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Discuss the role of Zoroastrianism and the Zoroastrian Priesthood

in Sasanian Political Culture

Introduction

Religion played an important role in Sassanid Empire,

although the relationship between Sasanian kings and religious

practice was complex and inconsistent. It is not easy to uncover

the actual role of religion in the political culture in the

Sassanid Empire. For instance, it is unclear whether it was

theology that drove political culture or politics influenced

development of theology in order to suit in the interests of

rulers. In the light of evidence available in modern times, this

paper seeks to investigate the nature of the role of

Zoroastrianism and the Zoroastrian priesthood in Sasanian

political culture.

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Zoroastrianism under the Sasanians (224 CE - 7th Century)

The Sassanid society was highly stratified. At the top were

the king and the nobles. Artisans and merchants were the

middleclass. Farmers, both free holders and tenants, formed the

backbone of the society as they produced the food consumed in

towns and cities. Some nobles were more important than others

were based on their hereditary relationship with the king. The

king required the support of the nobles. The army was composed of

peasant soldiers who were summoned during war. The most important

part of the army was heavily armed professional soldiers who

formed the cavalry. Zoroastrian priests help high position in the

empire and Zoroastrianism was the state religion.1 Although the

Persian society traditionally held Ahura Mazda in high regard, it

was not until the Sassanian period that society got highly

‘‘zoroastrianized’’. Hundreds of fire temples were constructed

during this period and the hierarchy of Zoroastrian priesthood

became a privileged class. There was general tolerance towards

other religious groups inside the empire and persecution was

1 Boyce, Mary. A History oZoroastrianism. Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfZoroastrianismVolIiIii/BoyceMaryaHistoryOfZoroastrianismIi_djvu.txt

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common only during Roman-Persian wars. Agreements between Romans

and persons sometimes included guarantees of tolerance.

Zoroastrianism was religion was given preference by the state

authorities. Priests sometimes played a key role in suppression

of other religious groups in the empire.

Zorostranian religion fared differently under successive

rulers of Iran in ancient time to modern time. During the

Archaemenian (549 BCE - 331 BCE) period, the religion was held in

high regard. Cyrus the Great founded the dynasty. The

Archaemenian were pious followers of the religion and tried to

rule justly according to Zoroastrian law of Asha, which demand

followers to live in truth and righteousness. Although Cyrus

himself was an ardent follower of the religion, he was liberal

and allowed his subjects and especially those who were not

Iranians to practice their beliefs. The successor to Cyrus,

Darius the great, was equally pious and liberal in treating non-

Iranians. Following the defeat of the Persia by alexander the

great, the religion suffered a great blow as many priests were

killed and religious texts destroyed. Nevertheless, the core of

the religious texts and especially the gathas survived.

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After the death of Alexander, the Seleucids ruled the

Persian region under the Greeks (311 BCE - 141 BCE). The new

rulers gave the religion autonomy and followers were not

harassed. Arcasids (141 BCE - 224 ACE) succeeded the Seleucids

but their ruler was less centralized than that of the Seleucids

and even the Archaemenian. Nevertheless, the Arcasids played a

great role in revival of the religion. It was during their rule

that texts started to be gathered. The text the Vendidad, or 'Law

against Demons' was compiled during this period. Arcasids, like

the Archaemenian, practiced religious tolerance.

The Sasanian, Ardashir, usurped the throne of Persian vassal

king. The overthrow caused much disaffection as well as

resentment in Iran. Fearing that the people will rise against

him, he started to use religious propaganda in order to

legitimize his authority and claim to the throne. His augment was

that Arcasids were not orthodox Zoroastrians but apostates. The

Sassanian era marked the high point of the religion in Iran. For

the first time, a single Zoroastrian church was established under

the control of the Persian rulers. The high priest appointed by

Ardashir complied a single canon or Avestan text for use for

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religious gatherings in temples throughout the kingdom. The

