European External Action Service, Evidence to House of Lords (pp.99-106)
Transcript of European External Action Service, Evidence to House of Lords (pp.99-106)
EUROPEAN UNION SUB-COMMITTEE FOR EXTERNAL AFFAIRS
European External Action Service
Evidence - Written
Contents Anti-Slavery International – Written evidence ................................................................................ 2
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for
International Affairs, Helsinki – Written evidence .......................................................................... 6
Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics
and Political Science – Written evidence ....................................................................................... 12
Professor Steven Blockmans, Senior Research Fellow & Head of the EU Foreign Policy
Unit, Centre for European Policy Studies – Written evidence ................................................. 17
Bond – Written evidence .................................................................................................................. 21
Brussels & Europe Liberal Democrats – Written evidence ....................................................... 25
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St. Andrews – Supplementary
written evidence .................................................................................................................................. 27
Department for International Development (DFID) – Written evidence ............................. 32
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of
Oxford – Written evidence .............................................................................................................. 34
The European Centre for Development Policy Management – Written evidence .............. 41
European External Action Service (EEAS) – Written evidence ................................................ 46
European External Action Service – Supplementary written evidence ................................... 56
European Peacebuilding Liaison Office ........................................................................................... 57
Dr Simon Duke, Professor, European Institute of Public Administration – Written
evidence ................................................................................................................................................. 78
Hugo Shorter, Head of Europe Directorate – External, Foreign and Commonwealth
Office – Supplementary written evidence ...................................................................................... 98
Global Governance Institute ............................................................................................................. 99
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR,
Rutherford College, University of Kent – Written evidence .................................................. 107
Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International Affairs, Helsinki and Rosa Balfour, European
Policy Centre, Brussels ..................................................................................................................... 116
David Spence, London School and Economics – Supplementary written evidence ........... 117
UK Independence Party – Written evidence .............................................................................. 128
Anti-Slavery International – Written evidence
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Anti-Slavery International – Written evidence
Engaging with the EEAS on forced labour in Uzbekistan
Introduction
Anti-Slavery International is the world’s oldest international human rights organisation,
working since 1839 on the elimination of all forms of slavery and forced labour from the
world.
Anti-Slavery’s engagement with EEAS on Uzbek cotton
In recent years one aspect of Anti-Slavery’s work has focused on the use of forced labour of
children and adults for the production of cotton in Uzbekistan.
Anti-Slavery has frequently raised this issue with the EEAS, most recently in a letter from the
Cotton Campaign dated 29 October 2012. In light of the systemic nature of forced labour,
including forced child labour, in this industry we have asked the Commission to remove
trade preferences for cotton from Uzbekistan entering the EU. This action has been
supported by almost 14,000 petitioners.
However in a reply dated 29 November 2012 from the EEAS, we are told that “The EU does
not favour a purely sanction-based approach, as this can increase poverty.” This statement
indicates that the EEAS has not understood the nature of our concern in Uzbekistan. It is
true that richer people in Uzbekistan may be able to bribe their way out of participating in
the harvest. However the implication of the EEAS assertion is that, contrary to the available
evidence, the EEAS chooses to presume that people, including children, enter into this
exploitation voluntarily as a result of poverty, rather than being coerced into the
exploitation in order to enrich others.
The reply goes on to say that “we rely on cooperation and dialogue as more effective tools. In this
spirit, the diversification of agricultural production and economic development in rural areas are two
key objectives of a recently launched EU co-operation programme (with funding of €10 million) in
Uzbekistan, which should allow Uzbekistan to reduce its reliance on cotton monoculture.” This
statement raises a number of concerns.
First Anti-Slavery International would argue that relying on cooperation and dialogue with
the government of Uzbekistan is entirely inappropriate when it is the state itself perpetrating
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the use of forced labour. This is despite the fact that the government has, by signing ILO
conventions 105 and 182, committed to protecting its citizens from the abuses it is itself
perpetrating. (It should also be noted that the Uzbek government has been completely
uncooperative with the ILO).
Diversifying agricultural production and economic development in rural areas misses the
point that under the current system farmers are as coerced as those forced to pick the
cotton. They are told what to grow and have little choice or opportunity to diversify into
other products. In other words the reality of forced labour in Uzbek cotton production
fundamentally undermines the aim of the EU programme for diversifying agricultural
production that has been cited by the EEAS.
Given this, there is an enormous risk to the explicit aims of the EU programme, as well as a
further risk that the programme could inadvertently be used to prop up the current
exploitative system. Anti-Slavery has in the past asked what measures are in place to ensure
that the funds are not used in this way but have never received a response.
Finally in our communications with the Commission and EEAS, we have found that these
bodies consistently conflate slavery abuses with child labour. In the letter cited above the
EEAS says “the issue of child labour will also continue to feature prominently on the agenda of the
relations between the EU and Uzbekistan.” Different abuses necessitate different responses. As
ILO Convention182 makes clear, state parties should take immediate and effective steps to
end forced child labour. Contrary to this the EEAS appears to endorse a slowly, slowly
reform approach, which is more reflective of the type of response we’d expect to the
longer-term resolution to, often poverty related, child labour: To reiterate – it is forced
child labour, coerced by the state, that is being perpetrated in Uzbekistan.
Conclusions
Anti-Slavery’s experience with the EEAS relates to only one issue but from this we would
argue a number of points related to the questions raised by the House of Lords Committee:
1. Has the creation of the EEAS led to a more politically informed development policy? If so, has
this been beneficial or detrimental to the efficiency and delivery of EU development assistance?
Has it had an impact on EU development priorities? Are there new reporting obligations?
Anti-Slavery International – Written evidence
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It is not clear what is driving the Uzbek-related development policy articulated by EEAS, but
it is, in the opinion of Anti-Slavery, that the policy is lacking in understanding of some of the
most fundamental labour and child rights issues relating to development. This lack of
understanding of how the systemic used of forced labour and forced child labour distorts the
entire rural economy in Uzbekistan certainly poses a considerable risk to the effective
deliver of EU development assistance in that country.
2. What has been the impact on NGOs of the role of the EEAS in development? Are NGOs able to
feed in suggestions and, if so, how? Is this done better directly in Brussels or in Member State
capitals? Has the creation of the EEAS affected the capacity of NGOs to act on the ground? If
so, in what way?
Our experience of trying to engage with EEAS has been frustrating resulting in negligible
impact on the delivery of development assistance. This has been all the more frustrating
because in certain key respects our interventions have related to simply trying to ensure
that the EU adhere to international standards as set by, in particular, the relevant ILO
Conventions. Not only does it appear that EEAS has chosen to disregard these standards,
but also, as noted above, to have failed to understand them.
It should be stated in making these criticisms that there is significant evidence that EEAS has
contributed to building better coordination in-country. For example, the drafting process for
human rights country strategies involved greater coordination and buy-in from Member
States Embassies in-country because it was driven from the ground up. Following the
empowerment of the EU delegations, there has been an increase in EU delegation
statements on human rights issues. For human rights defenders local delegation statements
(rather like the US Embassy Statements) can often have more impact than a statement issued
from Brussels or London. This has been appreciated by human rights defenders where it has
happened.
By contrast, as indicated by Anti-Slavery’s engagement described above, policy coordination
and actions in Brussels have not necessarily become more coordinated, nor the architecture
of decision-making simplified in Brussels as a result of the creation of the EEAS. The Human
Rights Strategic Framework, adopted in June 2012, contains excellent action points, but
there is a sense that it is not linked up to geographical policy when it matters. HR/VP Ashton
made very weak statements on a visit to Central Asia end November 2012, not meeting
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with independent civil society actors and human rights defenders in oil-rich Kazakhstan and
not even mentioning human rights in her statement. A statement on Uzbekistan was weak
and made no reference to the forced child and adult labour problem in the cotton sector
there nor did it call for the release of prisoners.
12 Dec 2012
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International
Affairs, Helsinki – Written evidence
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Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik,
Finnish Institute for International Affairs, Helsinki – Written
evidence
The European External Action Service two years on
1. Assessing how the EEAS performed during its first two years is no easy task. There is
no benchmark against which to assess the early steps of a historically unique
diplomatic body. What and whose agenda should provide the criteria against which
to assess change, success, and failure? The fact that the EEAS was inaugurated at a
time of great expectations was one of the reasons behind the very bad press it has
received. Furthermore, the EEAS operated in a context of constraints due not just to
the economic crisis but also to the reluctance of the member states to invest in the
Service that they created.
2. Relations with the Commission have perhaps been the least successful area of the
new Service. Rather than cleavages based on nationality due to the intake of
diplomats and officials from the member states, the key dividing line was, especially
during the first eighteen months of the EEAS, between the EEAS and the
Commission. This had negative repercussions on a number of areas. First of all, a
working culture within the EEAS has been slow to develop. Today, this remains an
area for priority, to be addressed through the EEAS Review, training schemes and
internal management of the Service. Secondly, it has severely hampered the
development of more integrated and coherent policies where the EU can
demonstrate an added value compared to member states’ foreign policies. If the EU
were capable of thinking and linking internal and external policies, the global
dimension of internal areas of competence, it would greatly enhance Europe’s ability
to deal with cross-cutting challenges from migration, the management of global
resources and public goods, and international diplomacy. Finally, one consequence
has been that fears of ‘competence creep’, with both the member states and the
Commission afraid of losing competences to the new body, have put everybody
involved - supranational institutions, member states and the EEAS - in a defensive
position, providing fertile ground for turf battles.
3. By 2012 some signs of improvement in inter-institutional cooperation were showing,
though this evaluation varies according to the field addressed. EEAS officials cite the
Balkans and enlargement as one area of good cooperation, but the officials working
on the Balkans region were already doing so before the Lisbon Treaty in the Council
and in the Commission. It is reported that the Commission and the EEAS
coordinated with each other with regard to the development of the new initiatives to
address changes in North Africa and the Middle East, through the creation of task
forces mobilizing officials from different institutions for bilateral meetings with
Tunisia, Jordan, Egypt.
4. But in other areas EEAS-Commission coordination remains poor and/or ad hoc. The
development of a ‘comprehensive approach’ within the EEAS, for example, has met
very negative responses from the Commission’s directorates dealing with
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International
Affairs, Helsinki – Written evidence
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Development Cooperation and with Humanitarian assistance. On crisis management
the EEAS spent much of 2011 restructuring internal offices to respond to crises, but
it remains unclear how it is supposed to coordinate with the Commission, which
manages the financial instruments. In other areas there is far more need for
coordination and development of strategic thinking, including the external impact of
internal policies (such as energy).
5. Areas of achievements, in operative terms if not in terms of impact on the ground,
include EU sanction’s policy, where EU member states were able to coordinate
effectively in incrementally upgrading sanctions against Syria and Iran. The member
states and much of the international community also appreciate the role the EEAS is
playing in the talks with Iran, where the unity of the E3+3 group is appreciated
notwithstanding its actual results. Other efforts at international cooperation too have
been commended, such as the dialogue with ‘new’ actors such as the Arab League,
the Organisation for the Islamic Conference, or initiatives to coordinate with other
actors, such as the Cairo Group.
6. With respect to the role of the member states in EU foreign policy,
intergovernmentalism has not been seriously challenged by any of the proposals
stemming from the EEAS or the HR/VP, but the protagonism of the foreign ministers,
after the cacophony during the initial period of the Arab Spring, and the competition
among politicians to get a photo opportunity on Tahrir Square first has somewhat
waned to the benefit of the HR/VP. It is reported that the member states have
become more cooperative with the EEAS during 2012, but the real test will be seen
in the degree of adaptation of the member states and their national diplomacies, and
whether they restructure and re-strategise their priorities taking into account that
many tasks could be more effectively and efficiently carried out by the EEAS.
7. National diplomacies have been slow in adapting to the new situation and, overall,
have adopted a ‘wait and see’ position towards the EEAS. All emphasise the need for
the EEAS to complement rather than substitute national foreign policy, with very
little thought on how the two could reinforce each other in terms of strategies,
capabilities and institutional structures. Most member states have cut their foreign
policy budgets and structures since the creation of the EEAS, but member states have
been slow to start considering the potential economies of scale to be gained through
the EEAS, above all by making better use of its network of delegations. Some early
experiences of division of labour exercises, burden-sharing arrangements, and
rationalization of services already exist, and there is much potential to do more.
8. The creation of a more coherent and integrated foreign policy has been more
challenging in certain issues of key importance, such as representation in the United
Nations or defence related matters, where most member states prefer to limit the
EU’s role to the minimum. Relations with the United States are a different kind of
high priority where member states compete for attention of the White House and
grudgingly accept the fact that Washington increasingly prefers to deal with Brussels
rather than 27. In some other high-priority areas, EU backing or empowerment can
be very important, but there is no question about the EU replacing national
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International
Affairs, Helsinki – Written evidence
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diplomacy (e.g. relations with Russia and eastern neighbourhood for the eastern
member states). Not surprisingly, member states have a more relaxed attitude
towards allowing a greater role for the EEAS in non-priority areas, above all
geographically remote regions. Yet if the EU only moved forward on the marginal
foreign policy issues, its level of ambition would be low and it could hardly have more
than a marginal role as a global actor. It is the EU’s role in key areas, such as in the
neighbourhood, in relations with major powers and representation on key
multilateral fora, that really determines whether the EU can have a stronger global
voice.
9. Apart from high and low priorities, there are so-called ‘declaratory priorities’ that
are formally high on the agenda, but where member states willingly shift the burden
to the EU. This kind of ‘offloading’ can be observed with regard to value-based issues
such as democracy and human rights. Here member states can converge (in so far as
the so-called ‘values’ do not interfere with some key national interests), or can use
the EU as a protective shield in those cases in which third parties may not appreciate
the EU expressing its concern over such values.
10. From efficiency perspective, the EEAS is one among many opportunities and
solutions for MFAs to ‘do more with less’, the other options being burden-sharing
with partner countries, other national government agencies, non-governmental
actors etc. In order to adjust their capacity for global action to a variety of demands
of the state, citizens and businesses, MFAs need to engage different stakeholders and
re-assess their functions. The EEAS has yet to establish its place in the changing
configuration of actors. Unlike the other stakeholders and collaborators of MFAs, the
EEAS actually has the potential to take over some of the core functions of diplomacy,
in addition to its potential as an innovative policy entrepreneur operating across
sectoral borders.
11. The locus of EEAS added value for national diplomacies lies in the 140 EU
Delegations. EU delegations can offer significant political benefits thanks to common
representation and outreach, access to local players, reporting and information
sharing. They also entail the potential to rationalize European diplomacy and make it
more cost-effective, allowing member states to focus national resources on key
national priorities and to rely on the services of EU network elsewhere. Third
countries now have a single interlocutor to discuss not just trade and aid, but also
political relations, security, energy, natural resources, migration issues. As the
importance of the Delegations becomes evident to non-European interlocutors, this
will feed back not just to headquarters in Brussels but also in the member states.
12. The early phase of upgrading the EU delegations has been relatively successful, and
in most cases the member states accept the new coordinating role, even if there are
important exceptions and variation between locations. EU coordination and a new
representative role has been relatively easy to establish in less important and
peripheral locations where member states have fewer political interests at play and
where the status and rank of their diplomats is more modest and leaves more room
for accepting leadership by EU representatives. The easiest cases from the viewpoint
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International
Affairs, Helsinki – Written evidence
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of MFAs’ readiness to accept a leading role of EU delegations are locations where
one’s own country has no representation. These delegations provide access and
information and can be used as extensions for the conduct of national foreign policy.
At the same time, they do not compete with national representations and fit neatly
with the principle of EEAS complementarity. But these cases are not limited to
peripheral countries. The EU Delegation in Syria was deliberately kept open while
member states were closing theirs precisely to have an important antenna in the
country, and is reported to be working very well.
13. The most difficult test for the ability of EU delegations to bring value added is posed
by the key locations where member states are not likely to give up national
representations any time soon, if ever, but where concerted action of the EU is all
the more important for Europe’s ability to maintain global relevance and impact. In
international organisations the EU in most cases continues to be represented by the
rotating Presidency – a step back compared to the Lisbon Treaty. In Washington,
Beijing, New Delhi, Moscow, Cairo, and Tokyo it is most challenging for the EEAS to
be more than the 28th member state. It is also in these locations, where each MS
prioritises national representation and reporting, that the coordinating role of the
EEAS is most vital.
14. Staffing in the Delegations has now reached the aim of including one third coming
from national diplomacies. This has considerably enriched the knowledge, skills and
working culture of the Delegations, making them better equipped to become the first
interface with third countries. In a few Delegations there are national military
attachès seconded, such as in New York and in Pakistan. The larger Delegations are
also better staffed with officials dealing with cross-cutting issues.
15. The EEAS has been too slow in involving the Delegations in policy-shaping. Some
member states are willing to give the delegations more leeway and appreciate policy
proposals made by the delegations on their own initiative, but others are more
cautious and stress the role of Brussels and national capitals in defining policy
guidelines. Faced with such contradictory expectations, the delegations have to
gradually build up their role, win trust among the member states and beware of
national sensitivities, while at the same time spending much time in their new
coordinating role.
16. There is considerable interest among the member states and in the EEAS in co-
location arrangements, notably joint embassy premises and the possibility to place
national ‘laptop diplomats’ in the premises of EU delegations. For example, an
embassy of Luxembourg has been established in the premises of the EU delegation to
Ethiopia, and the EEAS and Spain have just agreed on the establishment of the
embassy of Spain in the premises of EU Delegation to Yemen.
17. Many member states have complained of a lack of transparency and information-
sharing as a major problem that has undermined trust in the EEAS and fed suspicions
about the largest three member states controlling the agenda. There have been
problems with both the scope and timing of EEAS information-sharing. During the
early phase of the EEAS, member states were receiving less information on CFSP-
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels and Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International
Affairs, Helsinki – Written evidence
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related matters than in pre-Lisbon times. In particular, many member states
considered reporting on meetings of the HR with external partners to be insufficient.
As for timing, the practice of distributing relevant documents very close to the
meetings (FAC in particular) was broadly criticised by the member states.
Information-sharing in the other direction, from European capitals to the EEAS has
been even more difficult. On the positive side, informal contacts between the EEAS
and MFAs on the lower level have been working reasonably well: member states’
diplomats are fairly satisfied with the responsiveness and openness of their colleagues
in the EEAS when it comes to informal consultations; this goes for both the
headquarters in Brussels and EU delegations abroad.
18. On the local level, a new information sharing system, ACID, introduced recently
among embassies and EU Delegations on the ground, is helping to bring the local
diplomatic networks together, providing concrete added value to all member states.
It is important to get the system to full operation globally; this requires additional
efforts also from the member states.
19. Rotation of staff between national diplomacies and the EEAS is a key element of the
service and one of the main instruments for ensuring a sense of ownership and trust
among member states. It can balance the intergovernmentalism of common foreign
policy, which is oriented to defend national interests, by strengthening a European
mind-set and habit to consider broader European interest among national diplomats,
despite the variety of national backgrounds, as the experience of CFSP institutions
such as the Political and Security Committee or the former Policy Unit of the
Council Secretariat show. The EEAS has the potential to function as an incubator of
European diplomats that complements these processes of socialisation.
20. As of June 2012, the share of national diplomats in the EEAS had reached 27%. So,
despite tensions around the recruitment process, the service is close to reaching the
one-third target and completing the staffing marathon, with a reasonably balanced
representation of each member state. The next challenges are to integrate the staff
from different backgrounds into a common culture and make the rotation work so
that there is regular and smooth circulation between Brussels and national capitals. It
would advance the cross-fertilisation of European diplomats if the permanent staff of
the EEAS could also be rotated to national MFAs, and not just vice versa.
21. Where the EEAS has succeeded is attracting highly qualified and motivated staff from
national diplomacies. There has been tight competition for posts in the EEAS,
indicating a high level of interest among the member states. Promoting their
diplomats to the EEAS has been a priority for most MFAs, although there is variation
as to the intensity of encouraging staff to seek positions in the service. In spite of the
well-known troubles of the transition phase and low morale among EEAS staff,
diplomats posted to the service tend to be highly motivated to make the new
structures work smoothly and deliver.
22. In order to utilise the potential of the highly motivated and professional staff, to draw
people from different backgrounds together and maintain the attractiveness of the
service, an investment in creating an esprit de corps is essential. Variety of
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experiences and perspectives of its staff is an asset of the EEAS, but these need to be
brought together into a joint pool of skills and a sense of community. A shared
working culture should also be consciously reinforced. Common training is necessary
with a view to all of these goals and needs to be designed in line with the unique
nature of the EEAS. Apart from traditional diplomatic skills such as reporting,
negotiation and cross-cultural interaction, a special consideration of Europe’s place in
the world and a European perspective on global problems needs to be nurtured. At
the same time, EEAS staff needs to be able to encounter three different kinds of
audiences: not only those external to the EU, but also those of the member states
who may view the EU and its foreign policy with suspicion, and finally those internal
to the EU machinery where inter-institutional rivalry is a constant threat to the
pursuit of common goals. In addition to passing on specific knowledge and skills,
training always has the function of fostering personal ties and networks that are
invaluable in later careers. Training should not be limited to skills’ transfer and
improvement, but should aim to create more opportunities for EEAS staff to work
with European diplomats. Encouraging joint participation of EEAS and national
diplomats in existing training schemes could also help foster a common diplomatic
culture.
23. A well-functioning system of rotation between the EEAS and MFAs is one way
(though not sufficient) to strengthen such a link and ease the tensions between
national and EU foreign policies. It would be in the interest of MFAs and the EEAS
alike to make it a norm across the EU that the best and brightest European diplomats
serve in the EEAS at some point of their careers. The MFAs need to make an effort
to ensure smooth return of their people from the EEAS and adequate
acknowledgement of the EEAS experience. Once the national diplomats return home,
MFAs have much to gain from their experience in the EEAS and inside knowledge of
the EU.
24. Areas for improvement: coordination and synergies with the Commission needs to
be one of the top priorities, as well as ensuring the full participation of member
states through better consultation and information-sharing. These are political issues
of great consequence. Further concrete priority areas should include: improving
political reporting from Delegations, strengthening the role of Delegations in shaping
policy, creating a deputy/deputies for the HR (and clearer competences/role for the
top management), and developing a common working culture inside the EEAS.
December 2012
Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political
Science – Written evidence
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Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London
School of Economics and Political Science – Written evidence
I am a Lecturer in the International Relations of Europe at LSE and currently hold a Visiting
Fellowship in the Department of Political and Social Sciences at the European University
Institute, Florence, Italy. My recent research has focused on communications and
information exchanges in EU foreign policy, as well as on the EU response to the Arab
uprisings. In my comments I would like to use the expertise derived from my recent
research to focus on two of the questions raised by the enquiry.
What are the main achievements of the EEAS since its establishment? Where
has it been less successful?
1.1 The main added value of EU foreign policy is to provide a framework allowing member
states to take into account each other’s national positions while formulating their own. This
‘coordination reflex’ improves the chances of a common voice emerging from 27 unique
foreign policy traditions. There is pressure on member states to converge on a common
position, but the outcome is not necessarily convergence. On certain issues, there is a single
voice and a well-established and legally formalised policy making process to achieve it (such
as on trade). On others, there is an agreement to disagree (use of force and the recognition
of new political actors tend to be among the most divisive issues for EU member states).
1.2 The establishment of the EEAS has strengthened this framework. The EEAS is an
instrument to foster dialogue, improve coordination, and create opportunities for
negotiations between member states and with non-member countries. It has done so by drafting agendas for meetings, impressing momentum to debates and negotiations, and
providing a third party in disputes between member states. The EEAS thus facilitates
consensus when conditions for consensus exist, while trying to do damage control when
they do not. Thus far, its comparative advantage in relation to the previous situation of the
rotating Presidency lies in its continuity and in the absence of a national agenda to be
peddled. Initially, the EEAS has shown a considerable degree of hesitation, mainly linked to
the fact that it was simultaneously setting up working procedures and using them (as Mr
O’Sullivan remarked, this is akin to repairing an engine while it is running). It has since
improved its performance, and time will help it to consolidate the conditions for a more
consistent performance.
1.3 There remains room for improvement in the implementation of the 2010 Council
Decision and related working arrangements. Two issues stand out. First, to add real value to
the EU foreign policy making process, the EEAS must be able to gather and process good
information about international affairs as well as about member states’ positions. What it has
lacked, compared to the rotating Presidency when held by bigger member states, is the
capacity for long-term agenda setting, analysis of potential crisis scenarios (more on the
civilian-political side than on the military side) and the ability to achieve, maintain and ‘sell’
draft common positions. Second, and related to the previous point, EU Delegations have a
crucial role to play and their working arrangements must be streamlined. EU Delegations are
now tasked with political reporting and this is essential for adding value to the work done in
Brussels. It should be done professionally and consistently, in all fields of foreign policy
(including military). Moreover, the complications of hosting both EEAS and Commission
Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political
Science – Written evidence
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officials should be resolved, so as to provide a much smoother functioning of working
practices.
1.4 Accountability is an aspect for which there is no easy fix as well as only a limited need
for improvement. In my view, the EEAS does not fare particularly badly in this respect in
comparison to other diplomatic networks. The point with accountability is “to whom / to
which institution.” There are roughly four options:
i. To the European Parliament (EP) and/or to national parliaments: The situation in
relation to the EP is an improvement on the previous state of affairs. For instance,
the EP now exerts the right to question incoming Heads of Delegations, whose
quality is vital to the good functioning of the EEAS. The EP also retains a link with EU
Delegations, tasked to provide the EP with information when requested. The EP also
receives regular reports and MEPs have the right to pose questions to the EEAS. The
extent to which national parliaments are able to make the EEAS accountable is more
doubtful. Much of this is due however to the varying degrees of national
parliamentary involvement in EU affairs and to national parliamentary procedures.
The arrangements of the UK Parliament and the support it receives from the FCO
stand out very positively when compared to other examples across Europe. It is
undeniable that the EEAS (and the EU in general) are very complex and technical
issues, requiring specific competences to avoid mistaking complexity with
opaqueness. But these competences exist and this should not be taken as an excuse
for lack of supervision.
ii. To peers: This is probably the most relevant form of accountability in the context of
EU foreign policy and the one on which the EEAS fares reasonably well. The EEAS is
constantly monitored, assessed and scrutinised by the ministries of Foreign Affairs of
the 27 member states. As EU foreign policy does not exist without the unanimous
support of member states, the EEAS needs the support of member states to speak
with one voice in the name of Europe. Therefore, relations between the EEAS and member states’ diplomatic networks are vital, both in Brussels and in non-member
countries. The inclusion in the EEAS of (nearly) one third of national diplomats at the
AD (administrator or diplomatic) level contributes to strengthen the links between
the EEAS and national diplomatic services. It represents a considerable advancement
on the previous state of affairs, when the European Commission–External Relations
‘family’ had constructed its prestige by keeping a distance from member states. It is
thus a disadvantage that the European Commission continues to represent the bulk
of the EEAS and actions should be taken to dilute the legacy of its working method in
terms of relations with member states. Possible options here would be to foster
secondment to national ministries and to improve the diplomatic training of EEAS
officials, even if this might entail a marginal increase in the budget.
iii. To experts: This is the less intrusive and more technocratic form of accountability.
There is already intense scrutiny (and often criticism) of the EEAS, although there
could obviously be more. A break-through would be a more political debate about
the “finalité politique” of EU foreign policy in general. But this not only goes beyond
the scope of the EEAS review in 2013, it also depends on the political climate
prevailing in member states and among their political parties that are currently fully
absorbed by the euro crisis. In fact, the euro crisis has diverted attention away from
intense scrutiny of the EEAS and opened a window of opportunity for the EEAS to
establish itself away from the spotlight, while at the same time undermining the EEAS
overall credibility in third countries.
Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political
Science – Written evidence
14 of 133
iv. To the general public: Diplomacy is often viewed as a realm within which secrecy
prevails. Much of its value would vanish if everything was disclosed to the man or
woman in the street, so to speak (who would anyway very likely have at best a
limited interest in the day-to-day operation of foreign policy beyond crisis situations).
The global trend is however towards more public diplomacy, including the
involvement of non-state actors. Moreover, the role of diplomats is shifting and the
qualities most in demand include the capacity to link different contexts, issues,
cultures, etc. In this respect, the EEAS is well placed. As an experiment in linking
different institutions and involving 27 countries, it reflects the needs of contemporary
societies, even if it is not immediately accessible by the general public.
How well do the relationships with the Foreign Ministries of the EU Member
states work and how well do EU Delegations cooperate with the diplomatic
missions of the EU Member states?
2.1 It is worth stressing that the direction and content of EU foreign policy remain in the
hands of member states, and bigger member states de facto retain veto power. The EEAS
has consolidated this situation, which can be characterised as win-win. Smaller member
states have started to rely on the EEAS for the provision of crucial services, while bigger
member states have the option to cooperate more closely with the EEAS in order to affect
the direction of EU foreign policy.
2.2 Smaller member states see the EEAS as an opportunity for voicing their national
concerns, for acting in crisis situations for which they do not have the means (from military
missions to, potentially, consular affairs), and for receiving information on subjects they
know little. This last point is particularly important. Fig. 1 shows the extension of member
states’ networks of embassies (i.e. excluding consulates) beyond EU borders in 2009.1 The
situation has not changed much since then, and where so, it has meant a reduction in numbers. Therefore, smaller member states have a limited set of ‘eyes on the ground’ and
generally these are clustered in a given area (e.g. smaller Central and Eastern European
countries tend, with the obvious exceptions, to have representations in the post-Soviet
Union region). On the contrary, bigger member states and EU Delegations (now counting
140) cover the wide majority of non-member countries and are often the only ones
represented in the Southern hemisphere, as countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin
America host on average 7 missions.
1 This was the last year in which this information was published by the EU. The information was gathered with
the aim of identifying which embassies could, in case of crisis, represent the EU Presidency, thus identifying
member states’ missions with a full set of functions.
Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political
Science – Written evidence
15 of 133
Figure 1. Total number of missions in third countries, by country, 2009.
Source: General Council Secretariat, “Note – Presidency diplomatic representation in third
countries – Second half of 2009”, Brussels, 3 July 2009.
2.3 Therefore, since the establishment of the EEAS and the new emphasis on political
reporting, there is a significant difference in the way member states participate in EU foreign
policy making: while some have their own sources of information, others rely on EU
Delegations. This creates the opportunity for countries with a global reach to work closely
with the local EU Delegation in order to contribute significantly to the direction and content
of the EU foreign policy. Among the bigger member states, the UK has a relative
comparative advantage, given the FCO’s reputation for efficiency and local contacts, which in
turn translate in clear lines of communication and early drafts. Close engagement does not
automatically turn into influence and risks draining resources. But the EU has a track record
of magnifying the power for countries that invest in it. The FCO has recently seconded
excellent staff to the EEAS, but given a legacy of under-representation at lower levels of the
administration and the current Eurosceptic climate in British politics, this is not the time to
disengage.
2.4 In fact, the opposite is true, as this is a field in which the UK can contribute crucial
political leadership to achieve a world order that reflects its interests, as already been the
case in areas such as the Horn of Africa. Without the UK, other member states would
impress a different direction to EU foreign policy, potentially leading for instance to more
troubled Transatlantic relations. In practical terms, this means that budget neutrality should
not be the main objective of the British position in the 2013 Review. Rather, it should be
used as a starting point to achieve better value for money, especially in relation to the link
between the EEAS and member states (secondment and training being two options),
between the EEAS and the Commission (particularly in EU Delegations) and between CFSP
and CSDP (with an increase of civilian crisis management capacities, particularly for analysis).
This would multiply the influence of the UK across Europe and the world, while at the same
time making the UK a more attractive partner for the United States of America. The EEAS is
a very innovative diplomatic instrument. It is strongly in the interests of the UK government
133
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Dr Federica Bicchi, Department of International Relations, London School of Economics and Political
Science – Written evidence
16 of 133
not only to engage with it, but also to work positively within these emerging structures in
pursuit of British foreign policy positions and interests.
11 January 2012
Professor Steven Blockmans, Senior Research Fellow & Head of the EU Foreign Policy Unit, Centre
for European Policy Studies – Written evidence
17 of 133
Professor Steven Blockmans, Senior Research Fellow & Head of
the EU Foreign Policy Unit, Centre for European Policy Studies –
Written evidence
EEAS re-loaded: some recommendations for the 2013 review
Pursuant to Article 13(3) of Council Decision 2010/427/EU of 26 July 2010 establishing the
organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service (EEAS), the High
Representative (HR) is held to provide a review of the organisation and functioning of the
EEAS by mid-2013. The review will cover, “inter alia”, the implementation of Article 6(6), (8)
and (11), so as to ensure an adequate geographical and gender balance and a meaningful
presence of nationals from all Member States in the EEAS. “[I]f necessary”, the review will be
accompanied by appropriate proposals for the revision of the 2010 Council Decision (e.g.,
suggestions for additional specific measures to correct possible imbalances of staffing). “In
that case”, the Council will, in accordance with Article 27(3) TEU, revise the Decision in the
light of the review by the beginning of 2014.
As such, the 2013 review will offer an important first formal opportunity to assess the
strengths and weaknesses of the EEAS, to address some of its current weaknesses, and to
give a new impetus to its further development. Whereas Article 13(3) of the 2010 Council
Decision specifically mentions organisational matters as subjects of the review, the
formulation of the provision is sufficiently open-ended to allow the reviewers the room to
address more than just (short-term) organisational issues. Indeed, it would be a shame not
to use the review process prescribed by the 2010 Council Decision as an opportunity to
also look into the Service’s overall contribution to attaining the objectives of the EU’s
foreign policy (cf. Article 21 TEU), and into its cooperation with the member states’
diplomatic services, the services of the European Commission, the Council General
Secretariat, and the European Parliament. While successes have been achieved on all of
these counts and can thus serve to show the value added by the EEAS,2 important
improvements to the organisation and functioning of the Service should still be made.
However, there are obvious limits to what can be achieved in the 2013 review process, as
some organisational changes would require not just a revision of the 2010 Council Decision
but of the underlying Treaties, and/or the composition of the institutions in the wake of the
next elections for the European Parliament in 2014.
If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it. This is also the mind-set of a group of scholars gathered under
the banner of “EEAS 2.0” who, with an eye to the forthcoming review, are about to publish a
legal commentary to the 2010 Council Decision, in search of the interpretative margins of
2 See, e.g., S. Blockmans, ‘The European External Action Service One Year On: First Signs of Strengths and Weaknesses,
CLEER Working Paper 2012/2, available at <http://www.cleer.eu>.
Professor Steven Blockmans, Senior Research Fellow & Head of the EU Foreign Policy Unit, Centre
for European Policy Studies – Written evidence
18 of 133
appreciation to accommodate necessary changes to the organisation and functioning of the
EEAS “à droit constant”.3
In practice, and like in any other bureaucracy, changes to the organisation and functioning of
the EEAS continue to be made on a daily basis, without the need of opening what in some
member states is seen as Pandora’s box of negotiations on the 2010 Council Decision. The
fear of endless negotiations rests on the risk that talks may extend into the areas covered by
the flanking Staff and Financial Regulations and thus require co-decision by the European
Parliament.
Although the lead clearly lies with the High Representative, the 2013 review process should
systematically involve all member states, Commission services, the Council General
secretariat, the European Parliament, think tanks, NGO’s and civil society organisations. A
roadmap should be adopted by the High Representative and communicated by the EEAS. A
‘listening’ period should be organised so as to collect ideas and opinions, for the member
states to consider during the first Gymnich of 2013. The High Representative should then
present her report by the end of June 2013, with an aim to take on the short-term priorities
before the end of 2013, while leaving more ambitious proposals to amend the organisation
and functioning of the EEAS for the next legislative cycle and/or the next round of Treaty
revision.
On the basis of the foregoing and earlier analyses of both the strengths and shortcomings of
the EEAS,4 recommendations can be made to address some of the organisational weaknesses
of the Service, under at least 4 headings:5
1. The role of the EEAS in promoting the coherence of external action needs to
be reinforced:
- A joint communication on the comprehensive approach to foreign policy-making should
be urgently adopted by the Commission and the High Representative and implemented by
all members of the EU external action family. The comprehensive approach should make
full use of the hybrid role of the HR/VP, mobilise the different tools at the EU’s disposal,
3 The legal commentary will become available in January 2013 on the websites of a number of participating think tanks and
academic centres of excellence, including that of CEPS at <http://www.ceps.eu>, SIEPS at <http://www.sieps.se>, and the
EUI at <http://www.eui.eu/DepartmentsAndCentres/Law/Publications/PublishedWorkingPapers.aspx>.
4 See, e.g., S. Blockmans, ‘Fit for Purpose? The European External Action Service One Year On’, OXFAM Briefing Paper
159, 23 January 2012, available at <http://www.oxfam.org>; and L. Erkelens & S. Blockmans, ‘Setting Up the European
External Action Service: An Act of Institutional Balance’, in 8 European Constitutional Law Review (2012), 246-279.
5 More points can be made and have been made, especially on policy substance. See, e.g. E. Burke, ‘Europe’s External Action
Service: Ten Steps Towards a Credible EU Foreign Policy’, CER Policy Brief, 4 July 2012; F. Krätke and A. Sherriff, ‘Gearing
Up for the 2013 EEAS Review: Opportunities, Challenges, and Possible Approaches’, ECDPM Briefing Note, No. 44,
November 2012; and S. Lehne, ‘The Review of the European External Action Service in 2013’, Carnegie Europe, 15
November 2012.
Professor Steven Blockmans, Senior Research Fellow & Head of the EU Foreign Policy Unit, Centre
for European Policy Studies – Written evidence
19 of 133
in close interaction with the member states and in close cooperation with other
international actors, and make optimal use of scarce resources.
- In order to facilitate cross-cutting coordination and integrated foreign policy-making, the
EEAS should develop the necessary expertise with regard to those internal EU policies
which have an important external dimension, such as transport, energy, climate and
migration.
- The EEAS should be better joined up with the Commission’s DG DEVCO, both at
headquarters level and in EU Delegations. To this end, the ‘Working Arrangements’
concluded between the Commission and the EEAS on 13 January 2012 should be revised.6
2. The VP persona of the High Representative’s mandate needs to be
strengthened:
- The VP should chair monthly meetings of the previously called ‘RELEX group’,
composed of Commissioners in charge of the various aspects of external action (trade,
enlargement & ENP, development cooperation, humanitarian aid & civil protection, even
monetary affairs), so as to actively coordinate external policies within the Commission.
Under Barroso I, this group used to meet on a monthly basis; under Barroso II, it has met
only handful of times.
- To alleviate some of the stress on an over-burdened HR/VP position, a deputy should be
appointed to replace the HR as (first) Vice-President in the Commission, e.g. when s/he is
unable to attend the meetings of the college. The hybrid position currently embodied by
the Commissioner for the ENP provides a good source of inspiration for this type of
deputation: all of his staff within the previous DG RELEX has been moved to the EEAS on
1 January 2011, but together with his cabinet, he plays an active role within the structures
of the Commission. Incidentally, detaching the responsibility for the ENP from the
portfolio of EU enlargement may send a clearer signal to neighbouring countries
(especially those on the southern borders of the Mediterranean) what not to expect from
the EU and its institutions, i.e. a membership perspective.
- In line with the argumentation presented at the outset of the previous point, a political
deputy (possibly from a member state – rotating Presidency) should be appointed to
replace the High Representative for his/her responsibilities under the CFSP.
3. The structure of the EEAS needs to be reinforced:
- The security policy and CSDP structures should be simplified and properly integrated
into the EEAS. A rebalancing should take place between the military elements and the
insufficiently strong civilian crisis management capacities.
6 SEC(2012) 48, Ref. Ares(2012) 41133.
Professor Steven Blockmans, Senior Research Fellow & Head of the EU Foreign Policy Unit, Centre
for European Policy Studies – Written evidence
20 of 133
- The Commission’s Service for Foreign Policy Instruments should be fully integrated in
the structures of the EEAS. The EEAS should have the responsibility for the management
of the CFSP budget and should be given the right of operational expenditure.
- The EU Special Representatives and their staff should be fully integrated into the
geographic and thematic services of the EEAS.
- The split between EEAS and Commission staff in EU delegations should be overcome by
strengthening the authority of the Heads of Delegations and allowing them to delegate
more responsibilities, simplifying reporting lines, and ending the current separation of
financial circuits. To this end, the ‘Working Arrangements’ concluded between the
Commission and the EEAS on 13 January 2012 should also be revised.
- The Corporate Board of the EEAS should also be simplified. The division of labour
between the top executives has to be clarified and, here too, clear reporting lines should
be established.
4. Cooperation with member states’ diplomacies needs to be strengthened:
- In the interest of cost-saving and in a drive for increased efficiency, information exchange
should be further regularised and procedures harmonised, at headquarters, but also in
representations to multilateral institutions and in bilateral postings. The potential of co-
location of member states’ embassies with EU Delegations should be examined.7 What is
being done by the UK in the context of cooperation with Commonwealth countries like
Canada could also be done in the framework of the EEAS.8
November 2012
7 A good example is provided by a Memorandum of Understanding signed by the EEAS and Spain to establish Spanish
Embassy on premises of EU Delegation to Yemen, Press release A 568/12Brussels, 10 December 2012.
8 See S. Blockmans and S. Carrera, ‘The UK-Canada Agreement on Mutual Support of Missions Abroad: Loyalty
Compromised?’, CEPS Commentary, 18 October 2012.
Bond – Written evidence
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Bond – Written evidence
1. Bond, the membership body for UK development and humanitarian aid NGOs,
welcomes the opportunity to provide written evidence to this enquiry. We will focus
on questions 5, 6 and 16 among those provided by the Committee in its call for
evidence.
2. Our evidence refers to a report that CONCORD, the European NGO
Confederation for Relief and Development, launched in January 2012, on the first
year anniversary of the creation of the European External Action Service (EEAS).9 For
the question on crisis response, we have asked our members involved in this issue to
provide input specifically for this inquiry. To the extent possible within the short time
frame available, we have also gathered additional information from Bond and
CONCORD member organisations on more recent developments within the EEAS.
3. Bond was heavily involved in the drafting of the above mentioned CONCORD
report, which was written on the basis of interviews undertaken in the months of
October and November 2011 with a variety of non-profit organisations, including
national NGO platforms in Benin, Rwanda, Burundi and DRC, as a well as EU
institutions, Member State representatives, and experts at the Overseas
Development Institute10. As it doesn’t make sense to reproduce the entire content of
that report in this submission, we invite the House of Lords EU Committee to check it and use it in its inquiry as a source of further information and specific examples.
4. Bond’s starting point in this submission is the recognition that European countries
can no longer count on their individual or collective economic weight alone to
ensure influence in a multi-polar world. If the EU and its Member States (UK
included) want to maintain their position on a rapidly changing international scene,
they can, and need to, benefit from investing in a coherent foreign policy. In addition,
a more coordinated EU external action policy has been from the start at the core of
the Lisbon Treaty, and the EEAS was put in place to help achieve that.
5. The EU and Member States have also undertaken crucial commitments to Policy
Coherence for Development (PCD), including in the Lisbon Treaty. These are
designed to ensure that their external actions at the very least do not undermine
their Treaty commitments to sustainable development and the eradication of
poverty.
6. The role of the EEAS must therefore include ensuring compliance with those
commitments – and a unified external action service has the potential to make this
easier to achieve for the EU when it deals with partner countries. This will however
require both adequate resources and, crucially, clarity on its obligation to implement
PCD. The evidence we have seen so far, however, shows that this is still not the
case.
9 CONCORD, EEAS One Year On: “Work in Progress for Poverty Eradication”, January 2012.
http://www.bond.org.uk/data/files/EU_/EEAS-year-A4-lowdef.pdf
10 For a full list, see page 15 of the report.
Bond – Written evidence
22 of 133
How does the balance of responsibilities between the EEAS and the Commission work in the
development area? Has the creation of the EEAS improved the implementation of the EU’s
development policy?
7. The above-mentioned CONCORD report finds that the European Union is
marginalising anti-poverty objectives within the EEAS. In particular, EU foreign policy
is turning a blind eye to poverty eradication, as the EEAS has, even since the report,
failed so far to sufficiently integrate development policy in the new service. In regions
such as the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, anti-terrorism and security operations have
been prioritised with little consideration to long-term development efforts. More
generally, development policy continues to be vulnerable to being used for geo-
political objectives.
8. The CONCORD report highlighted that competition rather than co-operation was
prevailing between EEAS and the European Commission institutions. Since then we
see continuing evidence of disagreements. For instance, many delegations are not at
ease with the instructions coming from Brussels especially regarding programming of
EU development cooperation. A gap is growing between the realities of development
and poverty in the field and decisions taken in Brussels. The idea behind de–
concentration and strengthening of delegations was to take decisions closer to the
actual context but we see little progress in that regard so far.
9. Other analysts – such as think-tank ECDPM - have confirmed that the EEAS appears
to be under-equipped to deal with development issues. There seems to be only one
horizontal division (VI.B.2) in EEAS Headquarters with development as core business.
10. “If this division, in charge of programming, also has to deal with all other
development policy issues (e.g. the negotiations between the Parliament and EU
member states of the legal basis of cooperation instruments), then one can wonder
whether it is sufficient to support the EEAS hierarchy and colleagues in making an
evidence-based decisions. […] This is important for policy decisions in their
portfolios that might affect development therefore promoting “Policy Coherence for
Development” as envisaged in the Treaty,” states Andrew Sheriff of ECDPM.11 This
statement reflects our own observations.
11. As mentioned above, the PCD principles require that EU policies with a potential impact externally, such as agriculture, trade, energy and tax, do not have a negative
impact on its development objectives. The CONCORD report found that the EEAS
had done little to prioritise PCD in its programmes. This appears still to be the case,
almost one year on.
12. Broadly speaking there is still a lack of clarity as to which role the EEAS should be
playing. Several institutional representatives interviewed for the CONCORD report
mentioned (external) policy consistency rather than Policy Coherence for
Development as the priority for EEAS.
13. With an unclear mandate, it seems that no capacity has been allocated to PCD within
the EEAS. So what does the EEAS itself see as its role? Defending Europe’s best
interests or those of its partner countries? If the former is what EEAS staff would
answer, it is not surprising that PCD is such a low priority. In the old set-up, DG
11 A. Sheriff, Charting Change at the European External Action Service, ECDPM Talking Points, June 2012
http://www.ecdpm-talkingpoints.org/charting-change-at-the-european-external-action-service/
Bond – Written evidence
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Development’s role was much more aligned with partner countries’ best interests.
Although that remains the case, the shift of many of DG Development’s
responsibilities to the EEAS means that in practice the commitment to development
objectives, and to partner countries’ best interests, has been diluted.
Has the EEAS been effective in response to crises?
14. The EEAS has mostly reproduced the former EU crisis response scheme to date, and
one that is driven by reaction rather than anticipation and prevention. Whereas the
Arab Spring caught the EU and the world off guard, it soon became clear that the EU
had to review how, overall, it was (or was not) supporting change in third countries.
15. The policies which have been adopted ever since (Agenda for Change, Council
Conclusions on Conflict Prevention, EC Communication on EU support for
sustainable change in transition societies, EC Communication on European
engagement with civil society in external relations) demonstrate an intention to
tackle drivers of conflicts upstream and to support actors of positive change in more
proactive ways, which are positive steps.
16. However, it is critical that the necessary practical processes to translate these
principles into action actually take place. Initiatives undertaken in that respect by the
thematic Divisions of the EEAS, especially the Conflict Prevention, Peace-building and
Mediation Division in the areas of conflict analysis, conflict sensitivity and early
warning, are taken on board by the geographical divisions so that the EEAS becomes
more effective at preventing conflicts rather than reacting to on-going crises. This is
crucial especially as the EEAS is working on the next multiannual programming with
other bodies in Brussels and in-country.
17. Right from its launch in December 2010, the EEAS had to deal with crises, especially
the Arab Spring, which challenged the EU internal coordination (among EU
institutions on the one side, and with the Member States on the other side) that was
about to be set up.
18. Achieving consistency and coherence of the EU external action, which is one of the
main objectives of the EEAS, is still a work in progress that Member States will also
have to support if the EEAS and more broadly the EU is to become more effective at
responding to crises. UK has a role to play in calling other influential member states
such as France and Germany for more coherence in and support for the
implementation of conflict prevention measures.
19. The current formulation of a Comprehensive Approach to conflict prevention, crisis
management and stabilisation is critical: the EEAS needs to put more emphasis on
upstream conflict prevention rather than crisis management and stabilisation.
What does the EEAS need to do over the next three years and what should it prioritise/ On which
areas should the 2013 review focus?
20. CONCORD and Bond made recommendations in the above-mentioned report
which are still valid. These can be summarised as follows.
21. Narrative on EU development cooperation: The EEAS should develop a
narrative on EU development cooperation and its interaction with security and
human rights policies. Under its watch, no further erosion of the civilian character of
development cooperation through military or quasi-military spending should take
place.
Bond – Written evidence
24 of 133
22. Make PCD a reality: The High Representative should acknowledge her obligation
to make Policy Coherence for Development a reality through the EEAS. She should
make a statement setting PCD as a priority function for the service, explaining clearly
to staff their role in relation to PCD when developing regional and national strategy
papers.
23. Sharpen development expertise: Expertise on development policy and practice
must be present at all levels in the institutions, including the EEAS. The EEAS and the
DG DEVCO should develop a training programme for all new EEAS staff to ensure
their ability to understand and apply a rights-based approach to development issues,
including PCD.
24. Work with civil society in country: In line with the recent Communication and
Council Conclusions on engagement with civil society in external actions, at both
headquarters and delegation level, both the EEAS and DEVCO should work more
actively to engage in political and policy dialogue with CSOs and NGOs, who know
the context of human rights and poverty on the ground and can help to shape
strategies to tackle it.
25. In addition to these, Bond member organisations stress that the EEAS needs to put
more emphasis on upstream conflict prevention rather than crisis
management and stabilisation.
December 2012
Brussels & Europe Liberal Democrats – Written evidence
25 of 133
Brussels & Europe Liberal Democrats – Written evidence
This enquiry is taking place only two years after the formation of the EEAS and is part
of the formal review of the functioning of the EEAS due to be undertaken in 2013. It must be
said that this is a very short time for such a new complex organisation – merging
different institutional cultures including those of officials coming from 27 Member States
Foreign Offices - to have found its feet properly.
Nevertheless, we believe that the EEAS has started well. Conceived in an era of
European self-confidence and plenty, and born in an age of European self-doubt and
austerity, it has managed to set up a functional organisational structure in a short
period of time without much resort to additional financial resources. Member
States’ Foreign Offices have contributed many of their finest officials into the service.
Political reporting and analysis have been given much more weight. Coordination with
Member States in the field in particular has gone remarkably smoothly. Overall we feel the
whole thing has come together rather well.
In the real world, the EEAS has found its niche. For brevity, I will focus on just two areas of
progress. The EEAS is having a major positive impact on the EU’s eastern, south-eastern and
southern neighbourhoods, especially concerning the Arab Spring, the intractable Middle
East Peace Process and in leading negotiations with Iran. Secondly, it is also making a
significant contribution to developing relations with strategic partners, an importance
not to be underestimated in this changing world where absolute priority needs to be
given to maintaining the influence of an economically-weakened EU and
Member States in the face of rapidly-growing competition for ideas, markets and
resources by the outside world. Here the EU carries weight when it acts united on
behalf of a half billion citizens. These tasks are supported by the EEAS’ 137 delegations, the
sixth largest diplomatic network in the world.
As was predicted before the EEAS’s formation, combining the previous roles of the High
Representative, Vice–President of the Commission and the Chair of the Foreign Affairs
Council would overwhelm any incumbent in an organisation with so many stake-holders.
The High Representative needs two or three very senior Deputy High
Representatives to undertake tasks when the High Representative is not able to do. In
many parts of the world, foreign ministers – or even their deputies - will not meet senior
EEAS officials as they do not consider them to be of an adequate level. Substituting the High
Representative with a Member State Foreign Minister does not ease the situation as many
Foreign Ministers might not carry the same weight and our foreign interlocutors would find
such a pre-Lisbon substitution baffling.
Ways must be found to reduce bottle-necks in decision-taking, including streamlining
internal EEAS procedures as well as the consultation process with Member States, which are
often slow due to their complexity. In this respect, the EEAS organisational structure
needs to continue evolving and simplifying.
Brussels & Europe Liberal Democrats – Written evidence
26 of 133
As the EEAS develops, it will need to generate more long term ideas to maintain Europe’s
relevance in the world. As emerging economies take over a larger share of the world’s GDP
and political power, the more Europe needs to start thinking out-of-box to stay relevant.
Therefore policy planning within the EEAS must be more strategic and provide
the framework for both EEAS and Commission policy to ensure consistency in the
development of the EU’s grand strategy towards the world.
It should not be forgotten that EEAS and European Commission services work
together in partnership in the external field. Good coordination between the EEAS
and the Commission has made it largely unnecessary at Headquarters for the EEAS to
replicate those Commission-led thematic areas (such as climate change and migration)
extensively in its own structure. However those same Commission services need to be
present in the key relevant countries in the field as well. Given the envisaged five per
cent reduction in Commission posts, this will only be possible adequately by a transfer of
posts from other services within the Commission.
As the European Union faces the future, the EEAS is clearly part of the solution in
guiding us in this new world. Brussels & Europe Liberal Democrats encourage the UK
coalition government to take a much more positive attitude towards the EEAS,
not just thinking of it as a way of enacting the UK’s national interest but using the
considerable experience of the Foreign Office to make the EEAS a success in its own right
for the good of all EU Member States. This should include taking steps to help the EU
carry more weight in its own right in the United Nations system.
In this respect, negotiations for the EU’s 2014-2020 Multi-Annual Financial
Framework are clearly not just about the overall level of the budget but how expenditure
should be allocated sensibly. Thus we call upon the UK coalition government to
concentrate on ensuring the EEAS is not affected disproportionately in a
negative way.
10 December 2012
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St. Andrews – Supplementary written
evidence
27 of 133
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St.
Andrews – Supplementary written evidence
1. I am grateful for the opportunity to present a written response on the question of how to
improve EEAS accountability. The EEAS has been subjected to sustained scrutiny and
criticism since it was launched in December 2010. Some of the criticism has been fair; much
has not.
2. For example, the High Representative / Vice President has done well in establishing a new
‘crisis management board’ (which integrates planning for general crisis response among
various bits of the EU), and in introducing the concept of ‘a crisis platform’ to respond to
specific conflicts or natural disasters. In addition she has created high-level task forces to
deal with specific third country governments in the European neighbourhood. These task
forces bring together senior personnel from the EEAS, Commission, European Investment
Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Union for the Mediterranean
and other agencies in a forum for drafting assistance proposals, monitoring progress and
solving problems with foreign partners.
3. The 2011 Strategy for the Horn of Africa is also a worthy attempt by the HR/VP to
establish better institutional coherence between (and within) the EEAS, the Commission and
member-states. The short-term security measures taken to deal with escalating problems of
terrorism, insurgency and piracy in the region (primarily through a naval mission, Operation
Atalanta) and a security sector training mission (the EU Training Mission Somalia), are now
being matched by long-term thinking on how to resolve political and socio-economic
problems at the root of conflict. The EEAS proposed – and member-states approved - a
major increase in EU financial support for the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM).
AMISOM, along with Somali troops, have been steadily pushing the rebel, extremist al-
Shabaab movement away from main population centres
4. The HR/VP also deserves praise for her role in chairing international talks on Iran’s
nuclear programme. Her stewardship of these difficult negotiations on a complex and urgent
challenge to international security has highlighted a diplomatic capability within the EEAS that
many had hastily thrown into question. The HR/VP has also presided over the introduction
of complex and robust sanctions that have severely hurt Iranian and Syrian government
interests.
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St. Andrews – Supplementary written
evidence
28 of 133
5. But the EEAS has also failed to meet expectations in some areas. The HR/VP and the EEAS
are not in the lead on key areas of foreign policy – for example, with respect to external
development assistance. In 2011 the European Council complained that Commission aid
programmes, such as those under the European Neighbourhood Policy Instrument, did not
sufficiently reflect the strategic priorities identified by member-states and EEAS diplomats.
6. Presently the influence of the HR/VP and the EEAS on the Commission on foreign policy
matters is based more on collegial co-operation than executive authority. In some areas of
the EU’s external relations, the HR/VP has less power than that enjoyed by the former
commissioner for external relations, Benita Ferrero-Waldner, before the amalgamation of
the latter’s post with that of HR/VP under the Lisbon Treaty. The directorate-general for
external relations was not transferred wholly to the EEAS. Instead, some assets were kept
by the Commission, including the international climate negotiation unit that was transferred
to the new directorate for climate action. Similarly, Ferrero-Waldner was able to draw upon
more trade and energy experts to assist her in developing a broad diplomatic agenda than is
the case in the EEAS under Ashton. Meetings of the group of external relations
commissioners (commissioners whose duties involve working with partners outside the EU)
have been much more infrequent since the EEAS was established than before.
7. In sum, the EEAS has made real gains on behalf of the EU – in places such as the Balkans,
the European Neighbourhood, the Horn of Africa and Yemen. But it has also failed to realise
some of its ambitions – there are persistent problems with Strategic Partnerships, Policy
Coherence for Development (PCD) etc. These failings are not always of the EEAS’s own
making but that of the Commission or the member-states. I have already submitted a report
I wrote for the Centre for European Reform on the EEAS, which provides a detailed
description of these successes and failures - “Ten Steps Towards a Credible EEAS” - and will
not repeat this discussion here.
8. The EEAS budget is overseen in a similar fashion to that of the Commission. Its main
budget allocation and lines of spending are carefully scrutinised by the member-states and
the European Parliament (the latter also has the right of approval). Oversight and
engagement by national parliaments on the question of EEAS spending could be improved.
9. The Lisbon Treaty envisioned more engagement by national parliaments in overseeing the
activities of the EU. To their credit both the HR/VP and senior EEAS officials have spent a
considerable amount of time briefing member-state parliamentarians. But such exchanges are
done on an ad-hoc basis. European and/or foreign affairs committees often listen politely to
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St. Andrews – Supplementary written
evidence
29 of 133
updates by the HR/VP and the EEAS, ask a few questions based on the particular interests of
individual legislators before thanking the HR/VP or the relevant EEAS official for their time.
10. In the past the EEAS sought to counter criticism by pumping out ‘good news’ stories.
Member-state governments, parliamentarians and civil society were often left unconvinced.
The EEAS needs to learn to re-balance towards ‘under-promising and over-delivering’. Only
when the EEAS is seen to consistently meet its objectives will member-states allocate it
more resources and responsibilities for the conduct of their foreign policy. It needs to build
trust including, most pressingly, among the legislatures of member-states.
11. The following are five suggestions to improve EEAS accountability:
i) Appoint an EU Advisory Board
12. The EU should consider appointing an EEAS 'board of elders' to advise, monitor and
evaluate the EEAS’s progress and needs. Its members should be respected former foreign
ministers, diplomats and experts. The board would report annually to the Council on EEAS
progress and challenges – making recommendations to member-state governments, national
parliaments and the EU institutions. The board would have no executive powers and would
be limited to advisory duties.
ii) Establish an EU foreign policy committee drawn from national legislatures
13. A more consistent and organised means of national parliament–EEAS exchange and
oversight would be to establish a committee of legislators from the rotating ‘troika’ of
member-states that meets to agree the agenda for their three sequential EU presidencies.
This would meet every six months (once per presidency) to put questions to the HR/VP and
the EEAS on budgetary and programmatic issues. A foreign policy committee made up of
parliamentarians from 27 member-states would be unworkably large.
14. A troika foreign policy committee drawn from member-state parliaments should not be
seen as a reversal of the Lisbon Treaty, which gave the HR/VP the lead in managing the
foreign policy agenda of the EU. But a critical rationale behind retaining a limited rotating
presidency is getting some EU business out of Brussels and bringing it to the citizens of
respective member-states. The same logic should apply to EU foreign policy.
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St. Andrews – Supplementary written
evidence
30 of 133
15. EU foreign policy remains largely inter-governmental – emphasising the importance of
enhancing oversight over the EEAS by national parliament. A troika foreign policy committee
would give national legislatures an increased sense of ownership over the EEAS, enhance
inter-parliamentary cooperation and give Europe’s diplomats increased exposure in the
member-states.
16. The membership of a troika foreign policy committee could be drawn from existing
parliamentary committees on European or foreign affairs in each member-state. A chairman
would be nominated from each of the three member-state parliaments to coordinate the
meeting during his or her country’s presidency, including topics for discussion, requests for
information and witnesses from the EEAS and elsewhere. This meeting would take place in
the rotating presidency country and would be prepared by the relevant parliamentary liaison
offices in Brussels in consultation with their home parliaments.
17. To promote continuity, at the end of each ‘troika’ of presidencies the three chairmen
would present a joint report to their successors from the next troika of member-states on
issues covered, resolved and of continued interest or concern.
iii) Strengthen oversight by the European Court of Auditors over EEAS activities
18. The European Court of Auditors (ECA) occasionally issues reports on the impact of
funds spent in pursuit of EU common foreign and security policy and development assistance
goals. Recently the Court issued a report warning of management failings (in addition to
positive findings) with respect to the activities of the EU Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo
(‘EULEX’). The ECA provides a useful, if limited, oversight mechanism for the activities of the
EEAS. This role could be expanded but, in doing so, the ECA would likely require additional
staff/expertise.
iv) Harmonise EEAS budgets
19. Funds provided by member-states outside of the main budget - for example the separate
budgets created for each individual EU Special Representatives or Common Security and
Defence Policy (CSDP) mission - complicate oversight. These must each be considered in
turn and are often subject to less scrutiny than the EEAS’s main budget. Member-states
should consider simplifying such practices – for example by integrating the EUSRs’ funding
and personnel within the main structure of the EEAS while maintaining overall spending and
staffing.
v) Make more EEAS reports available to national parliaments
Edward Burke, Associate Researcher, FRIDE / University of St. Andrews – Supplementary written
evidence
31 of 133
20. A more systematic exchange of information between parliaments and the EEAS is both
desirable and feasible. The EEAS could more routinely send unclassified versions of
Mission/Delegation reports to the responsible parliamentary committee in each member-
state.
2 December 2012
Department for International Development (DFID) – Written evidence
32 of 133
Department for International Development (DFID) – Written
evidence
As the FCO’s Minister for Europe said when he gave evidence on 24 January, the EEAS has
now been in operation for two years. Baroness Ashton has established the service in
accordance with the 2010 Council Decision and it has now moved beyond institutional
issues to focus on key policy priorities. Baroness Ashton and the EEAS have had some
widely recognised successes, including their work on Iran, the Western Balkans and the
Middle East Peace Process. The creation of the EEAS has provided opportunities and challenges for EU development policy and aid. The EEAS has created the opportunity for a
more coherent approach to EU external action by linking foreign policy and aid strategies.
However, it has also introduced a new actor into an area in which the Commission leads on
implementation. This has brought challenges in terms of the overlapping roles of the EEAS
and the Commission’s DG DEVCO (Development Cooperation).
As the new structures have settled down, progress has been achieved in resolving areas of
ambiguity. Practically, there is now a dedicated unit within the EEAS, the Development
Cooperation Coordination, which coordinates work with DG DEVCO and ensures links are
made across the range of thematic issues. This unit is now fully operational, and this has
improved channels of communication. Officials are in regular contact with this unit, as well
as a number of other geographical and thematic divisions including Africa, conflict and global
issues. At a more senior level, Commissioners Piebalgs and Georgieva report to Ashton,
which is intended to help bring the strands of external action together.
As a tangible example of improved coherence in setting the overall framework for EU
development policy, the Commission and EEAS jointly proposed the new External Financial
Instruments for 2014-2020, and have used joint negotiating teams throughout the process so
far. This has meant a coherent position across development policy, foreign policy and the
implementation of financial assistance during negotiations on the new instruments. This has
been particularly evident in discussions over the ‘more-for-more’ approach in the EU’s
Neighbourhood, and in discussions regarding countries graduating from bilateral EU
assistance and the foreign policy response to this including plans for a new EU Partnership
Instrument.
The EEAS has also had a positive impact in increasing the coherence of EU external action in
dealing with stability and post-conflict situations, for example in the Horn of Africa and in
Libya. In Syria as well, post-conflict assistance planning is closely coordinated between the
EEAS and DG DEVCO. The Commission and EEAS are currently working on a joint
communication on this ‘Comprehensive Approach’ to conflict prevention and crisis
management, which involves mobilising a wide range of EU policies and instruments (political,
military, development economic) in a coherent and co-ordinated way, and in co-ordination
with other international actors. The resulting communication is likely to shape the evolving relationship between EEAS and the Commission. The UK has been active in encouraging the
EU to adopt the ‘Comprehensive Approach’ and recently set out proposals on this in a non-
paper with five other Member States. We hope the EEAS-Commission communication will
include proposals that will enhance the effectiveness of the EU’s response on the ground.
Baroness Ashton’s 2013 Review of the EEAS is an opportunity to strengthen policy
coherence and the Comprehensive Approach. Synergies between the Review and the
Comprehensive approach should be fully exploited to improve the rapidity, flexibility and
impact of the EU’s response to crises.
Department for International Development (DFID) – Written evidence
33 of 133
Challenges do however still remain. The Council decision establishing the EEAS gives joint
responsibility, with the EEAS in the lead, for the preparation of strategic programming
documents under the External Action Instruments. As the programming up to 2013 was
already in place when the EEAS was established, it has, with the exception of the response to
the Arab Spring, had comparatively little impact on existing assistance programmes. The
process for programming for 2014 onwards is currently underway, but the ‘dual reporting’
lines in EU Delegations, with Operations sections reporting both to the EEAS and to DG
DEVCO in Brussels can lead to confusion. In time the quality and coherence of programming
documents will be good indicators of whether this challenge has been overcome.
A key test will come in the implementation of the ‘Comprehensive Approach’, and the role
of development assistance in it. At present, we are still exploring whether the role of
development will be limited to supporting and complementing post-conflict and stability
CFSP operations, or whether it will be more deeply integrated. In either case, there are
challenges to making the approach truly comprehensive and integrated, while maintaining a
genuine, long-term development focus in programmes.
The relationship between the EEAS and the Commission continues to evolve and UK teams
in DFID and the FCO will continue to work with their counterparts in both institutions to
encourage effective cooperation.
January 2013
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
34 of 133
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International
Relations, University of Oxford – Written evidence
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1. The establishment of the European External Action Service (EEAS) was the direct result of
the Treaty of Lisbon, which entered into force on 1 December 2009. The EEAS was,
however, not created from scratch. It was essentially a merger – in Brussels and in third
countries – between the foreign policy services of the Council of Ministers and the European
Commission complemented with a significant number of national diplomats seconded from
the capitals. The establishment of foreign policy bureaucracies within the context of the
European Union (EU) goes back a long time with the Single European Act (1987) and the
Treaties of Maastricht (1993) and Amsterdam (1999) bringing important innovations as well.
2. The European Commission has long played an important role in the area of external
relations. As a key actor in trade policy it has entertained extensive bilateral and multilateral
contacts with third countries and international organisations. In addition, the Commission
has been an important player in development and humanitarian policy with a very significant
budget. Moreover, the Commission has been the key negotiator in the field of enlargement
and has (had) therefore strong contacts with many countries in Central and Eastern Europe
and the Western Balkans. Many of the policies were implemented through the headquarters
in Brussels consisting of the Directorates-General External Relations, Trade, Development,
Enlargement, EuropeAid, ECHO.12 In addition, and importantly, the Commission established
over time a network of 130+ delegations in third countries.
3. While the Commission played a pivotal role in external relations broadly defined, member
states have also been interested in cooperating on foreign and security issues. They thus
created European Political Cooperation in 1970, which became the Common Foreign and
Security Policy (CFSP) following the Treaty of Maastricht. To cooperate more effectively, the
member states have delegated over time many bureaucratic resources to the Council in
order to prepare and implement common decisions in the context of the CFSP. The EPC
Secretariat of the Single European Act was a first example. This office was subsequently
integrated into the General Secretariat of the Council in 1993. And finally, with the Treaty of
Amsterdam, the member states significantly expanded these Council bureaucracies in the
area of foreign policy, including through the creation of the post of High Representative for
the CFSP, whose first office-holder was Dr Javier Solana (1999-2009).
4. It is difficult to underestimate the significance of these Council services in the
development and implementation of EU foreign policy in the period prior to the Lisbon
12 These are the names of the relevant DGs prior to the Treaty of Lisbon.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
35 of 133
Treaty.13 Solana had a private office and a 30+ strong dedicated Policy Unit. In addition,
there was DG External Relations of 250 officials.14 This Directorate-General consisted of
relevant regional units, such as the Western Balkans, Middle-East and Africa, as well as two
Directorates for Defence Issues and Civilian Crisis Management. The Council machinery
furthermore consisted of a 200 officer strong EU Military Staff, some 70 officials working the
Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability, and 100 intelligence officers in the Situation
Centre.15 In addition, Solana had a dozen Special Representatives, who all had their own
staffs, reporting directly to him.
NEGOTIATING THE EEAS
5. One of the main fears during the negotiations of the Amsterdam Treaty, and in the period
after its entry into force, was the potential competition and incoherence between the
Commission and the Council services.16 Would the Commissioner for External Relations,
Lord Chris Patten at the time, or the High Representative for the CFSP, Javier Solana, speak
for the Europe Union?17 While some of the predicted 'turf battles' really turned out 'turf
tensions' and were limited to specific institutional aspects,18 it created an important input for
the European Convention, in charge of drafting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for
Europe. In line with some of the federalist rhetoric of the Convention there would be one
Union Minister for Foreign Affairs, one EEAS, and unified Union delegations in the context of
EU foreign policy. While the rhetoric was watered down, the substance remained the same
in the Lisbon Treaty.
6. The establishment of the EEAS was a classic case of 'incomplete contracting'. The Lisbon
Treaty only noted that the EEAS would consist of Council, Commission and member states
officials (see article 27(3)). It did not stipulate the scope of the EEAS, the balance between
Council, Commission and member states, accountability structures, or how the organogram
13 e.g. H. Dijkstra (2008) 'The Council Secretariat's Role in the Common Foreign and Security Policy', European
Foreign Affairs Review 13(2), pp. 149-166; G. Mueller-Brandeck-Bocquet and C. Rueger (eds), The High Representative for the
EU Foreign and Security Policy: Review and Prospects, Baden-Baden: Nomos; H. Dijkstra (2012) 'The Influence of EU Officials in
European Security and Defence', European Security 21(3), pp. 311-327.
14 Note that there was a difference between DG External Relations in the Commission and DG External Relations
in the Council.
15 All these staff figures are estimates.
16 Report by Reflection Group (1995) A Strategy for Europe, Brussels, 5 December; The Economist (2000) 'Chris
Patten, Becalmed in Brussels', 20 January.
17 D. Allen (1998) ‘‘‘Who Speaks for Europe?”: The Search for an Effective and Coherent External Policy’ in J.
Peterson and H. Sjursen (eds), A Common Foreign Policy for Europe? Competing Visions of the CFSP, Routledge: London.
18 C. Patten (2005) Not Quite the Diplomat: Home Truths about World Affairs, London: Allen Lane; H. Dijkstra (2009)
'Commission Versus Council Secretariat: An Analysis of Bureaucratic Rivalry in European Foreign Policy', European Foreign
Affairs Review 14(3), pp. 431-450.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
36 of 133
should look like. These questions became subject to further negotiations with the member
states, the Commission and the European Parliament. The Commission was involved
because the EEAS would mostly draw on its resources. The Parliament was involved as the
establishment of the EEAS required amendments to the financial and personnel regulations,
over which the Parliament has a formal say.
7. The scope of the EEAS was an interesting topic. Would the EEAS be solely a merger
between the DGs External Relations of the Commission and Council (narrow scope), or
would it include all external relations services of the European Union, including trade,
enlargement, development and security policy (broad scope)? The eventual compromise was
somewhere in the middle. Services dealing with trade, enlargement and development
implementation stayed largely in the Commission, while development programming and
security policy, including military policy, became part of the EEAS. The member states made
the right decision to include military policy in the EEAS, because splitting it from the rest of
the work of the EEAS would have fundamentally undermined the comprehensive approach
of the EU to foreign policy.19 Arguably, however, security policy has not yet been fully
integrated in the EEAS. It is still a separate set of Directorates (located in the top-right
corner of the EEAS organogram) and most civil servants dealing directly with the Common
Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) have their offices in a separate building.
8. The discussions over the balance between the Council, Commission and member states
staff was equally interesting. Because many of the negotiating parties were unfamiliar with
the details of the Brussels structures, it took some time to come to a compromise.20 Initially,
for example, some people thought that the EEAS should not have permanent staff and that
all officials should be secondees with the Council and Commission staff also going back to
their institutions after 3-4 years. This was however clearly not possible because of the
different sorts of expertise in the Council/Commission, on the one hand, and the EEAS on
the other. Similarly, some people thought that the balance should be 1/3, 1/3, 1/3, yet this
clearly did not take into account that the Commission staff was much larger than the
Council staff. 1/2 Commission/Council and 1/2 member states was also suggested, but this
would be a too strong requirement for the member states' diplomatic services. So the
negotiating parties eventually settled for 2/3 Commission/Council and 1/3 member states.
9. In terms of the contribution of the member states, it is important to note that national
diplomats bring much needed diplomatic experience and expertise to the table, which the
Commission and the Council did not originally possess. Bringing in national diplomats, of
course, also allows the member states more control over the policy produced by the EEAS
and the Union delegations in third countries. Yet it is worth noting that if the requirements
19 The comprehensive approach entails using a combination of development, security and diplomacy in foreign
policy. This is supposed to be the unique selling point of the EU.
20 Putting COREPER and people from the Council and Commission's Secretaries-General in charge of designing the
new structures was probably not the best idea, as their knowledge for the specific demands of foreign policy tends to be
limited in many cases.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
37 of 133
for the member states in terms of secondments become too high, it undermines the
resources in the capitals and therefore as well the member states' ability to keep control
over the EEAS. While diplomatic services everywhere in the EU are under pressure, this is
particularly an issue for many of the smaller member states.
10. Finally, it is worth to say something on the accountability and hierarchal structures of the
EEAS. It is striking that the EEAS very much continues to look like the European
Commission. Essentially the Council staff and national diplomats have been integrated in the
what formerly were the services of the Commission. This is understandable, because the
former Commission services make up the bulk of the EEAS.21 It is also regrettable, because
the European Commission has never been the best model for rapid reaction, short lines and
the speed that foreign policy formulation requires. It is, for example, an insider joke in
Brussels that the current High Representative is always the last EU actor to put out a
statement, via traditional or social media, reacting to events in international relations.
FUNCTIONING OF EEAS
11. It is not a secret that the performance of the current High Representative, Catherine
Ashton, and the EEAS has been underwhelming. Her performance was perhaps acceptable in
the twelve months following the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, during the difficult
negotiations on the EEAS, but it has not markedly improved. The current line of
communication is to blame all the problems with EU foreign policy on the member states
themselves. Michael Mann, spokesperson of the High Representative, for example, writes in
a letter to The Economist, “EU foreign policy remains the business of its member states, so
any progress can only be achieved if there is consensus. The idea that the high
representative for foreign affairs can forge her own foreign policy against the will of member
states is unrealistic. She can prod, push and pull, as she often does, but she cannot charge
ahead without the backing of the 27”.22
12. It is indeed worthwhile noting that changes in governments in France, Germany and the
United Kingdom have not made the life of EU officials, working on foreign policy, easier. To
put it bluntly, Javier Solana and his civil servants (1999-2009) had a much easier job working
with the Blair, Chirac and Schröder governments, which much more permissive towards
independent action by the EU on the international scene than the current governments. The
economic crisis is another problem for the EEAS, because it simply means that the member
21 Yet it is also noteworthy that Commission people, in particular, have had their hand in the design of the EEAS
(e.g. Catherine Day, Christian Leffler, Patrick Child, James Morisson). In addition, Commission President Barroso has been
operating effectively pre-empting and affecting the negotiations. See Z. Murdoch (2012) 'Negotiating the European External
Action Service (EEAS): Analyzing the External Effects of Internal (Dis)Agreement', Journal of Common Market Studies 50(6):
1011-1027; L. Erkelens and S. Blockmans (2012) 'Setting up the European External Action Service: An institutional act of
balance', CLEER Working Paper 1.
22 The Economist (2012) 'Letters to the Editor', 17 March.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
38 of 133
states are less interested in foreign and security policy dossiers. Finally, the war in
Afghanistan has put indirectly enormous pressure of EU foreign policy. It means that there
are no military resources for any EU operation; and without actual EU operations, the
dynamism in the area of security is low.
13. Complaining is, however, not what the High Representative is hired for. She should
instead try to get ahead of the member states by taking initiatives and by showing leadership.
Very few of the member states have genuinely global foreign policies, so if the High
Representative waits until all the member states have made up their mind about a crisis half-
way across the globe, it is clearly too late. Solana, for example, prevented open EU
disagreement during the Israel-Lebanon war in 2006 by just stepping on the plane and acting
as if he spoke for Europe without having an actual formal mandate.23 There is also a visibility
problem. For example, after an informal meeting of the ministers of foreign affairs in Cyprus
last September, the foreign ministers of France, Germany and the United Kingdom held a
joint press conference calling for more sanctions on Iran.24 Ashton was not there, nor
mentioned in the press, in spite of having chaired the meeting and being the sole EU
negotiator on the Iran non-proliferation dossier!
14. One of the frequently heard comments is that the High Representative has too many
jobs to do and that she cannot be everywhere at the same time, particularly since she does
not have a private plane at her disposal. This has never been a very strong argument. Solana
managed, after all, with even less resources. In some years, he visited the Middle-East 7-8
times a year to speak to all the relevant local actors. Furthermore, the United States
Secretary of State is also terribly busy, so there is absolutely no reason why the EU High
Representative cannot handle. The essence boils down to prioritising, trusting high-level civil
servants, and sacrificing one's personal life. One of the issues that may come up again during
the EEAS review is to have a system with deputies or to delegate tasks to the other EU
commissioners. Such discussions are likely to be fruitless and will not solve the underlying
problem.
15. It is also important to note is that many of the high-flyers in the foreign policy services
under Solana have resigned, retired, or been sidelined. To mention a few of the best and
brightest, Pieter Feith (former Deputy-DG External Relations), Stefan Lehne (former
Director Western Balkans) and Lt-Gen David Leakey (former DG EU Military Staff) no
longer work for the EEAS. Robert Cooper (former DG External Relations) is now a
'counsellor'. These have been, to a large extent, natural developments but it would have
been useful to keep the old guard in place, as they were officials with international networks
and had the capability to get things done. Many of their replacements lack such skills. As a
23 H. Dijkstra (2011) 'EU External Representation in Conflict Resolution: When does the Presidency or the High
Representative Speak for Europe?', European Integration Online Papers 15(1), pp. 1-23.
24 BBC (2012) 'UK, France and Germany call for tighter Iran sanctions', 8 September.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
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matter of fact, many of the current high-level officials have a Commission background, which
does not lead to the desired results.
16. Needless to say, all the problems surrounding the establishment of the EEAS and the lack
of leadership at the top have not improved the morale amongst lower-level staff members.
The EEAS is, at the moment, not the most exciting place to work in Brussels or the ideal
career destination for the best and brightest in the national diplomatic services. Diplomats
and officials from the small and medium-sized member states would, in theory, be able to
take much more initiatives and be in an influential situation on the world stage while working
for the EEAS rather than their national administrations, which have much less cloud. In the
current practice, this is not the case.
THE WAY FORWARD
17. There is a thus serious risk that EU foreign policy and the EEAS will become even less
relevant over time. The track record of the last years is insufficient and there is little sign of
improvement. The Western Balkans, for example, is full of examples of missed opportunities
of EU foreign policy, the Middle-East Peace Process is no longer on the international agenda,
an adequate response to the Arab Spring has yet to be formulated, and the High
Representative and her staff have been rather naive to think that they could reach a
negotiated settlement with Iran without the appropriate sticks. In a decade, which is not
favourable for the EU and its foreign policy, it is thus of paramount importance that common
institutions such as the EEAS do not under-perform. The final section of this submission
therefore puts forward a number of recommendations.
18. The most important is that member states continue to invest in the EEAS and the
delegations in third countries.25 Member states, including the larger ones, have to realise that
unilateral foreign policy has limited effect in an era of multi-polarity. They should leave much
more initiatives, implementation and photo opportunities to the High Representative and the
EEAS. They should also make better resources available for the EEAS. Few member states,
for example, have currently serious policies in place to guarantee national diplomats
sufficient career advancement when they come back from their secondment to the EEAS.
Ideally, in the medium to long-term, spending some time in Brussels or in an EU delegation
should become a requirement for promotion to specific (ambassadorial) posts in the national
diplomatic services.
19. The member states should also invest in a more serious appointment procedure for the
new High Representative in 2014. Clearly this post requires someone with vast political,
diplomatic and multilateral experience, international networks, and the authority of a former
Head of State and/or Government. As things currently stand, it is likely that the nomination
25 S. Lehne (2011) 'More Action, Better Service: How to Strengthen the European External Action Service', Carnegie
Endowment Policy Outlook, 16 December.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford –
Written evidence
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of the Commission President is becoming further politicised with the pan-European parties
(European People's Party, Party of European Socialists, etc.) each putting forward their
candidate for 2014.26 If this indeed happens, it is important that the post of High
Representative will not become subject to subsequent horse-trading with positions such as
the European Council President and Parliament President. This was what happened back in
2009.
20. Notwithstanding adequate accountability structures, the EEAS requires less hierarchy, a
more decentralized structure, and shorter lines between the High Representative and the
desk officer. At the moment, there are often 4-5 people standing in-between the High
Representative and the desk officer, which seems simply too many for the area of foreign
policy which requires rapid response. Similarly, internal bureaucratic procedures, which have
been adopted from Commission standards, need to be relaxed if they undermine the work
of the EEAS. Most important, however, is a change in culture, in which people take
responsibility and initiative, and do not have to discuss everything with everyone. It is not
difficult, for example, to find 4-5 units in the EEAS dealing with Kosovo. This still excludes
the relevant units in the Commission's Enlargement and Justice DGs.
21. Finally, the foreign, development and security services in the EEAS should be better
integrated in order to achieve a genuine comprehensive approach. This implies more than
having coordination meetings with all relevant actors around the table. A structural
integration of difference services has to be considered and command and control of CSDP
operations has to be made more inclusive. In the United Nations, for example, people have
thought much harder about how to combine scarce military, diplomatic and development
resources effectively. The ongoing EU review of the Crisis Management Procedures lack
such innovation and creativity.27
22. In conclusion, the EEAS is the most recent step in the centralisation of foreign policy in
the EU. Its establishment has not come at the best possible moment amidst the economic
crisis and several increasingly euro-critical governments. This should, however, not be used
as an excuse for what can be considered an unsatisfactory start of the EEAS. Instead, the
EEAS should work harder to get its own house in order, unilaterally take more initiatives,
and work with the member states to make EU foreign policy more effective in these dire
economic times.
26 November 2012
26 The candidate of the pan-European party that wins the EU Parliament elections will then become the Commission
President (after a formal nomination by the European Council).
27 A. Mattelaer (2012) 'Reviewing the EU’s Crisis Management Procedures', IES Policy Brief 4, November.
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The European Centre for Development Policy Management –
Written evidence
1. The European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM28) is a development
cooperation and international relations ‘think and do tank’, established as an independent
non-partisan foundation in the Netherlands in 1986. Our main goal is to broker effective partnerships between the EU and the Global South, particularly Africa. ECDPM organises
and facilitates policy dialogues, provides tailored analysis and advice, disseminates timely
information, participates in South-North networks and carries out policy-oriented
research with partners from the South. ECDPM receives institutional support against
our strategy and workplan from seven EU member-states.
2. ECDPM has developed considerable expertise on EU external action in the post-Lisbon
context29, and has a strong track record for policy and impact evaluations. Recently, two
authors at ECDPM, Andrew Sherriff and Florian Krätke, published a Briefing Note on the
2013 review of the EEAS.30 The below Submission of Evidence will draw on this and
other publications of ECDPM.
Interpreting the EEAS
3. The Council Decision establishing the EEAS31 notes that it was designed to support the
High Representative in her mandate to conduct EU foreign policy, externally represent
the EU and coordinate other aspects of EU external action. In addition, the EEAS is
mandated to support and cooperate with the Member States’ diplomatic services, the
General Secretariat of the Council and the Commission services to ensure consistency
between the different areas of the Union’s external action and between those areas and
other policies.
4. The High Representative has remarked that the EEAS is not meant to speak with a single
voice on foreign policy issues, but is instead designed to assist in delivering an integrated
European message (‘joined-up government’). The EEAS thus aspires to be a single
diplomatic presence, speaking ‘on behalf of a single, globally active legal entity’, and
therefore a platform for European values and interests.
The 2013 EEAS review
28 See www.ecdpm.org
29 See, for instance: van Seters, J. and H. Klavert. 2011. EU development cooperation after the Lisbon Treaty: People,
institutions and global trends. (Discussion Paper 123). Maastricht: ECDPM. www.ecdpm.org/dp123.
30 Krätke, F. and A. Sherriff. 2012. Gearing up for the 2013 EEAS Review: Opportunities, challenges, and possible
approaches. (ECDPM Briefing Note 44). www.ecdpm.org/bn44.
31 Council Decision of 26 July 2010 establishing the functioning and organization of the European External Action Service,
(2010/427/EU). http://www.eeas.europa.eu/background/docs/eeas_decision_en.pdf.
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5. The review of the EEAS, to be completed and presented by the High Representative in
2013, is likely to be a process of political bargaining. Whereas national and institutional
interests are expected to drive the review, a strong argument can be made for the need
for learning and accountability at this stage. The EEAS is a young service, established amid
arguably adverse circumstances (i.e. the Eurozone crisis and the Arab Spring).
6. Reviews or evaluations fundamentally have two objectives: to learn from experience and
adjust strategies, operations and resources accordingly, and to demonstrate
accountability towards key stakeholders. A review of the organisation and functioning of
the EEAS would therefore, given the current climate of austerity, provide an opportunity
to increase the credibility and legitimacy of the EEAS. Clearly it is of benefit to respond
to the rising demands for public scrutiny of the EU, and to showcase the added value of
not only a new EU institution but also the much-contested Lisbon Treaty as a whole.
7. Most publications on the EEAS produced in the run-up to its establishment and the
upcoming review are based on positions and interests. While such outputs are not
invalid, they are often based on a selective understanding of what the EEAS should be
doing and how it is doing it, not objective assessment – this leaves ample room for such
efforts to be dismissed by stakeholders involved in the review.
8. Insofar as opinions on the EEAS continue to be based on normative positions or
interests rather than evidence-based analysis, stakeholders involved in the review could
stand to draw on insights from the practice of conducting reviews, evaluations and audits
in order to realise the opportunity to enhance the legitimacy of the EEAS by promoting
learning and accountability.
9. The Lisbon Treaty and the legal texts related to the review32 remain open to a degree of
interpretation; the object of the assessment is therefore open to ambiguity, which deters
from learning and accountability. We argue that there is a wealth of experience to draw
on, from which several essential components of the review can be distinguished in order
to increase the rigour of the process and therefore the legitimacy of its outcome.
Obstacles to learning and accountability for the EEAS
10. Before a structured approach to reviewing the EEAS can be established, several obstacles
to such an endeavour need to be noted. First, the EEAS’ ability to perform is not the
result of its operation alone but rather of a range of trust- and interest-based relations
and interactions. The complex institutional arrangement originating from the Lisbon
Treaty, and the EEAS’ position within that arrangement, renders it challenging to identify
the (extent to which) actions and results (were) affected by the EEAS rather than by a)
the High Representative, b) the inter-governmental dialogue process on foreign and
security policy and c) (inter)actions with/of the Commission Directorates. Crucially, a
significant amount of time has been devoted to adjusting and giving shape to the post-
32 Articles 13 (3) and, by extension, Articles 6 (6), (8) and (11), of the Council Decision of 26 July 2010.
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Lisbon configuration in the past two years – these ‘construction’ efforts should be
distinguished from ‘actual’ strategic and operational activities of the EEAS;
11. Second, many observers have noted that the EEAS (particularly its senior management)
have been constrained by the influence of the established actors in Brussels: the
Commission and the Member States. It is debatable whether it is possible to genuinely
review the EEAS without also assessing if its operating environment, shaped by its
principal stakeholders and ‘competitors’, has been sufficiently enabling. This also brings
into question whether the EEAS should be judged on its capacity to lead actions or
rather facilitate discussions on foreign policy and external action. Most importantly, the
position of the EEAS within the post-Lisbon configuration makes it challenging to
distinguish the design phase from the execution of the review.
12. Third, in all likelihood the various stakeholders will assess and contest the EEAS on the
basis of the purpose and objectives that they believe it should or should not have, rather
than what was agreed. Articles 2 and 3 of the Council Decision offer some basis on
which to structure the review.
13. Fourth, it is most likely too soon to thoroughly evaluate the sustainable impact the EEAS
has had – there is however an urgent need for the service to account for progress made
and actively learn from the past two years’ experience. While drawing the distinction
between results and impact is not straightforward, lessons learned from past evaluation
practice could be helpful, as clarified below.
Promoting learning and accountability
14. It may be tempting to simply accept that lack of clarity on the purpose and methodology
of the review allows for broader scope and greater flexibility in adapting the agenda of
the discussions to the political environment. However there is something to be said for
setting clear expectations and methodological rigour in terms of delivering credible
findings that help carry the service forward. A review informed by standard practices and
agreed criteria for evaluations could lay the groundwork for further evaluations, for
instance of the impact of EU Delegations or the EU integrated regional strategies.
15. Several components, which have proven their effectiveness in past evaluation practice,
can help increase the rigour of the review and lighten the political pressure to a degree,
and are therefore worth integrating into the process:
Establish terms of reference after an initial listening phase to guide the review, which clearly identify
the basis, objective and timeframe of the review and specify the role of each stakeholder group;
Linking internationally agreed evaluation indicators and criteria to the review, justifying alterations or
deviations;
Develop a structured set of key questions through which to conduct the review transparently, as well
as a clear process for deriving conclusions and recommendations from the information presented;
Highlight specific examples or case studies to gain an in-depth understanding of the role and value
of the EEAS in specific circumstances.
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16. Point b) above is critical: the review will need to be informed by and based on
established evaluation criteria around which to devise evaluation questions, such as those
used by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the
European Commission’s former Joint Evaluations Unit33. The criteria include: relevance,
effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability, impact, coherence / complementarity and added
value. The first five follow internationally agreed best practice for evaluations, while the
latter two criteria are designed specifically for evaluations of EU initiatives in accordance
with the ‘3 C’s’ of coordination, complementarity and coherence introduced in the
Maastricht Treaty.34
17. The agreed operational principles of the EEAS’ function - coherence, stability, cost-
neutrality and visibility - could be the yardstick(s) for the review, reflecting both the
EEAS’ grounding in the Lisbon Treaty and the guidelines of the Council Decision. The
emphasis would be placed on the role of the EEAS in obtaining (perceived) results in
specific situations, e.g. the crisis response in Haiti, in the Arab Spring countries, the
integrated approach to achieving security and development result in the Horn of Africa
and the Sahel, the role of EU in the Middle East Peace Process and maintaining peace and
stability in the Balkans.
Policy coherence for development
18. Furthermore, the Lisbon Treaty contains several provisions35 relating to the EEAS’ first
operational principle (that of coherence) to development issues, stating that: “The union
shall take account of the objectives of development cooperation in the policies that it
implements which are likely to affect developing countries.” This principal, more widely
known as Policy Coherence for Development (PCD)36, clearly links to the mandate of
the EEAS37.
19. Given ECDPM’s goals, it is of particular interest to us how the EEAS has responded to
addressing development concerns. However, it would seem that policy coherence, even
without the ‘for development’ attached, has not been a priority for the EEAS, but is
rather seen as a long-term ambition for EU external action. In this regard, the High
Representative and the EEAS have not shown the leadership and clear (organisational)
commitments expected from the letter of the Lisbon Treaty. Our research has shown
that EEAS staff considers PCD to be the responsibility of the European Commission. For
PCD to have effect, it will need to be perceived as a continuous engagement in relation
to all specific areas of EU policy.
33 See http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/evaluation/methodology/methods/mth_ccr_en.htm#03 and
http://www.oecd.org/dac/evaluationofdevelopmentprogrammes/daccriteriaforevaluatingdevelopmentassistance.htm.
34 See also the resource guides available at http://www.three-cs.net/index.html.
35 Specifically, Article 21 of the Treaty of the European Union and Article 208 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union.
36 See also http://www.oecd.org/pcd/.
37 Specifically, Article 3(1) of the Council Decision of 26 July 2010.
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20. In conclusion, the review process and outcome will not make or break the EEAS, yet it
nonetheless represents the most prominent milestone and formal opportunity for
learning and accountability of the coming years. It is therefore important that those
planning and implementing the process do so with their eyes open to potential options
and challenges beyond those political in nature.
This evidence is submitted by Florian Krätke (and Andrew Sherriff of ECDPM, acting in their
individual capacities.
5 December 2012
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European External Action Service (EEAS) – Written evidence
1. What are the main achievements of the EEAS since its establishment?
Where has it been less successful?
Following the adoption of the Council Decision of 26 July 2010 on the organization and
functioning of the European External Action Service and associated changes to the financial
and staff regulations of the EU, the EEAS was established on 1 January 2011.
The EEAS was established by bringing together existing structures and staff from the
European Commission and the General Secretariat of the Council and already working in
Brussels and in Delegations on external relations, including Common Security and Defense
Policy (CSDP). A number of Member States diplomats were recruited from the outset in the
service, including at the highest level of the EEAS, in line with the goal of reaching the
presence of 1/3 of seconded national diplomats.
Since its establishment, the most immediate challenge for the service has been the
promotion of a comprehensive approach to EU external relations and foreign policy in line
with the objectives of the Lisbon Treaty. In doing this, the service acts in accordance to its
main mandate which is to support the High Representative in discharging the combined
responsibilities previously assured by the rotating Presidency in the area of foreign policy, by
the High Representative and by the former Commissioner for External Relations. In the
short space of two-years, the service has established procedures and arrangements to
ensure greater synergy of the EU's external action and more integrated policy making.
In this context, one of the first challenges for the High Representative and the EEAS was to
take over the tasks previously managed by the rotating Presidency for chairing and setting
the agenda of Foreign Affairs Council meetings, of the Political and Security Committee and
of all relevant supporting Council working groups in Brussels. Similarly with the entry into
force of the Treaty of Lisbon, EU delegations around the world had to take on the additional
responsibilities of local co-ordination with the diplomatic missions of Member States and
external representation of EU foreign policy with third countries and multilateral
organizations.
Policy areas on which the HR/VP and the EEAS has particularly focused over the past two
years include:
the strong EU response to the Arab Spring and related events in the Southern
Mediterranean, drawing on the instruments of the European Neighbourhood Policy and
the crisis response capacities of the EU;
the lead responsibility for the High Representative in the E3+3 negotiations with Iran on
its nuclear programme;
a stronger EU effort to move forward in the Middle East peace process through a more
active role for the Quartet;
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the central role of the EU in bringing together the parties in the Belgrade-Pristina talks;
a new concept of Task Forces, bringing together EU institutions, member States,
international financial institutions and the private sector, to support partner countries in
their reform programmes. This innovative approach has been used so far in Tunisia,
Jordan and Egypt.
a renewed commitment on the central place of human rights and democracy in the external action of the EU through the adoption of its ambitious New EU Strategic
Framework on Human Rights and Democracy, the appointment of the first ever EU
Special Representative for Human Rights and the establishment of the European
Endowment for Democracy (EED)
an active contribution from the EU, based on the concept of the comprehensive
approach, to addressing the tensions in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel through the
adoption and implementation of new EU strategies on both regions..
a more structured approach to relations with the EU's major strategic partners - including effective co-ordination of preparations for summits and other high-level
meetings -,allows for more strategic cooperation on key international issues (Iran, MEPP,
piracy, cyber security…). The HR/VP and the EEAS have contributed to strengthening
the transatlantic relationship by coordinating approaches with the US in many cases and
undertaking a number of joint initiatives including a joint visit to the Western Balkans by
HR Ashton and SoS Clinton.
an inclusive approach to crisis management, in particular through the creation of a crisis
platform, which brings together all relevant EEAS and Commission services . This was
instrumental in the rapid creation of an EU presence in Libya, South Sudan,
Burma/Myanmar and Somalia.
This progress has been achieved in parallel to the very considerable challenge of setting up
the EEAS as a functionally autonomous body in a very difficult economic and budgetary
context. The EEAS has undertaken two in-depth screening exercises of the use of its human
resources in HQ to eliminate duplication between the activities transferred from the
services of the Commission and the Council Secretariat. These have led to considerable
internal redeployment of staff to meet the new tasks under the Lisbon Treaty and to enable
the service to function as an autonomous organization with its own legal service,
communication department, financial management and recruitment policies.
The creation of the EEAS is however still work in progress. The creation of a common
corporate culture in any new organization takes a number of years – it will take a few more
years for the EEAS to reach full cruising speed, taking account of the diverse origins of the
staff of the service (national diplomats from all Member States as well as permanent officials
and other staff from the Council Secretariat and the Commission).
The service also needs more time to consolidate co-operation with Member States and the
other EU institutions (both in Brussels and through EU delegations). Finally, the service will
continue to work on developing internal human resources, as well as financial, security and
administrative policies to meet the needs of the organization in these areas.
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2. How well does the EEAS meet the objectives set out for it in the Lisbon
Treaty and the Council Decision? Has the High representative/Vice President
fulfilled her mandate and the Council Decision for setting up the EEAS? What
remains to be done?
Under the Lisbon Treaty, the High Representative/Vice President is responsible for
conducting the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the Union and for ensuring the
consistency of the external action of the Union. The EEAS has created the necessary
departments to support the High Representative/Vice President in these areas, including
divisions responsible for policy co-ordination and strategic planning in the political affairs
department under the responsibility of the Deputy Secretary General for Political Affairs. In
line with Article 4(3) of the EEAS decision, the crisis management and planning directorate,
the civilian planning and conduct capability and the EU Military staff are placed under the
direct responsibility of the High Representative. However, consistent with the
comprehensive approach, the EEAS has developed effective co-ordination arrangements to
ensure consistency between the CSDP work of these services and the geographic and
thematic responsibilities of other EEAS departments.
The existence of appropriate administrative structures and co-ordination arrangements
within the EEAS is an important precondition for the consistency of the external policy of
the Union. However, the coherence and effectiveness of the EU's external relations also
depends on the degree of political commitment and consensus between Member States and
other institutional stakeholders.
3. How effective has the EEAS been in communicating and promoting the
EU's policies and values? Has it implemented Council CSFP and CSDP Decisions
effectively?
Public diplomacy is a vital tool to communicate the Union’s policies. In 2011, during the first
year of its existence, the High Representative and the EEAS issued 593 statements and
Declarations. These included 328 statements by the High Representative, 128
spokesperson’s statements as well as 51 local EU statements and 86 declarations by the High
Representative on behalf of the EU. The latter two categories were co-ordinated and
agreed in advance with Member States.
In 2012, the EEAS has thus far produced a total of 544 statements and Declarations – of
which 226 have been statements by the High Representative, 185 statements by the
spokesperson as well as 75 local EU statements and 58 declarations by the High
Representative on behalf of the EU.
EU Delegations also carry out extensive outreach to third countries. This can include
démarches to third states and international organisations - where the Union’s positions and
policies are formally communicated to third states. EU Delegations are also in constant
contact with key interlocutors in host countries.
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The EU holds around 80 bi-lateral meetings and political dialogues on Ministerial level every
year. These meetings provide opportunities to build common understanding, to design joint
initiatives and to solve problems on sensitive issues at political level. The political dialogue
commitments originate from political commitments with strategic partners (18 per year),
with other partners (10) and with regional organisations/bodies (19) and, from legal
obligations, such as Association or Co-operation Agreements (27).
There are 14 live CSDP Missions and Joint Actions, in Kosovo, Afghanistan, Georgia, the
Middle East, Iraq, Sudan, Congo, the Sahel and the Horn of Africa. These draw extensively
on experts and other resources seconded from Member States and are managed jointly by
the relevant services in the EEAS and by the Foreign Policy Instruments service of the
Commission, both working under the Authority of the High Representative.
The creation of the Strategic Communications Division has ensured a coordinated
communication of the EEAS' activities in EU member states, institutions and third countries.
4. Has the creation of the EEAS led to a more coherent and integrated EU
foreign policy?
The role of the High representative/Vice President and the support she receives from the
EEAS provide the necessary institutional framework for a more coherent and integrated EU
foreign policy. In particular as Vice President of the Commission, she is well placed to
ensure the consistency of the external projection of Community policies. And the
declaration on political accountability associated with the EEAS decision provides a
reinforced basis for co-operation with the European Parliament. Finally, the growing
presence of EEAS staff from national diplomatic services also contributes to a better
articulation between the foreign policy agenda of the EU and the priorities of Member
States.
The High Representative not only chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) but is also the
permanent EU foreign policy interlocutor for third parties, thereby ensuring continuity and
avoiding a the situation where a different foreign minister took this role every six months.
The EEAS supports her in all these tasks.
The EEAS and the Commission have jointly presented initiatives on a range of issues
including a new strategy for the European Neighbourhood, a partnership for democracy and
shared prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean. The creation of the EEAS has also
contributed to closer co-operation between the relevant geographical and thematic services
with the EU Special Representatives, appointed to add visibility and focus to the EU's
engagement in key policy areas.
The transformation of former Commission Delegations around the world into fully fledged
EU Delegations performing political analysis and reporting and being in charge of EU
coordination contributed to a more coherent and effective EU action on the ground.
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5. Has the EEAS been effective in its response to crises?
The EEAS has strengthened the EU's capacity for crisis response, including the creation of a
new position of Managing Director with overall responsibility for this area. The service has
also created a Crisis Management Board to co-ordinate the different EU actors involved in
responding to crises and holds regular meetings of the Crisis Platform in response to specific
crisis situations in third countries, involving relevant expertise across the EEAS as well as the
Commission. These structures have made a positive contribution to the EU response in
Libya, Ivory Coast, the Horn of Africa, Syria and elsewhere.
6. How does the balance of responsibilities between the EEAS and the
Commission work out in the development area? Has the creation of the EEAS
improved the implementation of the EU's development policy?
The EEAS decision (article 9) establishes the division of labour between the EEAS and the
services of the Commission in the management of external action instruments and
programming.
The guiding principle is that decisions relating to development assistance are prepared
through close cooperation between the EEAS and relevant services in the Commission. In
particular the EEAS prepares - in consultation with the Commission's Directorate General
for Development Cooperation - decisions regarding country strategies and indicative
allocations of funds.
This co-operation has worked well particularly in the preparation of the new generation of
instruments submitted to the budgetary authority under the next multi-annual financial
perspectives. Pending a decision on the new Multi-annual Financial Perspectives, work is
under way between the EEAS and the Commission to start preparing the programming of
the new instruments, under the leadership of the Commissioner responsible for the
Development Policy and the HR/VP.
Once agreement is reached on the next Multi-annual Financial Perspectives, close
cooperation between the Commission's services and the EEAS will continue to finalize the
programming exercise and ensure implementation of the new programmes.
7. How well does the relationship between the EEAS and the Commission
work in the trade area? Does the EEAS have a role to play in EU trade policy
and its implementation?
The Commission has lead responsibility for the EU trade policy. Trade issues are naturally
an important component in the overall relationship between the EU and many third
countries and are therefore subject to the responsibilities of the High Representative/Vice
President in coordinating the external relations policies of the Union. The EEAS, working in
particular through the geographical services, supports the High Representative in this task.
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8. How well does the EEAS work as an institution?
The EEAS is not formally an EU institution under the Treaty, but is treated as an institution
for the purposes of the EU staff regulation and the financial regulation. One of the main
challenges in setting up the service has been to develop the necessary policies and systems
for management of human resources and financial management, in the absence of additional
resources for this purpose. The EEAS has made considerable progress in these areas, with
the support from relevant services in the Commission and the Council Secretariat under a
number of service level agreements (SLAs). These SLAs have provided a viable basis for the
EEAS to function, without duplicating administrative capacity in-house, but have in some
areas had as a consequence a lack of flexibility to meet the specific needs of the service.
9. How well has the objective of a geographically and gender balanced staff
been met? How well has the objective been met of one third of staff from the
diplomatic services of the Member States by mid 2013, a third from the Council
Secretariat and a third from the Commission? Have staff been adequately
trained to perform the diplomatic role? If not what are the omissions?
The EEAS circulated detailed figures on the staffing situation in the service on 24 July 2012.
This sets out progress in relation to the objectives of ensuring a meaningful presence of
nationals of all Member States as well as the increase in the number of women in the service,
including in management and Head of Delegation positions. By November 2012, 249 of the
901 staff at AD level in the EEAS were temporary agents from national diplomatic services,
representing a proportion of 27,6%. In EEAS Headquarters, 19,9% of staff at this level were
temporary agents from national diplomatic services, and in the EU Delegations, the
proportion was 39.5%. (The proportion is lower in EEAS Headquarters because there have
proportionately been fewer vacant posts to fill, although in absolute numbers the recruits to
headquarters equal almost the number of recruits in delegations.) Thus the service is
approaching the 1/3 target for seconded national diplomats, notwithstanding the challenging
budgetary context. The EEAS is committed to making further progress with the recruitment
of national diplomats by the target date of mid-2013, depending on the available posts within
the establishment plan.
The EEAS decision does not set separate targets for the origin of permanent staff from the
Commission and the Council Secretariat. There is however a requirement that at least 60%
of the AD posts in the service should be filled by permanent officials. This is the case today.
The EEAS has a range of training courses available for staff, including induction training for
newcomers and pre-posting training for staff taking up posts in EU delegations. The service
is seeking to develop co-operation with Member States in this area, on the basis of
reciprocal access to EU and national diplomatic training courses. EEAS staff also have access
to general language and management training offered by the Commission as well as specific
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courses on EU financial management procedures for Heads of Delegation and other staff
with responsibilities in this area.
10. Is the EEAS budget sufficient to meet its objectives? Are there any areas
where the EEAS could make savings?
The EEAS budget is set annually as part of the general EU budget procedure.
The baseline budget at the creation of the service in 2011 was €464m made up of transfers
from the administrative budgets of the Commission and the Council Secretariat and of a
limited reinforcement in staff numbers to provide additional capacity for political work in
delegations and to address minimal needs in Headquarters for the services to function on an
autonomous basis. Experience in the first year has shown that the baseline budget of 2011
did not accurately reflect the true operating costs of the EEAS. In addition, as a new
organization, the EEAS faced unavoidable start up costs. The budget for 2012 – the first
prepared by the EEAS - was increased by 5.3% by the budgetary authority to enable the
service to meet its statutory obligations and for limited additional staff to enable delegations
to respond to the events of the Arab Spring and other political priorities for the EU
(including the new delegations in Libya, South Sudan, Uzbekistan and Burma/Myanmar). The
budgetary authority is expected to confirm an increase of just over 4% for the budget in
2013. It is worth recalling in this context that the total EEAS administrative budget
represents 0,6 % of the administrative budget of the EU, or 0,04 % of the total EU budget.
In parallel, the EEAS has made considerable efficiency gains by redeploying staff to meet the
new needs of the Lisbon Treaty, in particular by taking over tasks previously managed by the
rotating Presidency and to support the autonomous functioning of the service. The first
screening exercise in 2011 resulted in a 10% efficiency gain through the merging of services
from the Commission and the Council Secretariat. A second wave of screening in 2012
identified 20 posts for redeployment from HQ to delegations, although the implementation
of these changes has been constrained by the uncertainty surrounding the availability of funds
in the 2013 budget to pay for the new posts in delegations. The EEAS has also made savings
in 2012 of 10% in travel budgets and 5% in representation costs and has undertaken a range
of other measures to ensure that the limited available resources are effectively targeted on
the core needs of the service.
11. In what ways has the financial and economic crisis within Member States
affected organization and activity of the EEAS?
The EEAS is subject to the same economic pressures as other EU institutions and national
public services in the face of the present crisis. This climate of strict budget discipline has
proved challenging given the unavoidable start-up costs of creating a new institution. The
need for the EEAS to have sufficient vacant posts for the recruitment of national diplomats
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to meet the 1/3 target requested by Member States has also been a factor in the annual
budget discussions.
The difficult budgetary environment for national diplomatic services has been a stimulus for
active thinking on co-operation and pooling of resources with Member States, in particular
where national authorities are forced to reduce their diplomatic network. This co-
operation includes sharing of political reporting, mutual support in organizing high-level visits
and co-location of EU delegations and national embassies. The EEAS is very open to closer
co-operation with Member States in these areas, in particular where concentrating
resources at EU level can produce considerable net savings in national budgets. The EEAS
recently signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Spanish Government on this and
we are working on similar projects with other Member States.
12. Has the EU created the right number and distribution of Delegations
around the world?
The EU has 141 delegations and offices accredited to third countries and multilateral
organizations. The relatively comprehensive coverage of the network responds to the global
foot print of the European Union, and has strong support from Member States, in particular
from those whose national diplomatic resources are more limited.
Since the start of the EEAS in 2011, new delegations have been set up in Uzbekistan, Libya
(Benghazi then Tripoli), South Sudan (Juba) and there are plans in 2013 to upgrade the newly
created office in Burma/Myanmar to a full delegation and to create a new delegation in the
United Arab Emirates. In 2012 or early 2013 the EEAS will close the delegation in Suriname
(which will henceforth be covered from neighbouring Guyana) and intends to close the
delegation in New Caledonia given its status as a territory of an EU Member State.
13. How well do the relationships with the Foreign Ministries of the EU
Member States work and how well do EU Delegations cooperate with the
diplomatic missions of the EU Member States?
The creation of the EEAS has led to considerably strengthened relations with the diplomatic
services of Member States both at the level of Headquarters and through the EU
delegations. To a large extent this is a natural consequence of the transfer of responsibility
from the rotating Presidency to the High Representative in her role in chairing different
formations of the Council. This is also mirrored in the Political and Security Committee and
Council Working Groups in Brussels as well as in the work of EU delegations in chairing the
local co-ordination with embassies of Member States. The growing presence of national
diplomats in the EEAS is also making a very positive contribution to relations with Member
States, not least given the established network of contacts that they bring to the service.
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As in other areas, co-operation with Member States is still work in progress, with
considerable potential to consolidate and build on what has been achieved so far. For
example, there are specific issues surrounding the role and competence of the EU
delegations to certain multilateral organizations like the UN and the OSCE.
The EEAS also provides support to Member States' national ministries with joint messages
on EU lines and useful background ahead of bilateral visits to third countries. The feedback
from Member States is positive recognition of the added value and critical analysis from the
EEAS.
14. Has the Foreign and Commonwealth Office responded effectively to the
establishment of the EEAS? Has the UK been able to second high level
candidates to important positions within the EEAS? Has it also seconded a
representative number to more junior positions?
All Member States have been supportive of the creation and development of the EEAS. The
EEAS has welcomed the constructive input and advice from the FCO as from other Foreign
Ministries in Member States. The regular meetings of the Secretaries General of Foreign
Ministries have been a particular focus for these discussions, in addition to the normal
institutional decision making through the competent bodies in Brussels.
The EEAS has a strong presence of UK nationals in its staffing at all levels, including both
diplomats and permanent officials. 20 British diplomats have been recruited to the EEAS as
Temporary Agents, in addition to the 49 permanent officials of British nationality working in
the EEAS at AD level. This includes 15 in management positions in Headquarters, 11 Heads
of Delegations and 2 deputy Heads of Delegation. Overall, and including all categories of
staff, there are currently 150 British nationals working in the EEAS.
15. Have the Foreign Services of other Member States all responded with
their best candidates for EEAS posts?
The High Representative has made clear that recruitment to the EEAS is based on merit and
that she is determined to attract some of the brightest and best staff available in national
diplomatic services as well as in the Commission and the Council Secretariat. The
consistently high level of interest in published posts from both national diplomats and
permanent officials has enabled the service to remain faithful to this objective, while also
making progress on ensuring a meaningful presence of nationals from all Member Stats and
increased recruitment of women to posts in the EEAS.
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16. What should the EEAS need to do over the next three years and what
should it prioritise? How can it maximize the influence of Member States and
the EU in the future? On which areas should the 2013 review focus?
The priority for the EEAS is to consolidate the progress of the last two years in promoting a
more coherent and effective external policy for the European Union based on the
comprehensive approach concept. In particular this means strengthening the capacity of the
EU to define and articulate robust policies on the key issues of foreign policy, taking
advantage of the institutional advances in the Lisbon Treaty and drawing on all available
instruments at EU and national level.
This applies equally in ensuring an effective response to crises and security challenges, human
rights challenges and other areas of traditional diplomacy, as in emerging thematic topics that
are increasingly central to international relations like climate change, energy security,
migration, terrorism and non-proliferation.
In terms of geographical focus, the EU will need to maintain a strong engagement with the
countries of its immediate neighbourhood through the enlargement process and the
European Neighbourhood Policy. There is also scope further to develop the level of
ambition in the EU's relations with major strategic partners, as well as in strengthening
further the EU's crisis response capacity, including through effective use of CSDP
instruments and policies.
The mandate of the 2013 review of the EEAS in the Council Decision covers the
organization and functioning of the service, including in particular progress with staff
recruitment in view of the 1/3 target for national diplomats as well as progress on
geographical and gender balance. The review will be conducted by the High Representative
by mid-2013 in line with this mandate, covering a comprehensive analysis of the
achievements of the service to date and a range of options for future development and
improvements. Some of the conclusions of the review may be susceptible to rapid
implementation, whereas others may require further discussion.
December 2012
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European External Action Service – Supplementary written evidence
Following the set of written answers to the call for evidence sent to you in December and
our meeting with M. P. Vimont on Monday last week, I promised to get back to you with
more details on the distinction to be made between the various types of offices in third
countries.
Our diplomatic network now numbers 141 EU Delegations funded mainly through the
administrative budget. These are manned by EEAS and Commission staff who implement
responsibilities conferred on us by the Lisbon Treaty. Some of these delegations are
regionalised with a Chargé d'affaires while the Head of Delegation of the "mother
delegation" is accredited to that country (for example: New Zealand/Australia,
Laos/Thailand, El Salvador/Nicaragua). In a very limited number of cases, we also have small
offices directly attached to our Delegation that have been set up to ensure effective
management of development assistance due to geographical distance or for political reasons.
For example, we have offices of our Delegation in Fiji in Samoa and the Cook Islands and an
office in Belize linked to our delegation in Jamaica.
There are also a number of ECHO offices to implement and monitor EU humanitarian aid.
The Commission's Directorate-General for Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection (ECHO)
has more than 400 staff working in 44 field offices located in 38 countries around the world.
Half of these ECHO offices are co-colocated with EU Delegations (for example: in Lebanon,
Bangladesh). They are entirely funded by operational the budget and no EU civil servants or
contract agents are posted in these offices.
You also mentioned EU business centres such as the European Business and Technology
Center (EBTC) in India created in 2008. These are EU development projects. They have
been set up with the support of Eurochambers and are co-funded by development aid. There
have been several such initiatives that were designed on an ad hoc basis taking into
consideration the needs of the country in question. EU Delegations were involved in these
processes mainly as a donor. More recently, the European ASEAN Business Centre in
Thailand or the EU SME Centre in China were established.
29 January 2013
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European Peacebuilding Liaison Office
1) What are the main achievements of the EEAS since its establishment?
Where has it been less successful?
EPLO assesses the EEAS from a peacebuilding perspective: has it made the EU more effective
at preventing conflict and building peace? Its success should be measured against the
objectives of EU external action specified in the Lisbon Treaty which include:
‘promote peace, its values and the well-being of its peoples’ (Art. 3.1)
‘preserve peace, prevent conflicts and strengthen international security’ (Art. 21.2(c))
There are achievements when it comes to improving the EU’s ability to prevent conflict and
to build peace, as follows:
(1) Increased conflict policy expertise
There are now policy experts within the EEAS working on conflict and peace issues and
supporting the work of the geographic departments, notably the Division for Conflict
Prevention, Peacebuilding and Mediation Instruments.
In 2011, EPLO recommended that a Directorate for Conflict Prevention and Security Policy
be created to serve as the hub of conflict expertise within the EEAS38. With the right
resources and clout, EPLO suggested that it could, inter alia:
carry out conflict risk assessments and use conflict analysis to assess the impact of all
EU
policies and programmes on actual and potential conflicts;
develop conflict mitigation strategies and conflict prevention packages for use in
countries at risk of conflict;
lead in the development of innovative policies by bringing contemporary thinking on
peace, security and conflict into EU policymaking;
contribute expertise on conflict, peace and security issues to the full range of EU policies, programmes and activities in conflict-affected countries and fragile situations
by e.g. providing input into country strategies and policy programming.
There was, however, resistance to the establishment of the Division; it has been a challenge
for it to have adequate staffing and its future is uncertain. While the HR/VP has repeatedly
stressed that conflict prevention should be “a silver thread” which runs through all of the
38 See Conflict prevention and peacebuilding inside the EEAS (EPLO: 2011).
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work of the EEAS (i.e. it should be mainstreamed) it was never clear how this would happen
without staff with expertise in the topic.
The regional policies and strategies which were developed before the Division for Conflict
Prevention, Peacebuilding and Mediation was adequately staffed could certainly have been
stronger from a peacebuilding perspective. For example, the early communication39 on the
EU’s response to the Arab Spring does not include any references to peace and security
matters, with the reform of the security sector and the need for inclusive dialogue during
transition periods notably absent.
Specialised staff working on conflict prevention, peace and mediation provide input and ideas
into the work of geographic teams and EU delegations – many of which are working in
countries affected by violent conflict. In addition, it allows for better and more strategic use
of the Instrument for Stability (IfS) through the identification of IfS actions which support
regional priorities.
(2) An integrated EU approach: development of joint strategies
EPLO recommended that the EEAS should develop genuinely joint EU strategies towards
third countries, with conflict prevention and peacebuilding at their heart40. This would
involve all relevant actors within and across the EU institutions working together to decide
on common objectives, instead of deciding them separately and then coordinating (i.e.
sharing information) afterwards.
The EEAS has started to produce country and regional strategies, which from a purely
procedural point of view is a good first step. These include the policy responses to the Arab
Spring, the Strategy for Security and Development in the Sahel41 and the Comprehensive
Approach to Sudan and South Sudan42. In each case, however, the strategies could certainly
have been stronger from a peacebuilding perspective43.
39 Joint Communication from the European Commission and the High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (COM(2011)200 final). A Partnership for Democracy and Shared
Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean. (8 March 2011)
40 See Towards a Peacebuilding Strategy for the European External Action Service (EPLO: 2010).
41 EEAS (2011): Strategy for Security and Development in the Sahel.
42 The Comprehensive Approach itself is not a public document. For the main elements of the
approach, please consult the Council Conclusions on Sudan and South Sudan from June 2011.
43 EPLO has elsewhere assessed some of the country and regional strategies that the EEAS has
produced. Please consult Using More for More: Incentivising Peace in the EU’s Neighbourhood Policy
(2011) or the meeting report ‘Peacebuilding in Sudan and South Sudan: The Role of the EU (2011)
which took place inside the CSDN framework.
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(3) A political role for EU Delegations
The EEAS should ultimately be judged according to the EU’s impact in third countries,
including whether it helps support peace and reduce conflict. With the Lisbon Treaty, the
status of role of EU Delegations has been raised, with Heads of Delegation now EU
Ambassadors. Early indications show that these changes are already having positive impacts
in two ways:
Allowing the EU to play an explicitly political role in its relations with third countries
which in turn increases its leverage and ability support reform. Previously, European
Commission delegations played a more “technical” role.
Allowing Delegations to play a stronger coordinating role in a) bringing together all EU actors within a country (the relationships between Delegations and CSDP
Missions and EU Special Representatives appear to have been strengthened), and b)
strengthening the EU’s ability to coordinate overall European action, for instance by
allowing the member states who so chose to be represented in country through the
EU.
Realising the full potential of this change, will depend on a number of factors:
The quality of people appointed to political positions inside EU Delegations
The degree to which they are enabled to play a more political role. The letter sent by
the foreign ministers of 12 EU Member States to the High Representative for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission (HR/VP)
on 8 December 201144 suggested that many Heads of Delegation were mainly
preoccupied with administrative tasks, an issue that should be addressed.
The extent to which member states allow the EU to play a stronger role and reduce
bi-lateral activities when these are not contributing to development and peace within the country in question.
In other areas, the EEAS was less successful:
(1) Continued fragmentation of EU response to conflict/ co-operation with the
European Commission
Despite some positive developments (above) the level of fragmentation and competition
across the EU remains a serious problem. Even in Brussels, work on peace and conflict is still
44 The letter was sent by the Foreign Ministers of Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden and included suggestions as to
how the EEAS can be improved.
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divided across at least five structures (EEAS: Division for Conflict Prevention, Peacebuilding
and Mediation, CMPD, CPCC, EUMS, EUSR teams; European Commission: FPI, DEVCO
Fragility and Crisis Management Unit, etc) which do not work always work together
successfully.
When the EEAS was established, several policy areas that are part of the EU’s external affairs
such as trade, development, neighbourhood and Enlargement policies were not included in
the EEAS’ mandate and remained within the European Commission (EC). As a result, the
EEAS has encountered serious co-ordination challenges and has, in some instances, been
limited in its effectiveness due to competition with the relevant EC services.
Regarding development assistance, the Directorate-General for Development and
Cooperation – EuropeAid (DG DEVCO) has retained many of its prerogative regarding EU
development assistance which makes close co-operation between DG DEVCO and EEAS
essential (see answer to question 6). A recent restructuring of DG DEVCO could be
interpreted either as DG DEVCO shielding itself from influence of the EEAS by developing a
parallel structure or as increasing DG DEVCO’s capacity to cooperate with the EEAS45.
In the case of conflict prevention and peacebuilding, a separate Commission directorate
(Service for Foreign Policy Instruments - FPI) has been established which is involved in the
programming and management of the Instrument for Stability, which has led to a depletion of
conflict expertise from the EEAS46.
It remains EPLO’s view that the EEAS needs to be able to serve as a vehicle for collective
action on the part of Europe, this is due to evidence on effective support for peace and
development which shows that united action by external actors is important47. In addition,
given the declining power of Europe in many areas of the world, improving the impact of
overall European activity is likely to be enhanced by collective action rather than a situation
where the EU, plus a number of EU Member States acting bilaterally, are simultaneously
present and active within a particular country or region. The financial crisis should give EU
Member States additional incentives to work through the EU when it comes to engagement
in third countries.
(2) Excessive focus on crisis response
45 For further information regarding the recent restructuring of DG DEVCO please see ECDPM
Talking Points: Facing up to realities: DG DEVCO introduces new organigram for 2013 (30 November
2012).
46 For more information regarding the establishment of FPI and the transfer of staff, please see
EPLO’s statement from February 2011 entitled Conflict prevention and peacebuilding inside the
EEAS.
47 World Bank: The World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development
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Recently, the EEAS management has focused excessively on “crisis response”, understood as
coordination at operational level in response to emergency situations, similar to
humanitarian response in that it is a reaction to crisis situations after they occur and is based
on an ad-hoc and temporary coordination of several actors as opposed to longer-term
approaches.
The creation of the EEAS has the potential to enable the EU to tackle the entire conflict
cycle in an effective manner and to bridge the gap between short-term and long-term
instruments and policies. It should also have enabled the EU to adopt a preventative
approach, for which EPLO has long been advocating. The EU’s comparative advantage lies in
longer-term conflict prevention rather than short term response to crisis (which will always
be difficult for an institution with the complex and multi-level decision-making procedures
and inter-governmental components that the EU has).
While coordination at the operational level is essential, it is not sufficient and if the EEAS
prioritises crisis response in its approach to peace and conflict, there are several policy
implications which need to be addressed:
Confusion of political and humanitarian crises
The blurring of mandates and responsibilities between ECHO and the EEAS, with the EEAS
planning and delivering activities which are humanitarian in nature and thereby duplicating
work of ECHO not only leads to confusion inside and outside the EU, but also poses a
threat to the underlying principles of the impartiality and neutrality of humanitarian
assistance.
The 2011 evaluation of the EC’s support to conflict prevention and peacebuilding48 found
that there is a lack of conceptual clarity even within the EC when it comes to key concepts
related to conflict and peace. In the post-Lisbon set-up with more actors involved in EU
foreign policy, it is even more important that there is clarity of the key concepts used on the
strategic, policy and operational levels.
Tackling the root causes of conflict not (just) crisis response
The 2011 evaluation of the EC’s support to conflict prevention and peacebuilding highlighted
that addressing the root causes of conflict and upstream conflict prevention are the two
areas where the EU’s added-value as a foreign policy actor lies, due to its long-term
engagement combined with wide sectoral and geographical coverage and financial muscle.
48 Thematic Evaluation of European Commission Support to Conflict Prevention and Peace Building.
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Due to the complex nature of EU decision-making and the variety of actors and institutions
involved in the process, timely crisis response presents a recurring challenge to EU foreign
policy as many decisions taken under Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) still
require unanimity among EU Member States. By focusing on reactive crisis response instead
of long-term conflict prevention, the EEAS seems to have prioritised the policy area where it
has the least comparative advantage over EU Member States.
Long-term Approaches
Crisis response resulting from ad-hoc deliberations runs the risk of not being sufficiently
embedded in overall EU policy approaches to specific countries and regions. For this reason,
EPLO has long argued that “crisis response needs to be embedded as one aspect of an
integrated approach towards peacebuilding rather than being a distinct operation”49. A
focus on crisis response may mean that instead of using the EU’s political and financial weight
to achieve positive long-lasting change in third countries, the emphasis lies primarily on the
completion of short-term actions, which is too modest an aim.
(3) Relationship between EEAS senior management and the EU Member States
Despite factors which create a push towards collective European action, EU Member States
remain frustrated with the performance of the EEAS, as demonstrated in by public
comments, including the letter published in December 2011.50 While there are certain
Member States which may never be fully committed to collective European external action
and may not be overly concerned about the challenges facing the EEAS, it is concerning that
the Member States which are most interested in the success of the EEAS are critical about
its performance.
When the EEAS has performed well, EU Member States have been willing to unite behind it,
for example, in the case of the strategies developed on Sudan and South Sudan, which were
supported by the Member States and led to innovations such as joint (EU and bilateral
agency) programming of development assistance.
While it is clear that the EEAS working effectively is a necessary condition for EU Member
States to be on board, it is not a sufficient condition, meaning that the success of the EEAS is
also dependent on EU Member States’ willingness to commit to EU foreign policy. Support
for and commitment to the EEAS may vary from Member State to Member State and
between the different constituencies within EU Member States.
49 See Five Years After Göteborg: The EU and its conflict prevention potential (EPLO: 2006).
50 Criticism was expressed throughout 2011, culminating in the letter sent to the High Representative
on 8 December 2011 by the Foreign Ministers of Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden and included suggestions as to
how the EEAS can be improved.
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Learning from the positive examples and extrapolating from EU Member States’ criticism
one can put together the factors which need to be in place to encourage EU Member States
to support joint EU action thus improve the effectiveness of overall European action:
Timely and high quality strategy and policy ideas provided to EU Member States;
Relevant analysis and strategy development which takes into account contemporary thinking in external affairs;
Appropriate resources – human and financial – allocated to the implementation of
policy commitments;
Strategic alliances built by the EEAS (in particular its senior management) in order to
generate trust.
If these factors are not addressed, then EU Member States are likely to increasingly invest in
bilateral action and not in the EU.
(4) Low levels of staff morale and high turnover
It remains the case that staff, including many at mid and senior-level, are dissatisfied with the
management of the EEAS. This has led to criticism, frequent “leaking” to the media about the
EEAS, and departure of experienced personnel. There is widespread perception of a lack of
trust and respect, with questions about the communication between staff and the senior
management.
2) How well does the EEAS meet the objectives set out for it in the Lisbon
Treaty and the Council Decision? Has the High Representative/Vice President
fulfilled her mandate and the Council Decision for setting up the EEAS? What
remains to be done?
Of the objectives set out in the Lisbon Treaty (Article 18 & 27 TEU) EPLO will comment on
the following:
(1) Contribute through proposals to the development of the CFSP and CSDP
While some commentators have argued for an update of the European Security Strategy or
the development of a grand strategy by the EU51. The value of these high-level strategies can
be questioned however there is certainly a need for mid-level strategies and policies on
particular regions, countries, and issues. This point was highlighted by Pierre Vimont in his
reflections on the first year of the EEAS in the European Parliament52.
51 See in particular the work of the Egmont Institute, www.egmontinstitute.be
52 EP Public Hearing (21 March 2012): The role of the EEAS - one year on
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The EEAS management seems to have been resistant to the development of policy and
strategy, with a public rejection of the need for more “papers”. This may be one of the
reasons why EEAS staff and EU Member States have been concerned about a lack of
leadership.
On peace and conflict, there were problematic developments in 2011. A review of the EU
Programme for the Prevention of Violent Conflict (Gothenburg Programme), which should
have resulted in implementation guidelines, was discontinued in spring 2011. This has also
meant that in the year that should have celebrated the Gothenburg Programme’s 10th
anniversary, no annual report which assessed its implementation was prepared. The June
2011 Foreign Affairs Council’s commitment to revisit the issue of conflict prevention before
the end of 2011 has not been fulfilled.
The review was initiated by the Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the EU and had the
support of all EU Member States (being unanimously endorsed by the Political and Security
Committee) and the active involvement of a core group of Member States. EPLO has
previously commented on the issue53 but what is worth noting is that this was a missed
opportunity to build strategic alliances with EU Member States who remain key decision-
makers in CFSP and whose involvement remains crucial for the EEAS’ success.
The blocking of the review also led to frustration within the EEAS and contributed to the
departure of key staff members which in turn had a negative effect on the level of morale
inside the Service and loyalty towards it.
CSDP is no longer determined by the explicitly short-term (limited to six months) policy
agenda of the Member State who chaired the rotating presidency, which is a positive
development, allowing the EU to develop civilian crisis management54 as a more strategic
tool which contributes to long-term EU objectives in a region instead of as an activity that
was perceived as supporting the interests of a particular Member State. At the same time,
CSDP missions themselves retain their short-term focus with mandates usually being
reviewed and extended on an annual basis. While there has been an initial fatigue to
launching CSDP missions immediately after the setting up of the EEAS, three civilian CSDP
missions have been launched in the last few months.
However, progress in further developing civilian CSDP has been stalled by
53 See Strengthening EU Policy and Guidance on Conflict Prevention (EPLO: 2011).
54 Civilian crisis management is an EU term to describe non-military crisis management used in EU
CSDP missions. The need to establish coordinating mechanisms for EU and EU Member States’
civilian crisis management was first emphasised at the European Council meeting in December 1999
in Helsinki. At the European Council meeting in June 2000 in Feira, four priority areas for EU civilian
crisis management were identified: police, rule of law, civilian administration and civil protection.
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(1) Member States holding different views about the importance of different types of CSDP
operations;
(2) debate on the relationship between CSDP and other aspects of EU external action; and
(3) over-emphasis on crisis response in the EU's approach to conflict in third countries as
demonstrated in the annual report on CFSP provided by the High Representative for of the
European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to the European Parliament55.
With the EEAS now established and the crisis management structures, including the Crisis
Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD), the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability
(CPCC) and the EU Military Staff (EUMS) integrated in the EEAS, and with some of them
having gone through a phase of restructuring, EPLO believes that there are now
opportunities to revive and update civilian crisis management at a conceptual and operational
level and the EEAS is best placed to lead the process.
The EU’s adoption of civilian crisis management more than ten years ago was foresighted
and many of the ideas related to civilian crisis management have since been adopted by
NATO, the US and other countries. For CSDP missions to take a human security approach,
they have to take into consideration the increasing evidence of when external engagement is
successful in conflict-affected countries.
While civilian CSDP missions were conceived as short-term crisis management response,
this is something of a misnomer as many of them undertake longer-term complex
statebuilding work and end up operating in a country for various years. Even those missions
that primarily focus on short-term post-conflict activities such as the monitoring missions in
Georgia or Aceh include longer-term and more complex components, such as in the case of
Georgia, where the EUMM should ‘contribute to the reduction of tensions through liaison,
facilitation of contacts between parties and other confidence building measures’56 or EULEX
Kosovo which has a significant part of its work in monitoring, mentoring and advising57.
55 Council of the European Union (October 2012): Main aspects and basis choices of the CFSP (point
G, paragraph 43 of the Interinstitutional Agreement of 17 May 2006) – 2011 - Annual report from the
High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to the European
Parliament. Available at:
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/12/st14/st14605-re01.en12.pdf
56 Council Joint Action 2008/736/CFSP of 15 September 2008 on the European Union Monitoring
Mission in Georgia, EUMM Georgia. Available at:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:248:0026:0031:EN:PDF
57 Council Joint Action 2008/124/CFSP of 4 February 2008 on the European Union Rule of Law
Mission in Kosovo, EULEX KOSOVO. Available at:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:042:0092:0098:EN:PDF
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Reviewing the concepts is important not only to ensure that the EU’s engagement in conflict-
affected countries is conceptually in line with relevant EU developments, but also so that the
way civilian CSDP missions are planned and managed is adapted to the changes in the nature
of conflict and to evidence about how to respond to conflict. Where concepts have been
revised, as is the case for the Operational document ‘implementation of Women, Peace and
Security resolutions in the context of CSDP missions’, the necessary implementation
mechanisms should be spelled out as part of the review.
(2) Ensure consistency of the Union’s external action
For consistency to be ensured, the following steps are necessary:
An overall EU strategy towards a particular country and region that is developed jointly by all EU institutions with a relevant mandate and which is based on
promotion of peace;
A set of common objectives within the strategy;
Selection of tools and instruments to be used in implementing the strategy based on the objectives decided;
Integration – all EU institutions work together to meet the agreed objectives – rather
than coordination where they act separately but inform each other of their actions.
This requires senior-level staff in all EU institutions, EEAS and European Commission
included demanding their staff to co-operate and to develop constructive and integrated
working methods. In addition, Member States who have an important role to play in
contributing to consistent EU action, have to co-operate with the EEAS and other EU
institutions in developing EU policy and later-on contribute to its implementation.
3) How effective has the EEAS been in communicating and promoting the EU’s
policies and values? Has it implemented Council CSFP and CSDP Decisions
effectively?
The post Lisbon structure which brought the crisis management structures into the EEAS
and thereby contributed, albeit not sufficiently, to an integration of CSDP into overall EU
external action, provides an opportunity for CSDP missions to be developed as part of an
integrated approach of the EU to a specific country and region. In recent cases, the EU first
developed country and regional strategies (e.g. Comprehensive Approach to Sudan and
South Sudan) which define EU policy objectives and then identified a CSDP mission (e.g.
EUAVSEC South Sudan) as one tool to meet the overall objectives in the strategy which
limits the risk of CSDP missions as a short-term activity being disconnected from longer-
term EU engagement in a specific country.
Member States are the main decision-makers in CFSP and hence CSDP, and are responsible
for launching new CSDP missions and overseeing existing ones. Most of them are in favour
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of continuing and further developing civilian crisis management. This commitment, expressed
most recently in the Council Conclusions from July 201258, is crucial as the success of CSDP
missions depends to a large extent on the Member States’ willingness to support the mission
by co-operating and sharing information, sending qualified staff, and monitoring the mission’s
work.
Despite positive developments such as the Member States commitment in the July 2012
Council conclusions mentioned above, CSDP often still remains separate from other EU
policy and action, which is also due to the fact that the political culture of CSDP is more
secretive than other parts of EU external action. This reduces the impact of the EU as an
external actor, is wasteful as it leads to duplication of activities, creates confusion in the
country concerned and can easily be exploited by local actors. It may also work to the
detriment of a human security approach by having the CSDP mission operate in isolation of
other EU actors.
The different views within the Member States on the future of CSDP poses challenges to the
EEAS but also demonstrates the need for skilled, high-level diplomatic engagement on the
part of the EEAS in order to develop compromises and make progress.
EPLO believes that it is now time to review civilian CSDP, a point reinforced by the highly
critical Court of Auditors report on the EULEX mission. More effective evaluation of the
CSDP Missions could have enabled problems to be identified and addressed at an earlier
stage as many of them were widely known to organisations from/working in Kosovo.
4) Has the creation of the EEAS led to a more coherent and integrated EU
foreign policy?
As mentioned in the answer to the first question, the picture is mixed. The decision to leave
certain external relations policy areas outside the EEAS has meant that the EEAS’ ability to
provide a more coherent and integrated EU foreign policy was undermined.
EPLO argued for an integrated approach, in line with “whole-of-government” thinking,
increasingly recognised as an effective way to respond to conflict. In their own policies,
Member States are moving towards integration of security and development policies,
acknowledging that the separation of the two hampers an effective response to conflict. In
particular, dealing with situations of fragility requires an integrated approach, bringing
together institutions, actors, agencies, policy objectives, planning and project implementation
that were previously divided between security and development sectors.
In addition, the possibility of the EEAS in developing a more coherent and integrated EU
foreign policy is heavily dependent on the support from the Member States and their
58 Council of the European Union (July 2012).
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commitment to collective EU action. While there may be an overall push for effective and
collective EU action caused by (1) the declining power of Europe in many parts of the world
which suggests that for the EU to be relevant, collective action is necessary; (2) the current
economic climate, as acting through the EU is more cost-effective for Member States than
situations where the EU, plus a number of Member States acting bilaterally, are
simultaneously present and active within a particular country or region; and (3) the body
evidence which shows that collective action by external actors has a far greater impact in
fragile and conflict-affected countries59.
However, there are still many instances where Member States pursue their policy objectives
and conduct separate activities which are at best not aligned with EU foreign policy and in
the worst case, contradictory to what the EU is doing.
5) Has the EEAS been effective in its response to crises?
Please see the answers above.
6) How does the balance of responsibilities between the EEAS and the
Commission work out in the development area? Has the creation of the EEAS
improved the implementation of the EU’s development policy?
As mentioned in previous answers, EPLO argued for integration of development policy into
the EEAS. This did not happen and has consequently led to competition between the EEAS
and DG DEVCO. Close co-operation on the programming of development policy is key to
rectify this.
To ensure an integrated EU approach towards third countries, which is of specific
importance in the case of conflict-affected countries, the EU has to ensure that its policies
and activities are prepared jointly by the relevant institutions and actors involved, as
opposed to having them developed by the different actors separately and trying to
coordinate them afterwards. In order to enable collective European action, wherever
possible the second option for programming contained in the Joint Communication to the
European Parliament and the Council, Global Europe: A New Approach to Financing EU
external action should be used: ‘A joint programming document prepared by the EEAS and
Commission services with Member States’60. More information is also provided in the
proposal for the regulation establishing the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI)61.
59 See World Bank (2011): World Development Report on Conflict, Security and Development.
Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDRS/Resources/WDR2011_Full_Text.pdf
60 COM(2011) 865 final, Section 5.2.
61 COM(2011) 839 final, Article 11
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Part of an integrated approach is the joint programming62 of the EU’s funding which involves
both the EEAS and the EC. Although programming may appear to be a technical issue, it
determines how the EU’s assistance is spent and could therefore have a significant impact in
conflict-affected countries.
The Council Decision establishing the EEAS prescribes that the first three stages of the
programming cycle should be prepared jointly by the EEAS and DG DEVCO. In January
2012, an inter-service agreement was concluded between the EEAS and the EC which
stipulated among other things, how the “RELEX family” of the EC would co-operate with the
EEAS regarding the programming of external action instruments63.
From presentations of the main elements of the inter-service agreement, which is not a
public document, it seems that the EEAS is leading on the first three stages of the
programming cycle for geographic programmes, under the responsibility of the respective
Commissioner and in close co-operation with the EC services. Regarding thematic
processes, the roles are turned around, with the EC leading on programming in co-operation
with the EEAS. It is not clear, however, whether this inter-service agreement, which will
guide programming from now on, specifies (1) how the geographical desk and the thematic
desks within the EEAS will work together and (2) how thematic directorates in the EEAS and
DG DEVCO, including the Directorate for Conflict Prevention and Security Policy, and the
Fragility and Crisis Management Unit, will be involved in the discussions and decisions on
country allocation, country and regional strategy papers, and national and regional indicative
programmes.
It is essential that the thematic divisions are involved in programming from the beginning to
avoid a situation in which conflict prevention, peacebuilding, gender and human rights are
last-minute add-ons. This critical aspect should therefore be included in the inter-service
agreement and other practical guidance on programming. For example, (1) guidelines for EU
delegations and geographic teams on programming should highlight the importance of
conflict sensitivity and (2) guidance and support on conflict sensitivity should be provided to
EU delegations by the thematic divisions.
62 In EU terminology, instruments are the programmes that define EU policy for a specific region or
topic. They also set out the amount of money that is available to implement the policy. For instance,
the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI) is the programme that specifies the
EU’s Neighbourhood Policy. The programming of an instrument refers to the process of deciding how
to spend the budget that has been allocated to it.
63 It is worthwhile to note that the HR/VP Report to the European Parliament, the Council and the
Commission from December 2011 (HR/VP Report) which was supposed to set out how the EEAS and
DEVCO will work together is very evasive about this issue.
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The drafting of the annual action programmes for all financial programmes is the
responsibility of DG DEVCO with a very limited role for the EEAS. However, to ensure that
the policy is jointly owned and that conflict sensitivity is integrated adequately, close co-
operation between DG DEVCO and the EEAS in drafting them would be helpful. The revival
of the EU Action Plan for Situations of Fragility and Conflict, which is mentioned in the EU
Agenda for Change, provides an opportunity to develop guidelines for co-operation which
could apply to this process.
By ensuring effective co-operation throughout the programming cycle and extending co-
operation to the drafting of annual action plans, the EU could implement several findings
from the 2011 evaluation of the EC’s support to conflict prevention and peacebuilding which
showed that the EC’s approach to conflict analysis is not sufficiently systematised, that it
often failed to tackle the root-causes of conflict and that the EC therefore encountered
challenges in supporting the transition to long-term peace.
A separate but related issue is the need to continue reform of EU development policy and to
fully integrate conflict prevention and peacebuilding into EU development policy and
practice, in accordance with the OECD DAC standards on eligibility of development
activities. There remains resistance within the European Commission, European Parliament
and NGO sector with widespread ignorance about conflict prevention and peacebuilding,
including frequently heard assumption that that changes will lead to use of development
assistance for military action (despite this being ruled out by the DAC eligibility criteria
referred to above).
7) How well does the relationship between the EEAS and the Commission work
in the trade area? Does the EEAS have a role to play in EU trade policy and its
implementation?
With the Lisbon Treaty, trade policy – as part of the EU’s common commercial policy –
should be conducted in the context of the principles and objectives of the Union’s external
action. However, we see that DG Trade operates largely independent of the rest of EU
external action and is hesitant to serve wider EU objectives, focusing instead on more
narrowly defined trade objectives.
This is despite the fact that the EU as the biggest regional trading block has considerable
leverage regarding trade that it can bring to the table to support its foreign policy objectives.
At the same time, trade can sometimes undermine other policy objectives and should
therefore be subject to an assessment by the relevant EEAS services64.
64 In the framework of the Civil Society Dialogue Network, EPLO and swisspeace organised a meeting
on the private sector and conflict which also addressed the relation between EU trade policy and
conflict. For a background document highlighting the links between EIB investment, EU trade policy
and conflict, please click here. For the meeting report, please click here.
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How the EU could integrate trade policy but also investment in third countries granted by
the European Investment Bank (EIB) more firmly into its foreign policy should be further
explored.
One of the main findings of the World Bank’s World Development Report 2011: Conflict,
Security and Development is that international assistance to conflict-affected countries has to
focus on providing security, justice and economic opportunities for citizens, including
marginalised communities. In that respect, it requires international actors to pay more
attention to job creation and social and economic equality when delivering assistance to
those countries.
The economic deprivation which affected large parts of society was one of the factors that
sparked the uprisings in some of the countries in the Middle East/North Africa region. This
was recognised by the EU, which focused large parts of its response to the crisis on
economic assistance in the form of increased lending through the EIB65. In addition, the
Foreign Affairs Council approved the negotiation of Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade
Areas with Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia. Both of these measures have the potential
to increase social equality, improve living conditions and support inclusive economic growth
in the countries concerned. However, investment and free trade per se do not necessarily
lead to these outcomes and may in turn even have a negative impact. Therefore, it needs to
be ensured that the impact on social, environmental and conflict dynamics is assessed
properly before decisions about EIB loans are made and free trade areas or agreements are
negotiated.
The bulk of the expertise needed to do such an assessment lies with the geographic and
thematic units in the EEAS and DG DEVCO. For the EU to capitalise on the positive impact
which its trade and investment can have in third countries, those units should be
systematically involved in ensuring compliance with the EU’s commitment to peace, human
rights and sustainable development, and in monitoring the compatibility of economic
activities with the EU’s overall strategy in the country concerned. In this respect, it is striking
that according to the HR/VP’s report in December 2011, none of the 937 briefing requests
which the EEAS handled in 2011 was prepared for DG Trade, DG Energy or DG
Environment. For the EEAS to drive the political agenda, more proactive engagement with
these parts of the EC is vital. In addition, the increased importance of EU delegations
regarding the coordination of EU policies and activities in a third country should be
exploited, for instance, by co-locating EIB offices inside delegation buildings and involving the
delegations in public consultations on proposed EIB projects.
65 In 2011, the EIB’s lending volume to the Southern Neighbourhood increased by € 1 billion and
additional resources of up to € 6 billion were allocated by 2013. See also Using More for More:
Incentivising Peace in the EU’s Neighbourhood Policy (EPLO: 2011).
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8) How well does the EEAS work as an institution?
A number of the challenges that the EEAS faces –and also many of the criticisms that have
been voiced– relate to how the EEAS functions as an institution. Although concerns raised
by EEAS may initially have been dismissed as unfounded complaining or as an unavoidable
result of bringing together people from different institutions, for those working closely with
the EEAS, many of the issues did appear have a negative impact its effectiveness. Certainly,
low levels of morale and a lack of loyalty (manifested as complaining or leaking) were clear.
There are some positive developments with input being gathered from staff on possible
improvements, including in discussions on the “corporate identity” of the EEAS. It is hoped
that the 2013 review of the EEAS will be used by senior management as an opportunity to
improve relationships and build trust within the EEAS.
Given the complexity of the institutional challenges facing the EEAS, it is hoped that these
issues will be taken seriously, including in allocation of senior management time, for example,
with the Chief Operating Officer focusing on how the EEAS works as an institution, rather
than on policy issues as is currently the case.
9) How well has the objective of a geographically and gender balanced staff been
met? How well has the objective been met of one third of staff from the
diplomatic services of the Member States by mid-2013, a third from the Council
Secretariat and a third from the Commission? Have staff been adequately
trained to perform the diplomatic role? If not, what are the omissions?
EPLO’s analysis of gender balance at management level in the EEAS shows serious problems:
EEAS senior-level gender balance66
Female staff Male staff Total
HR/VP 1 0 1
HR/VP cabinet 5 6 11
Board of Directors 1 3 4
Managing Directors 1 6 7
Directors (regional and thematic) 2 7 9
66 As of 1 October 2012.
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Heads of Crisis Management bodies 0 5 5
Heads of CSDP missions / operations 0 12 12
EU Special Representatives 2 9 11
Heads of EU Delegations 21 56 77
Total 33 104 137
Percentage 24.2% 75.7%
The line taken by the management of the EEAS throughout its establishment has been that
measures to increase the number of women in leadership positions are wrong because
recruitment is based on merit. Thus, the HR/VP has ruled out quotas for women in the
EEAS.
The contention that the current system is based on merit can be challenged given that there
are many different political factors that determine appointments, including nationality and
institutional background. In addition, to argue that in a merit-based system, women would
occupy under 25 % of senior-level positions could appear sexist.
Although quotas are not a panacea and certainly not enough to ensure gender equality of the
institutional working culture, data shows that quotas, as temporary measures, could assist
(thanks to the introduction of the quota system conflict-affected countries such as Rwanda
and Uganda have respectively 56.3% and 35% of women in their national parliament
compared to the European average of 21.5%). EPLO recommends that the EEAS
management and EU Member States reconsider their position on the adoption of quotas for
EEAS senior- and decision-making levels in order to overcome the current impasse.
If the EU does not address this problem, it remains open to the accusation of double
standards – gender equality is something that it supports others to do but does not apply
itself; this in turn undermines its ability to support gender equality in other regions of the
world. In addition, evidence from conflict-affected countries shows that if the international
community only has men in leadership positions (and women in assistant roles) this can
serve to perpetuate gender stereotypes and undermine local efforts to promote gender
equality.
10. Is the EEAS budget sufficient to meet its objectives? Are there any areas
where the EEAS could make savings?
11. In what ways has the financial and economic crisis within Member States
affected organisation and activity of the EEAS?
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Currently, economic recovery within the EU is overshadowing its foreign policy aspirations.
In the longer term, cuts in Member States’ budgets may lead to an increased effort to
develop collective EU foreign policy, with Member States aligning behind commonly defined
EU objectives and engaging in sharing of responsibilities.
The recent proposals from the President of the European Council on the EU’s Multiannual
Financial Framework (MFF) include cuts to EU funding for external relations. EPLO believes
that this will reduce the effectiveness of the EEAS and the EU external action more
generally. The EEAS (and EC) need a certain amount of funding in order to work effectively,
including abiding by principles and standards for delivery of assistance (such as those
contained in the New Deal for fragile states), which require skilled human resources.
The suggested cuts will not help resolve key conflicts between Member States over the EU
budget: EU external relations currently accounts for less than 6 % of the EU budget, thus,
cutting here will have a negligible effect on the overall budget. (This compares to the
Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy which absorbs over 40% of the
budget.)
While Member States have been willing to work together to defend other budget lines,
notably the CAP and the Cohesion funds, no Member State has yet emerged as a champion
of the external affairs budget. It may thus be perceived as an “easy” item to cut.
EPLO thus recommends that the UK government supports the European Commission’s
proposal to set the ceiling for Heading 4 (‘The EU as a Global Player’) at no less than € 70
billion (excluding the European Development Fund) and that the UK works with other
Member States to defend external affairs spending.
12. Has the EU created the right number and distribution of Delegations around
the world?
13. How well do the relationships with the Foreign Ministries of the EU Member
States work and how well do EU Delegations cooperate with the diplomatic
missions of the EU Member States?
Please see comments above.
There is certainly more that the EEAS could do to involve Member States in the
development of EU foreign policy: for a number of the Member States, there are people
within foreign ministries, up to and including the Foreign Ministers themselves who are
willing to play a more active role in EU external action. Building a better working
relationship with the Member States, including finding ways to involve them in development
of strategic for the EU should be a priority for the EEAS.
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Similarly, Member States both at the Foreign Ministries and at their diplomatic missions have
to make it a priority to co-operate with and support the work of the EEAS to ensure that it
is effective.
14. Has the Foreign and Commonwealth Office responded effectively to the
establishment of the EEAS? Has the UK been able to second high level
candidates to important positions within the EEAS? Has it also seconded a
representative number to more junior positions?
The UK has seconded well-qualified candidates to mid- and high-level positions within the
EEAS, who are highly respected inside and outside the EEAS. Regarding more junior
positions, it is more difficult to judge, because the EEAS does not yet have a publicly
accessible directory of its staff.
EPLO’s experience of working with EEAS staff members seconded by the UK,
representatives of the UK government, and EU staff members with UK nationality, is
generally positive. UK representatives working on EU external affairs in both Brussels and
London (including seconded staff) tend to be very well-informed, highly competent and
inclined to take a constructive approach, supporting the more effective functioning of the
EEAS. In EPLO’s experience, this is true of FCO, DfID and MoD staff members. The UK
compares very well with other Member States in this regard. That said, the stance and
rhetoric of the current UK government is reducing the UK’s leverage in EU policy-making on
external affairs as on other policy issues.
15. Have the Foreign Services of other Member States all responded with their
best candidates for EEAS posts?
As the recruitment process is internal, it is difficult to make a general judgment on the
quality of candidates that have been put forward by Member States. However, there were
cases where recruitment of EEAS personnel was delayed due to the poor quality of
candidates presented by the Member States.
In addition, the High Representative pointed out several times that Member States do not
propose enough women for senior-level positions which makes it very difficult to obtain
gender balance inside the EEAS.
16. What should the EEAS need to do over the next three years and what should
it prioritise? How can it maximise the influence of Member States and the EU in
the future? On which areas should the 2013 review focus?
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Prioritise peacebuilding and conflict prevention
The EEAS should focus on peacebuilding and conflict prevention as it has comparative
advantages in these areas:
There is unmet need globally and demand from conflict-affected countries and populations for more involvement
Collective action by the EU/Europe would have a positive impact
It is less controversial for the member states who may not fully support development of “hard security” (and diplomatic) capacities by the EU
The EU has significant experience, tools, and credibility in supporting peace due the
role it is has played in generating peace and reconciliation in Europe
As the EU is not a nation state and it is often seen as more neutral by conflict parties, particularly in cases where European Member States’ colonial history is an issue
The EU has a strong track record of working with non-state actors which are
increasingly significant in both causing and resolving conflict
Other objectives of EU external action, such as the creation of European security and
the promotion of democracy and human rights, depend - at least to some extent - on the promotion of peace and stability
Focusing on conflict prevention and peacebuilding would allow the EU to retain its
identity as a normative foreign policy actor
It would allow the EU to capitalise on the recent award of the Nobel Peace Prize
Suggestions for the 2013 review of the EEAS:
1/ Focus on areas for improvement, including identification of specific changes
The review will be used by many to continue the strong criticism of the senior management
of the EEAS. Regardless of the validity or otherwise of criticism being presented, it has had
limited effect it may be more useful to focus on suggestions for improvement.
2/ Develop recommendations for ALL stakeholders
The effectiveness of the EEAS does not just depend on the management team in the EEAS, it
also depends on the Member States, the European Commission and the European
Parliament, among others. The review’s recommendations could also be targeted at these
stakeholders.
3/ Look beyond Brussels
There is a risk that the review focuses excessively on the dynamics and relationships in
Brussels. It is also important to look at the impact of the EEAS at country level (this could be
demonstrated with a couple cases)
4/ Use existing evidence
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A number of evaluations of EU external action have already been carried out and should be
fed into the review where appropriate. These include the work of the European Court of
Auditors (e.g. reports on the EULEX mission and the use of EU funds by the UN) and the
extensive evaluation of European Commission support to conflict prevention and
peacebuilding which reported in 2011 (while it focused on the European Commission many
of the recommendations should be implemented by the EEAS).
5/ Assess whether there is an integrated EU approach
How to overcome continued fragmentation in EU external affairs, including integration of
CSDP into overall EU strategies for a particular region. Cooperation and coordination
between the EEAS and the European Commission and general division of labour between
the two institutions (for instance on Neighbourhood Policy)
6/ Assess the functioning of the EEAS as an institution
Operational management: treatment of staff in the EEAS; levels of staff morale, turnover,
recruitment and retention of high-level staff; development of common identity (esprit de
corps); staff development and promotion opportunities, gender balance. Performance and
responsibilities of the Chief Operating Officer; job description of COO (balance between
operational and policy responsibilities). COO is now the Corporate Board Member
responsible for Asia. Does this detract from his operational responsibilities?
7/ Revival of civilian CSDP
Review of, updating concepts for, and better evaluation of civilian CSDP. The reform of the
EUISS and the role it should play in CSDP could also be part of the review.
8/ Relationship between the EEAS (at all levels) and the EU Member States
Identification of ways to improve the relationship between EEAS and EU Member States and
to allow greater – constructive – involvement of Member States in external affairs.
9/ Impact of the financial crisis on external affairs: scenarios
10/ Cooperation with actors outside the EU
Has the EEAS been able to establish functioning good relationships with civil society?
11/ Recruitment of next HR/VP and Deputies
The review should consider whether changes to the job description and division of
responsibilities among the HR and potential Deputies would be necessary, given the extreme
workload of the HR/VP. The Member States should be encouraged to improve the
recruitment process to ensure timely, transparent and merit-based recruitment.
18 December 2012
Dr Simon Duke, Professor, European Institute of Public Administration – Written evidence
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Dr Simon Duke, Professor, European Institute of Public
Administration – Written evidence
The following text* is a response to the call for written evidence on the European External
Action Service (EEAS). It aims to address in particular the ninth question of the request
relating to training:
Have staff been adequately trained to perform the diplomatic role?
If not, what are the omissions?
1. Background
1.1 It is instructive to go briefly back to the Convention on the Future of Europe where
the importance of training was stressed on numerous occasions. One of the best
examples was in the form of a report submitted by Iñigo Méndez de Vigo, MEP, who
argued:
‘... training appears as an extremely effective tool to build up those personal
relations at an early stage of a diplomatic career. Training also allows to
enhance a common knowledge of the different backgrounds and diverse
administrative cultures and, therefore, to create a common European
administrative culture and a ‘spécificité du métier diplomatique européen’.
1.2 The potential of training was also reflected in an earlier 2000 report from Señor
Gerardo Galeote, MEP, who called for the creation of a ‘common European
diplomacy’ which should be supported by a College of European Diplomacy.
Interestingly, the Convention’s Working Group on External Action later
recommended that any such college should be implemented ‘independently of the
solution adopted regarding the institutional framework’. The issue of whether a
college or academy was desirable soon ran foul of debates about whether this implies
that there is a European capital of diplomacy and where that might be.
1.3 So much for the history, but it does support the assumption that training is important
for those engaged in EU external relations and that training could have a profound
socialisation effect which, in time, could lead to some form of common European
diplomacy.
1.4 The Commission’s June 2006 communication ‘Europe in the World’ also touched
upon training, albeit less euphorically. They continued to support the need to open
up training between the national diplomatic academies and the Commission and
Council Secretariat. This had been supported by the previous Commissioner for
External Relations, Chris Patten, as well as his successor.
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1.5 The subsequent development of training under DG External Relations (Relex) was
built around three platforms. First, internal training (the Diplomatic Training Path
Programme which became Train4Diplo; the Diplomatic Exchange and Secondment
Programme and the Formation Siege). The second element was intended to open up
common training elsewhere in the Commission (Human Resources and Security;
Informatics; Communications and the European Administrative School). Finally,
external linkages were provided principally through the Diplomatic Training
Programme which was designed to open up training to Relex and national officials on
a mutual basis. The numbers involved remained relatively modest.
1.6 The training legacy inherited by the EEAS therefore stressed inter-institutional
approaches to learning and implied that there was no need to reinvent the wheel
entirely. What was lacking, however, was a clear training concept and how to deal
with the more political aspects of diplomacy which would soon be introduced by the
Lisbon Treaty and the attribution of full legal personality to the EU. The main
implication of this was that the former Commission delegations would become EU
delegations and deal with all aspects of the Union’s external actions including those
pertaining to CFSP and what is now the Common Security and Defence Policy
(CSDP).
1.7 It should be noted that the growth of CSDP gave rise to demands for specialist forms
of training for crisis management tasks such as the (virtual) European Security and
Defence College and the Collège Européen de Police (CEPOL), with its modest
secretariat located in the United Kingdom. Both were established in 2005.
2.0 The Council decision
2.1 Article 6 (12) of the July 2010 Council decision establishing the EEAS mentions
training specifically:
Steps shall be taken in order to provide EEAS staff with adequate common
training, building in particular on existing practices and structures at national
and Union level. The High Representative shall take appropriate measures to
that effect within the year following the entry into force of this Decision.
2.2 In practical terms this implied the adoption of a Training Strategy within the EEAS,
the consolidation of a number of courses formerly offered through DG Relex into
the Service (including many of the staff), the establishment of new courses designed
to address specific demands (and skills) required by EEAS staff.
2.3 In addition, internal assessments were made by DG Relex/EEAS of the training
capabilities of national providers, including diplomatic academies.
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3.0 Training in practice
3.1 Responsibility for training in the EEAS falls under the Administration and Finance
(Patrick Child) and, within that, Human Resources where it is located in a modest
unit entitled ‘Career learning and development’.
3.2 The unit was originally tasked with the development of a strategic framework; the
content of the training actions and a training map; for contacting training institutes,
diplomatic schools; for organizing and managing approximately 60 training actions and
seminars yearly, mainly at headquarters but also in Delegation for Commission staff
(now Union delegations); whilst welcoming staff from the Member States and other
Institutions and preparing them for their future roles in the EEAS.
3.3 The strategic framework was adopted in 2011 and its general themes may be
summarised as:
Training for all EEAS staff (including delegations, liaison offices and EU Special Representative’s teams)
Training that relates specifically to the external relations’ functions;
Training that clearly demonstrates added value (beyond existing training offerings in the EU institutions and the Member States);
The presence of a harmonized curriculum as a fundamental tool in shaping the
Service;
A common budget.
3.4 The adoption of the training strategy and the eventual implementation of training
programmes has been partially influenced by the pre-Lisbon legacy (especially that of
DG Relex) as well as by the interaction of the Member States who often held
differing views on the role of training, training needs and the required time for
training.
3.5.1 What has emerged reflects partly the DG Relex heritage and, increasingly, the
specific environment of the EEAS. The training offered can be thought of under a
variety of headings:
Entry: Common induction for new appointees including introduction to the
EEAS and the EU’s external actions;
Geographical/analytical: History of European diplomacy, Changing patterns of European diplomacy, European Neighbourhood Policy, EU-Russia, EU-China,
EU-US, EU-Asia, Introduction to Islam, political economy, global challenges
(migration, climate change, financial crisis, security and energy security);
Skills based (external): Peace Mediation, Protocol, Public Diplomacy and the
Media, Intercultural Communication, coordination and coherence;
international negotiations, complex negotiations and political analysis and
reporting;
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Skills based (internal): Internal management, financial aspects and accountability, pre-posting training for delegations for management and financial aspects,
language training etc.
Specialist: Basic Intelligence Analysis, Security Sector Reform and courses
offered through CEPOL and the ESDC.
3.6 The Induction Course is held over one week (or even less) in June. Aside from
imparting essential information, and exposing new entrants to the principal division
heads and corporate board, the question of whether there can be any ‘socialisation’
effect from such a short course is open to question, especially when in some national
cases the induction course may even be spread over one year which would allow for
a more objective measure of any esprit de corps effect.
3.7 The initial composition of the EEAS has posed its own training challenges since a one-
size-fits-all approach is clearly unsuitable. Most national diplomats entering the
Service will have little idea of how the EU works nor of its internal management and
financial procedures while, by contrast, an EEAS official coming originally from the
Commission or Council Secretariat may not have been trained to be a diplomat
(although he or she may have some diplomatic skills). Within and between each of
these groups are not only different training needs but also, as David Spence has
observed, competing ‘mindsets’.
3.8 The question of who attends training is also flexible and it is worth noting that many
of the geographical and analytical courses are open to participants from the EU
institutions as well as national diplomats. Beyond this, the decision on whether to use
one of the ten annual training days in the individual’s training passport depends very
much upon work demands, the benevolence of the unit head, the location and
duration of the training and interest. The levels of attendees and the specific interests
are often diverse, making for a challenging training environment.
3.9 The issue of who provides the training also depends upon the training in question. The
internal management and financial management aspects are addressed internally (by
the European School of Management) while other forms of specialised training may
also be provided by internal providers like the ESDC or CEPOL. The courses
providing external expertise are organised by means of a Framework Contract
applying to all of the EU Institutions and a number of agencies, currently awarded to
the European Institute of Public Administration (Maastricht) who works in
partnership with the College of Europe. For those courses organised through the
framework contract, EIPA and the College of Europe will design the programme and
select the relevant external experts in consultation with the EEAS.
3.10 The question of how to train EEAS officials varies, according to the topic and the
issue at hand. There is no standard format regarding length or duration. The level of
interactivity also depends upon the specific training – skills-based training tends to be
the most interactive with group simulations and rapid feedback. Many of the courses
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provided by external providers are capped at 30 participants in order to allow for
adequate levels of participation and feedback.
3.11 Quality control is ensured through regular feedback from participants (evaluations) that
are shared, where relevant, with the external providers and with the person
responsible in the EEAS Training Unit.
4.0 Are staff adequately trained to perform the diplomatic role?
4.1 The response is necessarily conditional since it depends upon the staff member in
question, his/her background, the nature of the post that he/she is assuming and their
levels. Interestingly, there has been no comprehensive needs analysis to guide
the development of training in response to general and specific demand. This,
inevitably, leads to a hit and miss approach. The assumption that many of the staff
may require the same types of training that they enjoyed in their previous posts may
only be partially correct and risks providing training that may be too generic and not
necessarily honed to the demands of the EEAS.
4.2 In certain instances EEAS staff have proved that they lacked particular skills. A specific
example would be when staff assume positions in the EU delegations that demand
polished political reporting skills. This is an area where the national diplomat is likely
to have an advantage over his/her former Commission or Council Secretariat
counterparts. The assumption of new duties by EU delegations in the foreign policy
and security realms (see above) has made this an important aspect of training;
4.3 The acquisition of diplomatic skills must also be honed to the specifics of
the European-level of diplomacy and not merely gauged against national
benchmarks. For instance, the skills required to be a Head of Delegation are more
likely to demand onerous management and financial skills than would be typically
found in the role of a national ambassador. Emphasis is therefore placed on making
sure that successful candidates for high-profile positions, like heads of delegations,
are well prepared to assume the managerial and technical aspects of their duties.
4.4 It is equally important that any training stressing analytical skills sharpens the
participant’s awareness of the EU’s interests on a particular issue or country/region.
This may require specific knowledge of the legal agreements underpinning the
Union’s relations with a specific international organisation or country, a detailed
knowledge of the ongoing political dialogue, programmes and counterparts involved.
It is obviously also important to be aware of national positions and differences, but it
is especially important that the prevailing EU interest, priorities and challenges are
stressed.
4.5 The incorporation of high-level EEAS officials has assisted in the programme design
process as a way of ensuring relevance. The role of external partners is to either
provide expertise lacking within the EEAS or, more often than not, to provide
external and comprehensive perspectives on various aspects of an official’s job. One
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of the most valuable aspects of training is the chance to remove EEAS officials from
their daily routines and afford them a wider perspective.
4.6 The openness of many of the analytical courses to participants from other EU
institutions and the Member States is commendable (and reflects the mixed
composition of the Service itself) but it is far from evident that this has led to
significant reciprocation from EU institutions or the Member States themselves.
5.0 Challenges and issues (and possible omissions)
5.1 Training needs to be given sufficient political priority within the EEAS. This implies
the need for consistent leadership with a clear vision of the Service’s training needs
and how they should be met within the existing financial and human resource
parameters;
5.2 The lack of a clear needs assessment implies that many of the offerings may be
helpful, but there remains a strong reliance on legacy training models. A needs
assessment would also permit a clearer assessment of what might be developed and,
where appropriate, shared with/by other EU institutions or Member States;
5.3 The importance of the above observation also lies in the scarce budget (which is in
the process of being reduced from around €1.2 million to €1.0 million for 2013).
This figure covers all training needs of the Service (i.e. not only seminars provided by
external experts, but all internal management, financial and language seminars). The
number of staff involved in the training unit also remains modest with the attendant
risk of over-load and unacceptable stress levels;
5.4 The Non-paper on the EEAS signed by the Foreign Ministers of twelve EU Member
States of 8 December 2011 urged ‘additional common training initiatives could be
envisaged, making use of existing training facilities both at the EU level and within
Member States’. More thought needs to be given to where and how to share training
facilities across the EU institutions and the Member States. The opening up of training
across the External Relations Group in the Commission (Economic and Monetary
Affairs; Trade; International Cooperation, humanitarian aid and crisis response;
Enlargement and Neighbourhood Policy) and the EEAS, as well as the European
Parliament, may lead to initial budgetary complications but could also lead to longer-
term economies of scale. This should be done on a reciprocal basis. When it comes
to the Member States, care will have to be taken to avoid any appearances of
promoting one national model over another (this might be prompted by linguistic
considerations as well);
5.5 If one of the basic desired purposes of training is to promote an esprit de corps within
the Service, more thought needs to be given to the timing of training. This is most
obviously the case with the induction programme which may be too brief to offer the
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kind of socialisation envisaged. One possibility would be to cluster training around
themes or skills so that there is the possibility of following multiple training events.
5.6 An obvious omission lies with the vast number of the delegation staff who receive
little to no training at all. The Junior Professionals in Delegation programme (which
will become fully operational in 2013) offers opportunities to highly qualified
graduates for professional experience. This currently consists of 34 Junior Experts in
Delegations (JED) across the EU delegations (of which, one is British) and a further
45 in the Commission. But, JEDs aside, most of the 1129 local agents in the EU
delegations (who are responsible for a wide range of duties ranging from political
reporting to drivers) and the 2056 local agents in Delegations employed by the
Commission, receive very little training.
5.7 One partial response to the general problem of maximising the availability of training
to EEAS staff, and the more specific issue of how to make training opportunities
available to far-flung EU delegations, may lie in e-learning and blended learning (the
latter being a combination of e-learning and face-to-face instruction). This would
provide the EEAS with more outreach training tools that could be widely disbursed
within the Service and even beyond. The key consideration here would be to select
the appropriate form of training for this format and to ensure that the start-up and
maintenance costs are adequately addressed before any wide scale e-learning is
embarked upon. Experience has suggested that the initial costs may be relatively high,
but with longer-term economies of scale. E-learning would also require the presence
of specific skills both within the Service as well as on the part of any external
providers.
How well has the objective of a geographically and gender balanced staff been
met?
Executive Summary
0.1 Geographical and gender balance will be an integral part of the forthcoming review of the
EEAS and specific reference to the inclusion of these aspects is made in the July 2010
Council decision establishing the EEAS;
0.2 The lack of any agreed working definitions of what constitutes an ideal balance, in either
case, risks making it a subjective exercise. Key terms like ‘adequate’ and ‘meaningful’ are
undefined;
0.3 The EEAS inherited a significant legacy problem with respect to both forms of balance,
owing to the initial composition of the Service. The legacy problem also extends to the
diplomatic services of the Member States who, in many cases, demonstrate particular
challenges when it comes to gender balance. Both need to be recognised, as does the
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limited margin for manoeuvre and time period available to redress any perceived
imbalances;
0.4 Baroness Ashton has demonstrated her personal commitment to improved balance
through her appointment role for senior positions within the Service. This has been done
principally through appointments made in the regular rotations of the EU delegations but
this is nevertheless important in order to foster wider ownership of the Service;
0.5 Geographical and gender balance are often grouped together, but each poses somewhat
distinct challenges and may therefore call for suitably tailored solutions;
0.6 The review might usefully concentrate less upon what has been done, which is limited,
and concentrate more upon longer-term strategies to introduce better balance (even if
the actual term defies an agreed definition). A number of recommendations have been
made to this end in the relevant part of the submission.
1. Background
1.1 Interest in the question of geographical balance in the Service goes back to at least the
Joint Progress Report submitted by the (then) High Representative and the President of
the Commission on 9 June 2005, in which it was mentioned that staff should be
‘recruited on the broadest possible geographical basis, drawing as appropriate on the
three sources of personnel (Council/Commission/Member States).
1.2 Following the failure of the ratification of the Constitutional Treaty, the issue was not
returned to until 2009. On 12 October a fiche on the Specific arrangements concerning
EEAS staff’ was produced on 12 October 2009 which noted that the ‘selection of
personnel, open to candidates from the Member States and the relevant services of the
Commission and the GSC, should be set up in full compliance with the principle of
appointment based on merit, and recognising the importance of adequate geographical
balance, whilst avoiding the introduction of quotas’.
1.3 A few days later the Swedish Presidency Report of 23 October 2009 on the EEAS noted
that:
Recruitment should be undertaken through a transparent procedure based on merit
with the objective of securing the services of staff of the highest standard of ability,
efficiency and integrity while ensuring adequate geographical balance, a need for a
meaningful presence of nationals from all EU Member States in the EEAS and aiming
towards gender balance.
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1.4 By the end of 2009 and the first months of 2010 many of the national positions reflected
the perceived need for geographical balance in the composition of the Service. A non-
paper on the organisation and functioning of the EEAS submitted by the Visegrad Group
noted that, ‘while fully supporting the principle of “merit”, we deem it necessary to
ensure an adequate geographical balance and a meaningful presence of nationals from all
EU Member States in order to ensure that the Service could draw from a wide variety of
diplomatic culture and experience.’
1.5 The High Representative presented her ‘Step Change’ document to the Foreign Ministers
of the Member States and to the Presidency in early March 2010 and, subsequently, to
the European Parliament. She returned to what was now becoming a familiar theme,
noting the recruitment should be based on merit ‘with the objective of securing the
services of staff of the highest standard of ability, efficiency and integrity while ensuring
adequate geographical balance and aiming towards gender balance’.
1.6 The emphasis from the Member States reflected the need for geographical
representation but the Swedish Presidency report (above) had put gender balance on the
table. This was subsequently reflected in the draft Council decision on the EEAS of 25
March 2010 whereby the High Representative was charged with responsibility for
establishing the selection procedures for the EEAS staff, ‘which shall be based on merit
and on the broadest possible geographical basis, in conformity with the Staff Regulations
and the Conditions of Employment of Other Servants, with due regard for gender
balance.’
1.7 The proposals for amendments to the draft March Council decision emanating from the
European Parliament indicate that the issue of geographical and gender balance was of
particular sensitivity, especially if gauged by the number of MEPs who backed specific
amendments. Sixty MEPs backed a change in the wording of Article 6, paragraph 6, of the
draft Council decision, more than on any other single issue.
2. The Council decision
2.1 The Council decision on the functioning and organisation of the European External
Action Service (EEAS) of 26 July 2010 stipulates that:
Recruitment should be based on merit whilst ensuring adequate geographical
and gender balance. The staff of the EEAS should comprise a meaningful
presence of nationals from all the Member States. The review foreseen for 2013
should also cover this issue, including, as appropriate, suggestions for additional
specific measures to correct possible imbalances.67
2.2 Reference is made to geographical and gender balance on two further occasions
(Article 6 (6) and Art. 6 (8)). The former makes reference to Article 13.3 which
notes that by mid-2013 the ‘High Representative shall provide a review of the
67Official Journal of the European Union, L 201/31,3 August 2010.
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organisation and functioning of the EEAS, which shall cover inter alia the
implementation of Article 6(6), (8) and (11)’.
2.3 The Council decision gives no definition of what constitutes merit or, for that
matter, what ‘adequate’ or ‘meaningful’ balances may be. Since merit is of
overriding importance a composite definition may be offered, based on different
sources. The first is based on the Commission’s ‘Compilation Document on
Senior Officials Policy’ which devoted a section to merit, which states that:
The assessment of merit involves not only taking account of the candidates’
ability, efficiency and conduct within the service during their career to date,
but also evaluating their capacity to carry out senior management duties
(authority, leadership, ability to manage a team and to work in a multicultural,
multilingual environment, etc.).
2.4 The same document also observes that ‘merit’ also applies to internal promotions
which are based on a comparison of ‘staff reports and the level of responsibility of
the functions held’. The Staff Regulations of Officials of the European Union make
it clear that when considering comparative merits (in this context), particular
account shall be taken of ‘reports on the officials, the use of languages in the
execution of their duties other than the language for which they have produced
evidence of thorough knowledge in accordance ... and, where appropriate, the
level of responsibilities exercised by them’. More specific criteria relating to merit
also appear in position announcements including years of professional experience,
educational attainments, linguistic knowledge and aptitude and, where relevant,
existing grade eligibility. For higher positions (AD 12 and above) a requirement of
‘proven experience in leading and motivating multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural
teams’ also regularly appears among the requirements.
2.5 A consensual agreement on ‘adequate’ or ‘meaningful’ balance is unlikely due, in
part, to national differences of interpretation. France, for instance, has tended to
favour senior positions and has paid little attention to middle management.
Similarly, Germany put considerable effort into supporting German candidates for
top positions with less going to candidates applying elsewhere. Spain has even
advocated dual-use of diplomats whereby Spanish national diplomats working for
EU delegations might remain committed for part of their time to national
functions.
3. The legacy problem
3.1 As a result of the quadrilogue discussions held on 21 June 2010 it was agreed that
at least 60% of all staff at administrative (AD) level shall be permanent EU officials.
It had also been agreed that diplomats on temporary assignment from the
Member States may number up to one-third of the staff at AD level.
3.2 The new Service came into being on 1 January 2011 based upon the Council
decision of 26 July 2010 and the necessary amendments to the staff and financial
regulations and the 2011 budget. The initial size of the EEAS excluding the
national diplomats on temporary assignment was 1,643. This consisted of 585
posts transferred from DG Relex which then ceased to exist; 436 from
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Commission delegations under DG Relex; 93 from DG DEV; 411 from the
Council Secretariat; and 118 new AD posts.
3.3 The implications of the initial composition of the Service was that any biases in
terms of balance would tend to be reflected in the EEAS and, in order to address
any such biases, it would have to be done either through recruitment to new
posts, rotations of heads and deputy-heads of delegations or via the temporary
assignment of national diplomats.
3.4 Tables: Grade Distribution DG Relex, Dec. 2010
3.5 The legacy problem is composed, most visibly, of a dual bias in favour of the
older EU Member States in the senior AD levels as well heavy male
representation at these levels. This had already been established as an issue in the
case of DG Relex, where the majority of the EEAS’s transferred staff emanated
from. A third and often overlooked bias is that of the relative seniority of the DG
Relex staff scheduled for transferral to the EEAS. This has created a noticeable
bulge in AD12-13 levels in the EEAS. The overall ability to ‘balance’ was thus
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inherently limited by the legacies stemming from the constituent parts of the
EEAS.
3.6 The tables above also mention assistant (AST) grades which shows an interesting
reversal of the gender patterns witnessed at AD level. The general pattern is
similar to that of many parts of the Commission. Although AST grades are of
passing interest, it is apparent that any balancing efforts were oriented towards
the more politically sensitive AD levels.
3.7 Given the nature of the legacy problem and the absence of any firm criteria for
either geographical or gender balance, much of the attention has focussed on at
least symbolical adjustments attainted through the rotation of heads and deputy-
heads of delegations (see below). This has the advantage of being politically visible
and satisfies the immediate (geographical) demands of the Member States. In
making the appointments to Heads and Deputy Heads of Delegation in May 2012,
Baroness Ashton suggested a threefold criterion for balance. First, that the ‘staff
of the EEAS should come from all the Member States’; that candidates should also
come from ‘across the Union’; and that the EEAS should include ‘a meaningful
representation of nationals from all Member States’.
4. The current situation
4.1 Data provided by the EEAS as of June 2012, taking into account the third (2012)
rotation to EU delegations, shows:
Global figures
Total number of authorised AD posts in EEAS: 920
Total number of AD posts occupied by MS diplomats: 248
Percentage of MS diplomats in EEAS AD staff: 26.9%
Delegations
Total number of authorised EEAS AD posts in Delegations: 346
Total number of AD posts occupied by MS diplomats in Delegations: 131
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Percentage of MS diplomats in Delegations: 37.8%
Headquarters
Total number of authorised EEAS AD posts at Headquarters: 574
Total number of AD posts occupied by MS diplomats in Headquarters: 117
Percentage of MS diplomats in Headquarters: 20.3%
4.2 The proportion of Member States diplomats as a proportion of all staff, suggests
that the Service is near attaining the one-third target but, in spite of good
progress, it will probably not attain the overall target by the time of the review.
Recruitment for positions in the headquarters has been constrained by the low
numbers of posts available, while recruitment to the delegations has been easier
partly due to the regular rotation of posts.
4.3 Composition of the EEAS (AD level) provided by the EEAS from their June 2012 staffing
report:
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4.4 Nationals from the Member States which joined the Union in 2004 and 2007
represent approximately 16.9% of staff at AD level and 31.1% of the diplomats
recruited to the EEAS are from these 12 Member States. It is interesting to note
that the newer Member States received relatively few senior positions in the
delegations in the first round of recruitment due in part to the fact that many
concentrated their applications on their areas of diplomatic expertise
(predominantly eastern Europe and the CIS). The relatively small sizes of the
diplomatic services (with the exception of Poland) and the limited national
diplomatic representation overseas has resulted in service in the EEAS being
perceived as a valuable adjunct to national diplomatic expertise. Cost factors
cannot be ruled out either as motives for all Member States to seek more
positions in the EEAS (since the latter covers the cost of temporarily assigned
national diplomats). The possibilty of an increase in the number of seconded
national experts (SNEs) (there are currently 336 seconded to the EEAS) has been
suggested as possible counter-pressure since a number are supplied ‘cost free’
(i.e. the Member States pay). Since most of these work in the EU Military Staff
(189) it is difficult to see how their expansion (or vice versa) would impact on
diplomatic representation. The vast majority of the SNEs are men (281).
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4.5 Gender balance in Headquarters and Delegations (information supplied by EEAS,
Staffing Report, June 2012):
Headquarters
Delegations
Men Women Total Men Women Total
Total HQ/
Delegations
Grade No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Nb %
AD16 3 0,6
% 0
0,0
% 3
0,6
% 3
0,9
%
0,0
% 3 0,9 % 6 0,7 %
AD15 12 2,2
% 3
0,6
% 15
2,8
% 10
2,9
% 1
0,3
% 11 3,2 % 26 2,9 %
AD14 34 6,3
% 1
0,2
% 35
6,4
% 31
9,1
% 6
1,8
% 37
10,9
% 72 8,1 %
AD13 52 9,6
% 24
4,4
% 76
14,0
% 69
20,2
% 13
3,8
% 82
24,0
% 158
17,9
%
AD12 100 18,4
% 35
6,4
% 135
24,8
% 75
22,0
% 26
7,6
% 101
29,6
% 236
26,7
%
AD11 30 5,5
% 13
2,4
% 43
7,9
% 13
3,8
% 6
1,8
% 19 5,6 % 62 7,0 %
AD10 30 5,5
% 21
3,9
% 51
9,4
% 13
3,8
% 8
2,3
% 21 6,2 % 72 8,1 %
AD9 39 7,2
% 14
2,6
% 53
9,7
% 10
2,9
% 2
0,6
% 12 3,5 % 65 7,3 %
AD8 11 2,0
% 12
2,2
% 23
4,2
% 7
2,1
% 4
1,2
% 11 3,2 % 34 3,8 %
AD7 26 4,8
% 23
4,2
% 49
9,0
% 19
5,6
% 11
3,2
% 30 8,8 % 79 8,9 %
AD6 13 2,4
% 13
2,4
% 26
4,8
% 4
1,2
% 1
0,3
% 5 1,5 % 31 3,5 %
AD5 20 3,7
% 15
2,8
% 35
6,4
% 4
1,2
% 5
1,5
% 9 2,6 % 44 5,0 %
Total: 370 68
% 174
32
% 544
100
% 258
76
% 83
24
% 341 100% 885 100 %
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4.6 The table above poses the issue of what benchmark should be used to measure
gender balance. When judged by common metrics (such as women as a
percentage of the populations of the EU Member States; the percentage of
women in tertiary education; or even the 40% of non-executive director board
seats for women advocated by Viviane Reding) women are under-represented at
AD level (the opposite is true for AST level where, as of June 2012, there were
646 officials and temporary agents at AST level, of which 124 (27.0%) were men
and 335 women in the headquarters, while 70 (37.4%) were men and 117 were
women in the delegations). For rather obvious reasons the Member State best
represented at AST level was Belgium (24.9%) followed by France (8.2%) and
Italy, German and Spain (each around 6.8%). Those Member States joining in 2004
or 2007 are less strong represented with only 12.7% of AST appointments. A
further group are contract agents where similar trends are evident. 49 of the
contract agents in headquarters are men while 87 are women; while 70 are men
and 112 are women in the delegations.
4.7 Given the legacy problem (above), any potential for rebalancing could either be
conducted through recruitment of national diplomats or, more modestly, through
the regular rotations of posts in EU delegations. The former has proven
problematic since many of the diplomatic services of the Member States show
similar patterns as the EEAS in terms of gender representation at senior levels
and in embassies;
4.8 With this in mind much of the attention for ‘balance’ has tended to focus on the rotation of posts in the EU delegations. The results of the three rotations thus far
under the EEAS include 42 posts (management and non-management) and 12
non-management posts. The success rate of national diplomats, according to the
EEAS itself, was 52.4% -- 38.8% at management (Head and Deputy Head) level
and 62.5% at non-management level. 1m769 applications were received for the 42
posts in the 2012 rotation exercise.
4.9 Appointment to Head or Deputy Head of delegation positions involves a second
interview with the High Representative herself. In this regard she has
demonstrated her personal commitment to geographical and gender balance. On
the former all Member States (except Cyprus) are now represented at Head or
Deputy Head level. Following the 2012 rotation there are 125 Heads of
Delegation (or equivalent) posts and 141 delegations. Of these posts 24 are held
by women (19.2%) and 15 (12.0%) by nationals who joined the EU in 2004 and
2007. 40 of the positions are occupied by Member State diplomats. Of the 27
Deputy Heads of Delegation, 7 are women (25.9%) and 9 (33.3%) are nationals of
Member States who joined in 2004 and 2007.
4.10 The table above also illustrates quite clearly the seniority bulge in the EEAS
with many officials at the AD 12-13 levels competing for scarce jobs at the most
senior levels. Conversely, those in lower levels risk frustration if there is little
prospect for promotion to the over-subscribed levels. Although not specifically
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an issue related to geographical or gender balance, it neverthless represents a
further form of ‘balance’ that is often overlooked.
5.0 Thinking ahead to the review and beyond
5.1 The absence of firm criteria and thus benchmarks to judge either geographical or
gender balance against in the forthcoming review of the EEAS risks leading to
subjectivity. The presence of a significant legal problem has limited the scope for
any rebalancing and, where rebalancing has been attempted, it has been at senior
levels (principally in the delegations).
5.2 Given the limited room for manoeuvre, Baroness Ashton has demonstrated a
personal commitment to enhanced geographical and gender balance in the
Service. This is particularly noticeable at the senior levels mentioned above where
after initial selection and interview by the Consultative Committee on
Appointments (CCA), decisions on appointment are decided upon by her. This has given her the ability to demonstrate her commitment.
5.3 The review should concentrate less upon what has been done, which is
largely symbolic (but nonetheless important), and more upon longer-
term strategies (with periodic review) to move the EEAS towards an
agreed geographical and gender balance. The nature of the problems are,
however, somewhat different and may therefore demand specific courses of
action. The nature of geographical balance, for instance, may have much to do
with the lack of qualified diplomats from the newer Member States in particular
who can compete successfully for posts in the EEAS where there is little or no
national experience. On the other hand, the issue of the apparent lack of
geographical balance is less understandable (or excusable) and may require
different responses. With this in mind, the recommendations for consideration
below will differentiate between geographical and gender balance.
5.4 Longer-term geographical rebalancing: Recommendations
• To ensure that merit prevails as the basis for appointment or promotion in all
cases;
• To ensure ongoing geographical representation of all Member States at the senior
levels in order to foster and encourage political ownership of the EEAS by
officials and Member States alike;
• To ensure that all candidates, notably those from the Member States, are familiar
with the scoring used by the CCA (for senior positions) since the experience of
national and EU candidates for the same position can vary enormously. This
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would help to ensure that national candidates are able to present their
credentials in a relevant manner;
• To nominate a specific point of contact (presumably within the EEAS MDR C) to
give feedback to candidates for EEAS appointments on their performance. This
could be important to ensure that all Member States can extract the relevant
lessons from candidatures so that they may compete more successfully;
• It is equally important that panel members, including the CCA where relevant,
are routinely informed of the outcome of selection panels;
• To encourage wider geographical representation at other levels through active
preparation and training for successful recruitment to the EEAS. This includes the
ability to comply with, for instance, basic language requirements (French in
particular). In this regard the human resource departments of the MFAs should
be requested to extract ‘lessons-learned’ from the existing and ongoing
recruitment applications. This could be systematically harvested by the human
resource departments of the national MFAs and shared with other MFAs and the
EEAS in intermittent Brussels-based seminars or workshops hosted by the
Service (MDR C);
• At the EU level, with a view to the situation post June 2013, there should be
training offered to encourage successful preparation for internal competition for
EEAS posts at different levels. This training should be internal and might be
offered through the European Administrative School;
• Since this study has suggested broader recruitment efforts at all staffing levels,
equal attention needs to be paid to adequate preparation for internal ‘post bulge’
AD promotion so that in the longer-term there can be broader geographical
representation across all grades;
• To monitor geographical representation and, in addition to the annual ‘Staffing in
the EEAS’ exercise, to commission a task force with internal and external
expertise to devise longer-term strategies to address geographical balance, with a
view to compiling and implementing ‘best practices’ at the European level (this
exercise could be mirrored by a parallel task force on gender balance). The
internal expertise should include adequate representation from the Commission,
the Council Secretariat and the European Parliament, so that all EU institutions
are held against a common standard and not one particular to any institution or
the EEAS;
• The issue of ‘grade equivalence’ between EEAS officials and their national
counterparts needs to be reviewed. Wherever possible, a rough equivalence in
terms of years of service should be aimed at in order to discourage impressions
of bias or resentment;
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• The CCA should be invited to contribute to and participate in internal reflections
on geographical (and gender) balance issues, especially bearing in mind their
broader mandate in this regard. They should contribute in full to the suggested
activities above under the supervision of the High Representative.
5.5 Longer-term gender rebalancing: Recommendations
• The role and grade of women in the EU institutions and the EEAS should reflect
the external positions adopted by the EU regarding the role of women, most
notably at senior levels. In this regard it is important that the EU is seen as an
exemplar and not the promoter of potential double-standards
• Continuing recognition that gender imbalances need addressing as part of a
longer-term strategy to attract, retain and promote women;
• Provision for shorter-term measures to begin to correct the under-
representation of women such as women-dominant short lists accompanied by
targets that are reviewed on a regular basis. These could be implemented by the
High Representative for a specified period of time, subject to regular review;
• All selection panels should include at least one female, this includes at the higher
levels where there is evident difficulty in always ensuring this at the moment. The
Member States should also be encouraged to help ensure this on a systematic
basis;
• The HR departments of the MFAs should be encouraged to systematically collect
data on the role and rank of women in the diplomatic services. Representatives of
the relevant departments should be invited by the EEAS (MDR C) to the EEAS
for intermittent seminars or workshops on gender-related issues in external
relations. The meetings would serve to highlight the EU-wide importance of
gender balance issues and would also service to highlight potential ‘best practices’
stemming from national practice and experience;
• The EEAS (MDR C) should be encouraged to draw up a longer-term strategy for
gender balance drawing upon internal studies, the results from workshops with
national counterparts (see above) and with the involvement of the CCA. A task
force should be established within the EEAS’s MDR C to reflect upon gender
specific issues in recruitment, promotion and training;
• A permanent rapporteur should be attached to the CCA acting under the Chair
of the CCA and the head of MDR C (Human Resources) in the EEAS, whose task
would be to promote successful career development and to instil best practice in
recruitment policy. He/she will have special responsibilities regarding oversight
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for gender and geographical balance. The rapporteur will, by definition, be a
senior person of superior or equivalent grade to the applicant. The rapporteur’s
observations should inform the yearly report on the occupation of posts in the
EEAS to the European Parliament and the Council;
• External experts with relevant expertise should be involved in EEAS seminars or
workshops and be encourage to supplement gaps in internal expertise (on, for
instance, gender specific mentoring) ;
• With the delegations in mind, a Partners and Children’s facility should be created
within EEAS (MDR C) in order to encourage more partners to serve in
delegations, or accompany a partner, with specific information of job prospects at
the location of the delegation in question and, similarly, re-entry advice upon
return from delegations. Information on local employment at the site of the
delegation could usefully be coordinated and shared with local EU Member State
representations.
5.6 Although care has to be exercised when asserting national examples of ‘best
practice’ the example of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) could
prove inspirational. The FCO’s Diversity Equality Scheme (which included a
Gender Equality Scheme) provides some useful principles, priorities and potential
courses for action. The 2010 Equality Act and the FCO’s response may also
prove illustrative.
* The text draws upon some material prepared for a report on this issue commissioned by the
Foreign Affairs Committee (AFET) of the European Parliament which is being prepared by Dr. Sabina
Lange and the author. The views expressed in this submission remain those of the author alone.
December 2012
Hugo Shorter, Head of Europe Directorate – External, Foreign and Commonwealth Office –
Supplementary written evidence
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Hugo Shorter, Head of Europe Directorate – External, Foreign and
Commonwealth Office – Supplementary written evidence
At the 1 November evidence session on the European External Action Service (EEAS) and in
response to a question from Baroness Young of Hornsey, I agreed to write to you providing
further information on where we thought there was more work to be done to ensure the
EEAS plays its role to the full on Development.
As I said during the evidence session, the Council Decision establishing the EEAS sets out
the division of responsibilities of the EEAS and the Commission for external action
instruments and programming. The Commission retains the lead on development and trade
and on managing external co-operation programmes, but the High Representative has the
task of ensuring “overall political co-ordination of the Union’s external action, ensuring the
unity, consistency and effectiveness of the Union’s external action by co-ordinating external
assistance instruments, which include development funds”.
The relationship between the EEAS and the Commission is therefore fundamental to
effective policy delivery on Development. For instance, while the Commission, through DG
DEVCO, retains its role in the development and implementation of EU Development policy,
the EEAS, through its Brussels based geographical desks and its network of delegations has
also acquired a key role in shaping country programmes across the full range of the EU’s
development portfolio. This is in addition to the EEAS’ role in outlining the EU’s ‘country
strategies’, which will be in effect from 2014 – 2020 (the same time frame as the MFF).
The complexity of the inter-related roles of the Commission and the EEAS can create
difficulties between the two. These difficulties can most acutely be felt during discussions in
the EU’s internal working groups in Brussels. As the Commission and the EEAS establish the
boundaries of their respective responsibilities, working groups can face long delays in
reaching agreement. We have not seen a situation in which this has led to serious problems
in implementation of policy on the ground.
The UK, along with other Member States, will continue to support the EEAS and the
Commission to develop their working relationships and ensure smoother internal processes.
Baroness Ashton’s 2013 Review of the EEAS will offer a key opportunity to discuss this
further.
16 November 2012
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Global Governance Institute
The main developments and progress in the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)
at the institutional, procedural, normative and capability level were made in the years after
its establishment, 1999-2004. In a second period of active review and adaptation from 2006
to 2008 the number of missions increased and mandates became more complex and
demanding. At the same time the institutional capacity was still not fully in balance with what
seemed like rising demands for European crisis management. However, in the interregnum
of implementing the Lisbon Treaty (2008-2011), few major developments have taken place.
The European External Action Service (EEAS) was decided upon to address most of these
issues, but has so far failed to deliver what it was, perhaps unrealistically, expected to
achieve.
The EEAS was formally launched on 1 December 2010, but started to consolidate with the
move into the new premises in Spring/ summer 201268. Interviews with officials confirm their
aim to explore the opportunities of using the ‘eyes and ears’ on the ground by the EU’s
delegations since early 2012. Yet it is clear that EU Delegations remain distinct from the
crisis response and maintain institutional barriers in various conflict situations. The EEAS is,
however, a ‘service’, and far from being an independent institutions with its own decision-
making powers. While it is responsible for the strategic allocation in foreign affairs, the
Commission and its Foreign Policy Instruments Service is firmly in control of the budget for
its instruments. The delegations are a major source of power for the EEAS, but also torn
with loyalties to the Commission and member states, depending on the background of its
officials. In short, the Service is, not yet fully up to speed. 2013 will therefore be a defining
year for the new organisation.
EEAS – staffing and seconded experts
In institutional terms, the EEAS is still very much an evolving animal. Few formal rules,
doctrines and operating procedures have been firmly established and a variety of complex
and politically sensitive issues remain. This is not
helped by the fact that fights over competency and leadership on different parts of the
foreign policy spectrum persist, particularly between the Council and Commission President.
The EEAS is meant to integrate staff from diverse backgrounds and institutional cultures,
including the Commission (mainly ECHO, RELEX, DEVCO), the Council Secretariat and the
27 member states. Complicating matters further, member states fill EEAS positions on a
temporary basis69 with ‘seconded national experts’ (SNEs), adding another layer of differing
68 The first officials moved into the new building in February 2012, with the majority having moved over the
summer, with completion nearing with the end of 2012.
69 Typically, SNEs are seconded for a duration of 2 years, with the possibility for an extension of a further 2 year
period.
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institutional backgrounds and loyalties (from, inter alia, foreign ministries as well Ministries of
Interior and Defence).
The politicization of the EEAS makes career development and prospects for Administrators
difficult, as member states will always have an interest to fill higher posts with national
officials, hoping to exert more influence in this manner. Apart from issues of career
perspectives, this also emphasizes problems of institutional memory preservation and
technical expertise. The new function as diplomatic service with rotations to the delegations
and headquarters also seems not fully developed, in particular with high vacancy rates for
high-risk duty stations, such as DR Congo or Sudan.
An open-ended Journey? Reforming the crisis management structures
The crisis management structures, while formally part of the EEAS are not (yet) fully
integrated. Individual units are currently still dispersed among several buildings and are yet
still to be moved to the secure Kortenbergh 150 building, home of the EU Military Staff.
It is not yet clear what purpose the CSDP structures shall play in the EEAS and it is likely
that this will be decided over time, rather than by implementation of a strategy. The internal
consolidation of the structures is also a cause of insecurity, as institutional reforms are under
discussion. Reform proposals for shortening the CSDP planning and decision-making process
are currently under discussion.70 The establishment of the Crisis Response Department – a
potentially far-reaching institutional innovation for a more comprehensive management of
the EU’s rapid response to acute crises – has also caused considerable friction amongst a
variety of actors within the EEAS. Yet, the establishment of new coordinating tools, such as
the Crisis Response Platform, are a promising move towards more comprehensive internal
cooperation.
Crisis response platform
The crisis response platform is a new development to coordinate EU’s operational response
to political crises. The main function is to bring together all major institutions involved in
crisis management, to exchange information and to provide a quicker alternative to the
lengthy planning process for CSDP operations. However, it was also perceived by many as
an institutional ‘coup d’etat’ against existing CSDP structures and institutions. Indeed, the
crisis response structure can almost be perceived as a ‘mini-CSDP’ as one official remarked,
with a small rooster of experts to be deployed for assessment operations and headed by a
strong-minded humanitarian with distaste for lengthy bureaucratic decision-making.
Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD)
The CMPD is the strategic planning directorate in CSDP, bringing together civilian and
military expertise. It engages in long-term questions, such as capacity development, strategic
70 Led by French General Yves de Kermabon
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reviews, lessons learned and drawing up concepts and guidelines for operations. It is
responsible for the overall goals of the operation, outlined in the Crisis Management
Concept.
Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC)
The CPCC is the operational arm of CSDP, tasked to oversee and help running the
operations in its day-to-day practice. For new operations, it starts with the drafting of the
CONOPS and once approved, recruits the Civilian Head of Mission (HoM) and the CPCC
and its Civilian Operations Commander supports him to design the OPLAN.
All these structures moved to the EEAS in 2010 and need for clarification persists. For one,
it is not clear, who is responsible for bureaucratic oversight of the CSDP structures. The
Deputy Secretary-General for Inter-Institutional Affairs Maciej Popowski and former Polish
PSC Ambassador was mentioned several times, but this designation seems not yet fully
settled.
Secondly, the role of CSDP in the EEAS is not fully developed. Friction continues with the
appointment of Agostino Miozzo as Director for Crisis Response and Operational
Coordination and the establishment of the Crisis Platform, aiming to bring the Commission
and CSDP structures together at one table, informed by the EU Situation Room. Several
officials mentioned discussions about reforms but no consensus on the way forward was
disclosed.
In the complex and interdependent world of the 21st century the challenges for the
European Union are more present than they are visible for European citizens, policy-makers
and politicians. They are multiplying, becoming more dynamic and complex. Therefore EU
Member States need to be supplemented in their capacity by an independent entity that
should ideally bring together the best of what the EU27 has to offer in terms of policies,
personnel and ideas to ensure Europe’s influence in the world prevails in the 50 years to
come.
An optimist might say the EEAS was designed to achieve such ends, ensuring the European
Union can be a more effective and coherent global actor. After two years of existence the
risk of accepting only a secretarial service helping and assisting EU Member States in their
national foreign policy is high. However, the EEAS should not be judged prematurely as an
bureaucratic organisation; rather its institutional design should be discussed in the mid-term
review to ensure its potential can be used once the financial crisis is averted and it is fully
operational, from 2016 onwards.
The following recommendations are based on such an ambitious reading of the EEAS and
should give the House of Lords some suggestions on what question it might want to ask for
next phase. We have taken the liberty to respond to the questions raised by the EU Sub-
Committee on External Affairs of the House of Lords directly. At the end of each paragraph
we will list a number of short recommendation and suggest recommendations for
consideration.
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Has the EEAS been effective in its response to crises? (Question 6)
HR/VP Ashton gives special attention to the need for the EU to be more coherent and
effective in responding to both natural disasters and man-made conflicts. Following the
uncoordinated response to the Haiti earthquake there seems to be a conscious push
towards a more comprehensive and rapid approach to complex crises.
After Haiti, the creation of the Crisis Response and Operational Coordination Department,
headed by the Humanitarian Medical Doctor Agostino Miozzo, could represent an important
step forward. The declared purpose of the Department is to create crisis response as a
flexible instrument that could be used in the first phase of a crisis, after which other
instruments,, such as CSDP missions, sanctions or development instruments could be used
as a more long-term stabilisation device.
The Department and the EU Crisis Platform (which brings together various EEAS crisis
response/management structures as well as relevant geographical and horizontal EEAS
departments, and the relevant services of the European Commission and the General
Secretariat of the EU Council) was first activated in the context of the Libyan crisis.
The second initiative was the establishment of the EU Situation Room. It is the 24/7
situational awareness capability of the European Union, and supposed to be the single point
of contact during a crisis.
While it was NATO that ultimately acted militarily and not the EU, some lessons can be
learned from Libya. Better coordination between EU Institutions is needed in order to have
a prompt mechanism without duplication. The EU Commission needs to be considered as
the central actor in this regard. The planned Emergency Response Centre of DG
ECHO/MIC and the planned Strategic Analysis and Response Capability of DG HOME in the
European Commission are major developments in this respect. They need to be harmonised
in a single mechanism coordinated by the EEAS during complex crises. All levels of action
(political, operational and information flow) and all stakeholders need to be considered.
Recommendations
The chain of command during crisis needs to be clarified. Who is actually in charge of
convening the EU Crisis Platform? Who decides when a crisis occurs and who decides, from
the EU perspective, when a crisis is finished and the management of EEAS response should
be handed over to the relevant geographical desks for a more long-term approach? These
questions are not academic, but have important implications for a coordinated approach.
A clear definition and agreement on the division of labour and lead roles should therefore be
reached urgently. The term “response” comes from the humanitarian field, but EEAS and
DG ECHO have two different mandates. This distinction needs to be clarified. The need of
coordination has to respect mandates, in particular the need of independence of DG ECHO.
Moreover, there is a concrete need for an internal clarification on the mechanisms of all
actors during the period when no crisis occurs. Here internal discussions on the meaning
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and roles of “crisis preparedness” vs. “conflict prevention” have implications for the
competences of respective competing EEAS departments.
How well does the EEAS work as an institution? (Question 9)
As a newly formed bureaucracy, the EEAS needs to develop its institutional memory. This
needs to be different from a simple sum of different experiences coming from the EU
Council, the Commission and Member State diplomatic services. While this process will take
time, some urgent initiatives are necessary to facilitate this process.
The EEAS needs to tackle the problem of rotating staff and expertise by integrating its
rotation system into its staff development and human resources management. While there is
no alternative for a diplomatic service, the culture of staff turnover and rotations every four
years can be an obstacle to effectiveness and institutional memory.
To forge a common culture, Baroness Ashton is showing a lack of presence in the EEAS day-
by-day work. The role of the HR/VP is a political role, more than a managerial one. The HR/
VP needs to be able to act politically both with member states and abroad, but also to foster
a sense of purpose among her staff. For this she urgently needs to be supplemented with a
senior manager to deal with all practical details. This role can be a junior commissioner or a
civil servant, but the role needs to be clarified. As the situation stands at the moment, her
job is an impossible one with too many major decisions placed on her plate.
When used effectively, seconded staff from EU Member States can bring vital added value to
the system, by facilitating the informal dialogue between EEAS and capitals. The process of
recruiting seconded staff needs to be harmonised between different Member States.
Recommendations
The rotation period needs to be well developed to foster staff development, an effective
external action service and promote an institutional memory. Close consultation with
Foreign Offices is necessary here to learn from their century-long experiences.
The role of the EEAS Secretary General needs to be reinforced or supplemented by a junior
EC Commissioner as Deputy HR.
Recruiting process for Seconded staff needs to be harmonising between EU Member States.
Has the EU created the right number and distribution of Delegations around the
world? (Question 13)
The number of EU Delegation is increasing and by now more widely spread than those of
any other EU member state. In addition, however, there is a need for reinforcing EU
Delegations to regional and sub-regional organisations, which play increasingly important
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roles in the management of major economic and security issues. The criteria for creating
new EU Delegations need to be explicit and agreed by member states. This might include:
the number of European citizens present in the country; the number of EU Member States
embassies in the country. Less embassies or a high number of exposure could indicate a
need for a European Union presence. The trade and economic links are central factors as
well, in addition to the risk of natural disasters or violent conflicts. For this, the EU
Delegation need to work more on offering template solutions for consular services,
evacuating citizens and offering support. This does not mean that the EU should take on this
jobs, but act as repository of knowledge how it could be done and use its experience in
coordination to support the most efficient way of organising this.
EU Delegations should play a more active role in defining EU foreign policy. The key role is
to act on issues member states feel the need, not on issues that will be blocked afterwards.
PSC will play a key role in this respect. For the moment, too much work in the delegations
is done in secretarial support of the Commission, Council and EEAS. The delegations are too
expensive to not be used.
Recommendations
Clarifying the criteria for opening new EU Delegations;
The capacity of EU Delegations to shape foreign policy once member states issued a priority
list needs to be reinforced;
Cost effectiveness in EU Delegation should be a priority, but this includes delegations
offering their service where it is most needed and to add the most value; this includes
offering template solutions that can flexibly adapted to each country. The role as impartial
actor without interest but to coordinate needs to become a key strength.
What should the EEAS need to do over the next three years and what should it
prioritise? How can it maximise the influence of Member States and the EU in
the future? On which areas should the 2013 review focus? (Question 17)
According to GGI, the previous recommendations should be considered as priority areas for
EEAS in the coming years. In particular tying the work of the EEAS more to member states’
needs and to coordinate regional and issue-specific strategies is the way forward. For these
priorities, terms of reference and clear action plans need to be agreed for each country and
adopted by all EU27. The internal turf wars need to be overcome with common strategies
and clear role definitions.
Once internal issues will be solved, the European Union and the EEAS can start looking
outside. In this respect priority needs to be given to the relations with other international
and regional organisation to avoid duplication and to focus on the EU’s strength and
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comparative advantage. The European Union and EU Member States cannot have the
presumption to be the only actor in the picture. Increasingly, they will be marginalised and
need to focus on their comparative advantage, to be determined specifically for each country
and thematic issue.
The emerging role of other regional groupings should continue to be a priority for EEAS and
European Union in general.
Moreover, EEAS needs to fully develop its role as neutral mediator between the European
Commission and EU Member States in defining a common foreign and security policy. The
creation of a Directorate for Conflict Prevention and Security Policy, underlines the
attention of the EEAS and the HR/VP for Conflict Prevention, Peace-building and Mediation
issue. Cynically, it should be used to resolve internal turf wars. Similarly, the creation of the
Crisis Response Department shows the necessity to act quicker and more decisive in crisis
situations. In quiet periods the consensus will need to be forged for such reaction to be
feasible. These two directorates should work together in defining a clear set of priorities for
EEAS and become models for reform.
A prioritised list of strategic regions for EU is necessary. This list should be incorporated
into the work programmes of all EEAS Departments, all DGs of the Commission and be
considered by member states as well. For the moment, most departments develop their
own strategies and mechanisms for coping. Opening up the discussion to the civil society,
Think Tanks and parliamentary scrutiny are necessary and will prove beneficial in the longer
term, even if frustrating at first sight. At the same time, the EEAS needs to become more
confident and assert itself. It is too expensive to accept a role at the margins of EU foreign
and security policy that can be neglected by most EU member states.
We firmly believe that the effectiveness, leadership and level of ambition of the EU’s CSDP
need to be strengthened. Particular in comparison to HR Solana, the lack of leadership by
Catherine Ashton in CSDP is an important factor for its current period of lowered ambition.
As one official described it, with the planning for the operations in the Sahel, RMCB/ EUCAP
Horn of Africa and the Airport Security Strengthening mission Juba, South Sudan now
ongoing, the CMPD, CPCC, EUMS as well as the relevant committees (CIVCOM, EUMC and
PSC) will be kept active in the coming months for implementing the comprehensive
approach in coordination with an overarching regional strategy. However, given current
budgetary pressures on all member states, disagreements between member states on the
use of military force and a general ‘mission fatigue’ questions still remain about the long-term
viability of CSDP.
Overall, the External Action Service and the crisis management structures are largely seen as
sufficient to launch and conduct operations. However, action during the start-up phase was
dependent on the political will as the EEAS has little independent capacity to push an agenda
without its own financial resources and without support from large member states or strong
leadership by the High Representative and the Commission.
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About the authors
Giulia Tercovich is an Analyst at the Global Governance Institute, focusing on European
Union Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management.
Hubertus Jürgenliemk is Director of Peace and Security Section at the Global
Governance Institute.
Joachim Koops is the founding Director of the Global Governance Institute.
December 2012
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics,
School of Politics and IR, Rutherford College, University of Kent –
Written evidence
The EEAS and the third countries: organisation, management and
implementation.
The case of the Eastern Neighbourhood.
Executive Summary
This report offers a preliminary analysis of the EEAS’s organisation, management and
engagement in the eastern neighbourhood. Drawing on the selective case-study of three
Eastern Partnership countries (Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova), this submission offers
tentative observations, which may be reflective but not necessarily representative of the
wider tendencies within the EEAS, and which may require further substantive research into
the structure and the process of the EEAS representations abroad.
Although acknowledging the enormous potential of the EEAS for framing the European
Union (EU) as a global transformative force, the report also highlights some existing caveats
that the EEAS’ current organisation and management in third countries encounter, especially
in the areas of:
Inter-institutional dynamics in the structuring of EU delegations (divisions of competencies
and problems of coordination)
Relations between EU delegations and the Embassies of Member States (problems of
coordination and leadership issues)
Relations between EU delegations and partner states’ stakeholders (problems of outreach
and effectiveness)
The report concludes that the organisational and management structures of the EEAS’s
missions in third countries currently proliferate internal institutional divisions, and
unnecessary duplicate resources, thus rendering the EU’s effort at cohesion in external
action – that is, speaking with a ‘single voice’ - inefficient.
In particular, the EEAS’ internal management needs to overcome the pervasive institutional
bias towards the European Commission (EC) as the legacy of previous arrangements, and
identify a clear unified structure of line management between the centre and in-country
representation, to enable their functional continuity.
The EEAS’ in-country organisational structure requires greater coordination, to develop a
cross-institutional ethos, and at mapping out of expertise, to offer better coordination of
policies and procedures. Furthermore, clear delineation of competencies should address the
leadership issues in the process of engagement with permanent representations of Member
States.
More collegial institutional learning between the delegations and the embassies of Member States is necessary to avoid the duplication of resources and to maximise the achievement of
mutually intended outcomes. This is particularly relevant to identifying suitable pathways and
synergies of engaging with local stakeholders and national governments in the partner
countries, to avoid unnecessary separation of competences into political (traditionally the
domain of long-established embassies of the Member States) and
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College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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technical/transactional/procedural (increasingly the domain of the delegations) spheres of
influence of the EU collective representation abroad.
The EEAS’ representation in third countries has much to offer in terms of the EU’s visibility,
political power, and technical prowess. However, for this to be effective, more attention
should be given to rectification of current structural problems to enable the full potential of
the new service.
1. Introduction
In accordance with the Lisbon Treaty’s mandate and more specifically Article 21(3) TEU, the
EEAS was established by Council Decision on 26 July 2010 to ensure ‘consistency between
the different areas of the [EU] external action and between those areas and [the EU] other
policies’ (OJ L 201/31, point 2, 3.8.2010; emphasis added).
The EEAS’ objectives include to assist the High Representative who is also the President of
Foreign Affairs Council and the Vice-President of the European Commission (Ibid: Art 2) in
the fulfilment of:
- the CFSP mandate of the EU, including the planning and conduct of the CSDP
operations and missions, without prejudice to dispositions of individual Member States;
- the functions of the President of the Foreign Affairs Council, without prejudice to the normal tasks of the General Secretariat of the Council;
- the functions of the Vice-President of the Commission, having the responsibilities (inclusive of delivery of the European Consensus on Development and Humanitarian
Aid) in external relations, and in coordinating other aspects of the EU’s external
action, without prejudice to the normal tasks of the services of the Commission.
The partial inclusion of relevant competences of the Member States, the Foreign Affairs
Council, and the Commission into the remit of the EEAS, under the audit of the European
Parliament, is purposeful and deliberate to enable inter-governmental and inter-institutional
cooperation at the EU level, in an attempt (i) to maximise the utility of resources in
response to budgetary constraints and security challenges; (ii) to overcome the
governmental-institutional schism caused by the now defunct EU pillar structure, and (iii) to
fundamentally promote the EU as a collective global actor and transformative force on the
international arena.
In summary, the EEAS is envisaged to enable better coordinated and hence more effective
inter-institutional and inter-governmental approach to EU external action, having access to
and outreach from all relevant internal and external stakeholders. As a goal the project is
commendable and reflects the changing face of global public diplomacy and security
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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challenges which requires a multi-level, polycentric and multi-agency approach in a restricted
financial environment; however, the practice of reform, especially on the ground, and away
from the central administration may not always enjoy a linear progression. This paper
highlights three areas of the EEAS functionality which may require further attention, to avoid
a parochial and often utilitarian view of the EEAS’ representation abroad.
2. Inter-institutional dynamics in the EEAS in-country representations:
organisation and management
Operationally the in-country EEAS is dependent on a gamut of structural caveats that may
undermine its effectiveness. These include:
Organisational issues:
- Conflictual Transference: To launch the EEAS, a considerable part of the Commission’s main body, including DGs RELEX, External Service and Development,
as well as the Council’s secretariat, have been transferred to the new service – but
not in their entirety. The new institution has been set the short term but ambitious
task of fostering a new ‘institutional ethos’ of collegiality. Consequently, the hurried
launch has generated internal rivalries, especially between the EEAS (the Council
staff) and the Commission, with the latter not only resisting the move, but also
hedging and regaining competences where possible. Particularly evident has been the
sabotage by the Commission and its staff (Smith, 22 November 2010) of the process
of transference of DG RELEX with its expertise and financial responsibilities.
Curiously, this transfer resulted in the retention by the Commission of some former
DG RELEX competencies, including the responsibility over the EU delegations with
the ambiguous remit of ‘tasks not relating to the coordination of EU external
relations’.71
- Reconfiguration of competencies in the EEAS: with the transference of the
Commission’s and the Council’s staff to the EEAS, new mapping of competencies and
budgetary responsibilities naturally took place. However, given the dual institutional
nature of staff recruitment, it caused considerable disorganisation in terms of
configuring new and altering/curtailing old competencies to ensure procedural
continuity of the new infrastructure, often leaving some unexpected gaps in line
management and policy deliverance especially at the lower levels of the EEAS (EU
delegations). This was duly reflected in the EEAS’ annual report (2011: 39-40). In
particular, the report states, ‘the transfer of budgetary resources was not accompanied by a transfer of the corresponding support staff’ forcing Delegations to
often enter a series of service level agreements with the Commission or the Council
Secretariat to ensure administrative support (Ibid: 39), thus reverting back to the
expertise and functions performed by the two institutions prior to the merger.
Furthermore, the ‘split of staff between the two institutions’ often immobilised
performance of those officials whose competences were curtailed, and who had to
71 For more information see http://ec.europa.eu/staffdir/plsql/gsys_page.display_index?pLang=EN.
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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rely for further approval on the Heads of Delegation, as the only authorising officer
for operational expenditure for both institutions. This, as the report concluded,
affected ‘business continuity of the administrative expenditure of the delegations’
(Ibid: 40).
- Reconfiguration of competencies in the Commission: to adapt to the new
environment, the Commission successfully lobbied to retain some responsibility for
financial instruments and procedural competences. This however created a so called ‘coordination puzzle’ (Duke 2012), with overlapping competencies, and duplication of
resources. In particular, an extensive range of financial instruments has been
transferred to the EEAS, including the Development Cooperation Instrument,
European Development Fund, European Instrument for Democracy, ENPI,
Instrument for Stability etc., also the responsibility for strategic programming of
national and regional indicative papers and action plans – a traditional competence of
the DGs RELEX and DEV (Annex, OJ L 201/31, point 2, 3.8.2010). In response, the
Commission succeeded in fighting its corner and retrieving many of the
competencies, in some instances causing duplication of resources. Notably, it created
a new service, a DG of the Foreign Policy Instrument (FPI) to take over the
responsibility of the former DG RELEX in managing the operational budgets for the
CFSP and other policy instruments (IC, EOMs, PPD).72 This also included the
Instrument for Stability, which has already been given to the EEAS; while the
remainder of DG AIDCO and DG DEV were merged having retained responsibility
for implementation of development aid. These Commission responsibilities appear to
be if not in direct conflict, but at least in duplication with, the competences of the
EEAS, and require further clarification and re-structuring to ensure full accountability
and transparency of the service’s functioning.
Management issues:
- Duality of management: ‘Each Union Delegation shall be placed under the authority of a Head of Delegation’ (Art 5; point 2), who is directly accountable to and
appointed by the HRVP in agreement with the Parliament. Owing to the dual nature
of the agency comprising of the EEAS and the Commission staff, the Head may also
receive instructions directly from the EEAS central administration and, where
relevant to the stipulated competences (Art 221/2 TFEU), from the European
Commission (Art 5; point 3). This however, naturally creates ‘insecurities about the
lines of reporting and the accountability of the EU Delegations vis-à-vis Brussels’
(Austermann 2012). Furthermore, given prior institutional arrangements, a home bias
effect in operations management may be observed, whereby the in-country staff,
often directly recruited from and represented by the former Commission officials,
tend to consult and seek instructions directly from the relevant sections of the
Commission, rather than in consultation with respective EEAS desks. This was particularly evident from the author’s observation of the communication process
between the Heads of EU Delegation in Belarus and Moldova and Commissioner
Füle’s Cabinet in the discussion of strategy and planning for new CSF and EAC
initiatives.
72 For more information see relevant directorates and their responsibilities at
http://ec.europa.eu/staffdir/plsql/gsys_page.display_index?pLang=EN..
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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- Burden of competences: Keeping line management dual and Commission and EEAS
finances separate, especially in terms of the operational budgets of EU Delegations,
places additional pressure and administrative burden on Delegations (Ibid). The
occasional absence of the Head of Delegation from the office often immobilises staff
from budgetary operations, in the light of the current competences gap caused by
reconfiguration of responsibilities and new reporting lines for the recruited staff.
- Unity or cacophony of interests: The Commission home bias effect is further exacerbated by the EEAS entitlement to second national officials for staffing of EU
delegations, and also by the insistence of the European Parliament on having a
dedicated member of staff in EU delegations with reporting responsibilities to the
Parliament, to ensure not only budgetary and legislative, but also its political control
over the EEAS. Although this arrangement may, with time, predispose the desired
multi-interest representation under the EEAS canopy; in the short term, however, it
considerably inhibits the formation of solidarity and the new ‘institutional ethos’,
while catering for differing internal interests. It also hinders cohesion and consistency
in exercising competencies and delivering policies, especially given the nascence of the EEAS.
- ‘Refraction effect’: Institutional divisions, conflicting or duplicated competences, and
internal infighting and manoeuvring, are duly reflected in the functioning of EU
delegations. From the commentary of local observers, and various stakeholders in
the partner countries, it has transpired that the staff directly recruited from the
Commission, always seem more responsive and efficient in their interactions with
local communities.
- Evaluation: owing to its rapid institutionalisation whereby the EEAS, in order to launch, had to conciliate its multiple inter-governmental and inter-institutional
stakeholders, the service is now subject to a polyphony of interests and their regular
audit and evaluation. Although problematic, given the diverging institutional dynamics
and polycentric interests within the EEAS, the EEAS central administrative staff are
responsible for internal monitoring; however, external annual audit, emanates from
the European Parliament and independent observers, and bring additional
unnecessary pressure and scrutiny to the allegedly devolved authority of Delegations
and their adaptation to the new diplomatic structures and challenges. The complexity
of its organisation and polycentricity of interests (wearing many ‘hats’ and reporting
to multiple stakeholders) hinder further institutionalisation of the EEAS’s ethos and
culture.
3. The EEAS in-country relations with Members States
This area of inter-institutional and intergovernmental relations still remains highly politicised
and sensitive, given the lingering persistence of community pillars of competences, and the
innate resistance of Member States to bargain over their sovereignty rights with the EU
supranational institutions. This is further execrated by the changing nature of national public
diplomacy, and the roles of diplomats in inter-governmental representations, the effects of
which may not be known for a while.
Several particular tendencies in the relationship between the EEAS and Member States’
Embassies are becoming apparent:
- Representation of the EU, to which the EU Delegations are now entitled by the Treaty, in practice seems to be circumscribed to representing the EU institutions
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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only. This area of competence remains ambiguous and is interpreted differently by
different stakeholders within the process, and is often demanded by embassies to be
limited to the community method only. Therefore, the representative role of the
EEAS, in the form of delegations, has in practice altered little, still rendering
considerable presence and decision-making to the incumbent member states.
- EU Consular Service: Considerable ambiguity still remains in relation to the initially
unclear definition of competences for EU Delegations vis-a-vis Consular Services. This led some member states, such as the UK, to further speculate about
‘competence creep’ (Duke 2012) leading to considerable mistrust between the
delegations and embassies. Art 35 TEU only discursively refers to the competences
of the EEAS in the sphere of consular activities, stipulating that the ‘Union delegation
shall support Member States in their diplomatic relations and in their role of
providing consular protection to citizens of the EU in 3rd countries on a resource-
neutral basis’. The Council’s decision of 26 July 2010 further obfuscates the ambiguity
by discursively mentioning that this assistance should come by invitation only (Art.5,
point 10). This conflicts with direct responsibility of the EEAS over the CFSP and
CSDP operations and missions in particular.
- Asymmetrical division of labour: While it may seem expedient to combine resources in the changing environment of the EU diplomatic service, and work
collegially with Member States’ representations, this is not always the case. Often, a
tacit division of labour persists, whereby the technical and logistical responsibilities
for training/recruiting/transacting etc. are proffered to EU delegations (some of which
now appear to be better resourced), whereas political issues tend to remain the
prerogative of Member States’ Embassies. This division of labour may be of advantage
in some cases (Belarus, or Ukraine) where excessive politicisation of relations may
hinder the progress of reforms, and where some less politically involved stakeholders
could make a useful contribution. In normal circumstances, however, such a
perceptive division of responsibilities may offer disservice to the EEAS and the EU as
a whole, by potentially impeding its development into a global transformative force,
especially in the eyes of the local stakeholders.
- Leadership issues: As the author’s observations in Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova note, more dialogue is now occurring between the embassies and EU delegations in
the form of roundtables and joint workshops, which leads to better visibility of the
EU as a unitary partner and donor in the eastern neighbourhood. At the same time,
given the persistence of (mis)perceptions of the EU as a mere collection of member
states in the eyes of partner countries, and their traditional prioritisation of bilateral
relations with them, it may prove difficult for the Delegations, without further
convergence with the embassies of Member States, to take leadership in delivering
competencies and implementing policies it is now entitled to. Enhancing EU
leadership, especially in the light of greater resources, capabilities and community
remit available to the EEAS, is a two-level task: it requires both internal and external
legitimation, especially in the neighbourhood, where bilateral levers of negotiation
and statecraft may have run their course.
- Outreach: in neighbourhood countries the enduring perception of the EU is of a collective and often disparate player, a composite of 27 national interests, which
renders preference to bilateral relations, with limited outreach for the new service
especially in the application and usage of the new instruments including Civil Society
Forum, Business Community Forum, Local Authorities Forum, Youth forum etc.
Unless more cooperation is afforded between different representations of the EU,
the EEAS will struggle to receive its due external legitimation in the neighbourhood.
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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4. EEAS relations with national governments and local stakeholders
- Limited dialogue with national governments: the EU Delegations in the eastern neighbourhood do not always enjoy similar treatment and access to Member States’
national governments. The tradition and established presence of embassies, and their
long-standing bilateral relations with respective host countries may further enhance
bias against the EU Delegations, circumscribing their involvement to the sphere of
technical/transactional issues. The EU’s perception in the eastern neighbourhood is
not of a cohesive whole, but rather as an assembly of national interests, which is often
exploited differentially by the partner states, on a mutually reciprocal basis.
- Differentiated priorities: stemming from the above bias, and from the implicit differentiation of commitments between the EU Delegations and Member States, the
former naturally tend to gravitate towards working with the alternative/oppositional
stakeholders to the regime (NGOs, political parties and movements, youth
organisations) through offering training, resources, education and monitoring. This
contributes towards further misperception of EU Delegations as ‘politically biased’,
and subversive, in the eyes of national governments, of political order in the eastern
neighbourhood.
- Duplication of effort: national officials tend to avoid engaging with the EU Delegations and attempt to resolve their interests by lobbying specific Member States
directly. Furthermore, as the author’s research demonstrates, there is a widespread
perception on the partners’ side, that Member States are more nuanced, resilient,
and enjoy better rapport with the local stakeholders (Korosteleva 2011; Korosteleva
2012). Time is clearly a factor here: Member States have been present in the host
countries considerably longer than the EU representations; and they are more
attuned to the local needs and culture. Furthermore, they are also better trained to
engage with local communities, through prior cultural, linguistic and diplomatic
exposure. They seem to be more aware and responsive, and display more perceptive
attitudes towards compromise and accommodation of partners’ needs, compared to
a principled and uncompromising approach of the EU.
- Access: there has been a significant change in the past two years in terms of open access to the services of EU Delegations. It is true they have become more
sophisticated and resourceful, in terms of offering a multitude of opportunities online
and through other avenues. However, as many local stakeholders observe
(Korosteleva 2012), with the upgrading of the EU Delegations, their direct
accessibility has become limited, especially as a vital information resource. A general
member of the public will not be able to access the building, without prior
arrangement or appointment, which hitherto rendered open access to all interested
parties. This may inhibit facilitation of EU visibility and deter engagement at a local
level.
5. Conclusions/Recommendations
The future of the EEAS, centrally and through in-country representation, could be
enormously beneficial for the EU’s positioning as a global transformative force, and for
overcoming inherent governmental and institutional divisions, in order to face external
challenges more effectively. This however would not be feasible without addressing a range
of organisation and management issues. In particular,
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
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- More structural effort is necessary to ensure inter-institutional organisational and management coherence and competence continuity at the lower levels of the EEAS,
especially in their in-country representations.
- Clearer delineation of roles and responsibilities of the EEAS’ in-country
representations in relation to Member States, is necessary to ensure cooperation,
trust and balanced access to local/regional stakeholders.
- Collegial effort towards learning and engaging with local and regional stakeholders is required to foster awareness and allegiances of all-level stakeholders in the host
country.
More crucially, the EEAS does not only need time to develop itself into a distinct and
sustainable entity, with its own cultural and institutional ethos. It also requires careful
restructuring to foster the production of ‘bridging’ (horizontal) rather than ‘ bonding’
(vertical) social capital (Putnam 1993). Simply nurturing the organisational mind-set is not
sufficient, and would not, on its own, address the matter of collegiality and cohesion. There
has to be considerable structural reform within the EEAS to ensure that the duality of
structures, loyalties and competencies is replaced by the collective service to the common
good.
References:
European External Action Service, Annual Activity Report 2011
Dan Smith, ‘Time to rescue the EU’s External Action Service from the European
Commission’. 22 November 2010
Council Decision, Establishing the Organisation and functioning of the European External Action
Service, Official Journal of the European Union, 201/30, 03.08.2010
Council of the European Union, Presidency Report to the European Council on the European
External Action Service, 14930/09, Brussels, 23 October 2009
European Parliament Resolution of 22 October 2009 on the Institutional Aspects of Setting up
the European External Action Service (2009/2133(INI)), P7_TA (2009)0057
Duke, S., Pomorska, K. and Vanhoonaker, S. (20012) The EU’s Diplomatic Architecture: the Mid-
term Challenge. Policy Paper 10. Maastricht University
Austermann, F. (2012) Towards Embassies for Europe? EU Delegations in the Union’s Diplomatic
System. Policy Paper 8, Free University of Berlin
Korosteleva, E. (2011) Eastern Partnership: a New Opportunity for the Neighbours? Routledge
Korosteleva, E. (2012) The European Union and its Eastern Neighbours: towards a more
ambitious partnership? Routledge
Professor Elena Korosteleva, Professor of International Politics, School of Politics and IR, Rutherford
College, University of Kent – Written evidence
115 of 133
Spence, D. (2006) The Commission’s External Service, pp. 396-425
Blockmanns, S. (2012) The European external Action Service One Year On: First Signs of Strengths
and Weaknesses. CLEER Working Paper
Murdoch, Z. (2012) ‘Negotiating the European External Action service (EEAS): Analysing the
External effects of Internal (Dis)agreement’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 50:6, pp.
1011-27
Hemra, S., Raines, T. and Whitman, R. (2012) A Diplomatic entrepreneur: Making the Most of
the European External Action Service. Chatham House Report
Putnam, R. (1993) Making Democracy Work: Civic traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton
University Press
3 December 2012
Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International Affairs, Helsinki and Rosa Balfour, European Policy
Centre, Brussels
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Kristi Raik, Finnish Institute for International Affairs, Helsinki and
Rosa Balfour, European Policy Centre, Brussels
Evidence to be found under Balfour
David Spence, London School and Economics – Supplementary written evidence
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David Spence, London School and Economics – Supplementary
written evidence
I left the EU after a twenty-year career in the European Commission with a variety of
functions, most of which are those now the responsibility of the new EEAS. My last posting
was in the EU Delegation to the United Nations in Geneva, where I was responsible for
CFSP issues (disarmament and security) and European Commission funding for CFSP joint
actions and projects to do with mine action, cluster munitions, security sector reform etc. I
spent part of 2006 on secondment to the United Nations, assisting the Special
Representative of the Secretary-General for elections in the Ivory Coast. In my final years in
Geneva I was closely involved in the transition to the Lisbon Treaty arrangements and the
establishment of the EEAS. I have published widely on EU issues, including a standard
textbook on the European Commission, a book on the reform of European foreign
ministries, a book on security sector reform and articles on the problems and prospects for
the EEAS. My loyalty to the institution I worked for and my commitment to European
integration in general do not colour my views on the desirability of efficiency enhancement
nor relieve me of the duty of balanced criticism (or praise) of recent EEAS developments.
Some personal views
Could I start by affirming that Europe should perhaps have been more modest in its
assertion that the Maastricht Treaty, then the Nice and Amsterdam Treaties were evidence
of a strongly coordinated foreign policy? The assertion made us the butt of criticism inside
and outside the EU. In fact, as we now know, it was only with the Treaty of Lisbon that what
were in fact merely vague ambitions began to appear to be firm moves to establishing and
reinforcing a strong European foreign policy machine.
Napoleon reputedly commented that strong policy-making would bring administration in its
train. “L’intendance suit”. The EU tried it the other way round, setting up the structures in
the hope that policy would follow. Yet political leadership in the EU could not emerge from
the new diplomatic structures in the succession of treaties after Maastricht. Foreign policy
actors were unable to create effective policy; so pre-Lisbon Napoleon’s views were
unproven. Since Lisbon, there is a stronger case for believing that “l’intendance” is in place,
and there are signs that EU foreign policy is emerging - strengthened after the stresses and
strains of the first post-Lisbon period.
What were these stresses and strains?
First, one of the previous weaknesses had been lack of coordination a) between the EU
institutions b) between the EU and its member states. The EEAS was about the promise of
better coordination:
between Commission and Council
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within the Commission’s so-called ‘Relex family’
between the ‘community method’ and intergovernmentalism - with its unanimity
requirement.
Second, there were six mentalities/mindsets that needed to be melded together into the
EEAS – traditional Commission, existing Delegation staff, traditional Council Secretariat,
Solana Policy Unit staff, traditional national diplomats and national diplomats steeped in EU
political culture by dint of their previous careers. Nobody took on board that it is an
immense task to bring 6 mindsets and 27 nationalities together into one efficiently
functioning service, that training and team building would be essential, and that it required a
specific budget with an agreed and stated purpose.
Third, promises remained a substitute for action. The Christmas tree of new Lisbon
promises, like so many previous treaty-based Christmas trees, has left us waiting for the
packages to be opened and perhaps naively hopeful that intelligent, sophisticated and
authoritative policy will emerge. Some packages are still unopened. There are for example:
still several Commissioners with ‘external responsibilities’ (neighbourhood policy,
development policy, trade, humanitarian aid)
still key ‘first pillar’ policy areas where the external ramifications are enormous – energy,
climate change or, this week in Dubai, internet policy. These have remained outside the
‘coordinated’ purview of Baroness Ashton and the EEAS.
still several non-implemented but nonetheless practical implications of joined up
intergovernmentalism and supranationalism – see recommendations at the end of this
submission.
Because external policy-making remains fragmented, actors and observers remain sceptical.
Answers from David Spence to questions posed to David Spence (LSE) and Mats Persson
(Open Europe)
Add Value to EU Policy
1. In what ways has the EEAS added value to EU external relations? What
functions is it performing that were not undertaken previously? Have these been
successful?
It is a very basic point to make, but I believe it is worth recalling that when the EU does
speak through its HR, it does so after coordinating with a series of close European partners.
So statements by the EU are also statements with which 11 other states align (making 38
states, or near 20% of UN membership), namely The Acceding Country Croatia, the
Candidate Countries - the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Iceland and
Serbia, the Countries of the Stabilisation and Association Process and potential candidate
David Spence, London School and Economics – Supplementary written evidence
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Albania and the EFTA countries Liechtenstein and Norway, members of the European
Economic Area, as well as the Republic of Moldova, Armenia, and Georgia. All these states
frequently align themselves with EU declarations. They are informed and given a deadline to
‘opt in’, as it were.
What can the EEAS do that cannot be done by diplomatic services of national
member states acting together under the rotating Presidency?
ensure continuity inside and outside – through the formal ‘archive’ and practical knowledge
bank of the EU in all policy areas
replace varying abilities of presidencies with a single efficient presence
reflect the precise amount of power of the EU can muster
avoid accusations of acting in a ‘national interest’
In what ways does the role and activity of the High Representative differ from
that of her predecessor prior to the Lisbon Treaty? What advantages or
disadvantages do the changes bring?
She is triple-hatted.
She has a legal basis across the EU board.
She gives a notional answer to the question of ‘who ya gonna call’?
She heads up a diplomatic and development service structured on typical foreign ministry
lines
Advantages:
she is closer to the financial basis of EU power
she is triple-hatted so she 1. chairs internal coordination (and her staff lower down do too),
2. has insight into Commission areas which Solana could not have and 3. she runs the
delegations which Solana did not.
She has advantages through all this – i. an end to confusion of lines of command and ii.
mastery of professional expertise in Brussels and in the field.
However, disadvantages lie in
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the inchoate nature of current arrangements.
the fact that triple-hatted is not triply resourced but is triply overloaded.
How has the High Representative managed the challenge of setting up a new
diplomatic service? How do you see the role developing now that the EEAS
organisation is substantially in place? What further changes could assist the High
Representative in her role?
She has managed extraordinarily well. She has walked a tight-rope between bullies, turf wars,
media ignorance and bad faith, and sheer effrontery. And she has done this with no extra
resources – a fact that she has been probably brought to regret, for she accepted a self-
denying ordinance - resource restrictions despite an expanded job description.
We should remember that she has worked wonders in creating the new service. If that has
been at the cost of less pro-active policy, that was to be expected – in later
recommendations I refer e.g. to the need for deputies.
Overall building the EEAS has been a success. Eggs have been broken and the omelette is
taking shape.
Some recommendation for future developments are listed at the end of this contribution.
Accountability
How do member states ensure that the EEAS represents their viewpoints?
Through the usual channels – the summits, the ministerials, the COPS, COREPER, CFSP
working groups and the vibrant lobbying proicess.
What are the structures and processes in place to ensure that the Council Conclusions and
viewpoints of the member states are followed and put into effect by the EEAS?
The machine is an efficient one. Officials have Council conclusions and CFSP mandates
permanently before them as they go about their business.
Is there a danger that the EEAS can take an initiative beyond that mandated by
the Council and are there any examples of this?
I find it hard to believe that there would be. I can think of no important example.
David Spence, London School and Economics – Supplementary written evidence
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How has the EEAS acted when there is no unified position by member states?
Can you provide concrete examples?
The EEAS cannot act without a precise mandate, so I have no examples. It may, however, be
the case that a local delegation acts in wrong interpretation of a mandate, simply because the
local situation demands a fast reaction and there is no time to coordinate with Brussels
instances – though local coordination would, of course, always be sought. When the UK
blocked some 100 declarations in Geneva, EEAS officials combined loyalty to the Council.
They quietly regretted temporary EU absence from UN business, but acted diplomatically by
refraining from criticism of a (for them) recalcitrant member state.
How could the EEAS be made directly accountable to national legislatures? Is this desirable?
Do you consider that the European Parliament exercises sufficient accountability over the
EEAS and is this a good or sufficient substitute for national legislatures?
The issue is whether the EEAS should be accountable to national legislatures. Being
accountable to 27 national assembles, with in each case 2 houses, would be a recipe for
permanent paralysis. Just as we do not live in the UK in a world of constant direct
democracy, but rely on elected representatives to ensure that civil services take seriously
the role of supervision, so we have to give up the pretension that this will somehow not be
the case at EU level.
Thus, the European Parliament, with its various committees, endeavours to supervise, even
control the action of the EEAS. They could do better, but their power of the purse coupled
with their ability to step outside the national parliamentary box allow them to pose what
would for other national parliaments be unwelcome comparisons – e.g. comparing the US
senate’s power and aiming to achieve a similar ability for the EP.
It is for EU national parliamentary authorities to work out an efficient modus vivendi with
the EP, so that a) the EEAS is effectively supervised and controlled and b) that national
parliaments have a role to play in that process.
The ideal of national-European Parliament cooperation is one where the UK parliament
could propose concrete steps.
National Member States Diplomacies
What has been the impact of the creation of the EEAS on the relations between
foreign ministries and Brussels – have resources and focus moved to Brussels
from member states? How well do the EEAS and Member State diplomatic
services work together in the field? If change is needed, in what ways could
relationships be improved?
David Spence, London School and Economics – Supplementary written evidence
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It is too early to tell. Foreign ministries and think tanks are reflecting on these issues. Some
MFAs have redefined the roles of their delegations within the EU – as fact-finders and
precursors of EU negotiations for example. Others are reflecting on the costs of non-EU –
how much does it cost not to take advantage of the potential offered by the EEAS - to
maintain expensive buildings abroad, to finance salary packages enhanced by special
arrangements to ensure diplomatic staff are well-treated, private emergency medical
insurance, longer leave, travel time, corrective coefficients, hardship posts, annual travel
arrangements.
Politicisation of Aid and Trade
Has the creation of the EEAS led to politicisation of trade and development
policy? If so, has this been beneficial or detrimental to the efficiency and delivery
of those two policy areas?
Trade is highly political and always has been. I do not believe this has changed since the EEAS
was established. We should recall that it is the Commission, not the EEAS, which manages
EU trade relations.
As to development, this is a ‘mixed competence’ area, and we should bear in mind that
different departments guard their turfs, as they do in national ministerial business. Also there
is a general feeling on the part of development and humanitarian departments that ‘their’
responsibilities are special and not to be confused by their amalgamation with issues of
‘national’ or ‘European’ interests. … many believe that development and humanitarian aid
should not be politically inspired or influenced.
We should also not shirk the argument that some differentiated politicisation of these policy
areas might be a good thing. Our leaders have been remiss in continuing to pour aid money
into developing countries with scant regard for failing governance. That is why much of the
money was a) wasted in forests of unusable machinery rusting away or b) stashed away in
the banks of corrupted leaders abroad.
The EEAS has two major advantages. a) It can make ‘good governance’ a quid pro quo for
development aid and b) it stands above the charge that its policies are a reflection of
‘national interest’ rather than an honest attempt to ‘aid’.
ASHTON Review
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What areas should the 2013 Review focus on? What concrete suggestions could
it, or should it, make?
The answer to this question obviously depends on the starting assumptions of the
committee. Are there agreed assumptions about the desirability/need for the EEAS in the
first place? Or does the committee believe the jury is still out, not only on achievement
hitherto but on what Lord Lamont argued in a previous session of this committee; namely,
that he finds it difficult to resist the conclusion that the EEAS is “simply a piece of self-
aggrandisement; it is a self-promoting bureaucracy whose position is not entirely clear”.
If the committee feels that the role and functions of the committee are not clear, I would
suggest that the committee reflect on recommendations to make these purposes clear to all.
If the assumption is that there is no purpose in trying to go beyond the simple attempt to
coordinate national policies and thus give up if a firm view on issues is not immediately
forthcoming, then there would be little point in the committee making recommendations at
all. In sum, ideas expressed because they reflect different assumptions about the desirability
/necessity of the EEAS in the first place should be explicitly underlined in the committee’s
report.
My view is that the committee ought to suggest, along with ideas already expressed by
others, and not least by the 11 foreign ministers in the so-called ‘Westerwelle Report’, some
key adaptations that seem worthwhile in light of developments so far.
There are different packages of ideas involved.
FIRST, COHERENCE:
Promoting coherence was one of the EEAS’s key tasks. So, the committee might reflect on
three possible recommendations. First, whether neighbourhood policy along with the
relevant Commission services and staff should be integrated into the EEAS and made to
report in the final analysis to Baroness ASHTON. Second, whether development policy
instruments ought to be reinforced and integrated into the EEAS terms of reference, so that
strategic planning might be improved and links made between development projects and
foreign policy concerns. Third, Community policies with an important external dimension,
such as climate change, energy, migration, industrial issues such as internet issues discussed
in Doha in December 2012, might somehow be brought into the purview of the EEAS, by
the attribution of a clear role to the EU, separate from the views of member states, but in
clear support of them AND in support of a European policy aiming to be more than the sum
of the member state parts.
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However, a caveat needs to be introduced and it is this: ‘coherence’ would not imply that
each whole policy area would need to shift to the EEAS. Rather, a coordinating unit, akin to
a cabinet office coordination department, such as the European Secretariat, might be based
in the EEAS and from there keep a watchful eye over international implications of such
policies. In this way a given policy area might be recognised early on as a potential
coordination issue. Specific problems might be recognised and managed – with emerging
problems nipped in the bud.
SECOND, A JOB DESCRIPTION
An agreed document setting out the terms of reference (a job description in other words) of
the HR/VP is needed. This would mention inter alia, the strengthening of the coordinating
role of the HR/VP. The document might include matters ripe for improved coordination
internally, such as chairing regular meetings of the commissioners in charge of various
aspects of external action (the Relex family), plus ad hoc international implications of other
policy area as and when). At a higher level, there would also need to be formalised regular
consultations on external policy between the Presidents of institutions where otherwise
wires might needlessly risk being crossed - the European Council, the Commission and the
HR/VP.
THIRD, WORKLOAD
A frequent lament is the fact that a major problem has been that Baroness Ashton has been
triple-hatted, but without the triple support structure equivalent to the task. Any basic
management plan ought to be predicated on serious assessment of resources and
requirements. But it seems far from certain that member states assessed and agreed on
requirements, thus breaking a cardinal rule of effective management. Somehow, Baroness
Ashton has been obliged to “keep the show on the road” without the obligation and the
means to work on the support of the audience and the actors in the show.
The committee might recommend that one or more political level deputies be appointed. A
high level political deputy could replace her both in the CFSP area, whether it be in chairing
functions or representational roles, in addition to a much-needed Commission-related
deputy. It has often been said that the Commission has too many commissioners – but a
system whereby a key commissioner such as the HR/VP would have, say, two junior
commissioners would be helpful in many ways. It is after all a model on which our own
national diplomatic affairs are carried out – a foreign secretary and several other ministers
for given responsibilities.
FOURTH, REPRESENTATION
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Improved presence in international organisations has proved a difficult arena for the EU
since implementation of Lisbon. The Commission’s assumption had always been that the
EU’s status at the UN, as a non-state observer entity, needed review. The EU was not a
state, but its economic clout as a provider of funds to the UN, in many cases as the main
donor organisation, provided the basis for a claim not simply to ‘observer status’ but to
‘enhanced observer status’. The assumption within specialised parts of the Commission had
been that the promise of the Lisbon Treaty was that the EEAS would now be in a position to
advocate and negotiate for this ‘enhanced observer status’. It turned out, of course, that this
was not the view of some member states. But the EU and its member states lose out when
the framework of the EU’s international governance is kept limited by the jealousies of
national interests. The forthcoming command paper on ‘competence’ will be interesting in
legal terms, but probably unhelpful in terms of the enhancement of EU clout in international
affairs.
While the Commission’s nameplate in conferences was replaced by ‘THE EUROPEAN
UNION’, the legitimate expectation of the new EEAS was to continue the role and status
held previously by the Commission. This expectation was dashed, as a trend emerged to
treat previous first-pillar, international business not as an area where the Commission, now
EEAS, would lead, but where member states would retrieve responsibility and make any
show of EU independence depend on prior majority approval. This was a ‘pescisation’ (from
PESC, French initials for CFSP) of the Community ‘acquis’.
One recommendation in the report might be for member states and the Commission to
cooperate in strengthening the status of the EU in international forums. And a first move
could be a working party focussing on how to enhance EU status without this appearing to
be an onslaught on national prerogatives. Where an EU delegation is present abroad, it
should represent the EU across the board in international conferences and organisations –
including the diplomatic functions for which the EEAS was created. This might begin a
process leading to an adequate reflection of its leadership role – in the interests of the EU
itself, but also of individual member states. In principle this would strengthen the EU in
international negotiations and provide visibility - a recognisable face to other actors.
FIFTH, MONEY
One clear weakness in the EEAS’s existing arrangements is the continued lack of control
over budgetary resources. We know that this also hampered HR Solana’s performance. The
tools of power were in the hands of the Commission, and jealously guarded by the
Commission. So a recommendation might be for the EEAS to take responsibility for the
foreign policy instruments remaining in the Commission, not least the financial management
of CFSP projects.
SIXTH, RELATIONS BETWEEN EEAS AND NATIONAL DIPLOMACIES
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If the EEAS is to burgeon into a streamlined diplomatic service, this should not be to the
detriment of national diplomacy, even if a rebalancing of the various responsibilities clearly
needs also to take place. It will be vital to strengthen cooperation between member states’
ministries of foreign affairs and embassies and their EEAS equivalents; not simply to arrange
for a series of secondments of staff. The drafters of the Ashton review might be encouraged
to include how this could be brought about; to explain how the creation of an esprit de
corps could be produced, how the various levels of interaction between the national and the
European levels could be brought into a synthesis allowing the whole to be more than the
sum of the parts.
SEVENTH, STREAMLINING AND EFFICIENCY
The counterpart of enhanced cooperation with MFAs might be reflection on which tasks of
diplomacy might be ripe for pooling with others. Would there be mileage to be appreciated
by ministries of finance in proactive encouragement to share resources – buildings, support
staff, transport etc? This might in time lead to reflection on the advantages inherent in a
common crisis management system, a shared evacuation strategy, even the pooling of many
consular functions. There are examples of this already. On the one hand the Abuja EU
delegation did not achieve wide support for its co-location potential. The EEAS might be
encouraged to produce an assessment of the reasons for this. On the other hand, Nordic
cooperation in the sharing of resources might be a model for EU action. Is the fact of Nordic
‘togetherness’ key to understanding how the policy emerged? Does the E U possess any of
the same attributes? Are comparisons valid? These are key questions on which sensible
answers to the efficiency issues might be based.
Efficiency through shared facilities, or ‘hub and spoke’ arrangements, are issues already the
subject of internal MFA reflection worldwide. Questions about resident ambassadors and
general sound management are nothing new. Thus, reviewing the potential benefits of
common approaches beyond the level of EU member states ought not to be ignored
because the issues are themselves inherently too ‘sensitive’. It should not be beyond the wit
of man to re-site the discussion at European level, beginning with the rather obvious point
that EU delegations might be tasked with consular protection to citizens of all EU countries,
at first for those without consular representation in a given country and later, potentially, to
all member states. While there might be national reluctance, the fact that most member
states are not represented in most countries in the world (whereas the EU as such is
present in more than 140) provides room for creative thinking. As with crisis management,
there is little point in not preparing to cope with obvious issues on the grounds that,
hitherto, there has been no need to reflect on given issues, so why now? EU efforts in the
form of, for example, visa reciprocity, seem already to work well. They clearly lighten the
burden on individual member states in terms of the necessity to negotiate reciprocity
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agreements country by country73. Why not extend the principle to other clearly relevant
areas?
EIGHTH, TRAINING
Finally, attempts to establish principles of modern resource management in the
Commission’s previous External Service were hard to implement; both for want of
agreement by senior management and for resource reasons. Yet, clearly some very basic
immediate steps are required to ensure the EEAS manages staff on a par with the best
diplomatic services worldwide. This is an insight already achieved in the EEAS. But insight is
no replacement for firm action. In the case of EEAS training, a sound training needs analysis
needs to be undertaken, probably by an outside specialised organisation with proven skills in
the area. A report with recommendations based on efficient practice and experience of the
best foreign ministry training departments is clearly called for. Not only would this ensure
that varying degrees of diplomatic management skills would be made uniform, but a knock-
on effect would be a contribution to esprit de corps, team-building and general efficiency
enhancement.
12 December 2012
73 See http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-12-1268_en.htm?locale=en
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UK Independence Party – Written evidence
A.1. The UK Independence Party (UKIP) believes that, before one can properly consider the
questions posed by the Committee, the role of the EEAS and of the High Representative
(HR) must be considered. In addition, careful regard must be had to the competences of the
European Union (EU) under the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the
Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) , in particular as regards the so-called ‘Common
Foreign and Security Policy’ (CFSP) and the so-called ‘Common Security and Defence Policy’
(CSDP) which the TEU describes as an integral part of the CFSP.
A.2. The High Representative and the External Action service are the personification of a
dagger aimed squarely at the heart of the United Kingdom’s existence as a Sovereign
Independent State and of an independent United Kingdom Foreign Policy. In addition they
pose a grave danger to the United Kingdom’s permanent seat on the Security Council of the
United Nations, together with its concomitant veto.
A.3 In the preamble to TEU, to which the UK is bound as a Treaty partner, it is made clear
that, as part of our membership of the EU, the Member States are resolved “to implement a
common foreign and security policy including the progressive framing of a common defence policy, which might lead to a common defence”. We suggest that these words should be
taken at face value. They mean no more and no less than that the EU intends, in due course,
to have its own foreign policy. It must be clearly understood that the existence of a
“common” policy means that it exists to the exclusion of all other such policies. Thus, when
it comes to fruition, there will be no such thing as “British foreign policy” any more than
there will be a “French foreign policy” or a “Finnish foreign policy” or a “German foreign
policy” etc. etc.
A.4. Anyone who doubts that should read further in TEU. Article 21.2, for example,
commits the UK by Treaty to support the mandatory requirement that “The Union shall
define and pursue common policies and actions, and shall work for a high degree of
cooperation in all fields of international relations…..”. Article 24.3 makes it clear that the UK
is bound by Treaty to support the CFSP when formulated: “The Member States shall
support the Union’s external and security policy actively and unreservedly in a spirit of
loyalty and mutual solidarity and shall comply with the Union’s action in this area”. If a
Member State is to comply with that mandatory requirement, it cannot then have an
independent and different point of view.
A.5. Any lingering illusions – or disingenuousness – about where this all leads must be
extinguished by Article 21.1 TEU which makes all clear: “The Union’s competence in matters
of common foreign and security policy shall cover all areas of foreign policy and all questions
relating to the Union’s
security, including the progressive framing of a common defence policy that might lead to a
common defence.”
A.6. Furthermore, the European Union has acquired through Article 37 the right to enter
into international relations in its own right as regards the CFSP:
Article 37
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The Union may conclude agreements with one or more States or international organisations
in areas covered by this Chapter
A.7. This ability is important in the context of the requirement for a CFSP and the nature of
Sovereign Independent States. It will be noted that a substantial portion of the Treaty of
Lisbon which is now embodied in TEU and TFEU was devoted to the activities of the HR
AND THE EEAS. This is no accident. We say that this was quite deliberate, because the
ability to enter into international relations, underpinned by the CFSP and executed by the
HR and the EEAS is crucial to the EU’s ability to assert that it is and fulfils the criteria for, for
the purposes of customary international law, recognition as a sovereign independent state in
its own right.
A.8. Members of Your Lordship’s House will be familiar with the Montevideo Convention
on the Rights and Duties of States74 which identifies the criteria for recognition of
entities as sovereign independent states for the purposes of customary international law:
Article 1
The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications:
a ) a permanent population;
b ) a defined territory;
c ) government; and
d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.
Who can doubt that the EU already possessed (a), (b) and (c) at the time when Lisbon was
ratified? Who can doubt that the Institutions set out in Article 13 TEU are, for all the world
to see, the institutions which one normally associates with the concept of government. Who
can doubt that the competences of the EU as set out in Title 1 of TFEU are those which
governments of sovereign independent states have? All the EU needed to satisfy the entire
set was the right to enter into foreign relations. This was given to it by Lisbon, a Treaty to
which the United Kingdom acceded without the people of the United Kingdom having been
consulted as each of the then three then main parties promised would happen.
A.9. The EU plainly regards the Montevideo Criteria with approbation as they formed part
of the conclusions of the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia
(“The Badinter Commission”), a commission established by the then EEC to deal with the
74 See for text http://www.cfr.org/sovereignty/montevideo-convention-rights-duties-states/p15897
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problems of the dissolution of the former Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia and the issues of a
successor state and the emergence of new states.
A.10. The developments in relation to governance of the Eurozone and the extinction of the
exclusive rights of Eurozone Member States’ Parliaments and Governments to set budgets –
with all that that means for independence – must be seen through the prism of the
Montevideo Convention which further states in Article 2:
The federal state shall constitute a sole person in the eyes of international law.
The word ‘sole’ leaves little room for the existence of member States as independent
entities for the purposes of customary international law.
A.11. This is entirely consonant, of course, with the concept of “ever-closer union” to which
enthusiasts of our membership of the EEC or EU have been so devoted over the last forty
years. It lays bare, however, to the gaze of the broad mass of our people what that phrase
really means in practice and how the very essence of British independence has been steadily
and stealthily subverted over that period.
A.12. There can be no doubt – surely – but that we are, by remaining members of the EU,
on the road to complete loss of sovereignty, legally, politically and morally. Any
consideration of the EEAS and the detail of its workings and performance must be read
entirely in that context.
PART B. The Committee’s Questions
1. What are the main achievements of the EEAS since its establishment? Where has it been
less successful?
It is difficult to identify with any confidence any act of the HR and the EEAS which
might be described as an ‘achievement’ other than its own establishment and
aggrandisement.
2. How well does the EEAS meet the objectives set out for it in the Lisbon Treaty and the Council Decision? Has the High Representative/Vice President fulfilled her mandate and the
Council Decision for setting up the EEAS? What remains to be done?
In the first instance, see Part A. The EEAS performs the role intended for it well: that
is to say that it has rapidly expanded to its present – bloated – size which is entirely
commensurate with the role intended for it, namely the supplanting of National
Foreign Ministries. Whether it actually does anything very much is a moot point.
National governments seem to pursue their own interests, much as before.
3. How effective has the EEAS been in communicating and promoting the EU’s policies and
values? Has it implemented Council CSFP and CSDP Decisions effectively?
Since EU institutions routinely complain that they are insufficiently misunderstood by
the citizens of its own Member States, it must be highly doubtful as to whether those
outside the EU are in any better position. Who does President Obama now ring to
find out what is the attitude of ‘Europe’ to anything? The HR? One or other of the
Troika which went off to Oslo this week to collect the Nobel Prize for Peace? Or
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does he, as before, continue to ring the individual Foreign Ministers of the States that
matter such as The United Kingdom and Germany? One suspects the latter, but
doubtless the HR can provide us with her telephone log to answer the question
definitively.
4. Has the creation of the EEAS led to a more coherent and integrated EU foreign policy?
The events in such as Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Syria, Qatar, Burma, Congo and
elsewhere hardly suggest coherence and integration on the part of the EU.
5. Has the EEAS been effective in its response to crises?
No.
6. How well does the relationship between the EEAS and the Commission work in the trade
area? Does the EEAS have a role to play in EU trade policy and its implementation?
The EEAS does not bat for the UK and should have no role whatsoever in the matter
of trade which should be for the UK and the UK alone, bearing in mind that we are a trading nation and trade is our life-blood. The UK should recover its right to make
trade agreements and its seat on the WTO as a matter of vital national interest,
whatever relationship we might in future have with the single market.
7. How well has the objective of a geographically and gender balanced staff been met? How
well has the objective been met of one third of staff from the diplomatic services of the
Member States by mid 2013, a third from the Council Secretariat and a third from the
Commission? Have staff been adequately trained to perform the diplomatic role? If not,
what are the omissions? Is the EEAS budget sufficient to meet its objectives? Are there any areas where the EEAS could make savings? Has the EU created the right number and
distribution of Delegations around the world?
The EEAS staff is commensurate with the over-weening ambitions of the EU. It is
ludicrous that the EU has at least 140 worldwide missions. The size and cost of some
of these missions suggest a detachment from the real world which is inhabited by the
citizens of the Member States who are subject to belt-tightening of varying degrees
from severe to eye-watering. For example The European Union is represented in 11 Pacific Island Countries and 4
Overseas Territories by the Delegation in Suva, Fiji.75 The Delegation is accredited to
Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru,
Niue, Palau, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, French Polynesia, Pitcairn, Wallis & Futuna and
New Caledonia. The Delegation has two sub-offices in Nouméa, New Caledonia and
Apia, Samoa. In the Pacific, accredited to the Melanesian countries is a separate
Delegation based in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea with two sub-offices in
Honiara, Solomon Islands and Port Vila, Vanuatu.
The Delegation has full diplomatic privileges and immunities and the Head of
Delegation accorded full ambassadorial status.
75 http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/fiji/about_us/internal_organisation/index_en.htm
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It appears to have an establishment of no less than 37 people. The States adumbrated
above are, with all due respect, tiny individually and collectively, both in terms of
trade and influence. Having so large a delegation is simply ridiculous.
The Delegation to Barbados and the East Caribbean76 disposes of 44 posts. That to
Mozambique, 3277; to Uruguay, 3078; to East Timor, 2079….and so it goes on. At a
time when HMG is having to curtail its diplomatic staff, such profligacy is outrageous.
One notes that the website of the Delegation to South Africa is devoid of
information about numbers of staff. It may, of course, be a simple dereliction. On the
other hand, one wonders if the numbers involved are too embarrassing even for the
EEAS to disclose.
Whether the staff have been adequately trained is difficult to answer. The lack of
success by the Service suggests the answer may be “No”.
8. Has the Foreign and Commonwealth Office responded effectively to the
establishment of the EEAS? Has the UK been able to second high level candidates to
important positions within the EEAS? Has it also seconded a representative number
to more junior positions?
It can only be to the detriment of the efficient working of the Foreign and
Commonwealth Office if it has been seconding its high flyers to the EEAS. It is inevitable that if such people are not working exclusively for the UK, the quality of
the UK’s own Foreign Service will suffer. That is not in the interests of the UK which
should be deploying the nation’s brightest and best foreign service staff to work in
the sole interests of the UK and its people.
CONCLUSION
With great respect, the subject at this stage of the enquiry deals with the EEAS as thought it
was a good thing and in the interests of the United Kingdom. It is not, in our submission.
The EEAS seeks to supplant our own diplomacy and subordinate our interests to the
interests of others, few of whom sympathise with, let alone care for, the vital interests of the
UK. Such an uncritical approach is, we must suggest, entirely at odds with the view of the
British people about the EU and all its manifestations. The EEAS enjoys minimal support
from the average voter, assuming that he or she has heard of it. Voters and Taxpayers will
be deeply unhappy about the cost of this unaccountable institution and its desire to supplant
the FCO. Instead the money being devoted to it would be far better spent creating UK
Missions abroad whose principal activity should be promoting free trade with host nations
with a view to allowing UK businesses to grow, employ staff and thus contribute to the UK’s
prosperity and revenues, instead of subsidising the Caribbean life-styles of 44 Euro
Diplomats in Barbados.
76 http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/barbados/about_us/internal_organisation/index_en.htm
77 http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/mozambique/about_us/internal_organisation/index_en.htm
78 http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/uruguay/about_us/internal_organisation/index_en.htm
79 http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/timor_leste/about_us/internal_organisation/index_en.htm