F T M

The Umayyad Mosque in modern day Damascus, Syria (from: http://www.socwall.com).

2

TITLE: FROM TEMPLE TO MOSQUE

SUBTITLE: THE TRANSFORMATION OF RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE IN

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE DURING LATE ANTIQUITY

COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO BYZANTINE ARCHAEOLOGY

COURSE CODE: 1043N07Y

AUTHOR: MARTEN VAN NIEUWKOOP

STUDENT NUMBER: 1012762

SUPERVISOR: DR. J.A.C. VROOM

LEIDEN UNIVERSITY, FACULTY OF ARCHAEOLOGY

LEIDEN, DECEMBER 2012

3

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION PAGE 4

2. LATE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE PAGE 6

2.1 TEMPLE OF BACCHUS PAGE 6

2.2 BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS PAGE 7

3. EARLY BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE PAGE 9

3.1 DOMES PAGE 9

3.2 HAGIA SOPHIA PAGE 10

4. EARLY ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE PAGE 12

4.1 UMAYYAD MOSQUE PAGE 12

4.2 DOME OF THE ROCK PAGE 16

5. CONCLUSION PAGE 20

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 22

7. LIST OF FIGURES PAGE 23

4

1. INTRODUCTION

Nowadays a fierce debate is going on about whether or not to use the term of

‘decline’ in archaeological studies of Late Antiquity, the period between the

Roman Empire and the Middle ages (roughly 300-900 AD). The term finds it

origin in the age of enlightenment (17th

and 18th

centuries) when secularism was

being eulogized. During this age the fall of the Roman Empire was regarded as

the triumph of barbarism and Christianity. The people considered this as a decline

and they turned hostile against everything that came after the Roman period

(Liebeschuetz 2001, 234).

Of course this view of ‘loss’ has recently been abandoned by most scholars, who

prefer terms as transformation, (cultural) change, progress and/or process instead

of growth and decline. There are still some scholars who prefer the concept of

decline however. One of them is professor Liebeschuetz from the University of

Nottingham. He argues that “without decline, there can be no change and no

growth. And if we don’t try to understand decline, we cannot possibly understand

growth either” (Liebeschuetz 2001, 237).

There are however a number of arguments against the use of the concept of

decline. First of all the term suggest something ‘bad’, which is a fairly subjective

point of view. From a western point of view the decline and fall (or fall and

decline) of the Roman Empire is often regarded as bad. But was it bad for the

people who experienced it? If it was, why did they change alongside with it?

Secondly the term suggests superiority and this creates an imperialistic view. This

view assumes that there are homogeneous groups: Romans and natives. We

should avoid these terms as they are etic names for emic perceptions. There had

been cultural contact for a very long time and ‘Romans’ and ‘natives’ influenced

each other (Versluys 2012).

5

Now we know more about the concept of decline we can move on to the decline

in Late Antiquity. Studies have shown that the east Roman Empire (from now on

called the Byzantine Empire) didn’t suffer much decay during Late Antiquity. A

possible reason for this is that a high state of civilization was already present in

the east before the Roman Conquest. The Romans just plugged in in this area,

while they had to build a civilization ‘from scratch’ in the west. After the fall of

the Roman Empire the east could rely on this existing firm basis. Therefore I

believe that scholars could use the concept of decline if they look at the west

Roman Empire. We should use the terms transformation and change however if

we look at the Byzantine Empire (Versluys 2012).

With these facts we can make a jump towards my research question. Is there

evidence of transformation of religious architecture in the Byzantine Empire

during Late Antiquity? To find out I will compare religious architecture and their

art from the late Roman-, the early Byzantine- (early Christian & the age of

Justinian) and the early Islamic (Umayyad) period with each other. Most of the

related case-studies will come from the area of the east Roman Empire /

Byzantine Empire.

6

2. LATE ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Roman architecture consisted of a mix of different cultures, including the Greek

and Etruscans. This phenomenal of creating a new ‘culture’ from multiple other

cultures is called Bricolage. Roman architecture didn’t undergo major changes, so

late Roman architecture is often quite the same as early Roman architecture.

