Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis on MPA of Raja Ampat, Papua, Indonesia

Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis on MPA of Raja Ampat, Papua,

Indonesia.

by

Ario Wicaksono

249913

B.Sc, Saint Cloud State University, 2006

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO COMPLETE THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF Master of Science

in

Faculty of Agricultural Science

(Environmental Management)

Ecology Centre

Christian Albrecht University

Kiel Germany

Summer Semester 2010

____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat i

Abstract

Ecosystem resilience is observed to identify both strong and weak

components of an ecosystem. When found vulnerable to many natural and or

anthropogenic threats, it is important for ecosystem managers to develop plan to

avoid, mitigate, and minimize the potential risk. This study attempts to deliver

risk analysis on a defined MPA of Raja Ampat, Papua, Indonesia. In doing so, this

study employs methods of Ecosystem Based Management (EBM) and of

Ecosystem Analysis (DPSIR) to describe linkages between the economic

valuation of ecosystem services and potential tsunami risk. Driven by its natural

biodiversity and species richness above and under water as well as on terrestrial

ground, the areas are being conserved sustainably through integration of

ecosystem, social and economical approach similar to Integrated Coastal Zone

Management (ICZM). On a side note, community development, however, lags

behind the actual development of the MPA.

Keyword; Raja Ampat, Papua, ecosystem services, fisheries, coral reefs,

resilience, tsunami, mitigation plan, BNPB, disaster, relief fund, forest, coastal

management, EBM, DPSIR, sustainable, risk analysis, mangroves.

_____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat ii

Table of contents

Abstract..............................................………………………………………………i

Table of Contents….……………………………………………………………………ii

List of Tables........................................................................................iii

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………iv

Acknowledgments...............................................................................vi

1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………. …1

1.1 Problem Statement…… …..……………………………………….……………… 1

1.2 Research Objectives…….. ………………………………………………………… 3

1.3 Thesis Outline ..………..…...………………………………………………………. 5

2 Background and Literature Review………………………………………………6

2 Raja Ampat, Papua, Indonesia……………………………………. ………………….6

2.1 Physical landscape…………………………………………………………………….6

2.2 Geology……………………………………………………………………………………7

2.3 Vegetation………………………………………………………………………………11

2.3.1 Highland submontane forest…….…………………………………12

2.3.2 Lowland and hill rain forest on dry land……………………….14

2.3.3 Hill forest on acid volcanics and metamorphics…………….15

2.3.4 Lowland forest on ultrabasics………………………………………17

2.3.5 Mangroves………………………………………………………………...18

2.4 Social and Economic Policy……………………….…………………………….19

3 Methods in MPA Management…….………………………………………………23

3.1. Ecosystem Services…………………………………………….…………………..23

3.1.1 Drivers……………………………………………………………………….27

3.1.2 Pressure…………………………………………………………………….28

3.1.3 States………………………………………………………………………..29

3.1.4 Impact………….…………………………………………………………..30

3.1.5 Responses………………………………………………………………….31

3.1.6 Fisheries……………………………………………………………………33

_____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat iii

3.1.7 Environmental and economic………………………………………34

3.2 Risk Assessment (EBM) model……………..…………………………………36

4 Risk Analysis on Raja Ampat……………………………………………..……….38

4.1 Threats definition and identification…………..…………………………….38

4.1.1 Definition of natural disaster and Impacts…………..………..38

4.1.2 Natural disasters influence factors……..………………………..39

4.1.2.1 Hazard………………………………………………………….40

4.1.2.2 Elements at risk………………………………………….…40

4.2 Risk Management Strategies on Natural Disaster………………..…….41

4.2.1 Risk Control Techniques………………………………………….….44

4.3 Tsunami …………………….………………………………………………………….45

4.3.1 Tsunami Causes…………………………………………………………45

4.3.1.1 Earthquake generates tsunami……………………..…46

4.3.1.2 Volcanic eruption generates Tsunami……………...47

4.3.1.3 Landslides generates Tsunami………………………..47

4.3.2 Tsunami Protection……………………………………………………48

4.3.2.1 Tsunami Warning System………………………………48

4.4 Bathymetry…………………………………………………………………………….51

4.4.1 Fisheries………………………………………………………………….. 52

4.4.2 Mangroves……………………………………………………………….. 53

4.4.3 Coral reefs…………………………………………………………………54

4.5 Coastal management……………………………………………………………….57

4.5.1 Policy and Regulation on Disaster Management…………….57

4.6 Problems with Reliance on Aid for Natural Disaster Relief………….59

5 Conclusion……………………………………………. ………………….………………..…61

5.1 Landscape and population……………..………………………………………..61

5.2 Strength, weaknesses, future research………………….…………………..61

5.3 Recommendation on Management and Policies…………………………62

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………..63

_____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat iv

Tables and Figures

Table List Page

Table 1. Category of geological forms................................................................ 11

Table 2. Mangrove Distribution ....................................................................... 18

Table 3. Mangrove Carbon Capacity................................................................. 19

Table 4. MPA Contributions……....................................................................... 24

Table 5. Types of Ecosystem Services............................................................... 25

Table 6. Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services ...................................... 26

Table 7. Classification of extreme events......................................................... 40

Table 8. Exposed area of land use.................................................................... 52

Figure List Page

Figure 1. Area of study….… ................................................................................. 1

Figure 2. Conceptual Eco-Analysis Framework ................................................ 4

Figure 3. Waigeo map………………....................................................................... 8

Figure 4. Misool map……………………………......................................................... 9

Figure 5. Kofiau map.......................................................................................... 9

Figure 6. Salawati and Batanta map………………............................................... 10

Figure 7. Vegetation on Batanta and Salawati ................................................. 12

Figure 8. Gunung Nok………………………............................................................ 13

Figure 9. Submontane Forest on Karst ……...................................................... 14

Figure 10. Intsia tree………………….................................................................... 15

Figure 11. Vegetation on Waigeo …………………................................................. 15

Figure 12. Canyon of Oribiai River.................................................................... 16

Figure 13. Mass civil gathering in Jayapura .................................................... 20

Figure 14. Mass civil gathering in Jayapura..................................................... 20

Figure 15. DPSIR Framework……………............................................................ 27

Figure 16. Merbau Log…………………………........................................................ 35

Figure 17. Costanoa Scheme….......................................................................... 37

Figure 18. Resilience Scheme….…………............................................................ 27

Figure 19. Natural Disaster Scheme …..…........................................................ 39

Figure 20. Natural Disaster Risk Management................................................ 37

Figure 21. Mitigation and Finance plans.......................................................... 43

Figure 22. Tsunami Cause……..…………............................................................ 46

_____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat v

Figure 23. Tsunamimeter DART….. …..…........................................................ 48

Figure 24. Seawalls………………………………...... ................................................ 49

Figure 25. Tsunami Wall Protection in Japan ................................................ 50

Figure 26. Elevation Map of Raja Ampat......................................................... 51

Figure 27. Fisheries Catchments Area...…........................................................ 53

Figure 28. Mangroves on Misool ……………………............................................. 54

Figure 29. Costanoa Scheme….......................................................................... 37

Figure 30. Batanta and Salawati Reef Coverage.............................................. 55

Figure 31. Waigeo Reef Coverage…. …..…........................................................ 56

Figure 32. Misool Reef Coverage…………………................................................. 56

Figure 33. Modified ICZM Scheme................................................................... 57

Figure 34. ICZM approach….….…………............................................................ 59

_____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat vi

Acknowledgments

I would first like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Hans-Rudolf Bork and Dr.

Klaus Dierssen who have offered continuous support and guidance in

developing this master work. Secondly, I would like to extend thanks to my

Master Program Coordinator, Dr. Wilhelm Windhorst who provided much

valuable advice on internship opportunities and networking. Also, special

thanks go to my Papuan brother of arms, Christano Ken Mambay of Serui,

who first inspired and shed so many insights on social injustice and overview

on undeveloped Raja Ampat fisheries and reefs. And finally many thanks are

owed to my sisters, Kristina Setyowati and Dian Ray who have helped funding

this small research. Even so, their words of encouragement have certainly

preserved my focus, ample motivation and good spirit in times of difficulties.

