f, 253tintensities in

history of, 8fprojections for, 343, 344f

oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tprojections for, 358b, 359fregional emissions in, 80tsolar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions

in, 81–82, 82fthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159t

wind energy programme in, 231twind energy resources in, 164t

Space-based solar energy, 242–243Space heating, solar, 249Spain

energy R&D in, private sectorspending on, 447

IGCC projects in, 283tsolar energy technologies in, 246solar thermal electricity



Special Report on EmissionsScenarios (IPCC), 335

Spot markets, 36S&T. See Separations and

transmutationStandalone electricity systems,

value of renewables for, 263Standalone photovoltaic systems,

energy payback time of, 239STATS. See Separations Technology

and Transmutation SystemsSTE. See Solar thermal electricitySteel

final energy use in, 181tproduction intensity for, 178b

Stocks, oil, and security, 121Storage

electricity, 262–263costs for, 263, 263t

energyhydroelectric, 253intermittent renewables

and, 262–263solar, 249

Storms, climate change and, 90Stoves. See Cooking stovesStrategy, definition of, 59Stratospheric ozone, depletion

of, 86, 88tSub-bituminous coal, 147

resources of, 148, 148t, 149tSubsidies

conventional energyphasing out, 264, 424–425problems with, 382, 425

for developing countries, poorareas of, 23

and energy regulation, 410fossil fuel, 423fuel, vs. equipment, 372hidden, 425as obstacle to efficiency, 202, 207phasing out, 24renewable energy,

recommendation for, 264rural, 22and sustainable development,

383–384Sudan, improved cooking stoves

disseminated in, 371tSugar(s), ethanol production

from, 225performance data for, 226tSugarcane, ethanol from, 157Sulphate aerosols, in climate

change, 86Sulphur, emissions of

from geothermal fields, 258

human disruption index for, 9–10sources of, 10t, 63, 64tSulphur dioxide emissionsin Asia, environmental policies

and, 403freduction of

goals for, 101strategies for, 98

regional impacts of, 80–81, 80tprojections for, 81–83, 82f,

101, 359–360, 361ftrends in selected countries, 402f

Supply, energyfocus on, vs. demand, 41–42global, share of fuels in, 116fsecurity of, 118–128, 275

cooperative efforts toensure, 277, 442–443

disruptions and, 118–119unreliable, market dysfunction

and, 423bSustainable development

advanced fossil energy technologies and, 14, 276

advanced nuclear energytechnologies and, 17–18

affordability factor in, 383–384barriers to, 423capacity and institution building

for, 440–441definition of, 419industrialisation as instrument

for, 440international cooperation

and, 441–445investments in, 430–433, 446market failure to support, 423nongovernmental organisations

(NGOs) and, 445objectives of, 7–12options for, 12–18policies for, 24–26, 416–449poverty eradication and, 419regulatory options for

encouraging, 425–427role of energy in, i, 3, 31in rural areas, goal for, 22scenarios for, 20, 21t, 336strategies to encourage, 416,

425–427, 433–438technological innovation

and, 433–438traditional biomass and, 222

Swedenbiomass energy in, 162conversion of, 224, 227t,

228, 229bbiomass integrated gasification/

combined cycle (BIG/CC)project in, 224

carbon dioxide taxes in, 264efficiency in, policies on, 209tenergy R&D in, private sector

spending on, 447geothermal energy production

in, 257tnuclear waste disposal in, 312recycling of biomass

remainders in, 226solar district heating in, 249urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75f


Index

506

wind energy programme in, 231t

Switzerlandcarbon tax in, proposals for, 424efficiency in

approach to improving, 429policies on, 209t

energy R&D in, funding for, 448geothermal energy production

in, 257tgeothermal heat pumps in, 256solar crop drying in, 250urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fSynfuels, projections for, 348, 349fSyngas (synthesis gas), 15, 17, 279

carbon dioxide recovery from, 291

coal-derived, polygenerationbased on, 297

fuels derived from, for compression-ignitionengines, 294–295

hydrogen manufacture from, 321n

natural gas-derived, polygen-eration based on, 297–298

Synthesis gas. See SyngasSynthetic fuels, 15

applications of, 276development efforts for, oil

crises of 1970s and, 275polygeneration strategies for

production of, 277, 295–299, 296t

Synthetic liquefied petroleum gas (SLPG)advantages of, 379crop residues converted

into, 387–388Synthetic middle distillates

(SMDs), 294–295System(s), energy

adequacy of, 114climate change and, 91definition of, 4development of, investments

and, 6–7efficiency of, 32evolution of, 31–32goals of, 31–32, 59health effects of, comparisons

of, 98–101history of, 346f, 347projections for, 345–348, 346fsustainability of current, 3