2.1 TEMPLE OF BACCHUS

A good example of a roman temple in the east Roman Empire is the Temple of

Bacchus, located at Baalbek in Lebanon. This temple was commissioned by

Emperor Antonius Pius and finished around the year 150 AD. The temple has

been constructed in the Corinthian order, with a measurement of 66x35x31 metre.

A peristyle of forty-two unfluted columns supported an abundant entablature and

the cella on the inside is decorated with Corinthian half columns (fig. 1). On both

sides of this cella scenes of the birth and life of Bacchus are depicted. The adyton

(inner shrine) is above a staircase. The roof of the temple was made of cedar

trusses. Many historians consider this to be the best-preserved Roman temple in

the Near East (Kidder-Smith 1990, 34).

Figure 1: Drawing plan of the Temple of Bacchus (from: http://www.greatbuildings.com).

7

2.2 BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS

In Roman times the basilica was not used for religious purposes but rather for

juridical. Statues of gods were often present however and the basilica was often

used as a church in later times (Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

A basilica was often found in any settlement that considered itself a city. On the

inside of a basilica a rectangular open hall was located, with colonnades running

around it. There were raised platforms at one or both ends of the structure, often

enclosed to accommodate the magistrate. During the Late Roman Empire basilica

were more often used as private buildings, rather than public buildings

(Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

The best example of a Roman basilica is the Basilica of Maxentius which is found

in Rome. The construction of this Basilica started at the end of the Late Roman

Period (in 308 AD) under the reign Emperor Maxentius, and it was later (in 312

AD) finished by Emperor Constantine I. Due to the fact that it was the largest of

the Roman basilicas it is also known as the Basilica Nova, meaning ‘New

Basilica’. It covered about 5600 square metres, and featured a central nave of 80 x

25 x 39 metres. The architecture not only consisted of aspects from typical Roman

basilicas, but also from Roman baths. The central nave didn’t have columns to

support the ceiling but had arches, for example. These arches enabled the use of

groined vaults, which created a more touching interior space. On both sides of this

nave barrel-vaulted bays were located, which consist of a single curve along a

certain distance. The vestibule at the eastern side of the building was a space

between the interior of the building and the street (fig. 2) (Encyclopædia

Britannica Inc., 2012).

8

Figure 3: Parts of the Colossus of Constantine,

for view in the Musei Capitolini, Rome (from:

http://ancientrome.ru).

Figure 2: Reconstruction of the floor plan of the Basilica of Maxentius (from:

http://www.dartmouth.edu).

The Colossus of Constantine was positioned inside this basilica, in the western

apse. This was a huge statue of the late Roman Emperor Constantine the Great.

Only small parts of it are left intact, including the head and a hand (fig. 3).

Judging by the size of these parts,

the statue would have been about 12

metre high. The head alone is

already 2.5 metres high. Particularly

interesting is the fact that Constan-

tine is looking up towards the sky,

perhaps evidence of the belief in the

existence of only one God. The fact

that his hand is pointing upward

could also be evidence of this

conversion to Christianity (Khan

Academy 2012).

9

Figure 4: Illustration of pendentives (left) and squinches

(right) (from: https://bucks.instructure.com).

3. EARLY BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

Early Byzantine architecture was built as a continuation of Roman architecture.

Constantinople became the main city of this style of architecture, replacing Rome.

At first Byzantine architects used primarily Roman temple features. An important

change in style however was the change to a plan in the shape of a Greek cross, a

combination of the Roman basilica (a large roofed public building used for

multiple purposes) and the Roman temple. This change occurred during the age of

Emperor Justinian I.

3.1 DOMES

Positioned on the middle of the Greek cross was often a dome. The dome was

meant to symbolize the descent of heaven upon earth. Two techniques could be

used to allow the dome to rest on the building. Firstly architects could chose to

use a squinch (fig. 4), an arch in each corner of the square base to form an

octagon. This technique had some structural problems however, so architects

preferred to use the

pendentive (fig. 4). A

pendentive is a round

triangle which connects

the four corners of a

square room with a round

dome. These four pen-

dentives distribute the

pressure of the dome on

the square room beneath

it (Encyclopædia Britan-

nica Inc., 2012).