gathas, which are central to the Avesta text, remained unchanged

although a few additions were made to the text. The religious

reform started by the Sassian ruler included changes to the

Zoroastrian calendar. A thirteenth month was added every six

years over and above the 12 months of the old calendar in order

to keep dates with seasons. In addition, the new calendar had 365

days unlike the old calendar that contained 360 days.2

Sassian rulers banned image worship and promoted fire

temples. Unlike previous dynasties that were tolerant towards

other religions, the new rulers abandoned this and religious

minorities were persecuted as everybody was expected to subscribe

to the state religion. More changes introduced by the Sassanian

ruler included extension of liturgies, creation of more texts,

and development of Avestan alphabet.3 By the time the Sassanid

2 Dignas, Eate and Engelbert Winter. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Viewed11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/RomeAndPersiaInLateAntiquityVahidddd/052184925x-RomeAndPersiaInLateAntiquity_djvu.txt

3 Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart. Formation and Ideology of the Sasanian State in the Context of Archaeological Evidence. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/TheIdeaOfIran/__The_Idea_of_Iran__volume_III__The_Sasanian_Era_djvu.txt

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dynasty as coming to the end, Zoroastrian church-state was

extremely wealthy. The priest as well as the rulers abused their

positions and required the people to pay high taxes. There was

periodic persecution of Jews and Christians in Iran and this

ensured that Christianity, Judaism, and Buddhism never grew into

prominent religions.4 Zoroastrianism maintained its purity until

the advent of Islam. The Sasanian Empire lasted for four hundred

years, resisted invasion by byzantine romans, and frequently

defeated them. The dynasty was however unable to stop Islamic

conquests in the 7th century.

The role of Zoroastrianism and the Zoroastrian priesthood in Sasanian political

culture

Rulers have always invoked the link between divine authority

and the right to rule is ancient in Iran. For millennium, Iranian

kings sought to use divine authority in order to legitimize their

rule in the eyes of their subjects.5 Ancient writings from Persia

4 Ridgeon, Floyd. sasanian Persia: the rise and fall of an empire. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/SasanianPersia/tourajsasanianPersia_djvu.txt5 Williams, A.V. Zoroastrians and Christians in Sasanian Iran. Department ofreligions and theology, university of Manchester. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2397&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF

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or Iran show that royal authorities in periods preceding Sassanid

era legitimized their rule by invoking divine authority. Although

religion has always been very important in politics in Iran, the

role of religion grew in importance during the Sasannian period.

During the Achaemenian period for instance, there was not state

religion and Zoroastrianism religion did not play a decisive role

in political affairs of the kingdom.6

The idea of state religion developed during the Sassanian

era. The political rulers started to sponsor Zoroastrianism and

it gradually grew into state religion. Zoroastrian priests were

given high political office or by virtue of their role, they had

direct access to the rulers hence could influence political

events of decisions made by rulers. The founder of Sassanid

dynasty, Ardashir I, established the alliance between state and

religion long in Iran before the arrival of Islam. After Ardashir

I ascended to office, he cleverly used religion in order gain

legitimacy in the eyes of the people so that he could gain their

support. Immediately after ascending to office, one of the main 6 Williams, A.V. Zoroastrians and Christians in Sasanian Iran. Department ofreligions and theology, university of Manchester. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2397&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF

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tasks he carried out was appointing a high clerical official

known as Tansar as his chief official7. His mandate was to

facilitate the formalization of Zoroastrianism and collecting the

scattered of Avesta and produce a new and expanded version of the

holy book. As Tansar set out on this task, he also sought to

justify the overthrow of Arsacids as a just action.