“I refuse to be dismayed, disengaged, disgruntled, or distracted.

Neither will I look back, stand back, fall back, or sit back. I do not need

applause, flattery, adulation, prestige, stature, or veneration. I do not have

time for business as usual, mediocre standards, small thinking, outdated

methods, normal expectations, average results, ordinary ideas, petty

disputes, or low vision. I will not give up, give in, bail out, lie down, turn

over, quit or surrender”

(Yogyakarta, November 2010)

_____________________________________________________________________ Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis in MPA Raja Ampat - 1 -

1 Introduction

“To many people around the world, fish and fisheries resources mean food,

income, livelihood and culture” (Bailey, 2004).

1.1 Problem Statement

Ecosystem resilience is often observed to identify both strong and weak

components of an ecosystem. In order to maintain key functions and

processes in the face of stresses or pressures, resilient is shown either by

resisting or adapting to change (McLeod & Salm, 2008). When found

vulnerable to many natural and or anthropogenic threats, it is important for

ecosystem managers to develop plan to avoid, mitigate, and minimize the

potential risk. Observing on Marine Protected Area (MPA) Raja Ampat, Papua

Indonesia, there found not just breathtaking coastal lines and coral reefs,

outstanding biodiversity, high abundant fisheries and marine organisms, but

also complex ecological, economical and social problems. Problems described

in this thesis:

a. Unsustainable resource management practices

b. Potential natural risk and threats in Raja Ampat

c. High reliance on international aid in handling disaster relief

d. Cultural awareness on contingency measures

Figure 1. Area of study Raja Ampat, Papua, Indonesia.


Off the shore of Raja Ampat Islands, fisheries and other marine

resources are being exploited at an alarming rate using unsustainable

measures (Bailey, 2007). Depleting fish stocks, destructive fishing methods,

damaged mangrove forests, stagnant economies, and nutrition shortages in

the developing countries are evidence of the impacts of non-sustainable

resources management practices. Bailey wrote that due to economic issues

such as poverty and a high social cost, many developing countries encounter

pressure to over-exploit their fisheries resources in order to meet short-term

domestic demand while also competing in international market (Bailey,

2007).

Given that such unsustainable strategies not only further reduce fish

stocks, one can note that they also have significant socio-economic

ramifications on a medium to a long period of time. Conventionally,

traditional methods of marine resource management have often focused only

on the short term benefits. This calls for a need on alternative resource

management schemes which incorporate socio-economic, political, and

ecological factors into decision making (Bailey, 2007). The so called

ecosystem-based management (EBM) is such a scheme, pitching in a great

potential to address various and complex issues of resource management in

the developing world (Clarke & Jupiter, 2010).

In addition to the anthropological pressures, risk of natural disaster

such as earthquake and tsunami nevertheless remain significant to Raja

Ampat. This is principally due to the geological landscape of the area which

lies on the tip of Australian plate. To this particular risk, such risk assessment

can be useful in formulating an effective contingency plan and management.

Furthermore, learning from the previous tsunami in Aceh in 2004 and most

current on Mentawai Island on October 2010, contingency measures should

be effectively implemented within the corridors of Integrated Coastal Zone

Management (ICZM) through EBM framework.

Raja Ampat was initially selected as a candidate area of marine studies

by the David and Lucille Packard Foundation which also fund numbers of


community based marine projects in Asian region (Bailey, 2007). Having a

healthy environment and high biodiversity, new governmental organization

and prospective plans for long term economic development make Raja Ampat

ideal example of sustainable managed area. More so, the local government of

Raja Ampat is looking to find management recommendations that can show

the trade offs between the short term costs of a conservation fisheries plan and

the long term economic advantages the area provides for its (Bailey, 2007). In

part of continuous efforts designated toward conservation area throughout

USAID coastal projects since 1999, Raja Ampat has shown positive

development in capacity building involving local stakeholders including

regional government, head of villages, tribal elders, transmigratory fishermen,

private companies, state universities, research institutions and international

NGOs (Bailey, 2007).

1.2 Research Objectives

This research is based on previous studies completed on site involving

stakeholders particularly of a consortium from non-governmental

organizations Conservation Inter-national (CI), The Nature Conservancy

(TNC), and World Wildlife Fund (WWF).

In specific, baseline data and main literature are compiled from Rapid

Assessment Program (RAP), Economic Analysis of of Unregulated and Illegal

Fishing in Raja Ampat, and Vegetations of The Raja Ampat. While most of

studies focus on biodiversity, eco-tourism, fisheries, and economies, this

thesis aims to develop better understanding of the natural and anthropogenic

threats on the area covered on the geographic region of Raja Ampat

systematically based on the EBM and Ecosystem Analysis models (DPSIR).

In this thesis, I answer the following two questions: what are the main

ecosystem services and how are they being protected from natural threats and

anthropogenic pressures. The main objectives of this study are:

1 Describe the value of main ecosystem provisioning services in order to

set priorities in developing zones of risk through classifying land uses

and ecosystems services (fisheries, mangroves, reefs, tourism,).


2 Describe the relationships of Raja Ampat ecosystem analysis using

EBM and DPSIR framework.

3 Assessing the magnitude of risk, identifying location and distribution

of exposed area based on topographical conditions and elevation level.

Methods of this research range from spatial data review and analysis,

ecosystem provisioning mapping, bathymetry and landscape analysis. Data

will be generated through literature reviews; stakeholder interviews, national

and scientific database, remote sensing data. Expected output of this study

are risk analysis map, mitigation plan, supplemental data and informational

poster presentation that can be used to support decision on policy making

processes, best management practices, community development projects and

further scientific research.

Figure 2. Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services (Burkhard et al,

2009)

In principle, this study adopted ecosystem valuation methodology

proposed by Burkhard et al., which emphasizes the usage of spatial data

corresponding to ecosystem services in order to generate their valuation

matrixes which are inherently critical to expert judgment, and integrate them

with the other types of data to produce informative GIS maps. As shown on


the image above, this study attempts to carry out systematic tasks of

developing integrated types of data string (Burkhard et al., 2009)

1.3 Thesis Outline

To contribute to the overall objectives of the Risk Analysis on Raja

Ampat, this thesis is structured into five chapters. The first chapter states the

background, objectives and outlines of the manuscript. Chapter 2 introduces

the reader to the area of Raja Ampat regency, describing the spatial data on

landuses, seascape, abiotic and biotic information on physical landscape

structure, geology, and vegetation, social and economical highlights of the

area.

Chapter 3 provides the types of ecosystem services and causal analysis

on ecosystem components through DPSIR and EBM modeling approach. This

chapter illustrates the methods of ecosystem valuation work which is

important in developing priorities in assessing risk on the ecosystem. Here

data collected from literature review are used to create baseline map.

Chapter 4 discusses further the process of Risk Assessment by

identifying threats, enforce zoning, and develop effective mitigation plan.

Alternatives encountering disaster relief fund is explained. Characteristics of

tsunami and bathymetrical zoning map then are described. Sub topics on

preventive actions and measures on coastal area which actually help construct

a bigger picture on the protection of ecosystem and its services are revealed.

The shared responsibility in managing quality landscape on Raja Ampat then

is further addressed.

The final chapter serves to summarize the two component studies

elaborated on this thesis; ecosystem services and risk assessment. This

chapter discusses how thesis results can be used by local government and

other researchers. The strengths and weaknesses of the approaches used here,

future research, and recommendation on management and policies, are

discussed.


2 Background and Literature Review

“In their boats, continued to bring us abundance of excellent fish; also

turtles, which my Mahometans would not eat; but they ate the eggs. The

natives had a way of stuffing the guts of the turtle, with the yolks of its eggs.

So filled, they rolled it up in a spiral form, and roasted it, or rather dried it

over a slow fire; it proved then a long sausage”

Forrest (1969)

2 Raja Ampat, Papua, Indonesia

2. 1 Physical landscape

The province of Papua is the most easterly of Indonesia's 33 provinces.