10

3.2 HAGIA SOPHIA

A perfect example of early Byzantine architecture is the Hagia Sophia, or Church

of the Holy / Divine Wisdom. This church is located in the heart of Constantinople

(now Istanbul, Turkey), and was built between 532 and 537 Ad under the

direction of Emperor Justinian I (Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

It is said that the original church on the location of the Hagia Sophia was built by

Emperor Constantine I in 325 on the foundations of a pagan temple, but it could

also have been a basilica. The current structure is actually the third church on this

location. The first church burnt down in 404 AD, while the second church burnt

down in 532 AD. This last burning gave Justinian I an opportunity to construct a

larger and more majestic church, based on a Roman basilica. Emperor Justinian I

retrieved Hellenistic columns from the Greek Temple of Artemis at Ephesus,

Turkey and Corinthian columns from the Roman

Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon (discussed

earlier). These columns were found all over the

church, from the inside to the outside (Encyclo-

pædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

As mentioned before, the floor plan has many

similarities with an original Roman basilica, being

almost square and having a central nave, an apse

and a vestibule. The central nave rests on arches

and is at its maximum 55.6 metres high. The central

dome rests on four pendentives, which I have

described earlier, and two semidomes (fig. 6 and 7).

This dome had to be rebuilt after an earthquake in

558 AD, which destroyed the pendentives. The

original Byzantine art inside the church was first

vandalized during the fourth crusade (1202-1204

AD) and later replaced with Islamic art (fig. 5)

(Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

Figure 5: Interior of the Hagia

Sophia. (from:

http://upload.wikimedia.org).

11

Figure 6: Floor plan of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (from: http://penelope.uchicago.edu).

Figure 7: Longitudinal section of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. A is the original dome, B is the

reconstruction of the dome after the earthquake in 558 AD (from: http://penelope.uchicago.edu).

12

4. EARLY ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

During Late Antiquity only the Umayyad Caliphate had influence on the

Byzantine Empire, as they conquered the east part of it in the 7th

century. Islamic

Architecture had purely Islamic elements, such as the Minarets which were

introduced during the Umayyad Caliphate, but still had strong Byzantine

influences, such as the floor plan.

4.1 UMAYYAD MOSQUE

The Umayyad Mosque or Great Mosque of Damascus was in ancient times

considered as one of the wonders of the world, because of its beauty, size and

holiness. The whole building covers an area of 157 by 100 metres. The mosque

was not only used as a religious building bus also as a site for political rallies and

public announcements. The plaza was often packed with markets and shrines.

This mosque defined the first imperial style for congregational mosques and

became the inspiration for many mosques throughout the medieval period (Walker

2004, 26-28).

First of all the architects of the mosque reused a large enclosure wall of a Roman

temple, the 1st century Hellenistic Temple to Jupiter, and probably also used the

Roman alignment of temples. The reused wall presumably separated the temenos,

the inner court, with the peribolos, the outer court. The architects also used the

idea of colonnades running around the inner side of the temenos, and scholars

assume that circa 26 columns are from the original Roman temple. The Roman

temple also had a tower in each corner of the temenos and remains of these are

still visible today. There is not much known about the cella, the inner chamber of

a temple. Similar cellae from temples of the same period and area suggest that the

cella consisted of a central shrine surrounded by a pillared colonnade (fig. 8)

(Burns 2005, 67-68).

13

Figure 8: A reconstruction of the floor plan of the Temple of Jupiter (from: Burns 2005, 67).

In 391 AD, emperor Theodosius I built the Church of St. John the Baptist on top

of the Roman temple. According to tradition, this Byzantine basilica held the head

of John the Baptist, who baptized Jesus Christ. There is not much known about

the church itself, but it was built inside the Roman temenos. Scholars assume that

it had 5 naves with 4

rows of arcades. The

colonnades running a-

round the inner side of

the temenos were re-

used, as well as the

towers (fig. 9) (Encyclo-

pædia Britannica, Inc.,

2012).

Figure 9: A reconstruction of the floor plan of the Church of St.

John the Baptist (after: http://www.ne.jp).