Rock reliefs in Behistun and the Naqsh-i Rustam have

inscriptions, which show evidence the rulers in Iran frequently

invoked religion in order to legitimize their rule. In one

inscription, the king is described as a follower of truth and the

opposition as the followers of the demon. The inscription suggest

that the Sassanian kings elevated their rule in the eyes of the

people by claiming to be followers of the truth (ahura mazda) and

their enemies as followers of the demon or Angra mainyu. The

decision by Ardashir to promote Zoroastrianism as state religion

did not mean that he restricted other religions. On the contrary,

Ardashir was forced to observe some religious tolerance in order

7 Boyce, Mary and Frantz Grenet. Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian and Roman Rule. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfZoroastrianismVolIiIii/BoyceMaryaHistoryOfZoroastrianismIii_djvu.txt

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to gain support from non-Iranian subjects. Zoroastrianism brought

together the core Iranian ruling class but at the same time

allowed other people within the empire to practice their religion

in order to keep peace and avoid revolts in newly conquered

territories. During the reign of Shabur I (241 to 271 CE), there

is general tolerance towards other religions. The founder of

Manichaeism, Mani, lived during this period and got permission

from the king to propagate his religion. Shabur I successor,

Hormuz I (272 to 273 CE), was also tolerant towards Mani and his

followers. Other kings who supported religious tolerance included

Yazdgerd I, Narseh and Qubad I (Kavadh I). Shahbur II and Khosrow

Anoshirvan were againt religious tolerance and persecuted

religious minorities within the empire. The height of intolerance

was reached its zenith when Kerdir was the high priest and that

was when Mani was executed. Thousands of followers other

religions were killed during this period. Kedir inscription at

Kaba‐I Zardusht (Naqsh‐I Rustam) clearly reveals he hated other

religions and openly persecuted their followers. The history of

religious treatment of non-Zoroastrian religion during the

Sassaian era is not consistent. When some kings were tolerant,

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others were not so tolerant.8 During periods of persecution,

Zoroastrian priests played a key role. It appears that kings who

were tolerant treated religious minorities kindly in order to

reduce the control or the influence of priests in state affairs.

King Shapur for example had a policy of reducing the power and

control of Zoroastrian priests in public life.

Religious persecution in Persia was also fueled by events

elsewhere outside the empire. For example, the elevation of

Christianity as the state religion in the roman empire made

Shapur II (309 to 379 CE) start to harass Iranian Christians for

fear they would support the roman Christian emperors in an event

of war. Over time, the priesthood and the political class start

to view Christianity suspiciously, as it was seen as the religion

of the enemy. For some rulers such as Shapur, he viewed the

Christian problem as purely political and refused to persecute

them en masse except in cases where individual Christians

supported the romans. On the issue of Iranian Jews, he took a

neutral position and refused to oppress them for their religion

8 Boyce, Mary. A History Of Zoroastrianism. Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfZoroastrianismVolIiIii/BoyceMaryaHistoryOfZoroastrianismIi_djvu.txt

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or ethnicity. Yazdegerd changed his tolerant treatment of

Christians after the bishop of Ctesiphon, Abdaas, destroyed a

fire temple. The kingdom ordered him to repair it from his own

resources. After the bishop refused to comply, dozens of churches

were destroyed in retaliation. Over time, the king resorted to

indigenizing Iranian Christianity in order to reduce the

influence of byzantine Christian rulers over local Christian

population.

Compared to Archaemenian period, which was tolerant to

different religious and culture, Sassanian rulers oscillated

between period of tolerance and persecution. Zoroastrian

priesthood played a key role in religious persecution, as they

were apprehensive that new religions would erode their privileged

positions in the empire9. Moreover, enemies who could use

religious minorities within the empire to foment unrest of

rebellion surrounded the rulers. Sassanid empire had to contend

with the powerful romans who were their most feared and 9 Albert De Jong. TRADITIONS OF THE MAGI: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/TraditionsOfTheMagiZoroastrianismInGreekAndLatinLiterature/ebooksclub.org__Traditions_of_the_Magi__Zoroastrianism_in_Greek_and_Latin_Literature__Religions_in_the_Graeco_Roman_World_113__djvu.txt

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formidable enemy. During the Archaemenian period, Persia was the

most powerful empire in the world. Greece by that time was a

composed of weak city-states. Macedon was as a small regional

power. Further west, Rome by this time was still struggling to

establish itself in Italy and the Mediterranean. For purposes of

national security, Sassanian rulers kept an eye on religious

minorities and religious elite exploited the insecurities of the

rulers to spearhead persecution of non-Zoroastrian followers.