To the east, it shares border with Papua New Guinea. The island is

characterized by a marked dry and wet season as in entire tropical area of the

country (Bailey, 2007). The dry season typically lasts from April to October

and is mainly influenced by wind currents coming from the north of Australia,

while the wet season, resulting from mainland Asia and Pacific Ocean

currents, falls between November and March (Bailey, 2007).

In terms of precipitation, there is little climate data for the area, but in

general we can expect that rainfall falls off further away from the Papuan

mainland. In this respect, Batanta and Salawati will be wetter than the other

islands. Mainland rainfall is recorded at 1.5–3.0 m.y−1, while a station on

Saunek (Waigeo) recorded 1.5 m.y−1. Mainland sites have 1 dry month (mean

< 0.1 m), while Waigeo has 2–4. The wettest months being noted are April to

September (Webb, 2005).

The Raja Ampat Islands are situated between 0º20’ N and 2º15’ S and

129º35’ E and 131º20’ E. The open area extends to more than 43,000 km² or 4

million hectares (Maria et al. 2007) while the area of study covers only 6974

hectares. Raja Ampat which literally means four kings includes four large

islands of Batanta, Waigeo, Salawati, Misool and numbers of smaller islands

around them with strings of Gag, Kofiau and Bambu Island in the west and

Sayang island to the north (Bailey, 2007).


Historically, as early as 19th century, Berry and Siswanto noted there

found Kawe tribe of Raja Ampat who made living from fisheries and other sea

resources on the area which then known as “Netherlands New Guinea” as the

Dutch held strong influence on most economic and political authorities

(Palomares et al, 2007). Some hundreds of kilometers northwest of Raja

Ampat, on Moluccan waters, the Dutch had established a massive port mainly

for trade and export on various commodities. It is noted that in 1700, trade

was made with the Chinese on fish fry, sharkfins, sea priapus, crabs, tripam

and certain beans (Webb, 2005).

In 2007, local regency of Sorong, Papua, declared several sites of

Marine Protected Areas (MPA) covering around 650,000 hectares of coastal

areas on Raja Ampat (Bailey, 2007). Driven by its natural biodiversity above

and under sea waters as well as on terrestrial ground, the areas are being

managed sustainably through integration of ecosystem, social and economical

approach similar to one of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).

However, the regency chose to adhere to a more empirical method as found in

Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) (Bailey, 2007). Surrounded by natural

resources ranging from oil and gas to fish, the area attracts many non

permanent settlers from other island. In 2008 survey, there are 50,000

inhabitants living on the shorelines of Raja Ampat (Palomares et al, 2007).

This creates pressures on the environment as well as on the population. In

addition to that, the geological area of Raja Ampat lies right on the tip of

Australian plate makes it vulnerable to earthquake or tsunami.

2.2 Geology

Waigeo and Batanta lies on the Tosen micro-plate (originates from

Pacific), which also holds Halmahera island (Webb, 2005). Recent

reconstruction model of Robert Hall’s group (Royal Holloway) showed that

the Tosen block is developed as a mid-ocean archipelago, which then was

remote from any mainland at 50 million years. Over time, it then begun to

shift to its current position from the east-north-east, then due east within the

same period as the main Papuan plates moved in from south (Webb, 2005).


In the event when the Pacific plates slided over the fairly stable

Australian plates, it caused the formation of deep underwater troughs. At 10

million years, Waigeo is believed to be where the town of Biak now is,

assuming its present position in the last 2 million years (Palomares et al,

2007). This recent arrival suggest the high number of prevalent fauna found

on Batanta and Waigeo (such as the Waigeo maleo, and the red and Wilson’s

birds-or-paradise), and possibly the absence of cassowaries from Waigeo

though it is close to the mainland (Webb, 2005).

Figure 3. Waigeo geology layer

Examples of predominant tertiary oceanic basaltic rocks are Waigeo

and Batanta overlaid with the tertiary Waigeo and Dajang limestones (Webb,

2005). Studies have long suggested that the rapid movement of plates has led

to a great variety of surface rocks. The volcanics are characterized as “basic to

intermediate tuffs, agglomerates, lavas and dykes of the Tertiary Dore Home

and Batanta” formations (Webb, 2005). This occurred with trapped slivers of

other exotic rocks in the fault zones, metamorphosed to a greater or lesser

extent (Webb, 2005). Ultrabasic rocks are also present, adding to the variety

of substrates. The ultrabasics hold significant amount of nickel deposits which

has called on exploration plan to mine the Goisthmus. Consequently, the

tailings from such mining activity would devastate the ecology of the shallow

Menyalibit bay (Webb, 2005).


On Waigeo, the three major landforms are SKS, APR and BMI (Webb,

2005). By definition, SKS is areas of sharp ridge and valleys on weathered

volcanic rocks BMI is similar to SKS in physiognomy, over ultrabasic rocks.

APR is a land system of steep tooth-shaped karst towers, practically

inaccessible to climb (Webb, 2005).

Figure 4. Misool geology layer

Meanwhile, Misool and Salawati are part of the main Kemun block of

the Bird’s Head (an Australian plate) which became less uplifted. The

mountains of northern Salawati are Tertiary volcanic in origin, with areas of

uplifted Jurassics and stone (Webb, 2005).. To the south are recently uplifted

plains of Quaternary sediments (mudstones). The hills of southern Misool are

classified by RePPProt as acid silicaceous metamorphics and Jurassic acid

sedimetary rocks. It also contains large areas of the extremely inaccessible

APR landform, hence, little explored nature of its interior (Webb, 2005).

.

Figure 5. Kofiau geology layer


Webb noted, particularly in the north of Misool, the limestone uplands

are predominantly Jurassic, while the low northern rim are recently-uplifted

(Quaternary) reefs. Kofiau is also primarily of these same recently raised reefs

with a few hills of Tertiary volcanic (Webb, 2005).

Figure 6. Salawati and Batanta geology layer

Salawati has low hills and valleys in the north on a mixture of geologies,

and flat plains in the south (Webb, 2005). The plains which overlay oil and gas

deposits as well as gas flares mark the extensive petroleum industry being

developed on the island. Batanta is generally of SKS and MAR; another less

towering limestone rock formation. Both compositions contribute to the deep

bays on the north coast of Batanta (Webb, 2005).


Table 1: Categories of forms common in the survey area, by area in the three

major island groups (ha);from RePPProT (1986).

2.3 Vegetation

The general vegetative observations on the study area remarks some

form of New Guinea lowland forest (Webb, 2005). Some of these subdivisions

(between submontane, upland, lowland and alluvial forest on the same

substrate) do not take place at well defined floristic boundaries suggesting

that forest composition does turn over between the lowlands and uplands. The

turnover of species between substrates can be more profound, especially

between karst and volcanic soils (Webb, 2005).

As shown below, the problem with mapping vegetation from GIS and

remote sensing (RS) data, some classes observed are not easy to detect in RS

layers, thus variations in RS layers is difficult to interpret given extensive field

observations (Webb, 2005).


Figure 7 : Vegetation cover on Batanta and Salawati (Webb, 2005)

2.3.1 Highland Submontane forest

Though no areas of the Raja Ampat are situated on elevation higher

than 1,000 m, the proximity of their mountains to the ocean (the

‘Masenehebung effect’), means that pseudo-montane vegetation merges at

lower elevations than would be found inland (Webb, 2005). The character of

the vegetation at 700 m, and the descriptions of the top of Gunung Nok by van

Royen (1960), indicate submontane type vegetation. The sub-montanezones,

being relatively species-poor, are likely to have the highest proportions of

endemic and new species (Webb, 2005).


Figure 8. Gunung Nok (Webb, 2005)

Webb observed that the woody species on top of the Gunung Nok are

Evodiasp., Rhodomyrtus trineura, Drimys piperita, Elaeocarpus sp.,

Rhododendron cornu-bovis (a newspecies), Melastoma sp. and Rapanea sp.

The moderately large area of high elevation forest on Mt. Danai is of a strong

montane character, although on the ridges, there may be obvious inter-

digitation of lower forest types in the valleys and coves with sub-montane

forest (Webb, 2005).

In Batanta, the main character of the forest at 700 m sitting on karst

structure is categorically sub-montane (Webb, 2005). There are bounds of

ferns and signs of nearly complete turnover of understory plants from farther

down. At a distanced observation on the island, a semi permanent cloud belt

had its base (Webb, 2005). High tolerant in extreme climate condition, an

indicator species of karst such as palm (Gulubia costata), is visible all the way

up to the top of the Batanta mountains (Webb, 2005).


Figure 9. Submontane forest on karst (Webb, 2005)

Studies of geological layers on Batanta above 700 m suggest

composition of limestone and volcanic soils. Mainly due to humidity, potential

forest fire is not significant in posing disturbance to the dynamics of the

vegetation at this elevation (Webb, 2005)

2.3.2 Lowland and hill rain forest on dry land

Lowland forest in New Guinea generally reflects Malesian in character,

though less dominated by dipterocarps farther west (Webb, 2005). The

dominant genera include: Pometia, Intsia, Terminalia, Vatica, Dillenia,

Anisoptera, Cryptocarya, Syzygium, Ficus, Celter, Semecarpus,

Koordersiodendron, Sapotacea. Some smaller species of tree originates from

the genera Diospyros, Myristica, Calophyllum (Webb, 2005).

Based on elevation zone (above and below 300 m), and by substrate

(volcanic, limestone and sandstone), trees develop smaller as elevation

increases while ridge/valley becomes more pronounced (Webb, 2005).

Fagaceae and Lauraceae and Elaeocarpusalso dominates at higher

elevations while Terminalia is less dominant. Webb suggests that moisture

plays a greater role in species turnover between sites than substratechemistry

(ultrabasic rocks excepted). In general, forests at higher elevations and farther

inland are moister than on the coast (Webb, 2005).


2.3.3 Hill forest on acid volcanics and metamorphics

Above 300 m on Gunung Nok, and on Gunung Danai, indicator species

appears to be Nageia wallichiana (syn. = Podocarpus wallichianus). The

forest is still of tall stature (ca. 30 m asl) on the ridges up to ca. 500 m asl

(Webb, 2005). On Gn. Danai, Hopea trees found at 400 m, along with figs and

Elaeocarpus. At 350 m on Batanta mountain, on the picture below, a large

Intsia trees had escaped the chainsaw (Webb, 2005).

Figure 10. Intsia tree (Webb, 2005)

The composition of forests here are not different from those on

volcanics and acid metamorphics at lower elevations (Webb, 2005).

Figure 11. Vegatation cover on Waigeo (Webb, 2005)


The map above, describes the largest lowland vegetation on Waigeo.

Sites characteristics of soils are well weathered while the forest developed

toward succession. These areas have been extensively logged (Webb, 2005).

The dominant species are: Exocarpus latifolius (Santalaceae) and Nageia

wallichiana (Podocarpaceae) (Webb, 2005). Examples of species and genera

on these weathered soils include: Intsia bijuga, Koorderiodendron

pinnatum,Pometia pinnata, Terminalia cf. copelandii, Celtis, Ficus,

Dysoxylum, Myristica, Alstonia scholaris,Gastonia serratifolia, Morinda

citrifolia and Trema cannabina (Takeuchi, 2003). There are also Vatica

ressak, Endospermum, Calophyllum, Pternandra, Prunus, Flindersia, and

several Lauraceae spp (Webb, 2005). Interestingly, trails of Aquilaria species

(‘gaharu’) are quite abundant as well. Yet, down in the basin of the Orobiai

River, a second forest type is dominated by Agathis labillardieri, with a peaty,

mossy understory soil structure. Evidently, this type occurs on the hardest

volcanic rocks that are weather-resistant and frequently found by the river

banks. Also, Cerbera odallum, Maniltoa and Syzygium were common (Webb,

2005).

On Misool, lowland forest on limestone and karst often provides

excellent view while its species composition vary extensively between karst

islands, shallow soil raised bench and limestone valleys. On karst island, a

profound xerophytic vegetation is largely found, shown by the striking

emergent palm (Gulubia costata). Other common species on these islets

include Pandanus spp., Exocarpus latifolius, Ficus spp., Nepenthes sp., a

Sapotaceae sp., Aglaia sp., Hopea sp. (the first record of a Hopea on Misool),

and Glocidion sp as shown on the picture below (Webb, 2005).

Figure 12. Orobioi River (Webb, 2005)


On surface soil, with ample development of a rich, dark-brown soil, the

forest tends to acomposition similar to that of lowland forest on volcanics.

Intsia and Pometia pinnata still dominate the area. Because of the high

capability of limestone to absorb water, the forests on most of the limestone

substrates are frequently drought-stressed (Webb, 2005). During the dry

times of year, natural fires would always occur shown through signs of

burning on limestones (e.g, north side of Orobiai canyon). Fires became more

frequent now due to active fire-setting and clear cutting land as logging

activity continues (Webb, 2005).

2.3.4 Lowland forest on ultrabasics

At circa 300 m on the G isthmus, plots of forest are seen in the valleys

and coves while on the ridges were open scrubland (Webb, 2005). Trees were

thick and short dominated by Calophyllum and Dillenia species. Close to

Waifoi village on lower elevation, a taller forest transpires dominated by two

species of Dillenia. Grassland, scrubland, open ground or better known as

‘ultrabasic scrubland’ of Waigeo and Kawe. Covered on orange bare soil,

patches of (nickel-rich) metallic pebbles were found on these grounds.

Examples of shrub species include: Ploiarium sessile, Gymnostoma

rumphianum, Ixonanthes reticulata, Decaspermum bracteatum and Myrsine

rawacensis (Webb, 2005).

Areas of savanna are found along the Kasim and Waitama rivers in

Misool, and were generally characterized by Melaleuca leucadendron,

Eucalyptus cf. papuana, Baeckea frutescens, Decaspermumbracteatum,

Melastoma malabathricum. The grasses are Ischaemum barbatum,

Rynchosporumrubra and Imperata conferta (Webb, 2005). These savannas

are comparable in composition to those on the mainland, at Bomberai.

However, some plots of the open land on the Landsat are forest transformed

to garden. Trails of slash-and-burn gardens were obvious on several villages.

These gardens are planted with bananas, root crops (Ipomea,

Dioscorea,Manihot and various Araceae species), chilli peppers, and tree

crops (Webb, 2005).


2.3.5 Mangroves

The table below shows mangroves distribution on Raja Ampat mainly

found on freshwater swamps and sago swamps.

Table 2. Mangrove distribution area in Raja Ampat area (Webb, 2005)

On the emerging ecosystems between mangroves and alluvial forest,

there are well-developed swamps, mainly dominated by sago palms

(Metroxylon sagu) (Webb, 2005). The dominance of sago is a result of active

agricultural management by local people, as sago has long formed the main

source for starch. Sago palms were also planted in ‘sub-optimal’ habitats, for

example on a strip behind the mangroves on Kofiau. Off the riverbanks, other

striking, spiny species of Osmoxylon (Araliaceae) is also found (Webb, 2005).

Mumby et al noted that mangroves, reefs, and fisheries have a

synergistic relationship, based on their connectivity (Mumby et al. 2004).

Coral reefs act as buffer to ocean currents and waves creating a well sheltered

habitat for mangroves and seagrasses. On the other side, mangroves and

seagrasses filter freshwater discharge from land, trap silt, heavy metals, and

nutrient rich run-off. Functions as sediment stabilizer, they maintain the

water quality necessary for growth of coral reef and fish communities.

Also, mangroves and seagrasses support the biomass of coral reef fish

species through the provision of food and nutrients (Mumby et al, 2004).

Table () shows the capacity of mangrove habitat in storing carbon. Mcleod et

al suggest that the larger the area of mangrove coverage on Raja Ampat, the

higher the carbon capacity. This biological pattern, consequently, is critical for


MPA managers in securing pathways of connectivity among the existing

habitats in order to enhance resilience and fisheries (McLeod & Salm, 2008)

Table 3. Mangrove Carbon Capacity (Mcleod et al, 2009)

However, overall, Raja Ampat lacks sediment-producing rivers that

generate wide, productive mangrove zone. Signs of mangrove forests formed

on some of the larger rivers (Gam, Kasim on Misool, and Kabilol onWaigeo)

are apparent through findings on succession of Rhizophora mucronata,

Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Webb, 2005). Distribution of

mangroves is mainly visible through Landsat images throughout the islands

covering sporadically on shorelines and terrestrial landscape (Webb, 2005).

Beach forests that are developed on sand and coral rubbles at 5–10 m

back from the shore are dominated by groups of plants including Calophyllum

inophyllum, Hibiscus tileaceus, Pandanus tectorius, Terminalia catappa,

Thespesia populnea, Colubrina asiatica, Pongamia pinnata, Ximenia

americana. These species are found widespread throughout Melanesia and

the Pacific islands, as their seeds being widely dispersed through sea (Webb,

2005).

2.4 Social and Economic Policy

Raja Ampat is administered under the governance of Sorong Regency

divided into five district; Salawati, Samate, Misool, South Waigeo and North

Waigeo (Palomares et al., 2007). There are little less than 50,000 residents


(17,517 families) live in 89 villages. Population density is estimated at 7 people

per km². Most of these inhabitants are of Papuan origin while migrant

communities from other island such as Bugis, Makassar, Ambon and Menado

add more diversity on Misool (Bailey, 2007). More than 90 % of the

population engages on fishing and exploiting other marine resources such as

sea cucumbers (holothurians) (Palomares et al, 2007).

Kusuma-Atmadja and Purwaka 1996; Tomascik et al. 1997 long have

addressed the issue of conflicting economic development and conservation

goals in the marine coastal sector (Bailey, 2007). With over 17,000 islands

throughout Indonesia, different resource management is essential in marine

sector. Dohar and Anggraeni (2007), estimate that as much as 70% of the

population engages in fisheries. Specifically in Raja Ampat, Indonesia is

dealing with destruction of coral reefs, and depletion of fish stocks, mainly

sharks, tuna, and reef-associated marine organisme (Tomascik et al. 1997).

Referring to United Nations on Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

(UN, 2001), targets of development set for 2015 in West Papua province:

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. Universal primary Education

3. Promote gender equality and empower women

4. Reduce child mortality rate

5. Improve maternal health

6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

7. Ensure environmental sustainability

8. Develop a global partnership for development

However, the government focuses on two social issues related to education

and health (Cook, 2010). This becomes apparent since the majority of

Indonesian population perceives Papua as areas of rich natural and mineral

resources while their human capacity remains underdeveloped. Ministry of

Works noted that only 34 percent of Papuans have access to clean water and

sanitation, lower than the national average of 47,6 percent. The problems with


slow development in the area are due to poor infrastructure and management,

as well as its remote geographical location (Cook, 2010).

Cook’s studies on investment, development and governance in Papua

remark several points of key challenges (Cook, 2010):

1. Economic Development

a. Unaccountable and transparent monitoring system between

external investment projects in mining and agriculture.

b. Low recognition and participation from local communities

acting as key stakeholders in the decision-making process.

2. Health

a. Lack of capital investment in the water and sanitation system in

Papua to increase levels of access and quality.

b. High number of HIV/AIDS (1.03 %) in compare to national

distribution (0.17%) reflected across its community.

3. Education

a. Lowest adult literacy on national scale. Access to quality

education is prevented due to lack of transparency in

distributing 20% of national budget funds.

b. Lack of tracking on disbursing funds in order to avoid

misallocation of funds on capital projects.

4. Governance

a. Lack of communication and participation between stakeholders

in order to create conducive environment and reduce escalation

social conflicts.

b. Limited access to National Human Rights Commission that

investigates and reports all the human rights concerns in Papua.


Figure 13. Mass civil gathering in Jayapura, July 2010 (Cook, 2010)

Figure 14. Mass civil gathering in Jayapura, July 2010 (Cook, 2010)


3 Methods in MPA Management

“With well over one third of the world population living near the coast, and a

larger percentage relying on it in some way, many of the world’s inhabitants

benefit from the services of the marine environment — from providing

resources to supporting multibillion dollar seafood and coastal tourism

industries to the natural sequestration of carbon, to name a few. People,

companies, and societies rely on these services — for raw material inputs,

production processes, and climate stability, for example”

(Forest Trends and the Katoomba Group, 2010)

3.1 Ecosystem Services.

This following chapter discusses the economic value of ecosystem

functions that provides many types of services. More importantly, this study

also analyses the relationships of ecosystem factors within DPSIR framework.

As defined by Kelleher, marine protected areas (MPA) are any area of

intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated

fauna, flora, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law

or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment

(Kelleher, 1999). The MPA can be established publicly through initiatives of

certain government or private organizations using financially self-sustaining

means (Clarke & Jupiter, 2010). Marine Ecosystem Services (MARES) iterates

that the so-called payment for ecosystem services can be an alternative in

funding MPA programs such as conservation and capacity building (MARES

2010). Essentially, the design of MPA allows limited use and access of a


marine environment. This strategy would lead the environment to prosper

and become a product for ecotourism, education or research (IUCN, 2008).

In terms of natural resources management, MPA provides and deliver

various goods and services that are needed by the local communities and

economies from food security to recreational benefits (Mumby et al. 2004).

While also supporting social and economic development, effective protection

on MPA helps maintain ecosystem health and productivity (Palomares et al.,

2007). Furthermore, MPA preserve essential genetic variation that leads in

sustaining evolutionary processes of key species (IUCN, 2008). Coral reefs

index and marine biodiversity are used as indicators in profiling resilience of

Raja Ampat ecosystem as it responds to natural disturbances and human use

such as diving (IUCN, 2008).

Table 4 below summarizes the significant key contributions of well

functioning MPA.

No. MPA contribution

1 Conserving biological diversity and associated ecosystems

2 Protecting critical spawning and nursery habitats

3 Protecting sites with minimal direct human impact to help them recover

from stresses and disturbances

4 Protecting settlement and growth areas for marine species and spillover

benefits to adjacent areas

5 Nature-based recreation and tourism

6 Providing undisturbed control for reference sites that serve as baselines

for scientific research and for designing and evaluating other areas

7 Sharing costs and benefits among local communities, private sector,

regional and national governments and other stakeholders

8 Reducing poverty and increasing the quality of life of surrounding

communities

9 Focal points for educating the public about ecosystems and human

impacts upon them

Table 4. MPA contributions (IUCN, 2008)


Kristensen states that aquatic environment such as MPA however are

not without problems (Kristensen, 2004). This can be observed through

patterns on ecological processes. The Global International Waters Assessment

(GIWA) uses causal chain analyses in identifying root causes pertaining to

problems below (Kristensen, 2004):

1. Freshwater shortages

• Modification of stream flow – Pollution of existing supplies –

Changes in the water table

2. Pollution

• Microbiological – Eutrophication – Chemical – Suspended solids –

Solid wastes – Thermal- Radio nuclide – Spill

3. Habitat and community modification

• Loss of ecosystems – Modification of ecosystems or ecotones

including community structure and/or species composition

4. Unsustainable exploitation of fisheries and other living resources

• Over-exploitation – Excessive by-catch and discards – Destructive

fishing practices – Decreased viability of stock through pollution

and disease – Impact on biological and genetic diversity

5. Global Change

• Changes in hydrological cycle – Sea level change – Increased UV-b

radiation as a result of ozone depletion – Changes in ocean CO2

source/sink function

Table 5 describes types of available ecosystem services on Raja Ampat.

Table 5. Ecosystem Services (Mares, 2010)


Quantification and evaluation on the ecosystem services above, as

suggested by researchers at CI and the University of Papua (UNIPA),

identified nine main economic sectors in Raja Ampat (Bailey, 2007).

Table 6 lists these sectors, and their estimated 2006 value, in

Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) and converted to USD, using an exchange rate of 1

USD = 9000 IRD (Bailey, 2007).

Table 6. Ecosystem services valuation (Bailey, 2007).

Rationales behind the above quantitative evaluation can be described

through ecosystem analysis by assessing the drivers, pressures, state,

responses and impact (DPSIR) on the MPA of Raja Ampat.

As shown below, using DPSIR framework, one can better understand

the qualitative value and interrelationships of origins and consequences on

each component in evaluating ecosystem provisioning services and potential

threats (Burkhard et al., 2009). This framework explains chain of causal links

starting with ‘driving forces’ (economic sectors, human activities) through

‘pressures’ (emissions, waste) to ‘states’ (physical, chemical and biological)

and ‘impacts’ on ecosystems, human health and functions, eventually leading

to political ‘responses’ (prioritisation, target setting, indicators) (Kristensen,

2004).


Figure 15. DPSIR Framework (Kristensen, 2004)

3.1.1 Drivers

Here, driving force is described as a need. This covers basic individual

needs living in the area of Raja Ampat including; food, water and shelter.

Secondary needs like mobility, entertainment and culture are often found

within communal context in church, rituals, and tribal ceremonies. For

example, fishing quota, boundaries, and activities are being socialized and

organized on certain calendar year at church service in Waigeo (Bailey, 2007).

In industrial sector, such driving force could be the need to make profit

at low cost. Meanwhile, at national level, oriented to the Millenium

Development Goals, the government feels the need to keep unemployment

levels low. On microeconomic point of view, production or consumption

processes in Raja Ampat contribute to the local bioregionalism sector

including fisheries, agriculture, energy, industry, transport, households

(Bailey, 2007).

Table below summarizes drivers on Raja Ampat. Note that relevance

values on the right graph are being calculated in terms of population and

production or consumption output.


3.1.2 Pressure

Driving forces can lead to human activities such as food production,

mining, and exploitation of raw material such as logging and pearl farms.

Three main types of pressures observed in Raja Ampat are(McLeod & Salm,

2008):

• Overexploitation of fisheries (illegal, unreported, and unregulated) and

marine resources

• Changes in land use to mining, aquaculture, commercial and

residential area.

• Emissions such as cyanide from destructive fishing, mining

overburden, water and soil pollutants.

Consequently, these activities create pressures on the environment as

described on the table and graph below.

Pressure Relevance

(0-5)

Exploitation of resources 4

Emissions 2

Production of waste 1

Radiation 1

Hazards (risk) 2

Drivers Relevance (0-5)

Population growth 5

Fisheries 4

Aquaculture 2

Agriculture 2

Energy use 3

Industry 3

Land use 2

Marine tourism 4

Transport 0


3.1.3 States

Pressures exerted to the open environment does affect directly toward

the quality of environmental compartments (air, water, soil) (McLeod & Salm,

2008). Monitoring data on environmental quality on the area however, are

limited in coverage and being evaluated on qualitative terms. The rationale for

air, water and soil quality is based on the development of industrial and

residential sector and natural factor such as geology and climate on the

vicinity of Raja Ampat (McKenna et al., 2002).

The graph below describes the state of the environment which reflects

to the combination of physical, chemical and biological conditions on the

MPA. Qualitative assessment therefore is calculated based on the

anthropogenic effect and natural causes whereas 0 is of defined as low human

influence and 5 having the most disturbance. Fisheries in this case contribute

to the negative effect on marine ecosystems in forms of habitat destruction,

coral bleaching, water pollution, hazardous substance (Bailey, 2007). Reef

Condition Index (RCI) shows distribution on the quality of coral reef on 109

sites surveyed by Conservancy International (CI) in 2004 (table) (McKenna et

al., 2002).

In terms of human health issues, endemic diseases such malaria and

dengue are often found prevalent in the community at all season. Poor health

behavior and lack of sanitation are believed to cause typhus, diarrhea, and

malnutrition (Clarke & Jupiter, 2010)..

States Quality (0-5)

Water quality (coastal zones) 4.3

Air quality (regional) 4.8

Soil quality (lowland, hills, highland) 4,4

Vegetation 4.5

Human health 3

Biodiversity (marine organisms) 4.2


3.1.4 Impact

Impacts on the environment derived from the current states are crucial

to the sustainability of marine ecosystem in the area. However, human

development in terms of human health can not and should not be overlooked

by other economic parameters such as GDP and income per capita. This

shows that in reality however, many schools and health clinics (puskesmas) in

Raja Ampat, are functioning with limited supplies and a small number of

skilled workers (The Nature Conservancy 2004). Only less than thirty percent

of house-holds in Raja Ampat have running fresh water (McKenna et al.,

2002).

Two major health issues in the area include HIV/AIDS and malaria.

Regarding malaria, villagers tend to treat themselves mostly with

natural/traditional medicines, with some malaria patients heading into

Sorong for treatment (Bailey, 2007). The risk of malaria in this area is one of

the highest in the world, and this may be a barrier to the tourism industry.

Other health issues include diarrhea, skin issues, throat infections, and

bronchitis. Bronchitis affects not only the adult population (most of who

smoke) but also children. Many women and children are sick due to improper

kitchen/cooking equipment. Most homes do not have exhaust systems,

resulting in fumes polluting the air for those inside. Furthermore, as access to

fresh water is limited, food preparation may not be sanitary.


The head of the Raja Ampat regency, Bupati, is clearly under pressure

in increasing the minimum standard of living of Raja Ampat citizens through

economic development while also conserving the terrestrial and marine

biodiversity in the area (Bailey, 2007). Other potential development for the

Raja Ampat regency include more pearl farms, grouper mariculture project,

expanses in marine tourism, and mining. Satria et al. (2006) believes that

given adequate institutional structure, pearl farms can contribute significantly

to a community's livelihood (McKenna et al., 2002).

3.1.5 Responses

Responses by policy makers toward the development in Raja Ampat do

not come systematically, as influenced by Papua's continued fight for

independence and the traditional marine rights regime within the regency that

could prevent such institutional agreements (Cook, 2010). On top of that,

most of the high potential sites for pearl farming have already been exploited,

and thus the scale for increases in this sector may be limited (Cook, 2010).

The potential for quick mining revenues appears to be of high interest

to the Papuan government (Cook, 2010). The greater part of forest in Raja

Ampat is protected through Indonesian policy that specifically state forest

should be off bounds to mineral extraction. In light of Papua's regional

autonomy, however, the provincial government claims that the province

should be permitted to award mining concessions, and test mining is currently

underway on the north coast of Waigeo Island (Cook, 2010). Further

development options take into the account of logging and agriculture (Bailey,

2007).

Since 1999, decentralization plan has been implemented throughout

the country which then literally delegating more power to lower authorities at

regency (Bailey, 2007). One of the major reasons for this shift is to reduce the

political uprisings from some provinces seeking independence (Bailey, 2007).

Nevertheless, many assume that local authorities will have a more precise plan

of the needs of their communities and thus can manage resources more


efficiently provided such effective management and methods are in practice

(Bailey, 2007).

Satria and Matsuda (2004) state that centralized fisheries management

in Indonesia has lead to resource depletion (Bailey, 2007). This rationale is

based on the general cashflow of regional economic activity which is mainly

drawn out from the local businesses to the capital; Jakarta. This is the

common understanding that the people of Raja Ampat have lived by in the last

thirty years. Changing the mindset to empower the people however remains

difficult while Raja Ampat lack human resources as it battles with poverty and

illiteracy. Also, the dispersed population and large regency area implies that

fisheries management can be challenging to monitor (Clarke & Jupiter, 2010).

Raja Ampat became autonomous regency in 2003. Before then marine

sources surrounding the island were administered under Sorong regency on

mainland Papua. Thus it excludes artisanal fishing which occurs within the

provincial jurisdiction over coastal and marine resources; up to 12 miles from

the coastline (Bailey, 2007). The shift of power to new regency located in

Waisai, the capital of Raja Ampat, on the island of Waigeo, leads to increased

monitoring of marine resources as well as managing concern for the social and

economical needs of the inhabitants (Bailey, 2007).

With more decision making power, Raja Ampat officials seek initiatives

in developing the area with focuses on the fisheries sector (The Nature

Conservancy 2003). This means that the newly created Raja Ampat Fisheries

Bureau will implement increased management, monitoring, and enforcement

for fisheries development to proceed in sustainable path (Bailey, 2007). The

regency government is then responsible for generating its own revenues, and

providing social services for its citizens (The Nature Conservancy 2004).