14

Much more is known about the Umayyad Mosque itself. The construction of the

mosque was directed by Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, ruler between 705 and 715

AD. He was one of the most active builders of early Islam, known not only for

overspending but also for good and moral leadership. His constructions were signs

of imperial power and wealth, good and stable rule and political legitimacy

(Walker 2004, 29-33).

It is important to known that a mosque should be built in the direction of Mecca,

the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad. In the case of the Umayyad mosque it

therefore point towards the south from Damascus. This conversion is clearly

visible if we look at the floor plan (fig. 10). The prayer hall is located at the south

side of the mosque and uses part of the older courtyard. This hall has three aisles,

parallel to the qibla wall, divided by rows of columns and arches, probably from

the Byzantine basilica. In the middle of this prayer hall is the nave with a dome,

running perpendicular to the qibla wall. The original towers from the Roman

temple were converted to three Minarets at different times. Running around the

interior of the courtyard is a single aisled portico, and several shrines are located

in it (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2012 & Walker 2004, 29).

Figure 10: The floor plan of the Umayyad Mosque (After: Walker 2004, 29).

15

The mosque was probably covered in mosaic decoration, but most of it has now

been lost. They were presumably attached to almost everything; from the walls,

the prayer hall, the porticos and the entrances to the columns, the arches and the

shrines. According to writers from that time caliph al-Walid I brought 200

workmen from the Byzantine Empire to construct these mosaics, which consisted

of gilded and multi-coloured glass (Walker 2004, 31-32).

The mosaics primarily depict realistic vegetal motifs like trees and floral scrolls

and architectural landscapes like palaces and churches (fig. 11). Scholars assume

that an idealized landscape was intended, like paradise. The fact that there are no

depictions of living creatures among the mosaics support this theory, as mankind

haven’t found paradise yet. Similar themes from the same period are found in the

Dome of the Rock, which I will describe now (Walker 2004, 31).

Figure 11: A mosaic panel from the Umayyad Mosque (from: Walker 2004, 33).

16

4.2 DOME OF THE ROCK

The Dome of the Rock is a shrine located in Jerusalem and built in between 691

and 692 AD by Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik. The place on which this shrine is

built is sacred for both Jews and Muslims. According to the Muslims Muhammad

ascended into heaven from here. The Jewish assume that Abraham prepared to

sacrifice his son Isaac here. Besides that, the Dome of the Rock is built on the

Temple Mount, the site of Solomon’s Temple. Because the Dome of the Rock is a

holy site for Muslims, it is difficult to research earlier stages of the building, and

we should do this with care.

One source of information is the Bible. According to 2 Maccabees 6 Emperor

Antiochus IV Epiphanes attacked Jerusalem and built a temple to Jupiter on the

Temple Mount. Very few is known about this first Roman Temple, but some

scholars have tried to reconstruct the floor plan of it. These reconstructions should

be handled with care however, because they are very controversial. What is

known is that Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 AD.

Emperor Hadrian rebuilt the temple again in 135 AD, but this temple was

converted to the modern-day Dome of the Rock. Because Emperor Hadrian also

built a Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek (part of the Temple of Bacchus, discussed

earlier), it is possible to use this Temple as a comparison with the now lost

Temple of Jupiter on the Temple Mount. This Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek

consisted of two parts; a temple and a hexagonal forecourt. It is believed that the

Muslim architects used the foundations of this Temple for their Dome, which is

positioned on the hexagonal forecourt. Problem with this theory is that the Dome

of the Rock has an octagonal base (fig. 12) (Sagiv 2008, 1-11).

17

Figure 12: In black, the floor plan of the Dome of the Rock. In blue, the floor plan of the Temple of

Jupiter in Baalbek. In red, a controversial reconstruction of the Temple from Emperor Antiochus

IV Epiphanes reign (from: http://www.bible.ca).

18

The Dome of the Rock itself is positioned on a raised platform. The dome

measures circa 20 metres in diameter and is positioned on a circle of 16 piers and

columns, which again is surrounded by an octagonal arcade of 24 piers and

columns. The outer wall is also in the form of an octagon. Each of the eight sides

is circa 18 metres wide and 11 metres high. Inside the dome there is an inner and

an outer ambulatory. The roof is made of wood, which is gilded on the outside.

The dome houses a small part of the rock of the Temple mount, and therefore it is

regarded as sacred (fig. 13) (Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

Figure 13: Cross section of the Dome of the Rock (from:

http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com).

19

The structure of the dome reminds us of a martyrium, a Byzantine religious

building. These buildings were often erected to commemorate special religious

event or to mark the graves of saints. An example of a martyrium can be found

within the 4th

century Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (fig. 14).

Tradition says that this church marks the grave of Jesus Christ (Encyclopædia

Britannica Inc., 2012).

Figure 14: Interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (from:

http://thebiblicalworld.blogspot.nl).

As mentioned before the Dome of the Rock is covered with mosaics, which have

similar themes as the mosaics found on the Umayyad Mosque. The mosaics on the

Dome of the Rock depict realistic vegetal motifs and architectural landscapes and

there are no representations of living creatures. The mosaics are however

constructed with a similar technique found in Byzantine buildings (Walker 2004,

31 & Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012).

20

5. CONCLUSION

In this essay I have tried to find evidence of transformation of religious

architecture in the Byzantine Empire during Late Antiquity. I have given a small

comparison of some important religious buildings from the late Roman-, the early

Byzantine- and the early Islamic period. I conclude that the whole of the

Byzantine Empire didn’t suffer much decay during Late Antiquity, but there was

definitely a transformation of religious buildings.

The transformation from Roman temple to Byzantine basilica is first of all marked

by the change in shape. The Roman basilica, which was not primarily used for

religious purposes, and the Roman temple were combined to form a Greek cross.

This is clearly visible if we look at the floor plans. First of all the Roman

alignment of temples was often used in the floor plan, visible in the floor plan of

the Umayyad mosque were they reused the temenos and the peribolos. Second of

all both Roman and Byzantine basilicas were almost square (with the shape of a

Greek cross inside of it) and had a central nave, an apse and a vestibule.

Positioned on the middle of the Greek cross was often a dome. This dome was a

new feature in Byzantine architecture and was meant to symbolize the descent of

heaven upon earth, a typical Christian concept. Roman columns were often reused

(in the Hagia Sophia for example), while the realistic Roman art (sculptures like

the Colossus of Constantine) was demolished and replaced by more iconic,

stylized and spiritual Christian art (there was a greater interest for mosaics for

example).

21

The transformation from Byzantine basilica to Islamic mosque is first of all

marked by the usage of purely Islamic elements, such as the Minarets which were

introduced during the Umayyad Caliphate and used in the Umayyad Mosque.

Islamic mosque had strong Byzantine influences however, such as the floor plan.

The floor plan did change however, as mosque should be built in the direction of

Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad. This change of direction is

clearly visible in the Umayyad Mosque. In this mosque the architects probably

made use of the arcades and the portico from the Byzantine basilica.

The structure of the Dome of the Rock reminds us of a martyrium, a Byzantine

religious building. These buildings were often erected to commemorate special

religious event or to mark the graves of saints.

Mosaics continued to be popular but there was a transformation in themes. Islamic

art doesn’t depict living creatures, as mankind haven’t found paradise yet. Instead

they use realistic vegetal motifs like trees and floral scrolls and architectural

landscapes like palaces and churches. Thus Byzantine depictions of humans and

animals were often demolished. The mosaics are however constructed with a

similar technique found in Byzantine buildings.

22

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burns, R., 2005. Damascus: A History. Abingdon: Routledge.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., retrieved in December 2012.

Khan Academy, retrieved on 24 December 2012.

http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/the-colossus-of-constantine.html

Kidder-Smith, G.E., 1990. Looking at Architecture. New York: Harry N.

Abrams Publishers.

Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G., 2001. The uses and abuses of the concept of

‘decline’ in later Roman history or, Was Gibbon politically incorrect?

Journal of Roman Archaeology 42, p. 233-245.

Sagiv, T., 2008. The location of the Temple on the Temple Mount.

http://www.templemount.org/.

Versluys, M.J., 2012. Lectures Archeologie van de Mediterrane Wereld 2.

Leiden University: Faculty of Archaeology.

Walker, B.J., 2004. Commemorating the Sacred Spaces of the Past: The

Mamluks and the Umayyad Mosque at Damascus. Near Eastern

Archaeology 67(1), p. 26-39.

23

7. LIST OF FIGURES

FRONT PAGE: The Umayyad Mosque in modern day Damascus, Syria.

This temple went through a transformation from Roman

temple to Byzantine Church and from Byzantine Church to

Islamic Mosque. From:

http://www.socwall.com/images/wallpapers/14837-

2400x1600.jpg.

FIGURE 1, PAGE 6: Drawing plan of the Temple of Bacchus. The measurements

of the temple are 66 x 35 x 31 metre. It had a peristyle of

forty-two unfluted columns on the outside and Corinthian

half columns on the inside. From:

http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbc-

drawing.cgi/Temple_of_Bacchus.html/Temple_of_Bacchus

_Plan.jpg.

FIGURE 2, PAGE 8: A Reconstruction of the floor plan of the Basilica of

Maxentius, the largest of the Roman basilicas. New was the

use of aspects from Roman baths, which created a more

touching interior. From:

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~classics/rome2005/updates/wee

k7_8/nov10.html

FIGURE 3, PAGE 8: Parts of the Colossus of Constantine, including 2.5 metres

high head. Nowadays open to the public in the courtyard of

the Musei Capitolini, Rome. From:

http://ancientrome.ru/art/artwork/sculp/rom/imp/constantinu

s1/con003a.jpg

24

FIGURE 4, PAGE 9: An Illustration of the two techniques used to support a

dome on top of the Greek cross. On the left the pendentive

technique and on the right the squinch technique. From:

https://bucks.instructure.com/courses/200544/files/2586069

?module_item_id=1474390.

FIGURE 5, PAGE 10: View of the interior of the Hagia Sophia, showing mainly

Islamic art. From:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Hagia

Sophia_DomeVerticalPano_%28pixinn.net%29.jpg.

FIGURE 6, PAGE 11: The Floor plan of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. The

illustration is not positioned correctly, as the west apse is

shown on the east side of it. From:

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Proco

pius/Buildings/1A*.html.

FIGURE 7, PAGE 11: The longitudinal section of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. A is

the original dome as built by Anthemius and Isidorus, B is

the reconstruction of the dome after the earthquake in 558

AD by Isidorus the Younger. The illustration is not

positioned correctly, as the west apse is shown on the east

side of it. From:

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Proco

pius/Buildings/1A*.html.

FIGURE 8, PAGE 13: A reconstruction of the floor plan of the Temple of Jupiter,

showing the peribolos, the temenos and the cella. From:

Burns 2005, 67.

25

FIGURE 9, PAGE 13: A reconstruction of the floor plan of the Church of St. John

the Baptist, showing 5 naves and 4 rows of arcades. After:

http://www.ne.jp/asahi/arc/ind/2_meisaku/32_damascus/da

m_eng.htm.

FIGURE 10, PAGE 14: The floor plan of the Umayyad Mosque, showing the

conversion from Byzantine church to Islamic mosque.

After: Walker 2004, 29.

FIGURE 11, PAGE 15: A mosaic panel from the Umayyad Mosque, showing

realistic vegetal motifs and architectural landscapes. From:

Walker 2004, 33.

FIGURE 12, PAGE 17: In black, the floor plan of the Dome of the Rock. In blue,

the floor plan of the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek. In red, a

controversial reconstruction of the Temple from Emperor

Antiochus IV Epiphanes reign. Interpretations should be

made with care. From:

http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-jerusalem-

temple-mount-threshing-floor-tuvia-sagiv-2004ad-hadrian-

temple-of-jupiter-baalbek-lebanon-135ad-overlaid.jpg.

FIGURE 13, PAGE 18: Cross section of the Dome of the Rock, showing the inner

and outer ambulatory, the holy rock and the double-

timbered dome. From:

http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/732/flashcards/51

3732/png/dome_of_the_rock1322773500126.png.

FIGURE 14, PAGE 19: Interior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Tradition says

that this church marks the grave of Jesus Christ. From:

http://thebiblicalworld.blogspot.nl/2012/11/no-water-for-

baptism-in-holy-sepulchre.html.