System of National Accounts(SNA), 48, 59n

Systems benefits charges, 427

Taiwan, Chinagasification-based projects

in, 298tin APEC, 123bnuclear power in, 126solar collectors in, 248t

Taj Mahal, acid deposition and, 84Tajikistan, intensity trends in, 179Tanzania, improved cooking

stoves disseminated in, 371t

Tar sandsdefinition of, 142environmental impacts of

use, 142bextraction of, 142, 142breserves and resources

of, 141t, 142Tax(es), 24, 36

carbon dioxide, 264, 423,424, 424b

case for, 410on leaded vs. unleaded

gasoline, 76bmix of, 423revenue-neutral, 449n

Tax incentives, for renewableenergy use, 265

Technological diffusion, projections for, implicationsof, 353–355, 356–357

Technological innovation, 265in developing countries,

encouraging, 438–441diffusion of, supporting, 439–440leadership in, opportunities

for, 439policy options for

promoting, 437–438portfolio approach to, 438public policies in support of,

rationale for, 435–437spending on, 435stages in, 433, 434tand sustainable

development, 433–438Technological innovations, policies

for, 25Technology(ies)

components of, 32costs of, buying down, 437, 439experience curves, 435, 436fsmall-scale, 438

Technology Development Board(India), 182

Technology transfer, internationalindustrial collaboration and, 440

Temperatures, climate changeand, 88–90

Thailandin APEC, 123bbiomass energy conversion

in, 224efficiency in, 190programme for, 428geothermal electricity generation

capacity in, 256tozone concentrations in, 85urban areas ofair pollution in, 77PM10 concentrations in, 75f

Thermal power plants, efficiencyof, and air pollution, 74

Thermonuclear fusion, 317Thin-film photovoltaic

modules, 237, 238materials availability for, 239

Thorium, resource base of, 150,152, 152t

Three Gorges dam, 77, 78Three Mile Island accident, 308Tidal barrage energy, 259

current status of, 260t

environmental impact of, 260–261

Tidal energy, 166, 166tTidal and marine current

energy, 259–260current status of, 260t

Tight formation gasdefinition of, 146resources of, 146, 146t

Time, savings in, modern energyforms and, 397

Tophat cycle, 280Town gas, 299

operation of reciprocatingengines on, 286

quadgeneration vs. separateproduction of, 296t

Tradebarriers to, and technological

leapfrogging, 439–440of coal, 35, 148of crude oil, 34–35, 120and environment, policies on, 420globalisation and, 34–35of natural gas, 35of oil products, 34–35

and security, 121–122,123–124

projections for, 357–358, 357fsecurity and, 118, 120

Traditional energydefinition of, 26ninsults caused by, 9, 64tuse of, 3data on, 4

Transition economiesdefinition of, 26ndemand by, shifts in, 118fefficiency in

intensity trends and, 177–179, 180t

obstacles to, 201–202,204, 205

policies on, 207technology transfer

and, 181–182Transportation, 7

of biomass, 160in cities, strategies for, 55–56,

77, 198of crude oil, security in, 122economic efficiency potential for

achieving, 429bin Africa, 197t, 198in Asia, 189t, 190in China, 194t, 195in Commonwealth


in Eastern Europe, 190t, 191in India, 193–194, 193tin Japan, 189t, 190in Latin America, 196–

197, 196tin North America, 187t,

188–189obstacles to, 204–205policies on, 209–210in Southeast Asia, 189t, 190in Western Europe, 186t, 187

energy use for, recent trendsin, 175–177, 179f

of fossil fuels, 148Trash burning, air pollution from, 77Trees. See also Forest(s)

invisible, 66Trigeneration, 296t, 297Tropospheric ozone, increases

in, 84–85, 87, 88tTuberculosis, household solid fuel

use and, 69bTunisia, geothermal energy

production in, 257tTurkey




Two Control Zone policy (China), 82Typhoons, climate change and, 90

Ugandaeconomic efficiency potential


disseminated in, 371tUI. See Uranium InstituteUkraine


economic efficiency potentialsin, 191t, 192

intensity trends in, 180tsubsidies in, 202urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fUltrasupercritical pulverised coal

steam turbine plant, 290t,291, 303limitations of, 303

UN. See United NationsUnconventional resources

projections for, 149–150resource base of

natural gas, 145–147, 146toil, 140–144, 140t–141t, 142b

types of, 138UNCTAD. See United Nations

Conference on Trade and Development

Undernutrition, 43UNDESA. See United Nations

Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Undiscovered resources, 138UNDP. See United Nations

Development ProgrammeUNECE. See United Nations

Economic Commission on Europe

UNFC. See United NationsInternational FrameworkClassification forReserves/Resources

UNFCCC. See United NationsFramework Convention onClimate Change

United Arab Emirates, oilresources in, 120

T

U


Index

507

United Kingdombiomass gasification

demonstration in, 224biomass production and use

in, 162climate change levy in, plans

for, 424coalbed methane production

in, 145consumption in, 396t

ratio to GDP, 398fenergy R&D in, spending

on, 447, 448FPR prototype in, 323nmarket liberalisation in, 426Non Fossil Fuel

Obligation, 235, 427Severn Estuary, tidal energy

potential of, 259sulphur dioxide emissions in,

trends in, 402ftidal current resources in, 259urban PM10 concentrations


in, 231tUnited Nations Commission on

Sustainable Development,159, 420, 441

United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development.See Earth Summit

United Nations Conference onTrade and Development(UNCTAD), 442

United Nations Conference onPopulation, 26n

United Nations Conference onSmall Island DevelopingStates, 26n

United Nations Conference on Sustainable HumanSettlements (1996), 26n, 54

United Nations Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs(UNDESA), i

United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP)definition of human

development, 340human poverty index of, 44outreach effort by, i

United Nations EconomicCommission on Europe(UNECE), 138

United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, 104n

Capacity 21 Programme, 431United Nations Framework

Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), 42–43,433, 443, 443bgoals of, 94–95on greenhouse gas

emissions, 3, 318nimplementation of, 26, 128status of, 94

United Nations General AssemblySpecial Session on SmallIsland Developing States, 26n

United Nations InternationalFramework Classification forReserves/Resources (UNFC), 138

United Statesair pollution in, reduction

of, 74, 82in APEC, 123bappliance use in households

with electricity, 397taquifer gas in, 147biomass in

gasification demonstration, 224

potential of, 159production of, 162

biomass in energy system of, 227t

carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f, 93changes in, 444t

Clean Air Act of, 82, 84, 360Clinch River Breeder Reactor

demonstration project, 323ncoal prices in, 276coal reserves in, 148consumption in, 57–58, 395t, 396t

ratio to GDP, 398fCorporate Average Fuel

Economy (CAFE) standards, 204, 428

efficiency ineconomic benefits of, 185beconomic potential of, 187–

189, 187tpolicies on, 209t

FPR prototype in, 323nfuel ethanol programme in, 225gas hydrates in, 147gasification-based projects

in, 298tgeothermal energy in

electricity generationcapacity for, 256t

heat pumps for, 256use of, 255, 257t

heavy crude oil resources in, 142hydroelectricity in

dams for, 78generation of, 254potential of, 154–155

IGCC projects in, 283tintensities in, 127

automobile fuel, 429bhistory of, 8frecent trends in, 175–

177, 179foil importation by, 57oil shale resources in, 141photovoltaic solar energy

programme in, 242bPublic Utility Regulatory

Policy Act (1978), 432RD&D in

decline in support for, 406bfunding for, 435, 447, 448

renewables portfolio standardsin, 427

security inwith coal, 126cost of, 115, 115b, 120intensity and, 127with natural gas, 125with oil, 120

solar energy incollectors for, 248t

market for, 248technologies for, 245–246thermal electricity

developments in, 244bsulphur dioxide emissions in,

trends in, 402ftechnological experience

curves in, 16f, 436fthorium resources in, 152tight gas resources in, 146urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fvoluntary agreements in, 429wind energy programme

in, 231twindpower capacity in, 427Yucca Mountain, Nevada,

311, 312, 322nUranium

cost of, 126, 131n, 150, 151occupational hazards with, 72–73price of, 322nrecovery of

cost of, 150, 151from seawater, 150, 151,

151b, 316–317reprocessing of, 150resource base of, 116t, 150–

151, 150t, 151tadequacy of, 117unconventional, 151units for, 139

resource constraints, 17, 315Uranium Institute (UI), 150, 167–169nUranium-thorium, denatured, LWR

operated on, 314Urban areas

air pollution in, 73–77concentrations of, 49, 49fin developing

countries, 76–77in industrialised

countries, 74–76long-term control of, 77

transportation in, strategiesfor, 55–56, 77, 198

Urbanisation, 7, 54–57challenges of, 421construction and, 56and fuelwood market, 71population growth and, 54rate of, 54strategies for improvements

in, 56–57transportation and, 55–56trends, 369

U.S. Department of Energyfossil energy programme of, 278Vision 21 Program, 319n

U.S. Energy Star labeling scheme, 429Use. See Consumption

Valuation, economic, of health, 98–100

Variable costs, 45Vehicles. See AutomobilesVenezuela

heavy crude oil resources in, 142intensity trends in, 180t

leaded fuel in, 76boil reserves in, 116urban PM10 concentrations

in, 75fViet Nam

in APEC, 123beconomic efficiency potential

in, 189hydropower stations in, small-

scale, 375Vision 21 Program, U.S.