MARES recognizes the common practices of natural resources in Raja Ampat

are carried in accordance to local customs or laws (MARES 2010). For

example, the indigenous Kawe people living on the area are approached with

the help of an anthropologist to assist Cendana Indopearls, a subsidiary of


Atlas South Sea Pearl Ltd, in negotiating contracts on oyster pearl farm. This

self-organized deal between the company and the local Kawe community

demonstrates new educational opportunities and sustainable economic

activity on Raja Ampat waters (MARES 2010).

Noting that the population is growing at 3% per year, the Papuan

government is promoting fisheries and aquaculture as they believe more

people will bring about more aid and more autonomy (Cook, 2010). Ironically

on health issues, the regency government refuses to issuing contraceptives to

the population. Sexual education and family planning are almost unheard of

in Raja Ampat (Bailey, 2007).

3.1.6 Fisheries

Although the original inhabitants of Papua lived in the inner island,

today all villages in the Raja Ampat regency are situated on coastal (The

Nature Conservancy 2004). As such, fish provide the main protein source for

villagers, although many families keep chicken, cattle, and goats as well

(Bailey, 2007). Severin writes “to protect over-exploitation of fishing there

were government regulations about the method of fishing, the size of the

catches and so forth. But a briefcase full of cash was more powerful than any

regulation ordained by distant Jakarta." (Severin 1997).

While fisheries are the highest contributing sector, pearl farming has

been increasing in value throughout the regency (Bailey, 2007). An estimated

1,200 species of fish are present in Raja Ampat (McKenna et al., 2002). The

main target species in the area include wrasse (family Labridae), grouper

(family Serranidae), snapper (family Lutjanidae), fusilier (family

Caesionidae), parrotfish (family Scaridae), yellow tuna (Thunnus albacares),

and surgeonfish (family Acanthuridae), as well as various shellfish and sea

cucumbers (family Holothuriidae) (McKenna et al., 2002).

Although this area is considered the world's most biodiverse oceanic

habitat, researchers also admit it one of the most threatened, due to

population and poverty pressures faced by the communities that depend on its

resources (McKenna et al., 2002).


As indicated above, Bailey suggests that capture fisheries include both

commercial (more than 12 miles off the coastline) and artisanal (within 12

miles of the coastline) (Bailey, 2007). Halim and Mous (2006) estimated from

household surveys that nearly 7 out of 10 of fishing boats in Raja Ampat had

no-motor (Bailey, 2007). Types of gear used for both artisanal and commercial

fisheries, including handline, dip net, gill net, lift net, purse seine, spear and

harpoon, permanent traps, also destructive methods such as cyanide and fish

bombs. Trawling is also illegal in Raja Ampat (Bailey, 2007).

3.1.7 Environmental and economic

Webb claims that the main environmental issues with mining include

sedimentation and toxic deposits to the water (Webb, 2005). Mayalibit is an

extreme case, as there is a limited amount of water exchange in the south with

the Dampier. Sedimentation as a result of mining would surely build up in the

bay and choke the ecosystem. All villages in Raja Ampat are coastal and

therefore sedimentation, due to runoff from adjacent hilly areas, will most

surely be felt at the village level (McKenna et al., 2002). The fringing reefs

along Waigeo would be heavily impacted by changes in sedimentation and

turbidity. However current regimes, depths, and oxygen levels for each

anticipated site will have to be studied in order to predict such effects (Webb,

2005). Gag is a secluded island on the western side of Raja Ampat. Again, as

indicated above, dominant currents flow from east to west through this area,

and the ocean is quite deep (Webb, 2005).

Webb suggests also that the effects from mining on Gag will be

minimized due to high dispersion and dilution of sediment and toxins. In

order to mine, large plots of land must be cleared (Webb, 2005). This has two

main outcomes on the other economic sectors:

1. Increase in revenues from logging, as the current proposal

suggests that the area cleared will be ‘logged’, and thus generate

income

2. Loss of ecosystem services (ES) as a result of lost forest land.

Data on the percent forest cover will be needed in potential sites

to estimate how much loss of ES will occur, and to estimate


revenues from logging. Some studies have suggested that mining

activities increase illegal logging potential due to increased road

access by illegal loggers to remote forest areas. The majority of

mining activity would be focused in areas close to the coast. This

is beneficial with respect to not increasing the amount of illegal

logging.

A research done by Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) reveals

that illegal logging activity remains a serious threat on Papua provinces (EIA,

2010). The primary target of logging is merbau. This valuable dark hardwood

is largely used on flooring, decking, outdoor furniture, doors and windows

frame. Papuan merbau is being sold between $250 and $300 per cubic meter

(EIA, 2010). It then is transported to processing hubs in Surabaya, East Java

and Makassar, South Sulawesi. The majority of smuggling cases related to raw

timber falls on international market in China, India, USA, Australia and the

European Union (EIA, 2010). Export data shows that merbau accounted to

192,000 cubic meters in 2008. The Indonesian Ministry of Forestry however,

has started to include merbau on Appendix III of the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) which makes countries to

seize shipments of illegal Indonesian merbau (EIA, 2010)

Figure 16. Logs of merbau being shipped out of Raja Ampat, West Papua in

April 2003 (EIA, 2010)


3.2 Risk Assessment (EBM) model

Ecosystem-based management (EBM) is extensively used term in

resource management, but it is not well defined nor or understood (Bailey,

2007). The basic concept of marine EBM emphasizes on fisheries

management taking into account all complexities of an ecosystem: including

the biology and ecology, as well as the human dynamics such as socio-

economic and political factors (Bailey, 2007). This concepts extends that EBM

can involve short term costs in order to attain longer term benefits (Bailey,

2007).

Bailey further asserts that EBM, an adaptive measures, must be able to

evolve as information, ideas, models, and tools are continuously integrated to

the repertoire of management approaches. In this regard, EBM is considered a

particularly flexible tool for ecosystem managers (Bailey, 2007).

Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) remarks the following approach in EBM

general principles (Kristensen, 2004):

1. Use ecological boundaries for management rather than administrative

or political boundaries

2. Focuses on ecosystem integrity and resilience as primary goals in order

to sustain ecosystem services

3. Recognizes people are part of the ecosystem and that achieving

management objectives requires changing human use and activities

4. Maintain flexibility on management approach that reacts to the

responses of ecological and human systems to interventions

As illustrated on the figure below, systematic steps of EBM model

reiterate the significance of comprehensive understanding of ecosystem,

integrate people on decision making, adaptive to changes, and well founded

on legal structure (Kristensen, 2004). This Castanoa Framework allows

managers to effectively implement coastal management programs.


Figure 17. Experience-based Costanoa Framework of EBM (Kristensen,

2004).

Relevant to adaptive EBM model, MPA of Raja Ampat follows pattern

of ecosystem resilience below (McLeod & Salm, 2008). This pattern depends

on several factors including:

1. Effective management

2. Risk spreading through inclusion of replicates of representative habitat

3. Full protection of critical areas serving as reliable sources of seed for

replenishment/preserve ecological function

4. Maintenance of biological and ecological connectivity among and

between marine habitats

Figure 18. Resilience pattern of Raja Ampat (McLeod & Salm, 2008)

In doing so, managers thus need to develop classification on habitat

types and major zones based on biodiversity, condition, level of threat,

resilience and ecosystem services. In practice, protection should aim at least

30% of the complete habitat type such as offshore reefs, midshelf reefs (patch

and fringing reefs), inshore reefs and mangroves (McLeod & Salm, 2008).


4 Risk Analysis on Raja Ampat

This chapter synthesizes potential area of risk on Raja Ampat.

Stemmed from ecosystem analysis and EBM framework, it is possible to

develop risk analysis using techniques in GIS to display distribution of

ecosystem services and area of immediate exposure to certain threats;

tsunami. Baseline data of coral reefs bathymetry, geology, vegetation, land

use, and satellite images are essential in digitizing and overlaying processes.