Zoroastrian priests formed one of the most influential

groups in the society and by virtue of their connection with the

ruling elite; they were very influential in the society. The high

priests exerted strong influence on all matter relating to

religion and even directed the persecution of the other religions

such as Christianity. Zoroastrian clergy also acted as advisers

to the rulers and the highest ranking among the priest class had

direct access to the king. With time, the priest class grew so

powerful that some kings encouraged other religions in order

counter the influence of the Zoroastrian priests. For Sassasian

rulers to appear legitimate to the subjects, it was however

necessary for them to appear as orthodox followers of

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Zoroastrianism. The kings therefore liberally supported the state

religion in order to appear orthodox and gain the support of the

priestly class and the population by extension. The role of

Zoroastrianism was so important that Ardashir legitimized his

rule after the overthrow of Arsacids by stating the latter were

not orthodox followers of Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism religion

therefore played a key role in political life of the kingdom and

priests were influential by virtue of their positions.

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Works Cited

Albert De Jong. TRADITIONS OF THE MAGI: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/TraditionsOfTheMagiZoroastrianismInGreekAndLatinLiterature/ebooksclub.org__Traditions_of_the_Magi__Zoroastrianism_in_Greek_and_Latin_Literature__Religions_in_the_Graeco_Roman_World_113__djvu.txt

Boyce, Mary and Frantz Grenet. ZOROASTRIANISM UNDER MACEDONIAN AND ROMAN RULE. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfZoroastrianismVolIiIii/BoyceMaryaHistoryOfZoroastrianismIii_djvu.txt

BOYCE, MARY. A HISTORY OF ZOROASTRIANISM. Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfZoroastrianismVolIiIii/BoyceMaryaHistoryOfZoroastrianismIi_djvu.txt

Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart. Formation and Ideology of the Sasanian State in the Context of Archaeological Evidence. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/TheIdeaOfIran/__The_Idea_of_Iran__volume_III__The_Sasanian_Era_djvu.txt

Dignas, Eate and Engelbert Winter. ROME AND PERSIA IN LATE ANTIQUITY.Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/RomeAndPersiaInLateAntiquityVahidddd/052184925x-RomeAndPersiaInLateAntiquity_djvu.txt

Ridgeon, Floyd. sasanian Persia: the rise and fall of an empire. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/SasanianPersia/tourajsasanianPersia_djvu.txt

Williams, A.V. Zoroastrians and Christians in Sasanian Iran. Department of religions and theology, university of Manchester. Viewed 11 February 2015

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https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2397&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF

Albert De Jong. TRADITIONS OF THE MAGI: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Viewed 11 February 2015 http://archive.org/stream/TraditionsOfTheMagiZoroastrianismInGreekAndLatinLiterature/ebooksclub.org__Traditions_of_the_Magi__Zoroastrianism_in_Greek_and_Latin_Literature__Religions_in_the_Graeco_Roman_World_113__djvu.txt

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Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart. Formation and Ideology of the Sasanian State in the Context of Archaeological Evidence. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/TheIdeaOfIran/__The_Idea_of_Iran__volume_III__The_Sasanian_Era_djvu.txt

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Ridgeon, Floyd. sasanian Persia: the rise and fall of an empire. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/SasanianPersia/tourajsasanianPersia_djvu.txt

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Boyce, Mary and Frantz Grenet. ZOROASTRIANISM UNDER MACEDONIAN AND ROMAN RULE. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://archive.org/stream/AHistoryOfZoroastrianismVolIiIii/BoyceMaryaHistoryOfZoroastrianismIii_djvu.txt

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Williams, A.V. Zoroastrians and Christians in Sasanian Iran. Department of religions and theology, university of Manchester. Viewed 11 February 2015 https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2397&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF