Effect of Erythrophleum suaveolens bark extract on fungi activity in wood of Triplochiton...

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTENSION

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Journal of Environmental Extension – Vol. 9: January 2010

63

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXTENSION VOLUME 9: JANUARY 2010

CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME PAGES ASSESSMENT OF LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AMONG FARMERS IN IFO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OGUN STATE, NIGERIA M. G. Olujide and S. O. Ajitoni … … … … … .. … …

PLANKTONIC BIODIVERSITY AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF AWBA RESERVOIR, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA Adetola Jenyo-Oni … … … … … .. … … …

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF WATER HYACINTH (EICHHORNIA CRASSIPES MART. SOLMS-LAUBACH) IN RUMINANT NUTRITION IN NIGERIA Mako, A. A. and Akinwande, V. O. … … … … … … …

STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF FOREST OFFENCES ON SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. B.O. Agbeja and A.O. Oso … … … … … … … …

BINARY MODELS FOR ASSESSMENT OF CONFLICTS BETWEEN FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL LAND USES IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA B. O. Agbeja … … … … … … … … … …

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING: A CASE STUDY FROM ETHIOPIA Solomon Andargie and Hameed Sulaiman … … … DISTRIBUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BROWSE PLANTS OF EGBADO NORTH RANGELAND Taiwo, B. B. A., Adekunmisi, A. A. and Adeyemi, A. A. … … … … EFFECT OF BARK EXTRACT OF ERYTHROPHLEUM SUAVEOLENS (GUILLEMIN & PERROTTET) BRENAN ON FUNGAL ACTIVITIES IN WOOD OF TRIPLOCHITON SCLEROXYLON K. SCHUM Ogunsanwo, O.Y. and Adedeji, G. A. … … … … … … …

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9-16

17-24

25-32

33-41

42-49 50-55 56-62


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ASSESSMENT OF LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AMONG FARMERS IN IFO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

M. G. Olujide

Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan. [email protected]

S. O. Ajitoni Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

[email protected] ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION Among the problems confronting the human race today, if not the greatest of the problems, is the achievement of sustained and equitable development. In spite of the good progress made over the past generation, a lot of people the world over still live in acute poverty and suffer inadequate access to resources that are essential to give them a chance for a better life. Among these resources, as noted by the World Bank (2006), are: education, health services, infrastructure, land, and credit. Definitely, the essential task of development is to provide opportunities so that people can reach their maximum potentials, but recent years have witnessed rising concern about whether environmental constraints will limit development and whether development will cause serious environmental damage which, in turn, will impair the quality of life of this and future generations. This concern is overdue as a number of environmental problems are already very serious and require urgent attention. Among such environmental problems is land degradation. It is important to point out here that environmental problems differ from country to country and from the industrialized countries to the developing world. Moreover, it is not every problem that can be a priority for every country. The view here is that the highest environmental priorities are those that directly affect the welfare of a large number of people. One of such to us in Nigeria is land degradation. This is moreso as agriculture still employs over 60 percent of the population

and food security has become both a political and an economic challenge facing the Nigerian state (Ajakaiye and Akinbinu, 2006). Anande-Kur (2007) noted that the most important resource input into agricultural production by the rural dwellers is land. The ability of land to produce is finite. And degradation and damage to the environment have three potential costs to present and future human welfare. According to the World Bank (2006), human health may be harmed. Economic productivity may be reduced. And the pleasure or satisfaction obtained from an unspoiled environment often referred to as its ‘amnesty’ value, may be lost. As said earlier, food security is posing a political and economic challenge to government and people in Nigeria. Land degradation in many developing nation has constituted major constraint to sustainable agricultural production and development in the last few decades. There is a growing awareness now that the attainment of global food security has gone beyond the question of availability of improved production technologies. The more important factor is that the natural resource base upon which crop production ultimately depends must be appropriately managed and conserved (Ajakaiye and Akinbinu, 2006). In this respect, national governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are now actively involved in the development of workable natural resource conservation strategies in order to reverse the negative synergy developing from increased demographic pressure, environmental degradation and food

This study focused on the assessment of land degradation and soil conservation practices among farmers in Ifo Local Government Area of Ogun State. One hundred and fifty (150) respondents were randomly selected from various locations of significant incidence land degradation in Ifo Local Government Area of Ogun State. The result revealed that majority (93%) of the respondents were above 40 years of age. Ninety percent of them are married and 76% of them have no formal education. The soil conservation techniques practiced in the area are from physical, chemical and biological perspectives: The farmers are aware of the effects of land degradation on crop production. The result further showed that serious constraints include money/finance, nature of the land and decrease in crop production. The study further revealed that there is no significant difference between respondents’ level of education and land degradation. Based on the findings, it is recommended that farmers should be motivated to practice more soil conservation techniques through the provision of necessary incentives.

Key words: Land degradation, Soil conservation, practices and farmer.

LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AMONG FARMERS

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security (International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI, 1995). Land degradation has been defined in different ways by different authors based on differences in the points of reference. African Development Bank (ADP) defines it as “a reduction in the productivity of land resulting from soil loss, breakdown in soil structure, salinization, water logging, nutrient loss, and pollution from toxic substances” (ADP, 1995). Scherr and Yadav (1996), highlight some possible causes of land degradation. These range from deforestation, water and wind erosion, soil compaction, and soil crusting due to water logging, salinization, removal of organic materials, bush-burning and misuse of chemicals. Moreover, rapid population growth, intensive use of agricultural and poor land tenure system, fragile nature of tropical soils and high intensity of tropical rainfall are other causes of land degradation. Accordingly, Biswas (1979), concludes that soil loss is one of the most pressing and difficult problems facing the future of mankind. It was realized that about 80 per cent of the annual loss in soil to erosion occurs from croplands during the rainy season, and the nutrient imbalance is accentuated by forest clearing, removal of crop residues from cultivated lands, and inadequate use of chemical fertilizer or organic manure. According to Anande-Kur (2007), land degradation is a common phenomenon throughout the length and breadth of Nigeria. Its intensity and magnitude are closely linked to population distribution pattern, physical terrain features, nature of soils, land use and climatic regions. Soil is the basis of man’s existence on earth and is also the major element of life that is derived from weathered rocks. Fertile soil is the basic resource for productive agriculture. The process of soil formation can be divided into three categories, physical, biological and chemical weathering activities. In view of the fact that climate plays a very important role in the weathering of rocks into soil it is therefore not surprising that soil classification often tends to have a climatological basis. Weathering processes disintegrate rocks (parent material) into small particles, with air and moisture entering into the pore spaces created during the breakup. This leads to chemical decomposition. Decomposition is affected by several factors prominent amongst which are the natures of the parent rock, temperature, water medium, time and so on. ,The dominant soils in Nigeria are ferric Luvisols with extensive luvic arenosols in the Northern states and various Fluvisols in the coastal areas. Gleysols and Vertisols of local

importance have also been identified (Anande-Kur, 2007). Most of these soils are coarse-textured topsoils that present serious erosion on compaction hazards. Generally, many of these soils have structures that are very unstable and tend to disintegrate under cultivation. Therefore, thorough knowledge of soil characteristics is of immense importance in many fields of human endeavour, such as civil engineering, architecture, land reclamation, waste disposal, pollution control, archaeological exploration, geological exploration and so on. There is the need to establish a basis for scientific study of soil. It is very important to recognize soil in its own right as a real entity and nature in view of the fact that soil has its own mode of formation and origin. Land degradation in Nigeria is associated with loss of vegetation, occurrence of gullies (ravines), coastal and stream bank failures, desertification, flooding, low soil fertility (declining yields) and silting of free water bodies among others (Lawal and Mohammed, 2006). Where one or more of these aspects of land degradation occur, they do have a profound effect on the rural communities. Ironically, the majority of Nigerian’s population (about 70 percent) live in rural areas and derive their livelihood directly or indirectly from the land (Odimegwu, 1997). The effects of soil degradation on rural as well as urban life are various. Soil degradation is the cause of stagnating or declining yields in many parts of the country, especially on fragile lands from which the poorest farmers attempt to wrest a living (World Bank, 2006; Anande-Kur, 2007). Erosion is the most visible symptom of this degradation. Although data on soil conductions are very low, crude estimates by the World Bank (2006) suggest that in some areas the losses in productive potential attributable to soil depletion may amount to 0.5– 1.5 percent GDP annually. Erosion can also damage economic infrastructure, such as dams and downstream. Even when erosion is insignificant, soils may suffer from nutrient, physical, and biological depletion. In Nigeria particularly in the area of this study, Ogun State, a Yoruba sub-region, land is communally held with small holders of most families living on the land. The social, economic and perhaps religious values of these rural communities may be tied to the land on which they live and derive their livelihood. A decline on the potential of the land to satisfy their needs is bound to affect their well being. Moreover, as population increases, the need to produce more food will result in intensification of agriculture as it also becomes harder to expand the area of cultivation (Ajakaiye and Akinbinu, 2006). At times, the need for more land for cultivation may


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result in fratricidal communal clashes poultry known as land disputes. Land degradation can be defined as the reduction of land’s viability in terms of its productivity which affects the socio-economic value of land. Soil degradation results from processes which reduce the current potential capacity of the soil to produce good service (FAO, 1977). In other words, it is the deterioration in the stability or the potential biotic production of agricultural land beyond that which might occur in nature. Fasina, (2000) viewed soil degradation as the physical removal of the soil from the ground surface and leaching of soil materials. Since the removal of the soil surface is considered to be degradation, erosion is then considered as a major factor in soil degradation. Erosion is being influenced by both physical and human factors. These ever pressing problems of land degradation and desertification were understood globally long before the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment and the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (Mankonen, 1995). However, in Nigeria, an awareness of the dangers posed by these ever-increasing land degradation and desertification has not diffused thoroughly in the social system. People in the rural communities have been found to be aware of the phenomenon much earlier than the urban communities because they suffer its direct effects (Anande-Kur, 2006). Statements like “that place over there used to be a thick forest where we fetched our firewood when I was a young man,” or “this soil is geeing old, it doesn’t yield as much yam as it did some ten farming seasons ago,” are manifestations of the people’s awareness and the effects of land degradation on the affected communities. It should be noted that there are evidences of some knowledge among academic planning agencies and public authorities whose duty it is to protect the environment for posterity (Ajiboye and Ajitoni, 2007; Ajitoni, 2005; Animashaun, 1995). The assertion can be made here that even though many Nigerians, particularly those people who are very close to nature and who regard the land as a source of their livelihood, view land not only as a commodity to be bought and sold in impersonal markets but as a substance endowed with sacred meaning in social relations and so, fundamental to groups’ existence and identity (Davis, 2007), recent practices which degrade the environment belie this profession. Thus, two important environmental and natural resource challenges face the people and policy makers of Nigeria. The first is preventing the resources degradation that can result from rapidly growing demands for food, fuel, and fiber and from poor

stewardship due to poverty, ignorance, and corruption. The second is preserving valuable natural forests, wetlands, coastal areas, and grasslands from being taken over for relatively low-value uses that are artificially encouraged by bad policies, imperfect markets and flawed institutions. Therefore, soil conservation can be said to be the necessary measures taken to control/prevent-soil degradation and also to improve and maintain soil productivity which has been greatly reduced by actions such as erosion, overgrazing and bush-burning associated with soil degradation. Conservation of soil means to preserve the soil, to retain intact or unchanged and in a wider sense, it can imply wise use or management (Agabi, 2006). Conservation of the soil is essential because nothing affects the quality of our lives quite like the welfare and the state of nature and no future can be quite so bleak as one in which the living resources, such as plants and wildlife which are very essential for human survival and development, are increasingly being destroyed or depleted by human carelessness (Agabi, 2006). Soil degradation can be prevented through actions like construction of drainage for erosions, channelisation of rivers and planting of cover crops or leguminous crops to add nutrients to the soil and prevent rill/sheet erosion. Irrespective of the method being adopted, the main objective is to conserve and prevent the soil from the degradation/erosive action of water, wind and man. These measures are pressure and human activities on land. Failure to do this will result in declining and deteriorating soil productivity leading to environmental disaster and hunger at local and international levels (Areola, 2001). Among Nigeria’s national policy on the environment is and use and soil conservation. According to Aina (1990), the planning, improvement and management of land demands an approach at all levels which embraces all aspects of the human environment, both natural and manmade. In effect, Aina (1990) stated further that the following strategies among others shall be adopted: (a) establishing guidelines for land use and soil management and the necessary framework to implement them; (b) promoting optimal land use for sustained production; (c) identifying, mapping and assessing the potentials and constraints of soil resources, current land use and the present extent of soil degradation; (d) encouraging soil conservation principles in highway and other construction activities; (g) developing programmes to ensure the rational application of fertilizers and other soil conditions appropriate to the improvement and sustained use of the soils; (h) monitoring and supervising changes in soil


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quality and quantity, land use and soil conservation through sound management; increasing public awareness on the danger of soil degradation, its seriousness, causes and remedies; and (i) regulating agricultural mechanizations and other land propagation techniques in order to reduce soil erosion. In order to achieve the foregoing goals and objectives, the policy intended that actions would be undertaken to raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development, and to encourage individual and community participation in environmental improvement efforts. It is essential therefore, to assess the extent to which these policy goals and objectives and intended actions have been put into practice by farmers in Nigeria. As noted earlier, one of the most important economic activities in Nigeria today and, ipso facto in the world is agriculture. Agabi (2006) noted that two–thirds of the world’s population are engaged in it. OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY Based on the foregoing background, the objective of this study is to assess land degradation and soil conservation practices among farmers in Ifo Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are: (1) to identify the personal demographic

characteristics of the farmers such as age, gender, educational level and number of years of farming experience.

(2) to determine the level of awareness and knowledge of the respondents (farmers) about land degradation, soil erosion, nutrients removal and the effect of land degradation on crop production.

(3) to examine the different types of conversation practices adopted to checkmate land degradation.

(4) to determine the constraints associated with soil conservation practices in the study area,

METHODOLOGY Area of Study The study area falls within Ifo Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria. This Local Government shares boundaries with Egbado South and Egbado North Local Government Areas in the west, Abeokuta North Local Government in the north, Obafemi/Owode Local Government in the east and Ado-Odo/Ota and Ik eja Local Governments in the south. It covers an area of approximately 122,000-sq.km (National Population Census, 1991). The area

lies on an average elevation of about 200m above the sea level. The soils of the area are typical of the tropical train forest soils. An interesting feature of the soil is the concentration of calcium carbonate in some areas which are underlain by large deposits of limestone. The soil colour varies between grayish brown and reddish brown and generally, there is an absence of outcrops of rock. This area falls within the sub-equatorial region with Monsoon climate. The natural vegetation of this area is similar to the tropical rainforest belt, thus consisting of various hardwood species often of considerable heights and different sizes (Odimegwu, 1997). Most of the land is covered with vegetation, broken by numerous cultivated farmlands. The vegetation consists essentially of a mixture of dense savannah wood land and secondary forest with palm trees. The occupation of the people includes farming, palm-wine tapping, gari processing, weaving, hunting and trading amongst others. The choice of this area of study has been based on the seemingly sudden change in the nature of the area from tropical rainforest belt to the semi-Savanna. The area was endowed with an enormous variety of plant and animal species with the notion of an inexhaustible resources (Odimegwu, 1997). Today, however, this area has been recklessly exploited by individuals, governments and organizations. This has not only creamed the forests there but has also completely changed the structure of the forests, decimated their wildlife habitats, set the stage for deforestation and created conditions for natural disasters. Areas referred to in this study as ‘severely affected’ were those areas badly affected by the forest laws that encouraged wasteful and selective exploitation, but did not provide any safeguards for controlling the method of extraction, conservation and utilization. This situation has resulted from poor planning, lack of foresight, greed, carelessness and above all, the inability of policy-makers to recognize and respect expert opinion. The methods adopted for data collection in this study involved group discussions and interviews. Four severely affected locations were chosen as the sites for this study. These are Ibogun, Ojusango, Arigbajo and Oke-Odo-Abekoko. The number of respondents in the four severely affected locations were randomly selected as shown in Table 1.


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Table 1: Distribution of respondents according to severely affected locations

Location Frequency PercentageIbogun Ojusango Arigbajo Oke-Odo-Abekoko

39 45 34 32

26.0 30.0 22.7 21.3

Total 150 100.0 In all, one hundred and fifty farmers were selected as sample size for the study. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were used to analyze the data collected on demographic characteristics, while chi-square was used to test for the relationship between respondents’ level, of education, crop production and land degradation conservation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Personal Demographic Characteristics As presented in Table 2, the data on

personal demographic characteristics revealed that the age of the farmers ranged from 21 – 60 years with the youth (below 40 years) accounting for 33 percent of the population, while 67 percent were above 40 years. Also, it can be seen that all the respondents were males, out of whom about 90% were married while 10 percent were single. The implication of this to farmers lies in the availability of workforce for farm activities. Also, 76 percent of the farmers had no formal education, 22 percent attended primary school while 2 percent had the opportunity of attaining secondary school education. On years of farming experience, 6.7 percent had years of experience below 21 years, 20.7 percent had experience of between 21- 30 years, 42.7 percent had 31 – 40 years, while 31 percent recorded more than 31 years of professional farming experience. Soil Conservation Practices in the Study Area

Table 3: Frequency distribution of farmers according to types of soil conservation practiced in the study area (n=150)

Types Frequency PercentagePhysical Practice Not Practice

32 118

21.3 78.7

Chemical Practice Not practice

44 106

-29.3 70.7

Biological Practice Not practice

100 50

66.7 33.3

Table 2: Frequency distribution of respondents according to their personal demographic characteristics (n=150)

Variables categories Frequency PercentageAge 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 Above 50

9 41 65 35

6.0

27.0 43.0 24.0

Gender Male Female

150 ––

100.0

–– Marital Status Married Single

135 15

90.0 10.0

Educational Level No formal education Adult education Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education

114 –– 33 3 ––

76.0 ––

22.0 2.0 ––

Farming experience Below 21 years 21 – 30 years 31 – 40 years 41 – 50 years 50 above

10 31 64 42 2

6.7

20.7 42.7 28.7 1.2

Years of residency Below 21 years 21 – 30 years 31 – 40 years 41 – 50 years 50 above

7 26 73 41 3

4.7

17.3 48.7 27.3 2.0

Table 3 shows the results of different types of soil conservation practice which include physical, chemical and biological. Majority of the respondents 78.7% indicated that they do not practice physical soil conservation techniques like irrigation and channelization of drainage. On chemical soil conservation, majority (70.7%) of the respondents indicated non-practice of chemical conservation, while 66.7% indicated that they practice biological soil conservation which include planting of cover crops, mixed cropping, crop rotation, mulching and planting of trees with crops.


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Awareness of respondents on some concepts

Table 4: Frequency distribution of respondents according to some variables

Variables considered Freq. PercentKnowledge about land degradation Aware Not aware

101 49

67.3 322.7

land degradation Aware Not Aware

138 12

92.0 8.0

Soil Erosion Aware Not Aware

117 33

78.0 22.0

Nutrient Removal Aware Not Aware

95 55

66.7 33.3

Effect of Land degradation on Crop Productivity Aware Not Aware

142 8

94.7 5.3

Table 4 shows the results of responses, in respect of some variables considered in this study. The result indicated that most (67.3%) of the respondents had considerable knowledge about land degradation, while few, 32.7% had no knowledge about land degradation. Also, about 92 percent were aware of land degradation and

80% of the respondents were not aware. On awareness of the negative impact of soil erosion, 78% indicated awareness and 22% of the respondents claimed that they were not aware of the impact of soil erosion on the nutrient removal from the soil. Most of the respondents (66.7%) were aware, while 33.3% were not aware. Over 94% of the sampled populations were aware of the effect of land degradation on crop productivity, while 5.3% of the respondents claimed ignorance. Collectively, the awareness of the considered variables was very high and the level of the awareness can be attributed more to the adverse effects of land degradation on crop production in the study area than to the national policy implemented on land use and soil conservation. This had invariably led to adoption of a number of degradation control measures such as the vegeculture farming system which is characterized by root crop dominance, with cereals playing a secondary role in cultivation and others as mentioned earlier. However, a further evaluation as presented in Table 5 revealed some constraints associated with land degradation control practices in the area of study.

Table 5: Frequency distribution of respondents according to constraints associated with land degradation

Not serious Serious Constraints Freq. % Freq. %

Money/Financial 22 14.7 128 85.3 Bureaucratic bottlenecks 139 92.7 11 7.3 Nature of the land 41 27.3 109 72.7 Decrease of crop production 61 40.7 89 59.3 Lack of knowledge about land degradation 101 67.3 49 32.7

The constraints associated with the use of land and degradation control practices include finance which was regarded as very serious (85.5%), nature of the land (72.7%), and decrease in crop production (59.3%). The remaining variables such as bureaucratic bottlenecks (92.7%) and lack of knowledge of land conservation (67.3%) were not serious constraints. Table 6: Chi-square relationship between education, agricultural activities and land degradation

Variable χ2 df p Education 9.119 6 0.167Agricultural activities 18.098 3 0.000

In relating the level of education to the use of land and conservation practices, this study revealed that the level of education of the respondents was very low. From Table 6, it can

be deduced that there was no significant different between the level of education of the farmers and land degradation of their farms.

However, the result revealed that there was significant relationship between crop production and land degradation in the study area. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study focused on land degradation and soil conservation practices among farmers in Ifo Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria. The results of the study revealed that a majority (93%) of the sampled population were males above 40 yrs of age out of which 90% of them were married and 76% had no formal education. The different types of soil conservation practices in the area were physical, chemical and biological. The farmers were quite aware of most variables such as knowledge about land degradation, soil erosion, nutrient


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removal and effects of land degradation on crop production. The serious constraints associated with the use of land conservation practices include finance, nature of land and decrease in crop production. Bureaucracy and lack of knowledge were not serious constraints. There was no significant difference between the level of education of farmers and use of conservation practices. The findings revealed further that the farmers in the area were aware that virgin soils accumulated over a long period of time, reserves nutrients that were then exploited by the planted crop. Similarly, the farmers were keenly aware of the damage to the environment as a result of abuses of land and forest resources and were eager to see sound conservation strategies that would ensure rational utilization of the nation’s land and other resources. However, while a majority of the farmers had over the years built the chemical and physical properties of their soils by careful husbandry, the use of fertilizers and shifting cultivation. What we noticed was exploitative exploration that progressively used up the nutrient reserves of the soil which adversely affected its physical properties, such as structure and porosity and this led to an overall decline in productivity. This is in agreement with Maukonen (1995) who asserted that the rate of decline in the productivity of the soil depends on both the intrinsic quality of the individual soil (Since some are inherently much more ‘fragile’ than others) and on the way the soil is used. In the area of study in particular and in the forest belt of Nigeria in general, management and utilization of land resources are fraught with problems because of the strong attachment of the people to land and their concern for the future. Odimegwu (1997) asserted that to the people land means wealth. It serves as a way of relating with the ancestors and it is the last hope of a family. If a man is dispossessed of his land, he is completely ruined. In effect, it becomes difficult to discuss environmental conservation or repair programmes if such programmes deviate from the general cultural ideas of the people about land and its use. Ironically, government policies and programmes in Nigeria do not seem to take these issues into consideration. To improve conservation measures effectively therefore, we should endeavour to involve the people. Based on the findings, it is recommended that farmers should be motivated to practice techniques of soil conservation by providing necessary incentives to them. Soil and natural resource conservation has to be encouraged and taken to the grassroots so as to ensure a sustained supply of forest and land products and to maintain environmental

stability. This stability will provide sanctuaries for wildlife and ensure availability of genetic resources useful for the improvement and propagation of species that have food, medicinal and other values essential for development growth and sustenance of some of our industries (Odimegwu, 1997). It is necessary for government to intervene in the field of soil conservation because while the small or individual farmer may be conservation–minded and see the need for investment, it is doubtful that he has the knowledge, initiative and energy necessary or the capital to plan and execute satisfactorily, the role of the government in soil conservation and improvement. The continued exploitation of the land may have a short-term profit to the farmer at some time, but may not be profitable to the farmer all the time and may not be profitable as noted by Maukonen (1995) from the point of view of the community as a whole. Government’s intervention could be in these ways. Technically, the government could give advice and help in planning conservation measures. Financially, loans, subsidies or tax relief may be necessary. Government will do well to ensure that prices are paid for agricultural produce, particularly export crops to each of the farmers. In a fundamental sense, a farmer who produces a crop and sells it is exporting nutrients from his land even if he is not losing soil through accelerated erosion at the same time. The ability of the farmer to replace these nutrients in the form of fertilizers, as well as to pay for the conservation measures necessary to reduce soil erosion to acceptable proportions, depends on the selling price obtained for his produce. A situation where only a fraction of the price received from agricultural exports by governments reaches the farmer, it becomes disastrous in the long run as they lead to deterioration in the productive capacity of the land and poverty on the part of the farmer. Here again we would like to advocate resource management by individuals and enterprises. When land is privately owned and managed, some environmental problems are less severe. Land is less likely to be overused if its owners have a clear legal title. People who have secure rights to the land they cultivate are more likely to take the long view in managing the soil. Land and natural resources must be managed with great care. They will need protection from the current inadequate stewardship that is a consequence of poverty, population pressure, and corruption. Natural forests which used to be the pride of the study area, wetlands, coastal areas, and grasslands–


8

all of high ecological value–will have to be protected from overuse and degradation. REFERENCES

African Development Bank (ADB). 1995. Country environment profile: Sierra Leone. Environmental and Social Working Series (17), p. 50.

Agboola, A.A. and J. A.Omueti (1983). “Soil fertility problem and its management in Tropical Africa.” Paper presented at International Conference on Land Clearing, IITA, Ibadan Nov. 23rd -26th.

Ajakaiye, O. and Akinbinu, B. (2006). (ed.) Strategic Issues in Nigerian Development in a Globalizing and Liberalizing World. Ibadan: NISER.

Ajiboye J.O. and Ajitoni, S.O. (2007): Exploring the use of the participatory strategies in developing environmental attitudes in Nigerian Children: Implications for environmental education teaching and learning. Journal of the Social Sciences 2(1).

Ajitoni, S.O. (2005): Effects of Full and Quasi – participatory learning strategies on senior secondary students’ environmental knowledge and attitudes in Kwara State Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D thesis. Department of Teacher Education University of Ibadan. Ibadan.

Anande-Kur, S. (2006): Land Degradation and Rural Community Life in Nigeria. FEPA Lagos:.

Animashaun, A. I. (1995): The Nigeria Environment. Lagos. Macmillian Nigeria Publishers Ltd.

Areola, O. (2001). The Good Earth. Technical Report. Pp. 1-35.

Biswas, A.K. 1979. Agricultural development and environment. Mazingira 11. pp. 7-13.

Gross D. B. (2007). Meeting challenges of environmental problems in Nigeria. Southern Communication Journal. 66(3).

FAO (1971). Assessing Soil Degradation. FAO Soil Bulletin. No. 34.

FAO (1991). Land Degradation. FAO Soil Bulletin. No. 13.

Fasina, A.S. (2000). Effect of Ugu (Telfaria Occidentalis) production on different types of soil sample in School of Agriculture, Ikorodu Technical Report, pp. 35.

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). 1995. A 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture and the Environment: The Vision, Challenge and the Recommended Actions, IFPRI.

Maukonen, T. (1995). Environmental management impact assessment. In Sharma, R.C. and Tan M.G. (eds) Source Book in Environmenral Education for Secondary School Teachers. Bangkok, UNESCO.

National Population Census (1991). A Report of the National Population Commission, National Census of 1991, pp. 38

NEST (1992). Nigerian environmental Study/Action Team. The challenge of sustainable development in Nigeria. Edited by Tade Aina and Ademola T. Salewu, pp. 105-110.

Scherr, S.J. and Yadav (1996). Land Degradation in the Developing World: Implication for Food, Agriculture and the Environment in 2020. IFPRI.

World Bank Report (1992). Development and the Environment. Washington DC: Oxford University Press.


9

PLANKTONIC BIODIVERSITY AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF AWBA RESERVOIR, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA

Adetola Jenyo-Oni

Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Management, University of Ibadan.

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Cole (1975) defined the planktonic community as a mixed group of tiny plants and animals drifting, floating or feebly swimming in the water mass. Phytoplankton is a key food item in both aquaculture and mariculture. Both utilize phytoplankton for the feeding of the animals being farmed. In mariculture, the phytoplankton is naturally occurring and is introduced into enclosures with the normal circulation of seawater. Phytoplanktons are globally important organisms, responsible for up to 50% of the world's primary production (Klausmeier and Litchman, 2004).

There are great array of different plankton diversities in tropical fresh waters and their survival and distribution are being controlled by several interrelating physico-chemical factors (Reynolds, 1998). Plankton plays an important role in the tropic structure of lakes as producer (phytoplankton) and consumers ( zooplankton) and they both serve as source of food for other macro invertebrate and vertebrates especially fish (Ayodele and Adeniyi,2006).

The zooplanktons are more varied than the phytoplankton; in fact, almost every animal phyla are represented. The zooplanktons are either grazers on phytoplankton (herbivores), feeders on other members of the zooplankton (carnivores) or feeders on both (omnivores). The

most ecologically important groups are multicellular (metazoans).

Awba reservoir was constructed in 1962 from a fresh water stream, with the aim of providing water for domestic and laboratory use as well as for fish culture. It is also used for hydrological and fisheries research purposes (Ogunye, 1988). It was constructed to the present standard in 1971 to increase water supply to the university.

METHODOLOGY Study area Awba reservoir has an area of about 6 hectares, with a total length of 700m and average width of 130m, and maximum depth of 5.5, which can hold about 227million litres of water (Hassan, 1974; Omotoso 1981). The area where the reservoir is located lies within the tropical rain region, it therefore experience a tropical climate. Awba reservoir was constructed in 1962 from a fresh water stream, with the aim of providing water for domestic and laboratory use as well as for fish culture. It is also used for hydrological and fisheries research purposes. It was constructed to the present standard in 1971 to increase water supply to the University of Ibadan

Knowledge of the physical, chemical and biological conditions of a water body is not only useful in assessing its productivity but would also permit a better understanding of the population of organisms within the water. Awba reservoir is a major source of water for the University of Ibadan. This study determines the physcio-chemical parameters as well as the biodiversity of the planktons in relation to these parameters.

Water samples were collected twice in a week for physico-chemical parameters determination and estimation of planktons in the water. Temperature, pH, Conductivity, Transparency, and Dissolved oxygen were the physcio chemical parameters assessed. The different organisms in the sub-sample were identified using plankton guides.

Mean temperature, conductivity, transparency and dissolved oxygen values in the four sites were significantly different (P< 0.05). The mean pH value ranged from 7.94 in Site A to 8.109 in site B, there was no significant difference in pH values of the four sites. A total of 31 plankton genera belonging to 7 plankton groups were encountered in the reservoir, cyanophycae group are the prominent phytoplanktons, with microcystis ranking highest. Crustaceans make up the largest part of zooplankton group followed by rotifers. Among the crustaceans group, daphnia is the most prominent. The least plankton group, rotifers was represented most by notholca.

The range of ammonia concentration at the time of study was between 1.22mg/l and 4.62mg/l. this is a little higher than the concentration specified by the United State Environmental Protection Agency which is 0.02mg/l which indicates that the reservoir is under pollution stress. Keywords: Plankton biodiversity, physcio-chemical parameters, Awba reservoir

PLANKTONIC BIODIVERSITY AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF AWBA RESERVOIR

10

Sampling and analysis Water and plankton were collected twice in a

week between 7th of April and 26th of May. Four sampling stations were spatially chosen and were recognized as A, B, C, D A represents the area of the reservoir close to

the entrance B represents the littoral part of the reservoir at

the mid-length C represents the middle part of the reservoir D represents the part of the reservoir closest to

the zoological garden (down stream) Sampling was conducted in the morning

between 8am and 10am Temperature, pH, Conductivity, Transparency, and Dissolved oxygen were the physcio chemical parameters assessed. Ammonia NH3 and nitrate NO3

- Determination of nitrate and ammonia was

carried out using ultra-violet spectrophotometry method (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1995), the results were expressed in mg/l. Plankton analysis

Plankton samples were collected using 109um plankton net with a glass bottle attached to the apex of the cone and was emptied into 75cl plastic bottles. The plankton samples were fixed by adding 4% formalin solution. In the

laboratory, the preserved plankton samples were shaken in the bottle and 40ml sub-sample was taken using pipette and gently delivered into the Petri dish.

This was examined under an electric microscope and repeated two times four each of the samples. The different organisms in the sub-sample were identified using plankton guides; Green (1960), Needham and Needham (1969).

The enumeration method used was total organism counted (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1992). Statistical Analysis Data obtained were subjected to correlation analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physico-chemical parameters Temperature

The temperature of the water at the time of sampling ranged between 29.0oc and 31.5oc. The lowest temperature, 29.0oc was recorded in weeks 4, 5, 6 and 7 at sites A and C, while the highest temperature, 31.5oc was recorded in weeks 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 at sites B, C, and D. The highest mean temperature was recorded in site D; 30.7oc, while the least mean temperature was recorded in site A; 30.0oc (Figure 1). Mean temperature values in the four sites were significantly different (P< 0.05).

Figure 1: Site variation in the mean temperature of the reservoir


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Figure 2: Site variation in the mean pH values of the reservoir

Figure 3: Variation in the mean conductivity of each site of the reservoir

Figure 4: Variation in the mean value of ammonia in each site of the reservoir


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Figure 5: Variation in the mean nitrate of each site of the reservoir

Figure 6: Variation in the mean dissolved oxygen of each site of the reservoir

Figure 7: Variation in the mean turbidity of each site of the reservoir

Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

The hydrogen ion concentration ranged between 7.16 in week 1, site A and 8.50 in week 2, site C. The mean pH value ranged from 7.94 in Site A to 8.109 in site B, the highest variation is found in this range (Figure 2). There was no

significant difference in pH values of the four sites.

Conductivity The total ionic content (conductivity) varied

from 236us/cm at site D in weeks 5 and 8 to 298us/cm at site C in week 5. The mean conductivity ranged from 268.93 in site A to


13

248.00 in site D (Figure 3). Mean conductivity value between groups are significantly different (P<0.05) in the reservoir.

Ammonia The ammonia concentration varied between

1.22 at site A in week 1 to 4.62 at site C in week 6. The mean value ranged from 2.02 at site A to 2.24 at Site D (Figure 4), there was significant difference (P<0.05) between the sites. Nitrate

The nitrate value ranged from 3.61 at site A in week 1 to 8.30 at site C in week 7. Maximum variation of 4.19 was recorded at site A. The mean value ranged from 5.31 at site B to the highest 7.43 at site C (Figure 5). There was significant difference (P<0.05) in nitrate value among the four sites.

Dissolved oxygen The dissolved oxygen at the time of study

varied from 2.03 at site A in week 4 to 6.72 at site C in week 8. The mean value also ranged from 3.24mg/l at site D to the peak 4.928mg/l at site C. (Fig. 6). Dissolved oxygen value recorded at each site were significantly different (p<0.05). Turbidity/Transparency

The value of Transparency ranged from 0.60m to 0.88m. The minimum value was recorded at sites A, B, C with the maximum value of 0.88 at site C in week 1. The mean value is highest at site C, 0.725m, while the lowest value 0.665m was found at site D (Fig. 7). Turbidity values in the four sites were found to be significantly different at significant (P<0.05).

Plankton composition A total of 31 plankton genera belonging to 7

plankton groups were encountered in the reservoir. Cyanophycae were made up of 6 genera, bacillariophycae, chlorophycae and desmidacae are represented by 4 genera each. Crustaceans are made up of 6 genera, while rotifers and protozoa are represented by 4 and 3 general respectively (Table 1).

Table 1: Composition of plankton in 40ml of water sample in the study area

Plankton Site A Site B Site C Site D Cyanophyae Microcystis Nostoe Coelosphaerium Tetraphadia Oscillatoria Phoridium

31 9 6 3 6 6 1

31 4 2 3 7

14 1

22 6 2 2 9 2 1

25 9 6 1 3 5 1

Bacillariophycea Navicula Synedra Diatoma Melosira

25 12 4 2 6

20 7 7 1 5

20 5 6 4 5

30 10 4 4

12 Chlorophycea Ulothrix Spirogyra Cladophora Zygnema

21 11 1 5

14 1 6 4 3

8 1 2 3 2

18 2

10 1 4

Desmidacae Gonatozygon Closterium Spirotaenia Penium

17 4 8 2 3

13 4 6 2 1

19 6 9 2 2

16 3 6 4 3

Crustacean Daphnia Sida Cyclops Limmocalanus Nauplius Diaptomus

38 12 3 6 6 5 6

29 10 4 4 5 1 5

28 6 6 3 4 3 6

35 9 3

10 2 5 6

Rotifers Keratella Testudinella Brachiomus Notholca

22 2 3 5

12

17 1 2 5 9

15 1 4 2 8

12 2 1 0 9

Protozoa Volvox Paramecium Eugena

9 4 4 1

9 5 1 3

9 5 2 2

8 2 4 2

Figure 8 shows that the planktons in

cyanophycae group are the prominent phtoplanktons, with microcystis ranking highest, oscillatoria follows and phormidium coming last. In bacllariophycae group, navicula was the most prominent with melosira coming after. The group of chlorophycae has spirogyra ranking highest in numbers, desmidacea group consist larger percentage of closterium followed by gonatozygon.

Crustaceans make up the largest part of zooplankton group followed by Cyanophycae (Table 1). Among the crustaceans group, daphnia is the most prominent. The Cyanophycae group is represented most by microcystis. The protozoa which had the least representation consist mainly of volvox and paramecium. Table 2 shows abundance of planktons/llter.


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Figure 8: relative abundance of each plankton family at each site of the reservoir

Table 2: Relative Abundance of planktons/litre

Planktons/l Site A Site B Site C Site D Total Percentage (%) Cyanopycae 775 775 550 600 2700 19.78 Bacillariophycae 625 500 525 750 2400 17.58 Chlorophycae 500 350 125 425 1400 10.26 Desmidacae 425 325 450 400 1600 11.72 Crustaceans 950 725 625 850 900 23.08 Rotifers 450 375 400 275 1500 10.98 Protozoa 225 225 250 200 3150 6.59 Total 4150 3575 3000 3575 13650 100 %

Table 3: correlation coefficient values between plankton abundance and physico-chemical

parameters of Awba reservoir during the study Planktons Temperature pH Ammonia Nitrate Dissolved oxygen Conductivity Turbidity Cyanophycae 0.392 0.053 0.030* 0.178 0.378 0.146 0.804 Bacillariophycae 0.069 0.167 0.342 0.071 0.669 0.210 0.188 Chloropycae 0.326 0.664 0.001* 0.020* 0.233 0.205 0.008* Desmidacae 0.339 0.377 0.868 0.933 0.903 0.685 0.068 Crustaceans 0.726 0.078 0.001* 0.899 0.073 0.561 0.733 Rotifers 0.261 0.003* 0.712 0.451 0.306 0.414 0.971 Protozoa 0.390 0.668 0.321 0.691 0.794 0.558 0.198

* = Significant difference (p<0.05) DISCUSSION

The knowledge of the physical, chemical and biological conditions of a water body is not only useful is assessing its productivity but would also permit a better understanding of the population and life cycles of the fish communities. Several people have worked on the effect of physico-chemical parameters on the biological components of freshwater, among who are; Ikusemiju, 1980; Adebisi, 1981; Egborge, 1981; Nwanko, 1986; Abohweyere, 1990 and Ugwumba, 1990, Akin-Oriola, 2003, Ugwunmba, 2008.

The temperature of the four sites was found to be significantly different, the overall temperature changes was however limited (range of 2.5 ºc), this is due to the small size of the reservoir. This agrees with the work of Wetzel, (1983), who reported that the smaller a water body the quickly it reacts to changes in the atmospheric temperature. There was no significant difference in the pH of the four sites;

but there was a progressive increases in the pH of all the four sites; this may be due to dilution effect of rainfall as the rainfall gradually becomes regular and increases with time. Conductivity at of Awba reservoir was found to be within the range specified for Nigeria reservoirs, as the minimum value recorded was 236uS/cm and the maximum value recorded was 298uS/cm, this indicates the presence of low concentration of ionic substances in the reservoir. Ionic concentration in Nigerian reservoirs and lakes have being observed to be highly varied with ranges such as 15 – 24µS/cm -1 in Opi Lake, Enugu state; and 2,400 – 8,200 µS/cm -1 at Jakara reservoir, Kano state; (Akin-oriola, 2003). The range of ammonia concentration was between 1.22mg/l and 4.62mg/l. this is a little higher than the concentration specified by the United State Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) which is 0.02mg/l (Odiete, 1999). This indicate that the reservoir is a under pollution stress as observed Fagade and Olaniyan,


15

(1993). High nitrogen concentration and ammonia may be responsible for the bloom that is usually present on the reservoir during the dry season. Variation in the quantity of dissolved oxygen present could be attributed to the various physical and biological processes taking place in the water. Transparency was high probably due to the inconsistent and insufficient rainfall at the time of the study to could create enough turbulence and reduces clarity of the water.

Cyanophycae, mainly microcystis dominated the Awba reservoir at the time of study, microcystis was also reported to dominate the plankton of other Africa freshwater rivers and lakes such as George, Uganda (Begg, 1976), and Lake Asejire, Nigeria (Egborge, 1979). Cyanophycae was not affected, significantly, by almost all the environmental factors measured, this may however be the reason for their dominance. The diatoms have direct relationship with rainfall, which may also be the reason for their abundance at the time of study; which agrees with the reported of Hassan (1974). The zooplankton numbers increases in proportion to phytoplankton abundance. CONCLUSION

The planktonic communities of Awba reservoir is composed of phytoplankton, which include; the blue-green algae (cyanophytes), diatoms (bacillariophycae), green algae (chlorophycae), dinoflagellate (desmidacae). The zooplankton groups present in the reservoir includes; the crustaceans, which is the most abundance at the time of study, the rotifers, and the protozoa.

Although some of these organisms are insignificantly correlated with some physico-chemical parameters, interaction among these environmental factors however plays the major role in the planktonic abundance and distribution. Reynold, (2006) and Findlay and Kling, (2001) reported that physical characteristics of lakes, reservoir and ponds can influence planktonic abundance by conditioning the physico-chemical parameters. The range of ammonia concentration at the time of study was little higher than the concentration specified by the United State Environmental Protection Agency which indicates that the reservoir is under pollution stress

The management strategies that the management of the reservoir are operating at present should be reviewed to incorporate biological monitoring processes. It will provide information on the trends and changes in the environment due to anthropogenic inputs, thus providing early warning in order that protective measures may be taken.

REFERENCE

Abohweyere, P.O. (1990). Study of limnological parameters and potential fish yield in Kigera Reserviour (Extensive system) in Kainji, New Bussa, Nigeria. Journal of Aquatic Sciences. 5: 53-58.

Adebisi, A.A. (1981). The physico-chemical hydrology of a tropical seasonal river- Upper Ogun

Akin-Oriola, G.A (2003). On the phytoplankton of Awba reservoir, Ibadan.

APHA, AWWA, WEF, (1995). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. America Public Health Association, America Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. Greenberg, A.E. Clesceri, L.S and Eaton, A.D; (eds) 19th edition.

APHA, AWWA, WEF, (1992). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. America Public Health Association, America Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. Greenberg, A.E. Clesceri, L.S and Eaton, A.D; (eds) 18th edition.

Ayodele, A. and Adeniyi A. ( 2006). The zooplankton fauna of six impoundments on River osun, southwest, Nigeria. The Zoologist vol. 1 (4) 49- 67.

Begg, G.W. (1976). The relationship between the diurnal movement of some zooplankton and the sardine Limnothrissa moidon in lake Kariba Rhodesia. Lim. Oceanography 21: 529-539

Cole, G.A. (1975). A textbook of Limnology. The C.V. Mosby Company 108

Egborge, A.B.M. (1981). The suspended matter content of Lake Asejire - A new impoundment in Nigeria. Tropical Ecology 22: 263-270.

Egborge, A.B.M. (1979). The composition, seasonal variation and distribution of zooplankton in Lake Asejire, Nigeria. Revue de Zoologie Africaine. 95: 136-180

Fagade, S.O and Olaniyan, C.I.O. (1993). Seasonal distribution of the fish fauna in Lagos lagoon. Bull inst. Fr. Afr. Noire A36: 245-252

Findlay D.L. and King H.L (2001). Protocols for measuring biodiversity: phytoplankton in freshwater.

Green, J. (1960). Zooplankton of the river Sokoto. The rotifer. Proceeding of the Zoological Society London. 135: 491-525.

Hassan, A.T. (1974). Studies on the ecology, behavior and life history of Libelluline dragonflies. Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.


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Ikusemiju, K. (1980). The hydrology and fishes of Lekki lagoon, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Natural Sciences 10:123-130

Needham, J.G. and Needham, P.R. (1969). A guide to the study of freshwater Biology, 108p. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged, Holden-Day Inc. San Francisco.

Nwankwo, D.I. (1986). Phytoplankton of a sewage disposal site in Lagos lagoon, Nigeria. I. The algae. Nigerian journal Biological Sciences 1: 89-96.

Odiete, W.O. (1999). Environmenta physiology of Animal and pollution. Diversified Resources Ltd Surulere. Lagos, 261.

Omotoso, J.S. (1981). Comparative studies of the reproductive biology of the two Cichlids: Tilapia zilli (Gervai) and Sarotherodon niloticus Linnaeus (Trewavas) from a small lake in Ibadan, Nigeria. M.sc. thesis, University of Ibadan. 87

Reynold, C.S (2006). The ecology of phytoplankton, Cambridge University Press.

Reynolds, C. S. (1998). What factors influence the species composition of phytoplankton in lakes of different trophic status? Hydrobiology, 369/370: 11–26.

Ugwumba, A.A.A (2008). A study of physico-chemical parameter and plankton of Awba Lake in university of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Ugwumba, A.A.A. (1990). Food and feeding ecology of Oreochromis niloticus, Sarotherodon melanotheron and Heterotis niloticus (Pisces: Osteichthyes) in Awba reserviour Ibadan. Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

Wetzel, R.G. 1983. Limnology. 2nd Ed. Saunders, Philadelphia.


17

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF WATER HYACINTH (Eichhornia crassipes MART. SOLMS-LAUBACH) IN RUMINANT NUTRITION IN

NIGERIA

Mako, A. A. and Akinwande, V. O. Department of Agricultural Production and Management Sciences

Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun. Ijebu-Ode [email protected]

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION One of the major problems of ruminant

production in Nigeria is the scarcity of forages all year round. Livestock have abundance of pasture to take in the first six months of the rainy season during which animals are relatively well fattened. The other six months are always followed by scarcity of forages as a consequence of the dry period, resulting in standing hay and low quality feed that eventually culminates in the growth retardation of the animals (Babayemi et al., 2003).

Although certain tree legumes had been proved for supporting and sustaining ruminants as supplements in the dry season (Rogers, 2002), there are also aquatic plants yet unexplored as feedstuff for ruminants in Nigeria. Rivers, streams, brooks, swamps dams and lakes where many varieties of water plants (e.g. Eichhornia crassipes, Nephrolepis biserrata, Spirodela polyrhiza, and Lemna perpusila) to mention a few are located, surround almost all the regions of Nigeria. The reproductive efficiency of these water plants is high (Khan et al., 2002) and therefore, frequently block navigable waters, irrigation canals and aquaculture. However, the plants may be beneficial to small ruminants in the tropics due to the nutritional properties reported for duckweed

(Louis et al., 1980), water hyacinth (Khan et al., 1981), algae (Strain et al., 1986) and azzola (Tamang et al., 1992)

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes {Mart.} Solms-Laubach) belong to the family Pontederiaceae. The plant grows wildly in uncultivated aquatic vegetation with no agronomic care. The growth rate is aggressive; it is characterized by forming large floating mats that normally cover the water surface. When allowed to propagate, it quickly colonizes vast areas of water masses causing a number of problems. The detrimental effects of water hyacinth fall into three general categories (1) boating and recreation (2) agriculture (3) ecosystems (Daddy et al. 2001). Its spread to Africa had been reported many authors. The presence of water hyacinth is throughout the year; its coverage is moderate during March to May, lower from June to August and severe from August to February (Daddy et al. 2001). The annual productivity of water hyacinth in the temperate region was put at 168 t/ha / year (Bates and Hentages, 1976), while it was put at 30.45 t/ha/year in the tropics (Aboud et al. 2005). Water hyacinth could provide an easily accessible feed resource for livestock while at the same time it’s harvesting contribute to its control. At the moment the impact of the weed is

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the environmental impact and nutritive value of water hyacinth (WH) in ruminant nutrition in Nigeria. In the first experiment, biomass yield, chemical composition, secondary metabolites and mineral content of WH harvested during the four sub seasons of the year were determined. The second experiment assessed the nutritive value of WH using in vitro gas production to predict the potential degradability (a+b), insoluble degradable fraction (b), rate of gas production (c), metabolizable energy (ME), short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and methane (CH4). Biomass yield (ton/ha/year) of WH was highest during the late dry (LD) season which was estimated at 33.24 ton DM/ha/yr at 7 – 8% DM content. Seasonal variations had no significant effect on the chemical composition; the CP was highest during the late dry season (10.42 %). However DM was influenced (P<0.05) by seasonal changes. WH contained tannins and steroids; saponin was declared negative due to the method used. Macro and micro mineral values are high, but not significant. ME, OMD and SCFA also were not influenced by season changes, although, highest ME, OMD and SCFA was obtained during the LD season (15.62 MJ/kg DM, 49.20% and 0.57mmol) respectively. Same trend was observed for gas production characteristics. However rate of substrate fermentation (c) differed (P<0.05) significantly, ranging from 0.04 to 0.06 (in late rain to late dry) respectively.

The result showed that WH is available all year round and could provide nutrients to be utilized as fodder for ruminant especially during the dry season.

Key words: biomass yield, chemical composition, in vitro gas fermentation, secondary metabolites, water hyacinth

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF WATER HYACINTH IN RUMINANT NUTRITION

18

posing a lot of threat to Kainji dam and mechanical means are being employed to reduce the infestation (Daddy et al. 2001). Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the environmental impact and to determine the suitability of water hyacinth as forage in ruminants’ nutrition in Nigeria.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Harvesting and yield estimates

Between the months of May 2005 and February 2006, in the months of May, August, November and February to coincide with early rain, late rain, early dry and late dry seasons respectively. A boat was used to reach the sampling site. Potential yield of water hyacinth was estimated using a floating wooden quadrat of 0.25 m2 at the different locations. The quadrat was tossed ten times in various directions. On each throw, plants falling within the quadrat were harvested manually. After each harvest, samples were spread out on polythene sheets under shade for about 2 hours for water to drain. Thereafter, known weights of fresh samples and taken in triplicates and oven dried at 105 0C to constant weight for dry matter determination. The samples were thoroughly mixed and sub sampled. The dried samples were milled in a Thomas Willey laboratory mill fitted with 0.5 mm mesh. The milled samples were kept in air tight bottles until they were needed for chemical analysis. Chemical composition

Crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract and total ash of samples were analysed in triplicates using standard procedure of A.O.A.C (1995). The crude protein was determined with the micro Kjeldahl distillation apparatus, while the acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin were determined by Van Soest method (1994). Qualitative determination of Saponin and Phenols Saponin and phenols were determined (Babayemi et al., 2004a). 2 g of sample was extracted with 30 ml petroleum ether (PE) and 25 ml Methanol water (MW 9/1, V/V). The mixtures was shaken at 250 revolutions per minute for 1 hour 30 minutes, filtered and separated by a funnel. The lower (MW) and upper layers were emptied into 50 ml volumetric flasks. From the MW fraction, 1.67 ml was dispensed in 9 ml distilled water, filtered from this; 1 ml was taken into a test tube. The test tube was shaken for 30 seconds and left to stand for 15 minutes. Saponin contents was evaluated from the height of the foam layer as negative (<5 mm), low (5 – 9 mm), medium (10 – 14 mm) and high (> 15 mm).

For phenol (tannin) analysis, 1 ml from the MW fraction was dispensed into five bottles with 1 % FeCl3 (M / V) added at different levels (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 ml respectively). Phenols form complexes with ferric iron, resulting in a blue solution and hence their presence was scored as: no phenols (no colour change), hydrolysable (dark - blue) and condensed tannins (dark - green) Mineral analysis

A total of seven minerals were analysed. Plant parts were digested with HNO3 / HCIO3 mixtures (nitric acid and perchloric acid) (20:5 v/v). The digest was made up to 100 ml in standard volumetric flask with deionzed water. Ca, Na, K, Fe, Cu and Zn in the digest were determined with the atomic absorption spectrophotometer model 420. (Gallenkemp and Co. Ltd). Phosphorus in the digest was estimated with vanadomolybdate solution. The colour so developed was read with spectrophotometer at 420 m/u. In vitro gas production method

The in vitro gas production was determined according to Menke and Steingass (1988). Rumen fluid was obtained from three West African Dwarf female goats through suction tubes, which initiated vomiting. This exercise was carried out before the morning feed. The animals were fed with 40 % concentrate feed (30 % Maize, 30 % Wheat offal, 20 %, PKC, 10 % BDG, 5 % Soya bean cake, 1 % salt, 3.75 % Oyster shell and 0.25 % Fish meal) and 60 % Panicum maximum. 200 milligrams of each sample (leaf, stem, leaf plus stem and root) was placed in the 120 ml calibrated syringes in triplicates. To the 200 mg samples in the syringes was added 30 ml inoculums containing cheese cloth strained rumen liquor and buffer (9.8g NaHC03 + 2.77 g Na2 HP04 + 0.57 g KCl + 0.47 g MgS04. 7H20 + 0.16 g / liter CaCl2. 2H20 ) (1:4, V/V) under constant flushing with CO2. The gas production was measured at 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 and 24 hours of incubation, 4 ml of 10M NaOH was introduced to estimate the amount of methane produced. The average volume of gas produced from the blanks was deducted from the volume of gas produced per samples The volume of the gas produced plotted against the incubation time, and the gas production characteristics were estimated using the equation Y = a+b (1 – e-ct) as described (Orskov and Mc Donald, 1979), where: Y = Volume of gas produced at time ‘t’ a = intercept (gas produced from the soluble

fraction)


19

c = gas production rate constant for the insoluble fraction ‘b’

t = incubation time. Metabolizable energy ME, (MJ/Kg DM) and

organic matter digestibility (OMD %) calculated as reported (Getachew et al., 1999). ME = 2.20 + 0.136 GV + 0.057CP + 0.0029CF OMD = 14.88 + 0.889 GV + 0.45 CP + 0.651 XA SCFA = 0.0239 GV – 0.0601 Where GV, CP, CF and XA are net gas production (ml/200 mg DM), Crude protein, Crude Fibre and Ash of the incubated samples respectively. Statistical analysis

Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance procedure (ANOVA) of SAS (1999). Significant means were separated using the Duncan multiple range test of the same package. RESULTS Yield and chemical composition

Table 1 and 2, show the dry matter yield and chemical composition of WH harvested during early rain (ER), late rain (LR), early dry (ED) and late dry (LD) respectively. The highest DM (8.22g / 100g DM) was recorded during the LD season, while the least DM (7.63g / 100g DM) was obtained during the ER and LR seasons. The least (10.28 %) and highest (10.42 %) CP was obtained in ER and LD respectively. The CF ranged from 19.16 to 19.47 g /100g DM in ER to LD respectively. The ash content ranged from 19.94 to 20.54 % in ER to LD respectively. The NDF, ADF and ADL ranged from 55.62 to 56.29, 35.19 to 35.60 and 10.51 to 10.75 in ER and LD respectively.

Table 1: Proximate composition (g /100 g DM) of water hyacinth as affected by seasons

Season Parameters ER LR ED LD SEM

Dry matter 7.63b 7.63b 7.93b 8.22a 0.05 Crude protein 10.28 10.38 10.38 10.42 0.20 Crude fibre 19.16 19.25 19.32 19.47 0.10 Ether extract 1.54 1.55 1.55 1.56 0.02 Ash 19.94 20.31 20.53 20.54 0.10

a b = means on the same row with the same superscripts are significant (p<0.05), ER= early rain, LR= late rain, ED=early dry, LD= late dry, SEM = standard error of mean Table 2: Fibre fractions (g /100 g DM) of water hyacinth as affected by seasons

Season Parameters ER LR ED LD SEM

Neutral detergent fibre

55.62 55.88 56.02 56.29 0.30

Acid detergent fibre

35.19 35.32 35.45 35.60 0.20

Acid detergent lignin

10.51 10.61 10.71 10.75 0.14

a b = means on the same row with the same superscripts are significant (p<0.05), Season = ER= early rain, LR= late rain, ED=early dry, LD= late dry, SEM = standard error of mean Secondary metabolite

Water hyacinth (WH) collected during the sub seasons (Table 3) showed the presence of condensed tannin and steroids. Although, the qualitative analysis for saponin was judged to be negative, indication for saponin presence was higher in WH collected during the ER (early rain) season.

Table 3: Qualitative contents of Saponin, Phenols and Steroids in WH collected from different

water body (DWB) Saponin Tannin Steroid Season foam(mm) Comment Colour change Comment Colour change Comment

ER 3 Negative dark green Con. Tan Light green Steroid LR 1 Negative dark green Con. Tan Light green Steroid ED 2 Negative dark green Con. Tan Light green Steroid LD 1 Negative dark green Con. Tan Light green Steroid

Con. tan = condensed tannin; ER= early rain, LR=late rain, ED=early dry, LD=late dry

Macro and micro mineral concentration of the plant are shown in Table 4. It was observed that Ca, P, K, Fe, and Zn differed as the season progressed, while Na, Mg, Cu, Mn and Pb were

not affected by seasonal changes; however. Ca ranged from 0.60 to 0.69 g/100 DM and Fe ranged from 502.1 to 541.8 Ppm.


20

Table 4: Macro and micro mineral content of water hyacinth g/100 g DM Ppm Season Ca P K Na Mg Fe Zn Cu Mn Pb

ER 0.63b 0.16b 0.37b 0.18 0.16 505.6b 52.19b 11.91 578.0 18.0 LR 0.60b 0.12b 0.34b 0.19 0.17 502.1b 50.70b 11.85 567.4 17.2 ED 0.67a 0.22a 0.42a 0.20 0.19 540.5a 53.35a 12.00 589.2 18.2 LD 0.69a 0.25a 0.43a 0.20 0.27 541.8a 53.89a 12.54 596.5 20.0 SEM 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 2.81 0.61 0.26 9.30 0.30

a b = means on the same row with the same superscripts are significant (p<0.05), Season = ER= early rain, LR= late rain, ED=early dry, LD= late dry, SEM = standard error of mean Gas production

Presented in the Table 5 are net gas productions (NGP) insoluble degradable (b). Potential degradability (a+b), rate of gas production (c) effective degradability (ED) of WH harvested during the four sub seasons of the year. The NGP, b, a+b and ED ranged between 17.61 and 19.89, 14.36 and 15.54, 17.51 and 19.89, 8.44 and 9.95 respectively. The highest and least gas productions were obtained during the late dry and early rain season respectively (Figure 1). Table 5: Estimated fermentation

characteristics of incubated water hyacinth (WH)

Season Characteristics ER LR ED LD SEM

b 14.36 14.38 15.47 15.54 0.38 a+b 17.51 17.68 19.63 19.89 0.28 c 0.05ab 0.04b 0.05ab 0.06a 0.003t 9.75 9.58 11.33 11.33 0.62 ED 8.44 8.94 9.94 9.95 0.55

a,b,= means on the same row with different subscripts differ significantly (P<0.05) b= insoluble degradable fraction, a+b =Potential degradability, c= rate of degradation, t= time of incubation,

ED= effective degradability. Metabolizable energy (ME), organic matter

digestibilty and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) of WH collected ER,ED, LR and LD, are presented in Table 6. The value for the ME OMD and SCFA ranged from 5.42 to 5.62 in ER to LD, 47.10 to 49.20 in ER to LD, 0.49 to 0.57 in LR to LD. There were no significant differences within the seasons for ME, OMD and SCFA. LD season was observed to produce highest values of all these parameters while the least was obtained during the ER season. Table 6: Estimated fermentation parameters

of incubated water hyacinth (WH) Season Parameters

ER LR ED LD SEM ME 5.42 5.47 5.56 5.62 0.06 OMD 47.10 47.17 48.40 49.20 0.12 SCFA 0.50 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.05

ME= Metabolizable Energy (MJ/Kg DM), OMD (%)= Organic matter digestibility, SCFA (mmol) = Short chain fatty acid, ER= early rain, LR= late rain, ED= early dry, LD=late dry, NS = Not significant

Incubation period (hr) Vol

ume

of g

as p

rodu

ced

(ml/2

00


21

Figure 1: Gas production as affected by season ER= Early rain, LR = Late rain, ER = Early dry, LD = Late dry

Figure 2: Methane production of water hyacinth incubated at 24 hour as affected by season

ER= Early rain, LR = Late rain, ER = Early dry, LD = Late dry Methane (ml /200 mg DM) production (fig 2) ranged from 3.00 to 4.85 in ER to LD respectively. DISCUSSION

The biomass yield (ton/ha/year) of water hyacinth was estimated at 29.62 (ER) and 33.24 (LD) tons DM/ha/year at 7- 8% DM content. This estimate is substantially lower than most estimates in the literature (Dolberg et al. 1981, Nugyen, 1996). However the estimate obtained in this study compared well with the findings of Aboud et al (2005). Sampling was done by floating masses which were subject to changes in tidal waves. These may have affected the sampling field. However, since readings were taken from various sites it can be stated that the estimates were a fair indication of the yield at those particular sites. It was also notable that samples taken near the wharf gave lower values than those taken far offshore. The increase in DM value from ER to LD season may be sensible as this phenomenon has been reported to affect age of the forage (Babayemi, 2006a). On fresh basis, the average DM in WH compared well with the values of 5 – 9% reported for some water weeds (Khan et al., 2002), but lower than values of 20 and 21 percent reported (NRC, 2001) for oats (Avera sativa) alfafa (Medicago sativa), also lower than values of 24.63 % and 23.27 % reported (Babayemi; 2006) for duck weed (Spirodela polyrihiza) and water fern (Nephrolepis biserrata schott). Possibly due to the aquatic plant ecological habitat, season did not show deteriorating effects on its nutrient

composition, indicating therefore, it’s potential to sustain ruminant all year round (Babayemi, 2006a). The high moisture content of the plant is a limiting factor in feeding it on fresh basis; this could be ameliorated by dehydrating the harvested plant materials under the sun as wilted, hay or as ensiled (Mako and Babayemi, 2008). The level of CP obtained in this study is comparable to some common leguminous fodder (Ngwa et al., 2003) and therefore water hyacinth may be considered as a valuable supplement for animals feeding on low quality crop residue. The CP content of WH here was above the minimum level for maintenance of 7.7 % for goats (NRC, 2001). The CF obtained in this study is low compared to some forage Panicum maximum (74.1), Gliricidia sepium (66.31) and Leucaena leucocephala (67.50) Babayemi 2007. This corroborates the findings of Bailey (1965) who reported that aquatic plants are less in CF than many tropical types of forage on dry matter basis. The value of ash is high and could be attributed to the ability of WH to absorb minerals extensively from any water body (Holms et al., 1997). Ash content reflects the mineral composition of WH, the high ash content suggest ability of WH to supply mineral to animals all year round. The fibre fractions falls within the range reported elsewhere for water hyacinth (Aboud et al., 2005). It also compared well with values obtained for some browse plants elsewhere

Vol

ofC

H4

prod

uced

(ml/2

00m

g


22

(Ademosun et al., 1988). The NDF concentrations are higher than the reported value of 49.9 - 54.2 % (Sophal et al. 2010) and within the range value of 55.0 – 60.0 g/100g DM above which intake of forages can be depressed (Meissner et al., 1991).

Qualitative evaluation of some secondary metabolites did not implicate all WH for saponin content; however, judging by the trend of gas production, saponin content (3 mm height) obtained during the ER probably inhibited the micro organisms, thereby resulting in reduced gas production. The present observation is evident in the amount of CH4 produced, being lower during the ER than other seasons, thus seemed suppressing methanogenesis (Teferedgene, 2000). Saponin has been identified as the active compound in depression of methanogenesis (Hess et al., 2003). The low content of saponin in all the WH is advantageous, high saponin alone would retard feed intake of ruminants (Onwuka, 1983).

The tannin content present in all WH is also an added advantage as a natural additive in the diet of ruminants. Tannin form complexes with protein in the rumen as protection against massive proteolysis, thereby diminishing rumen protein digestibility (Barry and McNabb, 1999).

The values of macro and micro minerals obtained here are lower than the values reported elsewhere (Khan et al., 2002). However the values are within the recommended requirements for grazing animals (NRC, 2001). This is an indication that water hyacinth will supply required minerals for livestock throughout the year.

There are many factors that may determine the amount of gas to be produced during fermentation depending on the nature and level of fibre, the presence of secondary metabolites (Babayemi et al. 2004a) and the potency of the rumen liquor for incubation (Odenyo et al., 1999). It is possible to attain potential gas production of a feedstuff if the donor animal from which rumen liquor for in incubation was collected got the nutrient requirement met. It was observed that NGP, b, a+b, ED are not season dependent, implying that WH harvested any time of the year can be used as feedstuff.

The values for degradation coefficients (‘b’, a+b, c and t) of WH are reflections of dry matter and nutrient degradability. However the rate of degradability (c) was noticed (p<0.05) to be affected by seasonal changes, such that the highest rate of degradation was obtained for WH in the LD season. This is expected; since WH from LD season was high in CP and CF. some studies have shown rapid fermentation in forages that were high in CP and degradable carbohydrate (Villarreal et al., 2006).

The value of ME (5.42 to 5.62 MJ /kg DM) obtained in this study compared well with 4 – 5 MJ /kg DM reported for tea leaf and spent tea leaf (Babayemi et al., 2006c) and also in line with values reported for some aquatic plants (Khan et al, 2002). The OMD obtained falls within the values reported elsewhere (Babayemi et al., 2006). SCFA level is an indication of energy values in the forage, the value of SCFA obtained in this study is higher than the values of 0.10 to 0.28 reported for tea leaf and spent tea leaf respectively (Babayemi at al., 2006c). In most cases feedstuffs that show high capacity for gas production are also observed to be synonymous for high methane production, CH4 production indicates an energy loss to ruminants (Babayemi and Bamikole 2006b) and also an important green house gas contributes to global warming (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). CONCLUSION

The result obtained from this study shows that water hyacinth is degradable and high in nutrients. Since season did not show any deteriorating effect on its nutrients, it suggests that it has potentials to sustain ruminant production all year round. Deliberate production of water hyacinth is not suggested. This is because without extreme care water hyacinth can easily turn into very serious environmental hazard. REFERENCES

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STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF FOREST OFFENCES ON SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.

1B. O. Agbeja and 2A. O. Oso

1Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria 2Ministry of Forestry, Ogun State, Nigeria

E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Forest offence is a menace that cuts across the continents in the world where forest resources constitute the revenue generating sector. General reports on forest administration have revealed that annual occurrence of forest offences has for long been a forest management problem (CIFOR, 2003). As the demand for the forest resources continues to increase, the total amount of forests in Africa is decreasing annually at an alarming rate by virtue of varieties of forest offences. In recent years, a number of reports published by the World Bank and the national governments of major timber-producing countries have revealed the extensive nature of illegal activities throughout much of the world’s remaining ancient forest regions (SAE, 1997; Durrieu de Madron et al, 2000; Independent Review Team, 2001). If forest offences are allowed to continue, then the forest could be totally wiped out in the nearest future and this may necessitate importation of forest products (ITTO, 2005).

It is disheartening to know that a permanent solution to this age long problem has not yet emerged. Forest offences constitute an index of the inefficiency of forest service. This is also

corroborated that in developing counties of the world, for instance, illegal logging is a major problem for many timber-producing countries. In Nigeria, it causes environmental damage; costs governments billions of naira on lost revenue; promotes corruption; undermines the rule of law and good governance; and promotes conflict (Palmer, 2001; Greenpeace, 1999). It also retards sustainable development in most of the producing countries. Although, many researchers have indicated the destructive effects of forest offences in plantations and natural forests, wildlife and their habits; they have hardly quantified the magnitude of financial losses involved (FAO, 2003).

The symbiotic relationship between illegal logging and corruption has been widely discussed in the literature (Callister 1999; Palmer, 2001; Contreras-Hermosilla, 2001; Scotland et al 2000). A study by the UK Government funded in Indonesia concluded that 73 percent of all logging in Indonesia is coming from undocumented and presumably illegal sources (Indonesia – UK Tropical Forest Management Programme, 1999). The Indonesian government estimates that the trade in illegal logs costs the country US $ 3 billion

The study assesses stakeholders’ perceptions on forest offences and its effects on Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) in Ogun State, Nigeria with a view to stimulating the state government to accord forestry sector with appropriate political will and proper funding. Data for the exercise were obtained from a stratified random sampling of 70 respondents in four categories namely Egba, Yewa, Ijebu and Remo through structured questionnaire. The respondents include forestry officials, saw millers and timber contractors. The results indicated that 452 (36%) staff are available in the Ministry of Forestry, Ogun State which was far below the expected staff strength of 1252 (100%) for all the categories of the staff to sustainably manage all the forest reserves in the four divisions. The chi-square result (4.63, P < 0.05) showed that sustainability is significantly dependent on illegal felling rate. Chi-square (X2) result (0.4895, P>0.05) shows that sustainability does not significantly depend on the category of forest user alone. However, Chi-square result (28.78, P< 0.05) showed that felling of undersized trees, illegal felling, failure to produce log certificate and non-renewal of property hammer committed in the study area are significantly dependent on the category of forest users. Thirty two percent of the native respondents in the study area committed felling of undersized tree. On the contrary, 67% of the non-native respondents committed illegal felling. All the categories of forestry staff affirmed that irregular salary and lack of logistics have had adverse effect on delegation of authority and the protection of forest estate. Chi-square result (11.87, P<0.05) shows that protection duty is significantly dependent on the salary structure of the staff cadres. It is recommended that the managers of forest resources acting on behalf of the public goods and services must exhibit exemplary attributes in their professional conduct and the government should provide forestry officials with the necessary financial support and adequate logistics to enable them carry out their duties promptly and effectively.

Keywords: Staff strength, sustainability, stakeholder, forest offence, political will

STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF FOREST OFFENCES ON SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

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dollars per year and the tax loss from illegal logging in 1988 was estimated at about US $ 1.5 million (Palmer, 2001). Corruption also poses a corrosive challenge to improved governance. Influential government officials benefiting from corruption strive to prevent or undermine polity and institutional changes that could combat illegal logging. Therefore, illegal logging is unlikely to be controlled unless tools for fighting corruption are simultaneously developed and implemented (Sheifer and Vishny, 1993; Partnership for Governance Reforms, 2001)

In the same vein, the invaluable forest ecosystems of Malaysia have been undergoing intense pressure. Accordingly, forestland conversion for urbanization, industrial, agricultural, mining and forestry development has higher priority than that of conservation. According to MOSTE (1999), natural forest in the whole of Malaysia was reduced by 19.3% due to conversion to oil palm and rubber plantations over the period 1970 to 1992. In a bid to curb forest offences, in the last few years in Cameroon, numerous timber companies have been fined for illegal practices such as tax evasion, logging outside legal boundaries, logging after permits have expired, cutting undersized trees and logging in unallocated concession areas (Forests Monitor, 2001).

Nigeria has a land area of 923.772 km2 (UNEP, 2006) and contains over 600 species of timber, significant numbers of aquatic birds and other rare mammals which attest to the abundance of the country’s genetic resources, diversity of ecosystems and natural beauty (Olorode, 2002). However, during the past 200 years, a disproportionate number of species and ecosystems have been lost and soils in many areas have been damaged beyond repair (FAO, 1988). The damage caused by illegal activities and corrupt practices in the Nigerian forest is a problem of enormous proportions (Agbeja, 2003). Forest exploitation is dominated by rampant illegal harvesting, large scale violation of trade regulations both domestically and internationally, fraudulent practices, abetted or condoned by government officials and other destructive activities in violation of applicable laws. Loss of revenues in the world through illegal logging alone accounts for between 10 and 15 billion dollars annually (Contreras – Hermosilla, 2002). The environmental and social costs, though more difficult to quantity, are clearly immense.

Increased awareness of the magnitude and global implications of illegal activities in the forestry sector have triggered various initiatives

to control them in both industrialized and developing countries. Efforts are being made at the local, national and international levels by various stakeholders to address the issue. Several governments are in the process of rationalizing their legal and policy framework, building institutional capacity to foster better law compliance and gathering additional data on the extent and nature of illegal operations (FAO, 1993; 2001). Working plan, which is the key management tool in the conservation and protection of the forest resources, is not in existence. Thus, the management of the forest reserves in the study area was not based on the guidelines in the management plans. This finding is in consonance with the view of Papka (1997) that since independence, working plans have been abandoned and in most cases where available, the plans are not utilized due to pressure from successive governments in their bid to generate substantial revenue from the forests annually. The study therefore assessed the perception of stakeholders on forest offences and its effects on SFM in Ogun State, Nigeria with a view to stimulating the government to accord forestry sector with appropriate political will and proper funding. METHODOLOGY Study area

Ogun state lies within latitude 70N and 60N and longitude 2.5E and 50E. The natural vegetation of the State can be broadly grouped into Forest and Savannah (Gbadegesin, 1992). However, human pressure on the natural vegetation types is evidenced in many areas of the State where the original forest has been reduced to secondary forests. Procedure for data collection

The instrument used for the data collection was structured questionnaire. Stratified sampling method was used to divide Ogun State into four strata. Each stratum represents a zone in the state based on the political and ecological divisions in the state. The four strata are Egba, Yewa, Ijebu and Remo (Figure 1). From each stratum, a pre-determined sampling size of 25% of respondents was randomly selected. A total of 100 questionnaire booklets were administered to forest officials, sawmillers and timber contractors in Ogun state. Out of 100 questionnaires (100%) administered, 70 (70%) were responded to while 30 (30%) were not retrieved. The data collected were collated and subjected to descriptive and inferential statistical analyses.


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Figure 1: Map of Ogun State showing the study area

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Staff Strength in the Ministry of Forestry

High and capable categories of forestry staff are paramount for sustainable forest management. The total output of these categories of staff in the Ministry of Forestry depends on the productivity of its labour force.

Table 1 reveals that the available staff strength is far below the expected staff strength for all the categories of the staff. The Ministry of Forestry in Ogun State is deficient of 764(61.02%) staff. The implication is that in all the forest reserves in the study area, the staff strength was grossly inadequate to manage the forest reserves. Inadequate of forestry staff has seriously affected the protection duty which is one of the openings for illegal fellers to invade the reserves. However, there was variation in the assessment of the performances of the Uniformed Staff in the study area. Thirty seven percent of the respondents affirmed that the Uniformed Staff were inconsistent while 28%

agreed that the Uniformed Staff were not effective (Table 2). The implication of these results is that Ogun state government lacks the necessary human and managerial capacity to effectively ensure forest law compliance. When government institutions are weak, there are greater inclinations to engage in illegal activities. Lack of logistics is an impediment to effective enforcement of forest laws in Ogun State. The patrol vehicles in most of the stations are not in good condition. Whenever there is a report of illegal logging in any part of the reserves, it is problematic for the uniformed staff to arrest the offenders who are loaded with sophisticated weapons to attack the forest guards. This has also affected the normal patrol by the forest officers. Lack of incentives coupled with poor remuneration also had negative implications on the protection duties by the staff over the years. Most of the staff complained that the allowances meant for their weekend duties were not released to them.


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Table 1: Staff strength in the Ministry of Forestry, Ogun State, Nigeria. S/N

Categories of staff Available strength (Number)

Expected strength (Number)

Strength Deficiency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Professional (Degree Holders) Technician (ND& HND holder Vocational (Forest guard Cadre) Vocation (Silvicultural overseers) Vocational Operator (Power Saw Craftsmen) Labour (Unskilled & Semiskilled) Ancillary (Personnel / Secretariat /Accounts / Typists, Messenger, Drivers

29 21 125 80 2 40 155

67 100 420 160 5 120 380

38 79 259 80 3 80 225

TOTAL 452 1252 764 Source: Ministry of Forestry, Ogun State, 2006. Table 2: Performances of the Uniformed Staff

S/N Value Judgement

Frequency Percentage

1 2 3 4

Consistent Inconsistent Effective Not effective

13 26 11 20

19 37 16 28

Total 70 100 Table 3: Rate of illegal felling in the forest reserves

Illegal felling rate High Low

Variables

Freq % Freq % Sustainable

Not Sustainable 22 48

31 69

33 37

47 53

Total 70 100 70 100 X2

df = 1 = 4.63, P = 0.031* Significant at P < 0.05 Illegal felling rate on sustainable forest management

Distribution of stakeholders’ perceptions on the impact of illegal felling rate on sustainable management of forest in the study area was presented in Table 3. Sixty nine percent of the respondents affirmed that illegal felling was high and the management of forest estate was not sustainable while the remaining 31% affirmed that illegal felling rate was high but there was sustainable management of the forest reserves in Ogun State. On the other hand, 53% of the respondents affirmed that illegal felling rate was low and there was no sustainable management of the forest while the remaining 47 % of the respondents also affirmed that illegal felling rate was low but there was sustainable management of the reserve.

The chi-square ( 4.63, P = 0.031) showed that sustainability of the forests depends on illegal felling rate .i.e. sustainability is significantly dependent on illegal felling rate. The implication is that illegal felling is a serious offence that is

negatively impacting sustainable forest management in Ogun State. This was corroborated by (23) that asserted that Illegal operations in the forest sector take place when wood is harvested, transported, processed, bought, or sold in violation of national laws.

Perception of sustainable forest management according to the user type

Table 4 indicates the perception of sustainable forest management (SFM) by the category of forest users. Sixty percent of the Timber Contractors were of the opinion that there was no sustainable forest management in the study area based on user type. Similarly, 66% of the Saw millers were of the opinion that there was no sustainable forest management in the study area. However, the Chi-square result (0.4895, P = 0.48) shows that sustainability does not significantly depend on the category of forest user alone.

Table 4: Perception of sustainable forest management according to the user type

Timber Contractor

Saw millers

Variables

Freq % Freq % Sustainable Not sustainable

28 42

40 60

24 46

34 66

Total 70 100 70 100 X2 df =1 = 0.4895, P = 0.484ns Forest offence committed by the Forest Users

Table 5 presents the response of the forest users whether they have committed forest offences in the study area. Seventy-seven percent of the Timber Contractors affirmed that they have committed different types of forest offences in the previous years while 83% of the Saw millers also affirmed that they have committed forest offences in the previous years. The Chi-square results (0.714, P= 0.398) show that the offence committed does not significantly depend on the forest users alone.


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Table 5: Response on whether committed forest offence by the forest users

Timber contractor Saw miller Committed offence Freq % Freq % Yes No

54 16

77 23

58 12

83 17

Total 70 100 70 100X2

df =1 = 0.714, P = 0.398ns ns = not significant Ranking of Major Types of Forest Offences

Felling of undersized trees ranked as the major type of forest offences committed by Timber Contractors (42%) and Saw millers (36%). Illegal felling ranked second while Failure to produce log certificate and Non-renewal of property hammer ranked third in position. The Chi-square result (28.78, P= 0.00016) shows that felling of undersized trees, illegal felling,

failure to produce log certificate and non-renewal of property hammer committed in the study area are significantly dependent on the category of forest users i.e. Saw millers and Timber Contractors (Table 6). Offences committed based on Educational Status

Offences committed according to the educational status of the forest users are presented in Table 7. The major type of offence committed across all the educational status was felling of undersized tree. However, the Chi-square result (15.91, P= 0.77) shows that the type of offence committed does not significantly depend on the educational status of the category of stakeholders (Timber Contractors and Saw millers).

Table 6: Type of Forest Offences Committed by the Stakeholders (Timber Contractors and Saw millers)

Timber contractors Saw millersS/N Offence Types Freq % Freq %

1 2 3 4

Illegal felling Failure to produce log certificate Non-renewal of property hammer Felling of undersized trees

22 11 8 29

31 16 11 42

22 10 13 25

31 14 19 36

TOTAL 70 100 70 100 X2 = 28.78, P = 0.00016* Significant at P < 0.01 * = significant

Table 7: Offences committed based on the educational status of the forest users in Ogun State, Nigeria

Educational Status No formal Education

Primary School

Secondary School

Tertiary Freq Total

S/N Offence Types

Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % 1 Illegal felling 8 26 12 25 8 26 - - 28 2 Failure to produce log certificate 5 16 9 19 4 13 1 50 19 3 Non-renewal of property hammer 7 23 8 16 6 19 - - 21 4 Felling of undersized tree 11 35 19 40 13 42 1 50 44 TOTAL 31 100 48 100 31 100 02 100 112

X2 = 15.91, P = 0.775ns df = 3 Forest offences committed based on ethnicity

Types of forest offence committed based on the respondents’ ethnicity were presented in Table 8. Thirty two percent of the native respondents in the study area committed felling of undersized tree. On the contrary, 67% of the non-native respondents committed illegal felling. The Chi- square result (X2 = 1.901, P = 0.965) shows that the type of offence committed does not significantly depend on the ethnicity of the respondents. Irregular Salary of Staff

On the perception of the effect of irregular salary on protection duties (Table 9), all the staff

cadres affirmed that irregular salary has adverse effect on the protection duties. In the same vein, the Chi-square result (11.87, P=0.01) shows that protection duty is significantly dependent on the salary structure of the staff cadres. The implication is that categories of forestry staff are prone to colluding with timber contractors to under-estimate the forest products extracted in order to receive bribes from timber contractors and sawmillers. This has since been grossly reducing the revenue into the treasury of Ogun State.


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Table 8: Type of offence committed based on the ethnicity of the forest users Ethnicity Native Non-native

S/N Offence Type

Freq % Freq % Total Freq

1 Illegal felling 29 27 02 67 31 2 Failure to produce log certificate 24 22 - - 24 3 Non-renewal of property hammer 20 19 - - 20 4 Felling of undersized tree 35 32 01 33 36 TOTAL 108 100 03 100 111 χ2 = 1.901, P = 0.965

Table 9: Perception of irregular salary on protection duties.

STAFF CADRES Professional Technician Uniformed Boundary guard Attendant Freq TotalISAPD Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %

Yes No

7 1

88 12

4 4

50 50

27 3

90 10

8 0

100 0

15 1

94 06

61 09

Total 8 100 8 100 30 100 8 100 16 100 70 χ2 = 11.87, df = 4, P = 0.01* Significant at P < 0.01 ISAPD = Irregular Salary Affecting Protection Duties Research questions were tested using Logit Regression i. Does illegal felling have any impact on sustainable forest management? The result of the regression model on the perceptions of the forest users revealed that Sustainability of forest management depends on illegal felling rate Sustainability= -1.59 + 0.82 (Illegal Felling ) …(1)

P-level = 0.004 * 0.035 Odds ratio = 0.20 2.27 χ2 = 4.539*, df = 1, P = 0.033 * Significant at P< 0.05

The implication of this result is that illegal felling negatively affects sustainable forest management in Ogun State and it is a serious offence that contradicts the forest laws.

ii. Sustainability of forest management is a function of different variables such as Sex, Marital status, Illegal felling rate and decision making involvement.

Sustainability = -1.576 + 0.872 sex - 0.007Ms + 1.004 IFR - 0.474 DMI…..(2)

P-level for = 0.966ns 0.049* 0.984ns 0.017* 0.231ns Each parameter

Odds ratio = 0.2069 2.3906 0.9928 2.7305 0.6223 χ2 = 9.6495, df = 4, P = 0.04679* S = Sustainability; MS = Marital status; IFR = Illegal felling rate; DMI = Involvement in decision making. * Significant at P < 0.05

The implication of the result is that the higher

the odd ratios the more the impact of the variables on the sustainability of the forest reserves. Therefore, sex and illegal felling rate negatively impact sustainable forest management in Ogun state. (iii) Law Compliance (Respect law) is a function

of decision making involvement. RESPECT LAW = -3.320 + 2.54 DMI …….(3) P- Level = 0.000 0.000 * Odds ratio = 0.036 12. 712

χ2 = 21.531, df = 1 P = 0.000* * Significant at P < 0.05

DMI = Involvement in decision making The implication of this result is that

involvement in decision making by stakeholders positively affects sustainable forest management in Ogun State and it is a panacea to curb forest offences.

CONCLUSION

Sustainable forest management in Ogun State, Nigeria has suffered serious set backs due to number of problems highlighted in this study. The widespread violation of existing forest laws and regulations has major negative impacts on


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forests, livelihoods, public revenues and the rule of law. RECOMMENDATIONS • The government should accompany forestry

sector in Ogun state with appropriate political will and proper funding which should be both adequate and timely.

• The managers of forest resources acting on behalf of the general public must be exemplary in their professional conduct. They should not be involved in practices which are unethical and against the very objectives of forest conservation efforts.

• The government should provide forestry officials with the necessary financial support, equipment, communication and transportation to enable them carry out their work promptly and effectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our special thanks go to the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) that awarded a fellowship used in conducting this research work, and to all Ogun state Forestry Officials who assisted us during the data collection. REFERENCES

Agbeja, B.O (2003): The need to link State and Federal Forest Policies and Institution in Nigeria. In: rebuilding African capacity for Agricultural Developments. The role of tertiary Education. African Network for Agroforestry Education (ANAFE) Kenya. Pp 95 -105

Callister, D. J. (1999): Corrupt and illegal activities in the forestry sector: current understandings and implications for World Bank forestry policy. Forest policy implementation Review and strategy Development Analytical studies World Bank, Washington DC. Pp 10-13

CIFOR (2003): Forest Law Enforcement and Rural Livelihoods; Analysis and Dissemination by the Centre for International Forestry Research with funding from DFID and PROFOR International Forestry Review, Vol.5(3), 2003 Pp 1-8

Contreras–Harmosilla, A. (2002): Policy and Legal Options to improve law compliance in the forest sector, Draft issue paper, FAO. Rome. Pp 12.

Durrieu de Madron L. and Ngaha, J. (2000): Reveue technique des concessions forestieres. Republique du cameroun. Comite technique de suivi des programmes. Rapport version 4,24 July, 2000. Pp 18-21.

FAO (1988): State of Food and Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Pp 1-40

FAO (1993): Assessing Forestry Impacts: Issues and Strategies FAO Paper 114. Rome.

FAO (2001): Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Main Report. FAO Forestry Paper, Rome. No 140. pp. 12-14., 115-120. ([email protected]/forestry/fo/fra/main/index/jsp)

FAO (2003): Sustainable Management of Tropical Forest in Central Africa in search of excellence. FAO Forestry paper No 143. Rome (available @ www.fao.org/ DRCREP/006/44853.HTM)

Forests Monitor (2001): Sold down the river: The need to control transnational forestry corporations. European case study. March 2001, www.forestrmonitor.org

Gbadegesin, S. A (1992): Vegetation in Ogun state in Maps edited by Onakomaniya, S. O. Oyesiku, K. and Jegede, F. J. Rex Charles Publication Ibadan, Nigeria. Pp 21.

Greenpeace International (1999): Buying destruction: A Greenpeace report for Corporate Consumers of forest products. Greenpeace International, Amsterdam. Pp 16-17.

Independent Review Team to the World Bank (2001): Review of the forest harvesting projects being processed towards a timber permit or a Timber Authority: Observations and recommendations. Government of Papua New Guinea, Waigani. Pp 6-10.

Indonesia- UK Tropical Forest Management Programme (1999): Round wood supply and demand in the forest sector in Indonesia. Pp. 10-11.

ITTO (2005): Revised ITTO Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests including Reporting Format. ITTO Policy Development series, No. 15, ITTO, Yokohama, Japan. Pp 18-27.

Lindsay, J., Mekouar, A. and Christy, L. (2002): Why law matters: design principles for strengthening the role of forestry legislation in reducing illegal activities and corrupt practices. FAO Legal Paper Online 27. Rome, FAO. Pp 18.

MOSTE (1999): Assessment of Biological Diversity in Malaysia, The Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment .Pp 25-32.

Olorode, O. (2002): Vegetation and Fauna. In Africa Atlases. Nigeria Les Edition J. A. 57 bis, rue d’ Auteuil 75016, Paris –France, October 2002 Pp.58.


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Palmer. E (2001): The Extent and Causes of Illegal Logging: An Analysis of a Major Cause of Deforestation in Indonesia. CSERGE (Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment) London. Pp 8-12.

Papka, P.M. (1997): Strategies for Sustained Environmental Conservation through Resource Development. In Oduwaiye, E.A., P.C.Obiaga and J.E. Abu (Eds). Environment and Resource Development, Pp 271- 286.

Partnership for Governance Reform in Indonesia (2001): A National Survey of Corruption in Indonesia. Executive Office of the Partnership for Governance Reform in Indonesia, Jakarta. Indonesia. Pp 3-9.

SAE (1997): Forest Policy- Lumbering Exploitation in Amazonian. Brazilian Secretariat of Strategic Issues, April, 1997 Pp 22-34.

Scotland, N. (2000): “Indonesia Country Paper on Illegal Logging: Prepared for the World Bank- WWF. Workshop on Control of Illegal Logging in East Asia (Draft Form)”, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pp 20-26 .

Shleifer, A. and Vishny R. W. (1993): Corruption: The Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 1993, Pp 599-602.

UNEP (2006): The United Nations Environment Programme, Nigeria Environmental Profile. Pp 1-12

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BINARY MODELS FOR ASSESSMENT OF CONFLICTS BETWEEN FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL LAND USES IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA

B. O. Agbeja

Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION The world is beset with conflicts on limited

economic natural resources such as land, forest, agriculture, water, minerals, etc. Every society strifes to compete for limited economic resources to enhance livelihoods. Conflicts started emanating between Forestry and Agricultural land uses in Nigeria as far back as 1897 when Forestry and Agriculture were at first under one department (Adeyoju, 1975). It was revealed that an inspector of Forests, Mr. Punch in 1899, realized the dangers of bush fallow cultivation where farmer did not look on land as his property to be improved and developed, but cropped it without rest or rotation until absolutely exhausted on soil nutrients and then sacrificed more forest. Existing obsolete land use decree of 1978, bad agricultural practices and land hunger have been the major problems that cause conflicts between agricultural and forestry land uses in the rural areas where majority of people live in Nigeria for

their livelihoods. Agriculture and the forest resources land supports, are principal livelihood assets. However, various State Governments in Nigeria have failed to consult adequately and have imposed policies which lack popular support and understanding as a result of an obsolete land use decree of 1978 that vested all lands comprised in the territory of each state of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in the Governor of that State (Land Use,1978). Without secure rights of access to land, rural people have no secured hope of escaping from internal strife and poverty. This resulted into a massive encroachment in most forest reserves in Nigeria (Beak Consultants Limited, 1999). A large area of the productive and protective forest reserves had been turned into illegal cocoa and food crop plantations. This is because farmers assign no value to the forest reserves. Literature is replete of many facets of conflict on land use, concept of conflict, collaboration and conflict, exploring

Conflict over natural resources such as land, water and forest is ubiquitous. Societies everywhere have competed for natural resources to enhance their livelihoods. Agriculture production and forest conservation are vital natural resources in the rural land use development and closely integrated to each other in a long history of human civilization. However, the promotion of one often leads to destruction of the other. Higher agricultural production improves farmers’ well being as well as higher economic growth. In the same vein, forests are very important for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, soil restoration, timber supply and people’s livelihoods. Binary models were developed using field data collected from four states in the Southwest of Nigeria namely Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo states to assess a number of factors causing conflicts between forestry and agricultural land uses. The models predict the probability that a respondent (i.e. a stakeholder) will support or against conflicts between forestry and agricultural land uses in relation to independent variables which include Poor Documentation and Records of Admitted Farms (PDRAF), Unsustainable Agriculture Practices and Technologies (UAPT), Obsolete Land Use Decree and Lack of Land Use Reform (OLUDLLUR), High Population Growth (HPG), Forest Reservation Process (FRP), Poor Sectoral Integration among Land Use Sectors (PSILUS), Absence of Conflict Management Strategies in Agricultural and Forest Policies (ACMSAFP), High Demand for Farming and Mining (HDFFM) and Multi-Stakeholders and their Diverse Interests (MSTDI). The results of the binary logistic model for Land use conflicts between forestry and agricultural sectors in the Southwest Nigeria indicated overall significant fit to the data judging from the chi square value (df, 9) = 2032.3 that is significant at p<0.05. The final loss of the model indicated a value of 36.77. Land use conflicts between forestry and agricultural sectors in the Southwest Nigeria were best predicted by MSTDI, HDFFM and PSILUS with odds ratio of 108269E6, 3703.33 and 1.08. The higher the odds ratio, the more influential the factors causing conflicts of land use between forestry and agricultural sectors. The specific models developed for the four states in the Southwest Nigeria, depend on the locations where the data were collected; therefore the models should not be applied to areas outside the range of the data. However, the modelling approach is of general applicability and can be used to predict the conflicts of land uses between forestry and agriculture in other areas.

Key words: Land use decree, conflicts, forestry, agriculture, land hunger

BINARY MODELS FOR ASSESSMENT OF CONFLICTS BETWEEN FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL LAND USES

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causes of conflict, identifying and analysing stakeholders, and choices in conflict management, building capacity for managing conflicts, some fundamentals, roles and responsibilities of facilitators and conflict as a catalyst for capacity development (Pendzich, et al, 1994, Castro and Ettenger, 1997, Chevalier and Buckles, 1999, Buckles and Rusnak, 1999, Matiru, 2000, Fisher et al. 2000, Warner, 2001, FAO, 2002). There are overwhelming evidences of conflicts among Forestry, Agriculture and Land Use Policies in the world (Edmunds and Wollenberg, 2001; ITTO, 2000; ITTO, 2006). Stakeholders of land use according to ITTO (2002) have litany of demands-for remuneration, employment, equity, improved infrastructure, secure tenure, etc. Agricultural production and forest conservation are two vital natural resources in the rural land use development and closely integrated to each other in a long history of human civilization. However, the promotion of one often leads to destruction of the other. Higher agricultural production improves farmers’ well being as well as higher economic growth (Angelsen et al 2001). On the other hand, there is an international concern about the adverse consequences on tropical deforestation resulting from forest clearing which in one way or the other, contributes to climate change, biodiversity loss, reduced timber supply, flooding and soil degradation which in turn affects economic activity as well as people’s livelihoods. The integration of land uses could be attained only when there is a consensus between agriculture and forestry land uses. Against this background, the specific objectives were to detremine the causes of conflicts between forestry and agricultural land uses in the Southwest Nigeria and to identify the main effects of these causes in the study locations. METHODOLOGY Study design and study area

The study design employed was socio-economic in nature. Sample frame for the study involved field survey which entails appraisal of prevailing causes and effects of the conflicts

between forestry and agricultural land uses in the study area. The objectives was carried out through the use of sructured questionnaires to collect data from relevant stakeholders in the study locations. The respondents were made up of forest officers, agricultural officers, timber contractors, sawmillers, migrants and farmers living within and around forest reserves. Secondary data were extracted from journals, textbooks, manuals, policy briefs and annual reports. Four main method approaches were adopted for the implementation of the project. These include desk study to review literature from relevant documents such as journal articles, annual forestry and agricultural reports, policy briefs, internet; reconnaissance survey of the communities within and around the selected forest reserves; community inception meetings; and socio-economic survey. Four states namely Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo in the Southwest of Nigeria were selected for the study (Figure 1). The selected forest reserves, communities within and around forest reserves are presented in Tables1. The communities were selected from within and around the forest reserves based on their involvement in plantation establishment, other forest activities as well as their active involvement in farming and other land use practices. The selection of 150,200,250 and 300 respondents respectively from the communities in each state was systematically sampled using the sampling technique by Diaw et. al (2002). A total of 1,900 booklets of questionnaire were randomly administered to various stakeholders in the 73 fringe communities of the nine forest reserves (Table 1). Out of these, 1,671 (87.95%) stakeholders responded to questionnaire while 229 (12.05%) questionnaire booklets were not retrievied.


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Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing Study Areas Table 1: Four States in Southwest Nigeria and Selected Forest Reserves States Forest Reserves Communities Number of Questionnaire Booklets Administered and Retrieved _________________________________________________________________________ Ogun Ilaro Ipake, Igbogu, Ilobi, Apakoso, Jaja 250 (222) Omo (J1,J3, Etemi, Kajola, Gbamugbamu, 300 (261) J4 and Erinwanran, Abeku, Temidire, J6) Amereya, Agbede, Akila, Ajelanwa Ondo Akure Aponmu, Kolawole, Obada, Oke Owena 150 (120) Akure Ofosu Ajagbusi, Ala Olufosan Ago Dada 150 (133) Osun Ago-Owu Ajegunle, Mokore 1,II and III, Agbaogun, 200 (185) Oguntedo, Okodowo, Arinkinkin, Onikete Bello, Onikete, Alaguntan, Afijagba Shasha Ajebamidele, Araromi, Oke-Odo, Odesanmi, 250 (214) , Agbele, Poyika Adewumi, Fadaka, Apoje, Onda, Onigbin, Alaba meta, Laroka Ife3 Oyere, Araromi Oke-Odo, Alabameta,Aladura, 200 (177) Onikuta, Alabi camp, Ajegunle, Agbaogu, Eleme, Onikete, Busan Aran, Balogun, Alabameta Oyo Ijaiye Atan, Batake, Ladunni, Abokede, Atan camp, 200 (173) , Tola community Gambari Busogboro, Onigambari, Onipe, Olonda, 200 (186) Dalley, Olubi, Aba-asani, Aba-paanu, Total 9 73 1,900 (1,671) ( ) Parenthesis is for the total number of responses retrieved Data Analysis The Binary Models

The binary logistic models are very useful in situations where the dependent or response variable is binary in nature. This implies that they

can have only two possible values. The models therefore describe the relationship between one or more continuous independent variable(s) to the binary dependent variable. The two common binary models are the logit and probit. The


36

logistic model is particularly preferred because of the unique information it provides. Distinct information provided by logit is the odds ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the odds of an event occurring in the group to the odds ratio of it occurring in another groups ( Deeks, 1996; Bland and Altman, 2000). Logit also provides information on the consequences of one variable on the other. Hence, it will clearly indicate the variable(s) that mostly affect the land use conflict between forestry and agricultural land use policies. The logit of a response p between 0 and 1 is given as:

Logit (p) = log (p/1-p) = log (p) –log (1-p) The simplest form of logit model is expressed as: Logit (pi) = a + bxi…………………………………1 Where, xi = vector of predictor or independent variables pi = probability of an effect on conflict between forestry and agriculture sectors a and b = regression parameters.

In binary choice models, the two possible results are assigned values of 1 or 0. In this study, respondent that says yes to factor that influences conflict is assigned a value of 1 and respondent that says no to factor that influences conflict is assigned a value of 0. The parameter estimation for this study was done using Quasi-Newton method under logistic regression (logit) option of STATISTICA version 5 Software. Models to be tested were obtained by fitting all the independent variables together and backward elimination was done to obtain the best subset model. Emphasis was placed on keeping the model as simple as possible and selecting combinations of independent variables which make practical sense.

In this study, the binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine the factors that cause of conflicts between Forestry and Agricultural land uses in Southwest Nigeria. The factors investigated were Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF), Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies farms (UAPT), Obsolete Land Use

Decree and lack of Land Use Reform (OLUDLLUR), High population growth (HPG), Forest Reservation Process (FRP), Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS), Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest policies (ACMSAFP), High demand for farming and mining (HDFFM), and Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) in four states of the Southwest Nigeria. Preliminary investigation involved fitting all these causes together and then backward elimination was done to obtain the best subset models. The resulting models were evaluated using the chi-square goodness-of-fit statistics (Ostle, 1963; Bruhn et al. 1991). The Final Loss on accuracy was computed using maximum likehood estimation method and odds ratio (Deeks, 1996; Davies et al. 1998). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Southwest Nigeria

In the Southwest Nigeria, the model presented below gave overall significant fit to the data judging from the chi square value that is significant at p<0.05. There is sufficient evidence that the estimated coefficients are not zero for independent variables. This implies that the regression parameters in the model are statistically significant. The results indicated that land use conflicts between forestry and agricultural sectors in pooled data for Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo States together were best predicted by multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) with odds ratio of 108269E6. This is followed by high demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) and poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) with odds ratio of 3703.33 and 1.08 respectively. The implication is that the higher the odds ratio, the more influential the factors that cause conflicts between Forestry and Agricultural Land Uses in the Southwest Nigeria (Model 2 and Table 2). However, each state has its own peculiarities of causes of conflicts between Forestry and Agricultural land uses.

LUPCAF (SWNIGERIA) = -24.21-1.96PDRAF-2.00 UAPT-8.08OLUDLLUR -4.12HPG +46.02FRP + 0.08PSILUS -5.36ACMSAFP+8.22HDFFM +25.00MSTDI…….…………..…2 Final loss = 36.77; Chi square (df, 9) = 2032.3; P= 0.0000 Odd ratio unit change): Constant (0.00); PDRAF(0.14); UAPT(0.13); OLUDLLUR(0.00031); HPG(0.02); FRP(-); PSILUS(1.08); ACMSAFP(0.0047); HDFFM(3703.33); MSTDI(108269E6) Where, PDRAF = Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (Presence = 1; Absence =0) UAPT = Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies (Presence = 1; Absence =0) OLUDLLUR= Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform (Presence = 1; Absence =0), HPG= High population growth (Presence = 1; Absence =0) FRP = Forest Reservation Process (Presence = 1; Absence =0) PSILUS = Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (Presence = 1; Absence =0), ACMSAFP = Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest Policies (Presence = 1; Absence =0) (ACMSAFP) HDFFM= High demand for farming and mining (Presence = 1; Absence =0) MSTDI= Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (Presence = 1; Absence =0)


37

Table 2: Logistic binary nature analysis of land use conflict between forestry and agriculture in Southwest Nigeria (Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo States)

Dependent Variable (LUPCAF): Land Use Conflict between Agriculture and Forestry Independent Variables Coefficient Odds-ratio Whether there is Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF) -1.96 0.14 Whether there are Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies (UAPT) -2.00 0.13 Whether there is Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform -8.08 0.00031 ( OLUDLLUR) Whether there is High population growth (HPG) -4.12 0.02 Whether there is Forest Reservation Process (FRP) 46.02 - Whether there is Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) 0.08 *1.08 Whether there is Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest -5.36 0.0047 policies (ACMSAFP) Whether there is High demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) 8.22 *3703.33 Whether there is Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) 25.00 *108269E6 Model χ2 (df=9) 2032. 3* P< 0.05 * Ogun State

In Ogun State, the model presented below gave overall significant fit to the data judging from the chi square value that is significant at p<0.05. There is sufficient evidence that the estimated coefficients are not zero for independent variables. This implies that the regression parameters in the model are statistically significant. The results indicated that land use conflicts between forestry and agricultural sectors were best predicted by high demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) with odds ratio of 353551E7. This is followed by

multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI), absence of conflict management strategies in agricultural and forest policies (ACMSAFP), poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) and unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies (UAPT) with odds ratio of 1762803, 33.74, 32.27 and 1.33 respectively (Model 3 and Table 3). The implication of these factors is that frequently conflicts emanate between Forestry and Agricultural land uses which retards the growth and development of the two sectors in Ogun State.

LUPCAF (OGUN) = -31.00-0.95PDRAF+0.28UAPT-8.42 OLUDLLUR +31.19HPG -6.41FRP + 3.15PSILUS +3.52ACMSAFP+29.00HDFFM+14.00MSTDI………..................................3 Final loss = 36.77; Chi square (df, 9) = 2032.3; P= 0.0000 Odd ratio unit change): Constant (0.00); PDRAF(0.39); UAPT(1.33); OLUDLLUR(0.00022); HPG(-); FRP(0.0017); PSILUS(32.27); ACMSAFP(33.74); HDFFM(353551E7); MSTDI(1762803) Table 3: Logistic Binary Nature Analysis of Land Use Conflict between Forestry and Agriculture

in Ogun State of Nigeria Dependent Variable (LUPCAF): Land Use Conflict between Agriculture and Forestry Independent Variables Coefficient Odds-ratio Whether there is Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF) -0.95 0.39 Whether there are Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies (UAPT) 0.28 *1.33 Whether there is Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform -8.42 0.00022 ( OLUDLLUR) Whether there is High population growth (HPG) 31.19 - Whether there is Forest Reservation Process (FRP) 6.41 0.0017 Whether there is Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) 3.15 *32.27 Whether there is Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest 3.52 *33.74 policies (ACMSAFP) Whether there is High demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) 29.00 *353551E7 Whether there is Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) 14.00 *1762803 Model X2 (df=9) 2032. 3* P< 0.05 * Ondo State

In Ondo State, the model presented below gave overall significant fit to the data judging

from the chi square value that is significant at p<0.05. There is sufficient evidence that the estimated coefficients are not zero for


38

independent variables. This implies that the regression parameters in the model are statistically significant. The results indicated that land use conflicts between forestry and agricultural sectors were best predicted by absence of conflict management strategies in agricultural and forest policies (ACMSAFP) and poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF) with odds ratio of 4450219 a piece. This is followed by unsustainable

agriculture practices and technologies (UAPT), forest Reservation Process (FRP) and poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) with odds ratio 432.19, 11.26 and 3.40 respectively (Model 4 and Table 4). The implication of these factors is that frequently conflicts emanate between Forestry and Agricultural land uses which retards the growth and development of the two sectors in Ondo State.

LUPCAF (ONDO) = -29.97 +15.00PDRAF+6.07UAPT -0.16 OLUDLLUR -1.03HPG +2.42FRP + 1.23PSILUS +15.00ACMSAFP+34.02HDFFM-6.19MSTDI……………………………….4 Final loss = 12.50; Chi square (df, 9) = 267.48; P= 0.0000 Odd ratio unit change): Constant (0.00); PDRAF(4450219); UAPT(432.19); OLUDLLUR(0.85); HPG(0.36); FRP(11.26); PSILUS(3.40); ACMSAFP(4450219); HDFFM(-); MSTDI(0.00205) Table 4: Logistic binary nature analysis of land use conflict between forestry and agriculture in

Ondo State of Nigeria Dependent Variable (LUPCAF): Land Use Conflict between Agriculture and Forestry Independent Variables Coefficient Odds-ratio Whether there is Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF) 15.00 *4450219 Whether there are Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies farms (UAPT) 6.07 * 432.19 Whether there is Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform -0.16 0.85 (OLUDLLUR) Whether there is High population growth (HPG) -1.03 0.36 Whether there is Forest Reservation Process (FRP) 2.42 *11.26 Whether there is Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) 1.23 * 3.40 Whether there is Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest 15.00 *4450219 policies (ACMSAFP) Whether there is High demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) 34.02 - Whether there is Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) -6.19 0.00205 Model X2 (df=9) 267.48* P< 0.05 * Osun State

In Osun State, the model presented below gave overall significant fit to the data judging from the chi square value that is significant at p<0.05. There is sufficient evidence that the estimated coefficients are not zero for independent variables. This implies that the regression parameters in the model are statistically significant. The results indicated that land use conflicts between forestry and

agricultural sectors were best predicted by poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) with odds ratio of 25.60. This followed by absence of conflict management strategies in agricultural and forest policies (ACMSAFP) and multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) with odds ratio of 2.02 and 1.51 respectively (Model 5 and Table 5). The implication is that growth and development in the two sectors are negatively impacted.

LUPCAF (OSUN) = -26.89 -0.37PDRAF+30.93UAPT-1.52 OLUDLLUR -1.06HPG +32.46FRP + 3.24PSILUS +0.70ACMSAFP-3.11HDFFM-0.41MSTDI…………………………………..5 Final loss = 2.25; Chi square (df, 9) = 736.80; P= 0.0000 Odd ratio unit change): Constant (0.00); PDRAF(0.69); UAPT(-); OLUDLLUR(0.22); HPG(0.33); FRP(-); PSILUS(25.60); ACMSAFP(2.02); HDFFM(0.04); MSTDI(1.51)


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Table 5: Logistic Binary Nature Analysis of Land Use Conflict between Forestry and Agriculture in Osun State of Nigeria

Dependent Variable (LUPCAF): Land Use Conflict between Agriculture and Forestry Independent Variables Coefficient Odds-ratio Whether there is Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF) -0.37 0.69 Whether there are Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies farms (UAPT) 30.93 - Whether there is Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform -1.52 0.22 (OLUDLLUR) Whether there is High population growth (HPG) -1.06 0.33 Whether there is Forest Reservation Process (FRP) 32.46 - Whether there is Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) 3.24 *25.60 Whether there is Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest 0.70 *2.02 policies (ACMSAFP) Whether there is High demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) -3.11 0.04 Whether there is Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) -0.41 *1.51 Model X2 (df=9) 736.80* P< 0.05 * Oyo State

In Oyo State, the model presented below gave overall significant fit to the data judging from the chi square value that is significant at p<0.05. There is sufficient evidence that the estimated coefficients are not zero for independent variables. This implies that the regression parameters in the model are statistically significant. The results indicated that land use conflicts between forestry and agricultural sectors were best predicted by poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) with odds ratio of 393240E6. This

followed by multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI), Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform ( OLUDLLUR), high demand for farming and mining (HDFFM), High population growth (HPG) and Forest Reservation Process (FRP) with odds ratio 1025.35, 28.16, 17.30, 2.88 and 2.32 respectively (Model 6 and Table 6). The implication of these factors is that frequently conflicts emanate between Forestry and Agricultural land uses which retards the growth and development of the two sectors in Oyo State.

LUPCAF (OYO)= -33.39 -2.72PDRAF-4.55UAPT+3.34 OLUDLLUR+1.06HPG +0.84FRP + 27.00PSILUS+31.82ACMSAFP+2.85HDFFM +6.93MSTDI…………………………………6 Final loss = 26.29; Chi square (df, 9) = 407.61; P= 0.0000 Odd ratio unit change): Constant (0.00); PDRAF(0.07); UAPT(0.01); OLUDLLUR (28.16); HPG(2.88); FRP(2.32); PSILUS(393240E6); ACMSAFP(-); HDFFM(17.30); MSTDI(1025.35) Table 6: Logistic binary nature analysis of land use conflict between forestry and agriculture in

Oyo State of Nigeria Dependent Variable (LUPCAF): Land Use Conflict between Agriculture and Forestry Independent Variables Coefficient Odds-ratio Whether there is Poor documentation and records of admitted farms (PDRAF) -2.72 0.07 Whether there are Unsustainable agriculture practices and technologies farms (UAPT) -4.55 0.01 Whether there is Obsolete Land Use Decree and lack of Land Use Reform 3.34 *28.16 ( OLUDLLUR) Whether there is High population growth farms (HPG) 1.06 *2.88 Whether there is Forest Reservation Process (FRP) 0.84 *2.32 Whether there is Poor sectoral integration among land use sectors (PSILUS) 27.00 *393240E6 Whether there is Absence of conflict management strategies in Agricultural and forest 31.82 - policies (ACMSAFP) Whether there is High demand for farming and mining (HDFFM) 2.85 *17.30 Whether there is Multi-stakeholders and their diverse interests (MSTDI) 6.93 *1025.35 Model X2 (df=9) 407.61* P< 0.05 *


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Identification of effects of causes between forestry and agricultural land uses in the Southwest Nigeria

In the Southwest Nigeria, the effects of conflicts between forestry and agricultural land uses identified include encroachment of forest reserves; illegal expansion of farms and villages in forest reserves; low food productivity; increased competition over small size of land; increased soil degradation; arson; murder and land hunger. CONCLUSION

Conflicts between Forestry and Agricultural land uses in the Southwest Nigeria are very high as a result of a number of factors causing the conflicts. This has seriously affected the growth and development of the two sectors. The specific models depend on the locations where the data were collected, and therefore should not be applied to areas outside the range of the data. However, the modelling approach is of general applicability and can be used to predict the factors influencing causes and effects of conflicts between Forestry and Agricultural sectors in Nigeria. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is grateful to The African Forest Research Network (AFORNET), Nairobi, Kenya which provided the fund for the implementation of a project entitled ‘Assessment of Conflicts among Forestry, Agriculture and Land Use Policies in Nigeria and Ghana: Prospects for Reconciliation’ REFERENCES Adeyoju, S.K. (1975): ‘‘Forestry and the Nigerian Economy’’. Ibadan University Press.308pp.

Angelsen, A. and Kaimowityz, D. (2001): ‘‘Agricultural Technologies and Tropical Deforestation’’. CABI Publishing. pp.1-4.

Beak Consultants Limited (1999): ‘‘Forest Resources Study in Nigeria’’. Revised National Report. Vol.1.: Overview.108pp.

Bland, J.M. and Altman, D.G. (2000): ‘‘The odds ratio’’. British Medical Journal 230, 1468.

Bruhn, J.N., Pickens, J.B. and Stanfield, D.B. (1991): ‘‘Probit Analysis of Oak with Trasmission through root grafts in red oak stands’’. Forest Science, Vol. 37, No.1, pp.28-44.

Buckles, D. and Rusnak, G. (1999): ‘‘Introduction: Conflict and collaboration in natural resource management’’. In D. Buckles, ed. Cultivating peace: conflict and collaboration in natural resource management, Ottawa, Canada,

International Development Research Centre/World Bank. . pp. 1-10.

Castro, A.P. and Ettenger, K. (1997): ‘‘Indigenous knowledge and conflict management: exploring local perspectives and mechanisms for dealing with community forestry disputes’’. In FAO. Compilation of discussion papers made to the Electronic Conference on Addressing Natural Resource Conflicts through Community Forestry, January to May 1996: Community Forestry Unit/FTPP Conflict Management series. Rome, FAO.

Chevalier, J.M. and Buckles, D. (1999): ‘‘Concept paper: managing conflicts over natural resources: a heterocultural perspective’’ In D. Buckles ed. Cultivating peace: Conflict and collaboration in natural resource management, P.13-41. Ottawa, Canada, International Development Research Centre/World Bank. pp.13-41.

Davies, H.T.O., Crombie, I.K. and Tavakoli, M. (1998): ‘‘When can odds ratio mislead? ’’ British Medical Journal 316, 989-991.

Deeks, J. (1996): ‘‘Swot Comer: What is an odds ratio?’’ Bandolier.3(3). Issue 25, 6-7.

Diaw, K, Blay, D. and Adu-Anning, C. (2002): ‘‘Socio-economic survey of forest fringe communities: Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve’’. A report submitted to the Forestry Commission of Ghana. 86pp.

Edmunds, D. and Wollenberg, E. (2001): ‘‘A Strategic Approach to Multistakeholder Negotiations’’. Development an Change 32/2: 231-253.

FAO (2002): ‘‘Community-based forest resource conflict management. User’s guide to the training package”. Vol.1. 313 pp.

Fisher, S., Abdi, D.I., Ludin, J., Smith, R. and Williams, S. (2000): ‘‘Working with conflict: skills and strategies for actions”. London, Responding to conflict/ Zed Books. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AB592E01.htm

ITTO (2000): ‘‘Taking the policies to the forest’’. Tropical Forest Update Vol.10. No.3. 2000/3. pp1-2.

ITTO (2002): ‘‘Difficult People’’. Tropical Forest Update. Vol.12, No.2, Yokohama, Japan. pp1-3

ITTO (2006): ‘‘Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005’’. A special edition of the Tropical Update 2006/1. p.21.

Land Use Decree (1978): ‘‘Land Use Decree of the Federal Republic of Nigeria’’. Published by Authority of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria and Printed by The Ministry of


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Information, Printing Division, Lagos. Pp. A48-A67.

Matiru, V. (2000): ‘‘Conflict and Natural resource management. Rome, FAO’’.

Ostle, B. (1963): ‘‘Statistics in Research’’ Ed.2. The Iowa State University Press Ames 585pp.

Pendzich, C., Thomas, G. and Wohlgenant, T. (1994): ‘‘The role of alternative conflict management in community forestry’’. Community Forestry/FTPP working paper No.1. Rome, FAO.

Warner, M.(2001): ‘‘Complex problems, negotiated solutions: tools to reduce conflict in community development’’. London, ITDG Publishing.

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING

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PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING: A CASE STUDY FROM ETHIOPIA

Solomon Andargie

Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, E-mail: [email protected]

Hameed Sulaiman*

Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University; P. O. box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

E-mail: [email protected] * Corresponding author

Lea J. Parker School of Communication, Northern Arizona University, USA

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Many countries have stressed processes of public Participation, following the adoption of Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration which promotes public participation in environmental decision-making and access to information and justice in environmental matters, underpinning the importance as: “Environmental issues are best handled with participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level.” Additionally, Agenda 21 points out that sustainable development can be achieved only if the whole community is adequately represented and participates in decision-making process.

In this regard who is the ‘public’ that has the interest in a particular decision, is often a focus of attention. For instance United States-National Environmental Policy Act - Policy Assistance in providing guidance to Department of Energy (DOE) in public participation processes, (NEPA/DOE, 1998), defines the word " public" broadly, to include any and all interested or affected parties; state, local, and tribal governments; environmental groups; civic and

community organizations; business and labor groups; and independent experts from the scientific, technical, and academic communities. Petts and Leach (2000), use the term as a “catch-all” to describe those with an interest in a decision, other than a proponent, operator, or responsible authority. By contrast, stakeholders, of which the public is one, are literally those with a stake in an issue and may include non-governmental organizations (NGO’s), government or its agents, industry, individuals, communities etc.

The degree to which people may have an input into decisions will obviously vary with the nature of their local polity and with the traditions of decision- making in their society (Allen, 2006). Therefore, international variation in the circumstances of public participation is to be expected. Public participation can take many forms. It may be formal, meaning its form has been prescribed by a law, or informal, meaning the public decides independently the form of participation it will take (Bowman and Thiebach, 1994). The most effective participation often

In East Shoa Zone of Ethiopia, along the highway between the towns of Akaki and Modjo are located, several clusters of development projects. Some of these clusters are located amidst the farming community. In this study public participation in environmental decision-making processes at the local level is assessed as part of a concerted effort to promote substantive communication and improve understanding on all sides. Formal survey using interviews with 60 household heads and community elders, and 2 Kebele representatives were undertaken. Responses of personnel from 10 selected industries and 6 relevant environmental authorities were collected. The outcome of the study indicates the presence of a largely constrained participation in which the role of the public is restricted as information recipient only. Lack of knowledge of the public on formal and non-formal tools of participation coupled with inability to organize themselves properly, on the one hand, and absence of detailed and program specific legislations together with limited capacity of the environmental authorities and the proponents on the other hand, have contributed a great deal to the flaws of the environmental decision-making process. The study reveals that the public prefers Kebele associations as channels of communication whilst they prefer participation techniques that provide opportunities of face-to-face discussion.

Key words: Communication Methods, Environmental Decision-Making (EDM), Proponents, Public, Techniques of Participation.


43

combines both formal and informal methods. Bowman and Thiebach (1994) further argues that, even if laws do not exist in a country that ensure formal rights and procedures for public participation, rarely are there laws explicitly prohibiting such participation and the public can still request to participate in the same manner. However, numerous problems are often encountered in public participation practices. The level at which the public is involved in environmental decision-making varies with the relevant legislation and the attitude of other stakeholders. The main areas of difficulty affecting public participation include attitude, lack of knowledge or awareness on specific environmental issues, lack of capacity to deliver programs, lack of clarity about what outcomes are possible and the lack of a legislative framework. Moreover, lack of technical support for the public, and difficulties in getting access to information can diminish the ability of the public to play a meaningful part in environmental decision- making processes.

This study assesses the status of public participation in environmental decision-making in Akaki-Modjo investment zone with the goal of promoting environmentally sustainable development in the region. The study was designed with the following specific objectives: 1. To investigate the level of participation of the

local communities in environmental decision-making processes.

2. To identify the main anti-participatory factors in environmental decision-making.

3. To investigate the possible strategies and/or methods effective for public participation in the environmental decision-making.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A case study research method was used to

investigate public participation in environmental decision-making followed by survey method in assessing the information related to the problems under investigation. In the study area the expansion of the development projects were initiated in clusters. Purposive sampling method was used to identify the clusters formed amidst the farming community. Further, based on the distribution patterns of households around the clusters, stratified quota sampling method was used to select sample households. Two rural Kebleles (The lowest administrative body) in which three clusters based on their financial strength and potential to affect the environment were selected for the study. Three major stakeholders viz. public, proponents and environmental protection authorities were selected to collect the data. Out of the three clusters, 60 households were selected for this study. The sample consisted of 60 public, 10

proponents, and 6 environmental authorities. The public respondents who participated in the study include local leaders, kebele representatives and household heads, proponents comprised of personnels from different industries and Environmental Authorities (EA) comprised the Federal Environmental Production Authority (EPA), Oromiya regional EPA and Addis Ababa EPA. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The level of public participation in environmental decision-making processes

Majority (90 %) of the public respondents have expressed their concerns about the expansion of the development projects in their locality out of which 55% reported to have a very high level of concern. Only respondents at the scale of about 8 percent reported of not having any concern at all. 20 percent and 18.3 percent out of the concerned have shown high and moderate levels of concerns respectively (Table 1). The concern of respondents indicated congestion (36.7%), limited use of resources such as water, pasture land (30%), increased movability time (15%) In addition, the extent to which the public is threatened with loss of agricultural land is depicted in Table 2. Substantial majorities (63.3 %) of the respondents rated this threat to have a very high effect on their quality of life while less than10 % responded that loss of plots has little effect on them, or is not their concern at all. Amongst the rated problems, waste releases seemed to have less effect on the quality of life of the public. Recorded frequency for ‘No impact’ (48.3 %) is the highest of all.

In general, taking cumulative scores of problems shown in table two, majorities (about 32 %) of respondents have experienced higher effects of all the specified problems while 26% have experienced moderate effects for moderate effects is also substantial (26 %).

However, when asked if the respondents had ever been involved in the decisions regarding the development projects in their locality as part of the Environmental Decision Making (EDM) process and if the opportunities of participation were really adequate for voicing their opinion, moderate majorities (58.3 %) of the public responded ‘Yes’ while 41.7 percent of the respondents haven’t had an opportunity at all.

All respondents with a chance to voice their opinion responded that they were made to know the decisions after they have been summoned formally by a letter from Kebeles to negotiate for compensations with a responsible government body. They were then clarified about the nature of the decision and told to make the necessary preparation of leaving the area. The experience


44

of the public indicated the lowest level of participation in the EDM process, where this level can be framed at the level 1- Education and Information Provision ladder as adopted by Leach and Wingfield (1997) as illustrated in Table 3.

Table 1: Concerns about the expansion of development projects. Options Levels of concerns of the

public about the expansion of development projects in their locality

%

A Very low 0 B Low 1.7 C Moderate 18.3 D High 20.0 E Very high 55.5

Table 2: Extent of the consequential effects on the public’s quality of life. Options Effects High

% Moderate %

Low %

Not at all %

A Limit on the use of resources (e.g. Water, Pasteur land, etc.)

30.0 20.0 16.7 31.7

B Loss of agricultural land 63.3 20.0 8.3 6.7 C Congestion 36.7 35.0 11.7 16.7 D Travel time increased between places you go 15.0 41.7 11.7 30.0 E Waste release 16.7 13.3 20.0 48.3 F Others(specify) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Overall score (%) 32.34 25.86 13.68 26.78

Table 3: Levels of participation in EDM.

Options Levels of participation % A Education and information provision. (Passive, receiving information only)

1. Informed by Kebele officials 2. Heard from public medias 3. Heard from local administration office 4.others(specify)

100

B Information and feedback. (Feedback was requested) 1. Interviews. 2. public meetings 3. Public Hearings 4.. Informal Small Group Meetings 5. Others(specify)

0.0

C Involvement and consultation. (Information sharing, consultation on all relevant aspects before decision) 1. Focus Groups. 2. Workshops. 3. The Delphi Method. 4. Others(specify)

0.0

D Extended involvement. (Power delegated to the community to make decisions) 1. Juries. 2. Advisory Groups. 3. Task Forces. 4. Others(specify)

0.0

Constraints contributing to the non participation of the public in environmental decision-making.

The prevailing absence of non-formal forms of public participation in EDM in Akaki-Modjo investment zone appears to be strongly matched with the lack of appropriate information sources in the field of the environment and by the inability of the public to organize themselves properly to make a real impact on policy and decision makers. majorities of both public and the

Environmental Authorities (EA) (80 % and above) responded in the affirmative (Table 4). There is also a shared opinion across both the public and EA respondents on ‘lack of skills' on the part of the public to use non-formal methods. While firm majorities of the public (i. e. >78 %) accept that their community lacks skills to use non-formal methods, this sentiment is milder (around 50 %) among the EA respondents. Strong majorities of the public respondents (i.e.>70 %) considered their own lack of knowledge of the non-formal


45

tools as a main constraint. The responses of the EA group respondents to this proposition is equally divided between ‘Yes’, ‘No’ and ‘No opinion’.

Affirmative responses on financial constraints are very strong (i.e.>85 %) among the public respondents while similarly the opinion of their counterparts (EA) is divided half between ‘No’ and ‘No opinion’. Firm majorities (around 83 %) of the EA are in favor of the training of officials to be more open to non-formal methods. The public respondents, on the other hand,

responded almost with equal proportions as ‘Yes’ and ‘No opinion’.

Opinion of both groups is divided on whether the public lacks proactive approach to use non-formal methods of participation or not. The opinion of the EAs is divided with equal proportions between ‘Yes’ and ‘No opinion’. The public respondents, on the other hand, have strongly dissented with responses tending more towards ‘No opinion’. Only minorities of the public respondents at the rate of around 16 % have responded ‘Yes’ to the stated constraint.

Table 4: Obstacles in the non-formal (non-legal) avenues of participation.

No Constraints Respondents Yes %

No %

No opinion%

Public 81.7 8.3 10 A There is lack of appropriate information sources in the field of environment. EAs 83.3 0.0 16.7

Public 81.7 10 8.3 B The public are not organizing themselves properly to make a real impact on policy and decision makers EAs 83.3 0.0 16.7

Public 78.3 18.3 3.3 C Lack of skills of the public to use non-formal methods EAs 50 16.7 33.3 Public 73.3 15 11.7 D Existing non-formal methods are not known

adequately by the public EAs 33.3 33.3 33.3 Public 88.3 8.3 3.3 E There are financial constraints EAs 50 0.0 50 Public 50 1.7 48.3 F Government officials (local/central) need to be trained

to be more open to non- formal methods EAs 83.3 0.0 16.7

Public 16.7 43.3 45 G The public have no proactive approach EAs 50 0.0 50 Public 0.0 0.0 0.0 H Others (specify) EAs 0.0 0.0 0.0

Data on public and EA respondents’ views

on various possible constraints to use legal avenues of public participation in EDM are presented in Table 5.

Results show a remarkable degree of shared opinion right across the public and EAs groups in response to ‘Existing legal practices are not known enough by the public’ and ‘The public need to be educated and trained more to use legal avenues'. Strong majorities of both groups (from around 70% and greater) responded in the affirmative. Public respondents at the rate of more than 90% mentioned inadequacy in the legal assistance available for them for participating meaningfully in EDM processes. While about half (50%) of the EA group respondents are agreeing on the inadequacy of the available legal assistance, respondents from the same group of EA at the rate of more than 30 percent favored ‘No opinion’. However, only minorities (i.e. <17 %) of the EA respondents did not regard this inadequacy of the legal assistance as a constraint.

There is strong majorities of the EA group respondents (from around 65 % and above) in favor of ‘Yes’ to the stated constraints: a, b, and

c stated in Table 5. This can be attributed to the fact that EA’s respondents are well aware of the specific constraints by virtue of their status and the group they assume. In contrast, as it is always the public that is not well informed, substantial majorities of the public respondents (from around 50 % and above) appeared to have limited or no idea about the stated constraints and consequently responded ‘No opinion’.

There seemed to be a reversal in the trend of responses when both groups of respondents were confronted with a directly stated constraint as: government officials are not open to initiate and to implement public participation provisions. EA respondents might have cautiously considered the statement this time. About 50 percent of the respondents from this group responded ‘No opinion’ while the minority (i.e. <34%) indicated lack of openness on the part of government officials to initiate and to implement public participation provisions.

Opinion is divided as to whether the public are too passive to use the existing legal avenues of public participation or not. 66% of EA’s responded as ‘No opinion’ public respondents


46

are divided with proportions of 33.3% for, 40% against, and 26.7% with ‘no opinion.’

With regard to the use of legal avenues of public participation in EDM, the two groups gave

strong affirmative responses to the more generally stated facts. And summarizing, the experience of formal (legal) public participation in EDM is below the acceptable level.

Table 5: Obstacles in the legal avenues of participation. No Constraints Respondents Yes

% No %

No opinion %

Public 71.7 15.0 13.3 A Existing legal practices are not known enough by the public EAs 66.7 0.0 33.3

Public 93.3 5.0 1.7 B The public need to be educated and trained more to use legal avenues EAs 66.7 0.0 33.3

Public 91.7 1.7 5.0 C Limited legal assistance available EAs 50.0 16.7 33.3 Public 33.3 16.7 51.7 D Existing legal instruments are too general and

have no detailed specific public participation provision

EAs 83.3 0.0 16.7

Public 30.0 15.0 55.0 E Existing legal instruments are not known enough by the officials EAs 66.7 0.0 33.3

Public 43.3 3.3 51.7 F Gov. Officials need to be trained more to manage public participation procedure EAs 66.7 0 33.3

Public 95.0 3.3 1.7 G Government officials are not open to initiate and to implement public participation provisions EAs 33.3 16.7 50.0

Public 95.0 3.3 1.7 H The public are too passive to use the existing avenues EAs 33.3 16.7 50.0

Public 0.0 0.0 0.0 I Others(specify) EAs 0.0 0.0 0.0

Focusing on proponents, based on their

project experience, responses of proponents on the possible constraints of public participation in EDM are presented in Table 6. Responses were in a rated form in order to know to what extent are the challenges from each stated constraint (since projects are in different status of capacity). It is possible to see that moderate to strong majorities (i.e.>60%) of the projects are constrained at a higher rate by the lack of budget for public involvement, lack of knowledge regarding public involvement and lack of legal mechanisms for public involvement in

environmental decision-making. Lack of transparency in environmental decision-making also has a higher impact. It impedes (at the rate of 50%) respondents from adopting a clear stance regarding public participation in EDM. Majorities of respondents (at the rate of 60%) do not agree that the absence of public participation in EDM to have come from their projects resistance to public participation, and do not have an experience of a high level of public controversy on environmental resource issues to impede public participation.

Table 6: Experienced challenges by the project proponents

1 High

2 Moderate

3 Low

4 Not a challenge

No

Challenges

% % % % A Lack of project budget for public involvement 60 20 0 20 B Lack of public priority for environmental issues 20 40 30 10 C Lack of government priority for environment issues 10 10 60 20 D High level of public controversy on environmental resource issues 10 10 10 60 E Lack of knowledge regarding public involvement 70 10 10 10 F Lack of personnel capable of developing and implementing

programs 40 20 0 40

G Industry resistance to public involvement 10 20 10 60 H Lack of legal mechanisms for public involvement in environmental

decision making 70 0 10 20

Lack of transparency in environmental decision making 50 10 10 20 I Other(specify) 0 0 0 0


47

Possible strategies and/or methods considered effective for public participation in environmental decision-making.

To go about the investigation, an assessment was first made on the public respondents’ experiences of participation in common social affairs. Majority of respondents already have experiences of participation in areas like public health, education, and in electoral processes. Even though less frequent, the respondents have participated in waste management and in forestry programs as well. Responses only showed respondents lacking experience in policy and program development, transportation and energy sectors. One can guess that the technical nature of these areas may have ruled out involvement but the public is not legally precluded from participating in policies and programs development.

Assessment was made if the public favor any individuals or groups to formally represent their community in an EDM processes. The responses seem not in favor of this idea. Majorities (72%) are against any representation while the remaining 26.7% like to voice their opinion through some sort of representatives. The later 26.7% responded they mostly favor voicing their opinion through the Gotes (below Kebeles), which are small group committees organized by housing areas. These committees often accept the direct support and advice of the residents before passing any decision on their behalf. However the other 73.3% lacks confidence in the competence of the representatives to enforce decisions. (Table 9)

The judgment of the public respondents towards the convenience of non-formal channel(s) of participation when adequate legal avenues are lacking is referenced in Table 9. Of total respondents, nearly one third (33.3 %) rated ‘regular meeting between their locally elected officials and the public as highly convenient non-formal channel to voice their opinion. Substantial numbers (28.3 %) of respondents saw ‘lobbying through elders or respected individuals’ as highly convenient participation tool. ‘Social institutions capable of influencing decisions (Edir, NGOs and others) also attained the third greatest score (18.3 %) as highly convenient non-formal channels to voice one’s opinion.

Channels like Public hearings / forums organized by parliament or any other body, access to media, and protest action through demonstrations exhibited the highest rates of abstinence. The above responses indicate that the public favors face to face discussion of issues affecting their lives in both formal and non-formal EDM processes, and since they can confer with their close trusted elders comfortably,

there is also an expressed desire to use this channel for voicing their opinion, which serves an opportunity no less than direct participation.

Finally, the responses of project proponents and EAs (Table 10) taken for capacity building suggestions best complement the choices of the public as well as the overall success of EDM processes. EA scored 66.7 percent for ‘Increased availability of information in various formats, 50 percent for ‘Citizen training in how to use the EDM processes’, with ‘Staff training in public access skills’ and ‘Program specific legislations/guidelines for improving stakeholder participation’ being equal third rated choices at 16.7 percent. Proponents gave their highest score (50%) to ‘Citizen training in how to use the EDM processes’, and 20 percent to ‘Program specific legislations/guidelines'. Equal value of 10 percent was also given by each to ‘Increased information’ and ‘Appointment of a public information officer’. In summary, besides very passive approaches of giving information and receiving feedback, there is an expressed willingness to engage with the public and recognition that the public be assisted in some way to achieve a substantive participation.

Table 7: Experienced fields of participation Options Fields % A Public health 80.0 B Education 78.3. C Waste management 28.3 D Transportation, energy 0.0 E Policy and Program

development 0.0

F Forestry 13.3 Electoral processes 58.3 Others 0.0

Table 8: Experiences of participation

techniques as used in participatory fields. Options Techniques % A Workshops 0.0 B Public meetings, 86.7C Advisory

committees/groups 8.3

D Focus Groups. 0.0 E Task Forces. 0.0 F Informal Small Group

Meetings 23.3

G Others 0.0


48

Table 9: Degree of convenience as well as preference for the non-formal channel(s). Options Non-formal channels High Moderate Low No opinion A Public hearings / forums organized by parliament or

any other body. 1.7 0.0 6.7 91.7

B Regular meeting between locally elected officials and the public

33.3 53.3 6.7 6.7

C Access to media if needed 0.0 0.0 15.0 85.0 D Lobby through elders or respected individuals in the

community 28.3 53.3 3.3 15.0

E Protest action through demonstrations 0.0 10.0 31.7 58.3 F Social institutions capable of influencing decisions

(edir, NGOs and others) 18.3 63.3 15.0 3.3

G Others(specify) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Table 10: Selected proposals given rank values in order of priority.

Options Proposals Respondents Group score (%)

Total group score (%)

Total score (%)

Rank

EAs 66.7 A. Increased availability of information in various formats. Proponents 10

76.7 28.7 2

EAs 0.0 B. Sources of funding for public involvement or stakeholder participation projects Proponents 0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

EAs 50 C. Citizen training in how to use the EDM processes. Proponents 60

110 41.3 1

EAs 16.7 D. Staff training on legislation and technical details. Proponents 0.0

16.7 6.3 4

EAs 16.7 E. Staff training in public access skills Proponents

16.7 6.3 4

EAs F. Appointment of a public information officer. Proponents 10

10 3.7 6

EAs 16.7 G. Program specific legislations/guidelines for improving stakeholder participation Proponents 20

36.7 13.8 3

EAs 0.0 H. Other/s (specify). Proponents 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

CONCLUSION

From the findings of the study, it can be concluded that there is a largely constrained public participation in EDM in which the role of the public is restricted as information recipient only besides their keen interest to have a meaningful involvement. This situation is likely to leave public stakeholders with feelings of alienation. It is also evident that the absence of program specific legislations with detailed and substantive public participation provisions coupled with very lukewarm efforts of the authorities and the proponents and other factors discussed in this study may have contributed to flaws in the process. In addition to these, lack of clear lines of communication to proactively engage with the public as well as financial constraints, were among the factors with real influence on participation. Lack of budget for public involvement was greatly reported from the side of proponents.

Lack of transparency regarding public participation in EDM as well, appear to contribute to the problem. Government officials should take

the initiative to make an open and inclusive discussion with all stakeholders, about what changes are needed in their inter-relationships and in the distribution of decision-making power. Changing the disregarded public practically into an active partner in EDM processes will require a great deal of work. Without raising the environmental consciousness of all stakeholders and increases in resources for skills training of public servants and development proponents, an effective public participation in EDM cannot be achieved. In the dissemination of environment related information and education particularly to the public, this study work has shown that local social institutions are trusted channels by the public whilst preference for participation techniques that provide opportunities of face-to-face discussion are favored. REFERENCES

Allen,P.(2006).Public Participation in Resolving Environmental Disputes and the Problem of Representative


49

ness;http://www.piercelaw.edu/risk/vol9/fall/Allen.pdf..Accessed21/11/2006

Avoramoski, O. (2002). Analysis of the public participation practices in ecosystem approaches to environmental management in the Region of Ohrid and the Prespa Lakes (Albania, Greece and Macedonia). Master of Science thesis, Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, Central European University, Budapest.

Bowman, M and Thiebach, V. (1994). Public Participation in Practice: How to Get Started? Current practice and future possibilities in central and eastern Europe. Manual on Public

Participation in Environmental Decision-making. Budapest.

Leach, S and Wingfield, M. (1997).Public participation and the democratic renewal agenda: Prioritisation or marginalisation? Local Government Studies 25(4): pp46-59.

NEPA/DOE (1998).Memorandum from the Office of NEPA Policy and Assistance:Second Edition of "Effective Public Participation under the National Environmental Policy Act". USA.

Petts, J. and Leach, B. (2000). Evaluating Methods for Public Participation: Literature Review. R & D Technical Report E135. Environment Agency. UK.

DISTRIBUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BROWSE PLANTS

50

DISTRIBUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BROWSE PLANTS OF EGBADO NORTH RANGELAND

Taiwo, B. B. A., Adekunmisi, A. A. and Adeyemi, A. A.

Animal Production Department, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Yewa Campus, Ayetoro, Ogun State ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Most forage species in Nigeria are annuals and their productive lives terminate with the end of wet season. The perennials particularly the grasses support livestock adequately until they become stemmy and highly fibrous. Hence by the end of the wet season and during dry season, animals shift from grasses to browse plants (Adu et. al. 1990). Browse plants constitute an abundant biomass in farmland, bush fallow and forest in the tropical environment in South West Nigeria. Their year round evergreen presentation and nutritional abundance provide for year round fodder (Oji and Isilebo, 2002). Also, browse have been reported to provide high level of crude protein, vitamin and mineral elements which are mostly lacking in grassland pastures (Fadiyimu and Alokan, 2007).

Their nature also enables standing feed reserve to be built so that herds can survive critical period of drought without remarkable losses (Udoh and Adamu- Nona, 2000).

The Egbado division of Ogun State comprises of Egbado-North and South local government areas. In this division, the vegetation is mostly derived savannah type with relics of forest particularly in Egbado North local government area (Oyenuga, 1967). Yet the area supports about 85% of ruminant animals in Ogun State. During dry season, the productivity of these animals is severely limited by poor feeding which is accentuated by feed scarcity, fluctuation in quantity and quality inspite of abundant shrubs and multipurpose trees that abound in the wild whose nutritional values are unknown, hence this study. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area

The study was carried out in Ayetoro, Olodo, Igan-Okoto and Imasai areas of Egbado North local government of Ogun State. Egbado North is

in the South West Nigeria in a derived savanna ecological zone. These locations were purposely chosen based on availability of large herds of cattle and abundance of relatively high varieties of browse plants that can possibly be used as fodder. The study was conducted between November 2008 and March 2009- a period between the end of wet and dry seasons in Ogun State.

Experimental Animals

The experimental animals consisted of large herds of cattle in the study areas. In Ayetoro, the University herd which consisted of fifty eight heads of cattle was used for sample collection. At Olodo and Igan-Okoto, two separate herds each consisting of forty eight heads of cattle was used while at Imasai, fifty eight heads of cattle were used. Sample Collection Browse samples were collected at various locations by following the animals while browsing. Samples of browse plants eaten by the cattle were obtained by cutting fresh leaves from the apical portions of branches of such plants using a knife. The collected samples were preserved by placing them in between newspapers and weighed down under a flat surface to prevent shattering of the leaves. The samples were dried in situ under room temperature. Identification and classification of the samples were done at the Department of Pasture and Range Management, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. Data Collection A total of twenty three samples of browse plants were collected and classified into trees and shrubs. Frequency of occurrence of each browse sample in the study areas was determined by partitioning the study areas into sub-units each of 1000m2. Ayetoro and Imasai

Four herds of cattle were used to investigate the distribution and chemical composition of browse plants in Egbado North of Ogun State. The results showed that a wide variety of browse plants abound-trees and shrubs. Glyricidia sepium and Ficus exasperata were the most frequent trees while Manihot utilissima was the most frequent shrub. They all had high dry matter (%DM), crude protein (%CP), calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) but low crude fibre (%CF). Since they are available all year round they present a good source of dry season feeds.

Keywords: Cattle, browse plants, distribution, chemical composition.


51

were partitioned into four sub-units each while Olodo and Igan-Okoto each had three sub-units. The frequency of each sample collected was calculated by determining the occurrence of such samples relative to others in the different sub-units of the study area. Analytical Procedure Browse plants dried at room temperature were oven dried at 650c for 48 hours. Thereafter, they were weighed. The oven dried samples were milled with a hammer mill to pass through 1mm sized screen before analyzing in duplicates. Analysis of the proximate fractions (crude protein, either extract, crude fibre, ash) and gross energy of the samples collected were done using the procedures outlined by the Association of Official Chemists (AOAC, 2000). But Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) and Neutral Detergent Fibre (ADF) were determined by Van Soest et al (2000) procedures. The minerals were determined by the Atomic Absorption spectroscopy using Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer model 490. Statistical Analysis Data were analyzed to determine the frequency of occurrence of the browse plants (trees and shrubs) collected.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows marked variation in the frequency of browse trees in Ayetoro, Olodo, Igan-Okoto and Imasai areas of Egbado North. In the study areas, Leucaena leucocephala, Glyricidia sepium, Mangifera indica, Terminalia catapa, Anacardium occidentale, Chlophora excelsa, Eleais guinensis, Psidium guajava, Citrus spp, Ficus exasperata, Parkia biglobosa, Acacia spp, Adansonia digitata, Musa sapientum, Bambosa vulgaris and Persia Americana had the highest frequency of 1.0 while Gmelina arborea was sparsely distributed in the study areas.

Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of browse shrubs sampled in the study areas. Manihot utilissima was the most frequent though not evenly distributed followed by Sesbania sesban while Afzelia africana was the least evenly distributed. The above findings agreed with Onifade and Agishi (1988) and Aregheore (1996) reports on similar ecological zones in Nigeria. The dry matter (DM) varied from 88.38% in Citrus spp to 89.87% in Adansonia digitata.

Table 3. This is slightly higher than 88.28-89.79% reported for grasses in this ecological zone, (Babatunde et. al. 2011). All the browse frees had high dry matter indicative of high nutrient that could be available when fed to ruminant animals. The crude protein (%CP) varied from 10.80% in Ficus exasperata to

25.61% in Leucaena leucocephala which compared with 14-25% reported by Simbaya (2002) for fodder trees in Zambia. The highest crude fibre (%CF) was in Musa sapientum while Leucaena leucocephala had the least. There seemed to be an inverse relation between (%CP) and (%CF) in the samples. In this study, Gmelina arborea had the lowest ether extract (%EE), 3.44% and it was still lower than 4.05% reported for this specie, Abdu et al, (2011) while Ficus exasperata had the highest (%EE) which was much higher than 3.46-5.57% reported for this species in the sub-humid agro-climatic zone of Nigeria (Abdu et al, 2011). However, there is marked variation in the ash content of the browse trees, 3.5-16.0% compared with 11.88-14.50% reported for grasses in this zone, Babatunde et al 2011. Also, both the acid detergent fibre (%ADF) and the Neutral Detergent fibre (%NDF) varied markedly and were high.

Table 4 shows the chemical composition of browse shrubs. The DM was generally high, above 88%. The (%CP) was high and it varied from 13.60% in Gossypium barbadense and 22.92% in Afzelina Africana. In general, the (%CP) was higher than 12-15% reported for shrubs (Simbaya, 2002). Similarly, the (%CF) were uniformly high except Sesbania sesban, 21.8% and Cajans cajan, 29.0%. This variation may be due to species differences besides the time of sampling. Expectedly, the (%EE) were uniformly low, all around 4-5% save Vernonia amygdalina that was 11%. The shrubs were slightly higher in minerals, ash (4.0-18.9%) than the trees, (3.5-16.0%). The ADF of the samples did not vary markedly, and most shrubs NDF were in a close range save Sesbania sesban and Gossypium barbadense. Norton (1994) noted that forages with low NDF content were usually of high digestibility.

Table 5 shows the mineral content of the trees sampled in the study areas. Minerals are essential elements that are needed for the normal functioning of the body system. The appropriate ratio of 2:1 Ca and P recommended by ARC (1984) was relatively satisfied in most trees sampled. While the levels of Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and Bo observed in this study were within the range reported for trees in the dry season (Kearl, 1982).

Similarly, the shrubs in the study areas satisfied ARC (1984) Ca and P ratio of 2:1 while the levels of Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and Bo were within the range reported for these species.

In both browse trees and shrubs in this study, Ca and K were generally higher than other minerals which agreed with FAO, (1994). Similarly, Osuji (1985) reported that tree forages are potential sources of supplement that could provide an array of minerals and soluble nitrogen


52

for rumen micro-organism; while Le Houerou (1980) concluded from his study that browse contains double amount of energy of dry grass owing to its lower content of fibre. CONCLUSION A total of twenty three well distributed browse species were identified in Egbado North. They were mostly tree plants with few shrubs. They all had high dry matter (%DM), crude protein (%CP), calcium (Ca) phosphorus (P) but low crude fibre (%CF). Since they are available all year round, they present a ready source of supplementary nutrients for ruminants during dry season.

REFERENCES

Abdu, S. B., M. R. Hassan, H. Y. Adamu, S. M. Yashim and Y. Lugga 2011. Survey of common browse plants, their nutritive value and utilization among ruminant livestock farmers in Bomo village. Proc 36th Conf. Nig. Soc Anim. Prod., University of Abuja, Nig. 488-491.

Adu, I. F., J. O. Gefu, B. B. A. Taiwo and S. M. Otaru 1990. Browse utilization in south Nigeria. Submitted to National Livestock Division, Kaduna Pp 1-12.

AOAC, 2000. Official Methods of Analysis, 17th edition (Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Washington DC) Pp 69-88.

ARC (Agricultural Research Council) 1984. The nutrient requirements of ruminant livestock. Technical review by an agricultural research working party. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham, Royal UK.

Aregheore, E. M. 1996. Natural grassland and ruminant interactions in the dry season in Delta State, Nigeria. World Review of Animal Production 31 (1-2): 74-79.

Babatunde, B. A. Taiwo, A. O. Sekoni, G. A. Adeleke and A. O. Ogungbesan 2011 Flora composition of rangeland of Egbado North, Ogun State, Nigeria. J. Eco., Environ, Conser. 17 (1): 26-32.

Fadiyimu, A. A. and Alokan, J. A. 2007. Evaluation of medicinal plants, Rusringa Oleifora as replacement for Panicum maximum in West African Dwarf sheep diets. Proc. Akure Humboldt kelog, 3rd SAAT Annual Conf. Federal Univ of Tech. Akure.

FAO year book 1994. Fodder trees shrubs in range and farming system in tropical humid Africa Pp 52.

Kearl, J. P. 1982. Nutrient requirement of ruminant in developed countries. International feedstuff Institute, Utah Agricultural Expt Station. Utah State University, Logan Utah.

Le Houerou, H. N. 1980. Chemical composition and nutritive value of browse in tropical West Africa. In: Browse in Africa, the current state of knowledge. La Houerou, H. N. (Ed) ILCA Addis Ababa Pp 261-289.

Norton, B. W. 1994. The nutritive value of tree legume. In: Crutteridge R. C. and Shelton M. (Eds). Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture. CAB International Wallingford Pp 177-191.

Oji, U. I. and Isilebo, J. O. 2000. Nutrient characterization of selected browse plant in the humid tropics. In: Proc 27th Ann Conf Nig Soc Anim Prod. University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria. Pp 54-56.

Onifade, O. S. and Agishi, E. C. 1988. A review of forage production in Nigeria Savanna. In: Utilization or research results on forages and agricultural by-products materials as animals feed resources. (B. H. Dzowela, A. N. Said, Aarat Wendem Ageneh and J. A. Kategile Eds) Proc. of Joint Workshop PANESA and ARNAB. ILCA Adis Ababa. Pp 114-125.

Osuji, P. O., Fernandez- riveras and Odenyo, A. 1995. Improving fibre utilization and protein supply in animals fed poor quality roughages. ILRI nutrition research and plans. In: Rumen Ecology Research Planning. Proc. of a workshop held at ILRI Addis Ababa Pp 1-22.

Oyenuga, V. A. 1967. Agriculture in Nigeria. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. FAO, Rome, Italy, 308pp.

Simbaya, J. 2002. Potential of tree fodder/shrub legumes as feed resources for dry season supplementation of small holder ruminant animals. National Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Livestock and Pest Research Centre, Chilanga, Zambia. Pp 69-76.

Udoh, S. O. and H. Adamu-Nona 2000. A survey of browse species in Benue North Agric Zone, Benue State, Nigeria. Pp 25.

Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B. and Lewis, B. A. 2000. Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition J. Dairy Sci. 74: 3583-3597


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Table 1: The frequency of browse plants (trees) sampled in Ayetoro, Olodo, Igan-Okoto and Imasai of Egbado North Local Government Area. Samples

Ayetoro Frequency

Olodo Igan-Okoto

Imasai

Overall Frequency

Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-Ipil) 1.00 ---- 1.00 0.50 2.50 Glyricidia sepium (Marde De Cacao) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 Gmelina arborea (Pulp Wood) 0.50 0.33 0.67 0.50 2.10 Mangifera indica (Mango tree) 1.00 1.00 1.00 ----- 3.00 Terminalia catapa (Indian Almond) 1.00 ---- 1.00 1.00 3.00 Parkia biglobosa (African Locust Bean) ---- 1.00 1.00 0.75 2.75 Anacardium occidentale (Cashew Tree) 1.00 ---- 0.67 0.50 2.17 Chlophora excelsa (Iroko) 1.00 1.00 1.00 ----- 3.00 Musa sapientum (Plantain Tree) 0.50 0.33 1.00 ----- 1.83 Eleais guinensis (Oil Palm Tree) 1.00 ---- 1.00 1.00 3.00 Acacia spp. (Acacia Tree) ---- 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 Persia americana (Pear Tree) ---- ---- ---- 1.00 1.00 Psidium guajava (Guava Tree) 1.00 ---- 1.00 0.50 2.50 Adansonia digitata (Baobab Tree) ---- 1.00 ---- 1.00 2.00 Citrus spp. (Orange) 1.00 1.00 0.67 1.00 3.67 Bambosa vulgaris (Bamboo) 0.75 0.33 1.00 0.25 2.33 Ficus exasperata (Sand Paper Leaf Tree) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00

Table 2: The frequency of browse plants (shrubs) sampled in Ayetoro, Olodo, Igan-Okoto and Imasai of Egbado North Local Government Area. Samples Ayetoro Frequency

Olodo Igan-Okoto

Imasai Overall Frequency

Manihot utilissima (Cassava Leaf) 0.25 1.00 0.67 0.25 2.17 Cajanus cajan (Pigeon Pea Tree) 1.00 ---- 0.33 0.50 1.83 Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf Tree) 0.25 ---- 0.67 1.0 1.92 Sesbania sesban (Sesban) 1.00 ---- 1.00 ---- 2.00 Gossypium barbadense (Cotton Plant) ---- 0.67 ---- 0.75 1.42 Afzelia Africana (Heamorrhage Plant) 0.25 0.67 ---- ---- 0.92


54

Table 3: Proximate composition, acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre analysis of sampled trees Samples %DM %CP %CF %EE %Ash %NFE %ADF %NDF

Leucaena leucocephala 88.70±0.30 25.61±0.28 12.40±0.27 8.20±0.16 4.00±0.65 38.47±0.13 22.04±0.67 62.21±0.12 Glyricidia sepium 88.50±0.55 21.05±0.05 25.00±0.32 6.00±0.18 8.00±0.57 28.45±0.23 24.02±0.32 62.00±0.11 Gmelina arborea 88.68±0.32 20.39±0.66 15.00±0.05 3.44±0.03 16.00±0.20 33.83±0.18 42.72±0.11 64.11±0.44 Mangifera indica 89.13±0.17 17.44±0.43 22.58±0.01 5.84±0.28 11.29±0.27 31.98±0.02 29.62±0.29 63.02±0.66 Terminalia catapa 88.70±0.30 13.00±0.32 22.30±0.32 6.20±0.02 9.50±0.40 37.70±0.26 20.50±0.06 66.72±0.42 Parkia biglobosa 88.95±0.05 2.40±0.16 26.50±0.29 4.30±0.17 7.90±0.28 27.85±0.29 32.80±0.33 62.04±0.31 Anacardium occidentale 88.68±0.32 15.54±0.32 24.80±0.08 6.00±0.01 6.50±0.21 35.83±0.36 25.21±0.11 51.10±0.29 Chlophora excelsa 88.50±0.64 17.73±0.32 12.74±0.29 4.80±0.20 6.54±0.50 46.69±0.33 24.00±0.18 47.12±0.11 Musa sapientum 88.47±0.66 12.50±0.57 31.50±0.26 4.00±0.10 10.50±0.66 29.78±0.40 22.36±0.26 58.42±0.03 Eleais guinensis 89.28±0.02 11.60±0.18 24.20±0.02 3.80±0.18 7.90±0.02 41.78±0.02 23.00±0.52 61.14±0.19 Acacia spp. 89.68±0.04 19.16±0.34 23.80±0.26 6.00±0.26 7.00±0.34 33.72±0.05 36.05±0.17 54.28±0.32 Persia americana 89.03±0.07 20.58±0.02 23.60±0.17 10.00±0.56 8.30±0.01 26.55±0.21 18.04±0.33 43.44±0.01 Psidium guajava 88.72±0.01 18.40±0.60 17.60±0.08 8.50±0.33 3.50±0.36 40.71±0.26 21.16±0.02 50.16±0.01 Adansonia digitata 89.87±0.16 18.00±0.38 21.19±0.23 6.00±0.11 4.80±0.22 39.88±0.04 23.20±0.57 49.00±0.02 Citrus spp. 88.38±0.02 20.14±0.26 29.78±0.12 4.90±0.38 10.00±0.29 23.46±0.32 41.06±0.10 68.17±0.38 Bambosa vulgaris 89.46±0.11 14.70±0.30 16.40±0.10 9.00±0.04 5.60±0.02 43.76±0.14 30.04±0.22 69.11±0.42 Ficus exasperata 89.17±0.03 10.80±0.36 22.40±0.10 14.00±019 12.00±0.11 29.97±0.33 20.57±0.66 72.53±0.32 Range: 88.38-89.87 10.80-25.61 12.40-31.50 3.44-14.00 3.50-16.00 23.46-46.96 18.04-41.06 43.44-72.53 Note: %DM is not on fresh basis but as wilted/air-dried basis Table 4: Proximate composition, acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre analysis of sampled shrubs Samples %DM %CP %CF %EE %Ash %NFE %ADF %NDF

Manihot utilissima 88.78±0.62 21.80±0.22 15.60±0.66 4.00±0.28 18.40±0.10 29.07±0.47 29.05±0.36 48.36±0.66 Cajanus cajan 89.05±0.45 15.75±0.15 29.00±0.35 5.37±0.03 5.87±0.29 33.06±0.50 37.04±0.06 49.70±0.38 Gossypium barbadense89.03±0.34 13.60±0.08 15.80±0.67 11.00±0.18 4.00±0.36 44.63±0.29 23.04±0.01 47.11±0.11 Sesbania sesban 89.36±0.04 19.74±0.14 21.80±0.32 5.00±0.32 6.90±0.33 35.92±0.40 32.45±0.43 57.90±0.12 Vernonia amygdalina 88.23±0.16 17.92±0.16 15.40±0.14 5.20±.0.42 12.80±0.08 36.91±0.13 28.98±0.22 63.47±0.80 Afzelia Africana 89.11±0.61 22.92±0.01 16.40±0.27 4.00±0.67 5.90±0.12 39.89±0.20 34.79±0.03 51.10±0.02 Range: 88.23-89.36 13.60-22.92 15.40-21.80 4.00-11.00 4.00-18.40 29.07-44.63 23.04-37.04 47.11-63.47 Note: %DM is not on fresh basis but as wilted/air-dried basis


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Table 5: Mineral content (ppm), % (g/1000dm) of browse plant (trees) sampled in Egbado North Samples Ca

%DM P

%DMNa

%DMK

%DMMg

%DMZn

mg/KgCu

mg/KgFe

mg/Kg Mn

mg/KgBo

mg/KgLeucaena leucocephala 0.30 0.59 0.38 2.15 0.28 61.45 21.00 130.14 25.62 3.62 Glyricidia sepium 0.31 0.60 0.40 2.14 0.25 60.44 20.18 128.11 26.05 4.01 Gmelina arborea 1.12 0.41 0.03 3.60 0.48 56.11 14.12 300.04 19.98 2.85 Mangifera indica 0.96 0.32 0.03 2.04 0.32 49.95 11.11 300.26 17.96 1.97 Terminalia catapa 2.02 0.51 0.10 3.62 0.49 40.16 12.17 309.11 26.14 4.02 Parkia biglobosa 1.38 0.48 0.25 1.89 0.28 38.99 19.85 289.55 24.84 3.50 Anacardium occidentale 1.96 0.36 0.03 2.65 0.56 57.96 13.04 134.11 21.11 2.04 Chlophora excelsa 0.21 0.40 0.04 2.17 0.52 49.16 14.10 272.05 16.12 2.61 Musa sapientum 1.13 0.40 0.04 2.04 0.41 65.72 14.56 289.75 19.21 2.05 Eleais guinensis 1.12 0.35 0.03 2.11 0.46 57.14 14.62 295.62 20.01 3.96 Acacia spp. 1.20 0.47 0.19 2.87 0.30 52.11 12.17 290.68 19.48 2.59 Persia americana 1.04 0.34 0.03 2.10 0.39 66.21 15.01 291.16 18.93 2.55 Psidium guajava 1.15 0.48 0.03 2.16 0.52 51.19 16.02 300.92 21.11 3.00 Adansonia digitata 1.88 0.38 0.02 1.67 0.48 40.88 13.00 150.77 23.19 2.85 Citrus spp. 2.04 0.15 0.01 0.62 0.24 41.12 14.11 301.11 19.72 2.96 Bambosa vulgaris 1.17 0.50 0.40 3.52 0.46 64.11 15.04 299.16 14.17 2.86 Ficus exasperata 1.10 0.42 0.03 1.97 0.48 57.02 15.41 290.10 19.92 3.98

Table 6: Mineral content (ppm), % (g/1000dm) of browse plant (shrubs) sampled in Egbado North Samples Ca

%DM P

%DMNa

%DMK

%DMMg

%DMZn

mg/KgCu

mg/KgFe

mg/Kg Mn

mg/KgBo

mg/KgManihot utilissima 1.05 0.29 0.04 2.19 0.51 58.99 16.01 130.05 18.62 1.96 Cajanus cajan 0.75 0.36 0.08 2.74 0.48 41.25 16.86 170.17 21.22 4.20 Gossypium barbadense 0.92 0.75 0.20 2.06 0.48 62.11 14.87 287.60 15.00 2.25 Sesbania sesban 1.15 0.48 ---- 3.04 0.25 51.12 18.04 301.12 23.94 1.96 Vernonia amygdalina 1.98 0.62 0.08 2.91 0.52 41.86 14.11 301.42 21.12 4.96 Afzelia Africana 1.18 0.40 0.05 2.74 0.41 48.96 21.63 304.11 26.16 2.95

EFFECT OF BARK EXTRACT OF ERYTHROPHLEUM SUAVEOLENS ON FUNGAL ACTIVITIES IN WOOD OF TRIPLOCHITON SCLEROXYLON

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EFFECT OF BARK EXTRACT OF ERYTHROPHLEUM SUAVEOLENS (GUILLEMIN & PERROTTET) BRENAN ON FUNGAL ACTIVITIES IN WOOD OF TRIPLOCHITON SCLEROXYLON

K. SCHUM

Ogunsanwo, O.Y. and Adedeji, G. A. Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Wood is a naturally occurring composite constituted of three intimately- associated structural polymers; cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin material which is liable or vulnerable to degradation due to microbial and termites activities causing significant losses both in weight and strength. The rationale behind the use of preservatives in wood conservation is inherent in the great damages done by these bio-deteriorating agents on wood products. Therefore, its application on wood products becomes very important (Blanchette, 2005). Biodeteriorating agents are controlled in the past through the use of chemical preservative which are mainly inorganic in nature and usually not biodegradable. The persistence of these chemicals in the environment has resulted in a wide-spread existence throughout the food chain (Wang et al., 2001). This has resulted in stringent environmental regulations against the use of this type of chemicals. New wood treating options need to be explored not only to save wood and structures but to protect the wood industry. A great interest has been focused on some wood

preservatives that are relatively cost effective chemicals and have minimal toxicity to mammals and the environment. Ability of wood and natural plant extractives to protect wood against degrading fungi and insects has been one possible approach for developing new safer and more environmental friendly wood preservatives (Kartal et al., 2004). In the trend of being back to nature as well as realizing the ideal of sustainable environment, the plant extracts are playing and are still expected to play important role in people’s everyday living.

The use of few tropical naturally durable timber species extractives as an environmental friendly biological wood preservation for controlling biodeterioration by fungi and termites in wood has been previously investigated and reported (Onuorah, 2000; Ogunsanwo et al 2006; Salamah and Salmaih, 2007, (Olajuyigbe et al 2010). However, few studies have been done on the suitability of anti-biodeterioration activities of the Erythrophleum suaveolens bark extract for controlling biodeterioration by fungi and termites. Erythrophlehum suaveolens is an endemic species which is toxic to wide varieties of biotic

The use of traditional biocides such as Chromated Copper Arsenate CCA is being discouraged because of their negative effects on the environment. Extracts from natural products like wood is known to have materials which are capable of reducing activities of wood degrading agents. This study was therefore conducted to investigate the potentials of bark extract of Erythrophleum suaveolens against Ganoderma lucidum, white-rot and Fomitopsis pinicola, brown-rot.

Extracts of E.suaveolens bark was obtained using Chloroform-methanol. Wood blocks of Triplochiton scleroxylon sampled from base, middle and top of trees were treated with 5%, 10%, 20% concentrations of the extract as well as 100% water extraction and exposed to white rot and brown rot for 6 weeks.

Significant differences were found in level of absorption among sampling positions and concentration levels. Significant differences were observed on the effect of the fungi types, suggesting that the two test fungi have no similar deteriorating mechanism. Bark extract of E. suaveolens at concentration levels of 5%, 10% and 20% of methanol-chloroform extract were effective in suppressing the attack of the two fungi while improve the colour quality of the test wood from white to a more desirable brown. The weight losses of control test blocks were remarkably higher after 6 weeks of fungi exposure with Fomitopsis pinicola (brown-rot) having higher degrading mechanism over Ganoderma lucidum (white-rot) at all concentration levels. One hundred percent (100%) water concentration was the most effective in suppressing the activities of the test fungi. Active biocides identified include alkaloids, cardenolides, antraquinones, saponins and tannins.

The result presents cheap, viable and environment friendly alternative to synthetic chemical preservatives and represents a significant advance that addresses both environmental and health concerns associated with wood preservation.

Keywords: Bark extract, Erythrophleum suaveolens, Ganoderma lucidum, Fomitopsis pinicola, biodeterioration, Weight loss.


57

agents. The bark extracts have been successfully used for pre-emergence and emergence treatment of cereal (maize seeds) against pest attack by local farmers in Nigeria. There is need to harness this indigenous knowledge for development of biocide wood preservative, this is in tandem with the requirement of World Wood Protection Agency Standard to develop environmental friendly preservative.

It is therefore pertinent to harness more knowledge and information on the potentials of durable tropical timber extracts for the development of much needed environmental friendly wood protecting chemicals. This study is therefore initiated to examine the potency of the bark extract of Erythrophlehum suaveolens against white rot and brown rot in the wood of a tropical hardwood species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of extractive chemicals

The sample bark of E. suaveolens used for the study was obtained as sawmill waste in Imeko Ogun, State Nigeria. The samples were exposed to an ambient open laboratory conditions, one month for drying. They were then chipped and crushed into smaller particles. A sample of 2000g was measured from the crushed bark sample and divided into four (4) equal quantities, 500g each. The four samples of 500g each were soaked in methanol, chloroform, mixture of methanol and chloroform and water for 3 days. The essence of this was to determine the solvent that would yield best extraction. Preparation of test fungicide and yield estimation

A half volume-to-full volume method was used to dissolve the experimental bark samples in solvents. This implies 1g of bark samples in 2ml of solvent. A sample of 500g each was soaked in 1000ml of; methanol, chloroform, mixture of methanol and chloroform, and 3 days after which the mixtures were filtered. The filtrates were collected as extract solution (extract and solvent). The solvents were of the three organic solvents used; that is methanol, chloroform, methanol- chloroform mixture for the extraction. Three concentration levels were prepared from the best yield that was methanol chloroform mixture extract, 5%, 10% and 20%, using Kerosene as diluents. One hundred percent water extract as fourth concentration level and kerosene used as control.

Yield Estimation = Quantity of yield X 100 Quantity of bark sample

Determination of chemical component of the bark extract

The phyto-chemical screening of the extract was analyzed and the actual toxic substances determined in the Laboratory of Pharmacognosy department university of Ibadan using standard test procedures in accordance with AOAC (1984) and Pharmacognosy manual (2003),for screening secondary metabolites. Preparation of wood test block

Ninety test blocks of 2cm x 2cm x 6cm were obtained from the base, middle and top of Triplochiton scleroxylon trees harvested from Omo Forest Reserve, South Western Nigeria..The blocks were oven-dried for 18 hrs at 1030C, cooled and conditioned to room temperature of 27 ± 20C and weighed W1 before dipping impregnation. . Treatment of test blocks

Dipping impregnation method (FAO, 1986; Olajuyigbe, 2007) was used for the treatment of the wood test blocks with the prepared preservative. The diluent used was 1000 ml kerosene for each extract concentration (5, 10 and 20%) and 100% concentration of water extraction. Kerosene was used for control experiment. The test blocks were completely immersed in the prepared preservatives for 20 minutes so as to obtain a desirable level of absorption capable of retarding the biodeterioraion effects of test fungi in the laboratory. After treatment the blocks were removed from the treatment solution, drained and weighed as W2 to determine the rate and level of absorption. Absorption in kilograms per cubic meter (Kg/m3) were as follows Absorption Kg/m3 = 106 x weight of preservative absorbed 1000 x volume of wood Culture medium

Fresh fully grown Ganoderma lucidum, a white-rot fungus and Formitopsis pinicola, a brown-rot fungus were carefully removed, isolated and cultured in the pathology Laboratory of Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN) Ibadan, Nigeria. Sub culturing continued in the wood science laboratory of the Department of Forest Resources management, University of Ibadan, until fungi growth was sufficiently vigorous for the inoculation and infection of test blocks. A nutrient medium of Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) with distilled water was prepared and sterilized by autoclaving at 0.1N/mm2 and 1200C for 40 minutes. The prepared nutrient medium was poured in the 30 sterilized incubation bottles sideways, allowed to cool and solidify, and inoculated with the test fungi. The entire surface of the agar was covered with mycelium 5 days


58

after inoculation. The bottles were incubated at room temperature (27 ± 20C) in the Laboratory. Infection of test blocks

The test blocks were aseptically placed in the bottles containing actively growing cultures of the test fungi. The blocks were placed such that they came in contact with the aerial mycelium of the fungus and not the medium itself into which some of preservative might otherwise leach out. Thirty bottles were used and each bottle contained 3 wood positions labeled T1M1B1 – T30M30B30. Fifteen (15) bottles were exposed to Ganoderma lucidum while the other 15 were exposed to Formitopsis pinicola for a period of 6 weeks. Incubation and duration of test

The test blocks exposed to Ganoderma lucidum and Formitopsis pinicola in the bottles were incubated at 27± 20C for 6 weeks. At the end of the incubation period, test blocks were removed from the test bottles and the adhering mycelium was carefully brushed off the blocks. Test blocks were weighed as W4 immediately to determine moisture absorbed during the incubation period. Moisture content after incubation

After the incubation period of 6 weeks, the percentage moisture absorbed by the wood samples was determined. The Wet weights of the blocks were calculated before they were finally Oven-dried at 1030C for 18 hours. The test block were allowed to cool and conditioned before the final weight was taken as W5. The moisture content absorbed during the incubation period was thus calculated:

Moisture content (%) = W4 – W3 x 100 W3 Where W4 = weights of the blocks immediately after incubation, W3 = weights of the blocks prior incubations. Weight Loss Determination

At the end of the incubation period of 6 weeks, all test blocks were removed, Oven – dried at 1030C for 18 hours, conditioned and finally reweighed to determine weight loss. Weight loss was calculated from the conditioned weight of the wood blocks immediately before and after testing as follows;

Weight Loss (%) = W3 – W5 x 100 W3 Where W3 = weight of test block plus remaining test fungicide after conditioning and before exposure to the test fungi (g), and W5 = weight of the test block after test and after final conditioning (g).

Data analysis The data obtained were analyzed using a

Multi-factorial Analysis of Variance ANOVA. Means were separated with the aid of Least Significant Difference LSD at 5% level of significance. The general linear model (GLM) of statistical analysis of variance was used to determine variations within and between factors. Descriptive statistics were also used to illustrate variation patters among the factors. The factors considered were as indicated below: Test wood block at 3 sampling position (Top, middle and base). Two fungi types’ white-rot (Ganoderma lucidum) and Brown-rot (Formitopsis ponicola) Five types of preservative (5%, 10%, and 20%, Extract, 100% water and 100% kerosene) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Yield of extract

Results of yield of extract obtained from the back of E.suaveolens are presented in table1 Percentage yield was highest (37.78%) in chloroform-methanol, this is followed by methanol 33.03% and lowest in chloroform 9.03%, giving an indication that the species could yield better with the right combination of chemicals. It is interesting to note however that despite the lowest yield obtained from chloroform, addition of chloroform to methanol was able to yield better than methanol. It is suspected therefore that chloroform-methanol combination must have produced a different chemical compound which is capable of producing positive effect on the extraction of bark of E. suaveolens Appreciable amount of extractives obtained from methanol-chloroform mixture and methanol in Table 1 confirm the suitability of the solvents for removal the bark cell structures. The result showed that soaking technique and if used with suitable solvents, at least 30% yield can be achieved.

The best extract yield obtained from methanol/chloroform in Table 1 could be attributed to the mixture power of its polar and non-polar properties which acted to remove both the likely polar and non-polar toxic extractives that either the methanol or chloroform could not remove if not combined. From the result, methanol also proved effective as it has a very close extract volume. This shows that polar solvents alone are suitable for extraneous material extraction. Methanol extraction volume obtained is in conformity with the report of Osman et al. (2007).


59

Table 1: Yield estimate of extracts in grammes (g) and percentages (%)

Sample Methanol Chloroform Chloroform-Methanol YIELD(g) 165.16 45.13 188.92 YIELD (%)

33.03 9.03 37.78

Table 2: Chemical composition of E. suaveolens bark extract Chemical Tests Testing Reagents & Effect ALKANOIDS Dragenduff’s + v e Meyer’s - ve Wagner’s – ve CARDENOLIDES Keller-killiani + ve Kedde + ve ANTRAQUINONES Chloroform/Ammonia + ve SAPONINS Frostthing + ve TANNINS Ferric chloride + ve

Presence of biological active ingredients

The normal test tube Phytochemical screening for secondary metabolites result in Table 2 revealed the presence of Alkanoids, cardenolides, amtraqiompmes, saponins and tannins. This result confirmed the report of Aiyegoro et al (2007); that E.suaveolens extract contain saponins, tannins, steroids and alkaloid. The test tube method tested alkanoids positive in Dragenduff’s reagent and negative in both. Meyer’s and Wagner’s reagents as indicated in Table 2. The positive (+ ve) effects on the reagent indicated the presence of the metabolites. Absorption of extractives

Absorption of the extractives is significantly different at both the wood sampling positions and concentration levels, (Table 3). Duncan follow up test indicated that absorption of extractives at the base and middle woods were not significantly different, while wood blocks at the two levels

were different from wood at the top in absorption of bark extracts, (Table 4).For all bark extracts, absorption was highest in 100% water extraction and lowest in 5% Methanol-Chloroform extraction, (figure 1). However, increase in extract concentration did not translate to a corresponding increase in absorption, as absorption of extracts dropped in all wood types when concentration of extracts was increased from 10% to 20%. This is similar to the results obtained by Olajuyigbe et al (2010), implying that wood of Triplochiton scleroxylon has the tendency to repel extracts at higher concentration. The highest absorption observed in 100% water extraction is expected, the extract was evenly miscible and evenly distributed in water which must have allowed more extract solution to be absorbed by the wood blocks. Apart from this, water is denser and less mobile as compared with kerosene as diluents, a favourable factor responsible for higher absorption rate.

Table 3: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for absorption of extract in test blocks SV DF SS MS F-Value P Sampling position (P) 2 1952.546 976.273 4.013 0.022* Extract Con. (C) 4 25304.012 6326.003 26.002 0.000* PC 8 1656.636 207.079 0.851 0.561 Error 75 18246.528 243.287 Total 89 47159.722 *Significant at α = 0.05 Table 4: Duncan follow up test of absorption on sampling position Wood Position Mean value Base 89.8611 a Middle 87.0833 a Top 78.8890 b

Means with the same alphabet are not significantly different from each other at α = 0.05


60

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

5% 10% 20% 100% control

Extract concentration

Abs

orpt

ion

topmiddlebase

Fig. 1: Absorption rate of E suaveolens bark extraction concentrations on test wood block

position. Table 5: Duncan follow up test of absorption concentration levels.

Concentration levels Mean 100% water 117.1296 a 10% 83.7963 b 20% 82.4074 bc Control 72.6851 cd 5% 70.3704 d Mean with the same alphabet are not significantly different from each other at α = 0.05 Efficacy of extracts on wood blocks

Analysis of variance showed that weight loss in bark extract of E. suaveolens treated wood blocks is not significantly affected by sampling position of wood blocks. On the other hand, Fungi type as well as concentration of extract significantly affected weight loss of test blocks, (Table 6). Weight losses of control test blocks were remarkably higher after 6 weeks of exposure to fungi, showing that the extracts were effective in controlling the activities of the fungi. In particular, Formitopsis pinicola (brown-rot) had higher degrading mechanism over Ganoderma lucidum (white-rot) at all concentration levels,

giving an indication that the bark extract of E. suaveolens were more effective in the control of white rot than brown rot; thus corroborating the work of Olajuyigbe et al (2010). The best antifungal activity was observed in 100% water extraction for the two test fungi. Also, antifungal activities generally increased with increasing concentration in white rot, as illustrated in decreasing weight loss (figure 2). The result conforms to reports of Kazeni et al. (2006) and Humar et al. (2006). Conversely, there was a general increase in weight loss with increasing concentration in the test blocks exposed to brown rot giving an indication that activities of brown rot are likely to reduce at low concentrations of bark extract of E. suaveolens. This is because at the low concentration, effective substances can easily be dissolved in solution and affects the fungi. The result agrees with the reports of Sen et al. (2002), Osman et al. (2007). This has great implications on the applicability of the extract as low concentration might imply low production cost and hence low price of product.

Table 6: ANOVA for percentage Weight loss for test block SV DF SS MS f-value p-level P 2 10.614 5.307 1.750 0.182 F 1 53.801 53.801 17.742 0.000* C 4 160.053 40.013 13.195 0.000* PF 2 0.889 0.444 0.147 0.864 PC 8 15.5 1.938 0.639 0.742 FC 4 7.45 1.862 0.614 0.654 PFC 8 6.386 0.798 0.263 0.975 Error 60 181.944 3.032 Total 89 436.636 * Significant α = 0.05


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Table 7: Duncan follow-up test for weight loss on concentration level

Concentration level Mean Control (kerosene) 6.880 a 20% 4.281 b 10% 4.016 bc 5% 3.811 bc 100% water 2.905d Mean with the same alphabet are not significantly different from each other at α = 0.05

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

5% 10%

20%

100%

contr

ol

Extract concentration

Wei

ght l

oss

(%)

whiterotbrownrot

Fig. 2: Effectiveness of E suaveolens bark on test block to G. lucidum, and F. pinicola CONCLUSION

The results of this study have shown that biocides extract from E. suaveolens bark was effective against biodeterioration by Ganoderma lucidum (white-rot) and Formitopsis pinicola (brown-rot). One hundred percent (100%) water extraction of extract was most effective at low cost in the control of the test. While bark extract of E. suaveolens was effective in the control of white rots at high concentrations, low concentrations of extract was more effective in the control of brown rot.

REFERENCES

Aiyegoro, O.A., Akinpelu, D, A., and Okoh, A.I. 2007. In vitro Antibacterial Potential of the stem Bark of Red Water Tree (Erythrophleum suaveolens). Journal of Biological Sciences. 7(7); 1233-1238.

Blanchette, R., 2005. Microbes in Trees and Wood. Research Project, University of Minnesota. Retrieved April 21, 2008 from http://www.forestpathology . coafes. umn..edu.

FAO, 1986. Wood preservation manual. FAO Forestry Paper 76: 152

Kartal, S.N., Yoshimura, T., and Imamura, Y. 2004. Decay and termite resistance of boron-

treated and chemically modified wood by in-situ co-polymerization of ally glyucidyl ether (AGE) with methyl methacrylate (MMA) Int. Biodeterior. Biodegradation 53(2): 111-17.

Kazemi, S.M., Hosinzadeh., A., and Rezaii, M.B. 2006. The effect of woody and non-woody plants extractives on microbial resistance of non-durable species. International Research Group on Wood preservation, Doc. No IRG/P06-20392. Paper for the 37th Annual meeting, Tromso Norway, 18-22 June, 2006.

Ogunsanwo, O.Y, Adetogun, A.C. and Ogunbiyi, A.O.(2006) Preliminary Investigation on the efficacy of Wood Extract Of Teak Tectona grandis as Preservative Against Wood Decay . Proceeding of ECOWOOD 2006 Conference, Portugal, September ,2006.

Olajuyigbe, S.O, Ogunsanwo, O.Y and Adegeye, A.O (2010) Compressive strength in eartwood Extract of Teak (HWE) treatedhardwoods after exposure to white rot attack. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 4 (3) 571-578

Onuorah, E. 2000. The wood preservative potentials of heartwood extracts of Milicia excelsa and Emythrophleum suaveolens. Bioresour. Technology 75(2); 171-163.


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Osman, G., Ramazan ,M., Emin, M.D., Ertan, O., Melda, A.C., and Ferah, Y. 2007. Introduction and evaluation of the Wood Preservative Potentials of the poisonous Sternbergia candidum extracts. African Journal of Biotechnology. 6(8), 982-986. April 16, 2007. Retrieved April 15, 2008 from http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB.

.Salamah, S., and Salmiah, U. 2007. Using Biotechnology in tropical forests for wealth generation. Research Project Forest Research Institute Malasis (FRIM). Retrieved April 15, 2008 from http://agricultureresearch .blogspot. com./2007_ 12_ 01_ achive.html.

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Effect of Erythrophleum suaveolens bark extract on fungi activity in wood of Triplochiton...

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