Department of Energy, 319nVoluntary agreements, and energy

efficiency, 429

Wafer-type photovoltaic modules, 237–238

Waste, municipal, as biomass, 160–161

Waste disposal, nuclear, 17–18,311–313, 322n

Water balance, annual world, 153,153t, 155–156

Water heating systems, solar, 249Water quality, hydropower impact

on, 252Water supply

and biomass production, 159–160in developing countries, rural

areas of, 49environmental decline and, 49shortages in, 155–156sufficiency of, 159t

Water use, biomass energy systems and, 225–226

Water vaporatmospheric concentrations

of, 86, 104nas greenhouse gas, 86

Wave energy, 166, 166t, 259current status of, 260t

WCED. See World Commission onEnvironment and Development

Weather, and solar energyresources, 163

WEC. See World Energy CouncilWestern Europe. See also

specific countriesammonia emissions in, 81carbon dioxide emissions in, 92fcoal resources in, 148t, 149teconomic efficiency potentials

in, 185–187, 186tGDP in, per capita, 343tgeothermal potential in, 165thydroelectric potential in, 154,

154t, 155f, 253tintensities in, projections for, 344fnatural gas resources

in, 145t, 146toil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141tregional emissions in, 80tsolar energy potential in, 163tsulphur dioxide emissions

in, 81–82, 82fthorium resources in, 152uranium resources in, 150t, 151twater resources in, 159twind energy resources in, 164t

V

V


Index

508

Western Germany, sulphur dioxideemissions in, trends in, 402f

Westinghouse AP600, 313WHO. See World Health OrganizationWillingness to pay, in economic

valuation of health, 98–100Win-win strategies, for environmental

improvements, 96–98Wind-battery-diesel hybrid

systems, 377Wind energy, 230–235

costs of, 15t, 220, 234, 404tpotential reductions in, 234f

definition of, 221economic aspects of, 234environmental aspects

of, 233–234experience curve for, 16f, 436fgrowth of, scenarios for, 231–232implementation issues for, 234incentives for use of, 235, 235tinstalled wind power, 231, 231toccupational hazards with, 72potential of, 230–231resource base for, 163–165, 164t

adequacy of, 117potential of, 164t, 165

for rural needs, 377system aspects of, 232–233technologies, 221t, 232, 232t

current status of, 266tWind turbines, 232–233

decommissioning of, 233–234energy output of, estimates

of, 234household-scale, 377

Women, 47–50economic activities of, 47, 49–50education of, 50environmental quality and, 49fuelwood collection by, 70health of, 49policies and, 47–48position of, 48

and desired number of births, 52

strategies for improvementin, 50

resource base for, 47world output by, 48, 48f

Woodfuelcoal compared with, 370commercial collection of, 70–71household use of, 65–68

emissions from, 67f, 71fshortages of, 66

health effects of, 68bWorkplaces

hazards in, 70–73projections for, 101

World Association of NuclearOperators, 127

World BankAsia Alternative Energy

Program (ASTAE), 432and capacity building, 431hydroelectric power projects

financed by, 254main energy-related activity

of, suggestion for, 430photovoltaic solar energy

programme of, 242tPrototype Carbon Fund, 444

World Business Council forSustainable Development,336, 337, 444

World Commission on Dams, 104n, 156

World Commission onEnvironment and Development(WCED), 26n, 449n

World Energy Council (WEC)definition of resources, 137–138on oil reserves, 141outreach effort by, irecommendations by, 3scenarios by, 335, 336–340,

338t, 339t17th Congress of, 3on uranium reserves, 150

World Energy Outlook (InternationalEnergy Agency), 337

World Food Summit, 26nWorld Health Organisation (WHO), 97World Meteorological

Organisation, 104nWorld Trade Organisation

(WTO), 441and security, 128–129

Yucca Mountain, Nevada, 311,312, 322n

Yugoslavia, former, intensitytrends in, 180t

Zambia, economic efficiencypotential in, 198

Zero-emission-vehicle (ZEV), 300ZEV. See Zero-emission-vehicleZimbabwe

biomass consumption in, 227tair pollution from, 397economic efficiency potential

in, 198fuel ethanol programme


disseminated in, 371t

Y

Z

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