4.1 Threats definition and identification

Apart from the anthropogenic driven catastrophes (e.g oil spill, water

pollution, coral destruction, floods, and illegal logging) this chapter focuses on

potential natural disaster related to earthquake and tsunami. As attention and

capital investment are being channeled toward the protection of ecosystem

integrity and human development, there needs to be validation on the actual

subject of protection against disaster.

4.1.1 Definition of natural disaster and Impacts

A natural disaster event is defined as the impact of an extreme natural

experience on an open vulnerable society (BNPB, 2010). If impacts exceed on

the capacity of certain region and therefore require interregional or

international help, a large disaster is assumed to have occurred .

The criteria that can be used to determine a large disaster includes

(Smith 1996:29): more than 100 casualties or economic damage in excess of 1

% gross national product (GNP) or more than 1 % of the impacted population

is harmed. The disaster occurred can pose strong impact to four sectors:

1. Economic Cost

This can be grouped into three main areas:

• direct losses such as loss of capital stock as disaster prevent flow

of capital into market

• indirect loss as economic function is interrupted due to damaged

physical infrastructures; roads, building, power plants, water

treatment, etc.


• macroeconomic impacts as government reallocates national

budget (GDP) on rehabilitation and relief processes

2. Collateral Impact

Such disaster may have cause serious damage on physical structures

related to public service; buildings, markets, firms, schools and

governmental office. The devastated assets can stop the social function

during the process relief.

3. Humanitarian Effect

Disaster can cause fatalities and psychological trauma after the

unexpected event. To date, this is the most severe impact on humanity

as it can not be measured in terms of monetary values.

4. Ecological Effect

Disaster causes environmental damage on open ecosystems such as

biological habitat, watersheds, agricultural land, coral reefs, and

mangrove forest. Damage is usually measured by the change in quality

of non-use values.

Figure 19. Natural disaster risk scheme(Lass et al. 1998:9)

4.1.2 Natural disasters influence factors

Risk on natural disaster can be defined into three factors in order to

understand the degree of vulnerability in certain area. Those three factors are:

hazard, elements at risk and vulnerability (Mechler, 2004). These components


are the dominant factors to determine the risk. Hazard is used to determine

the probability and elements at risk and Vulnerability can be used to

determine losses. By using these parameters we can formulate risk into a

function:

Risk = probability (hazard) * losses (vulnerability, elements at risk)

4.1.2.1 Hazard

Natural disasters can be defined according to the underlying hazard.

Table 7 lists the different kinds of disasters events (Mechler, 2004).

Sudden-onset events Slow-onset events

Extreme geotectonic events :

earthquakes, seaquakes, volcanic

eruptions, slow mass movements

Drought causing

famines.

Desertification

Extreme climatic conditions: floods

triggered by extreme precipitation,

storms and extreme precipitation

triggered by atmospheric low pressure

conditions: Gales in moderate

latitudes and cyclones in tropics

(hurricanes and typhoons), hail, cold

spell and heat waves.

Table 7. Classification of extreme events (Mechler, 2004)

Most of sudden-on events occurred are of natural causes which are

hard to predict. Slow onset events are more predictable and preventable since

this type of hazard is a result of bottleneck issue on distribution or

mismanagement of resources on the affected region. Due to that reason

sometimes slow-onset events are treated differently from sudden-onset events

(Mechler, 2004).

4.1.2.2 Elements at risk

The second factor is more related to humans, buildings structures,

infrastructure (e.g. water and seer facilities, roads and bridges) or agricultural

assets in harm’s way which can be impacted in case of a disaster event (ADPC


200a:2). Though details information on elements risk, especially about types,

values, usage or spatial distribution are important, however, there are

difficulties and differences of examined elements and details of these elements

sometimes do not exist (Burby 1991: 137) but inventory of these elements risk

should be exposed to determine the losses caused by disaster.

4.2 Risk Management Strategies on Natural Disaster

Risk management is defined as the systematic application of

management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of identifying,

analysing, assessing, treating and monitoring risk. For any organization,

whether a large corporation, a government agency, or a family farm, risk

management is or should be an integral part of good management. It is a

continuous, adaptive process that needs to be integrated into all relevant

aspects of the decision making procedures of the organization (Mechler,

2004)

There are three different phases in natural disaster management: pre-

disaster phase, disaster phase and post-disaster phase. In pre-disaster phase,

action undertaken is mostly based on risk identification and assessment, risk

reduction and risk financing (Mechler, 2004). Disaster phase focuses on

rescue and relief efforts, humanitarian assistance, temporary shelter, and

clean up (Gautama, 2008). The post-disaster phase initiate processes on

reconstruction and rehabilitation of the region (redevelop vital

infrastructures, revitalise logistic goods, initiate economic and market

recovery, etc). Reconstruction efforts should be combined with mitigation risk

assessment, in order to reduce cost of development on disaster affected area

(Mechler, 2004).

There are new paradigms on natural disaster management today.

Traditional natural disaster management emphasizes on post-disaster phase.

Government put more efforts on reconstruction and rehabilitation of disaster

affected area. In doing so, government has to reallocate its national budget to

finance all of aforementioned phases. Given that international donor

assistance and loans on disasters can not be fixed at some value, then


approach on disaster management should be focusing on increasing one’s self-

reliance (Mechler, 2004).

There is growing interest in making more use of risk financing

mechanisms in risk management. Risk financing by governments by means of

e.g. insurance especially for developing countries has only lately moved to a

more prominent place and is seen as a partial alternative to risk assumption

and ex-post loss financing (Mechler, 2004).

There are four sequential procedures that should be taken to tackle

risk management problem as illustrated below (Mechler, 2004). First, there

should be some assessment and measures on possible risk in particular

region, try to survey the possible cause, e.g. geology or geomorphology

condition in a particular area. Second, there should be analysis on potential

impacts caused by the natural disaster. Third there should be contingency

plan and alternative plan to solve the possible risk effectively. Fourth is

economic analysis on contingency plan (Mechler, 2004).

Figure 20. Natural disaster risk management step (Mechler, 2004).

Potential impact assessment

Design contingency plan

Economic analysis on designed risk management plan

Potential Risk Identification

Mitigation

Risk Financing


First step to be done in risk management of natural disaster is

assessing the potential risk (Mechler, 2004). There are three main factors that

should be assessed in the first step; hazard, elements at risk, and vulnerability.

Assessment of hazard range from mapping of frequent hazard occurred in the

area to modelling few scenarios based on the available and current data.

Vulnerability assessment can be done by evaluating the infrastructure that

might be struck by the hazard. Estimation of loss provides great advice for risk

manager to develop better planning (Mechler, 2004).

Designing contingency plan is part of mitigation which has the

purpose to reducing potential risk that can happen in result to the exposed

hazard (Mechler, 2004). There are two possible approach can be used to

reduce risk in one particular area of MPA. First is by preventing people from

living in one particular area and close the area for full preservation or partial

conservation purposes. For one particular hazard, such as tsunami, installing

early warning system can be considered also as a mitigation method (Mechler,

2004).

The last step of risk management is economic analysis on designed

risk management plan; this is related to risk financing sector. In risk

financing, there is a systematic arrangement of funding. Hence, in the event of

unexpected disaster, there would be enough funds already allocated to initiate

relief projects. The dominant instrument used in risk financing is insurance

and reinsurance. Mitigation and risk financing should be perceived as one

package, since the plan for risk management relates to impact, solution and

evaluation. Mitigation reduces the physical vulnerability while risk financing

reduce the financial vulnerability (Mechler, 2004). This scheme is shown on

the diagram below.

Figure 21. Mitigation and Financial Instrument (Mechler, 2004).


4.2.1 Risk Control Techniques

Common methods in Risk Management often focus on two main

paths; taking measures to minimize potential losses and accepting the

probable exposure and compensate actual losses. Method that used to reduce

the probability and consequences of accidental losses are called Risk Control

(Mechler, 2004).

In principle, selecting the apparent best risk management should be

examined best on four criteria: technical feasibility, financial constraints, legal

requirements, and humanitarian considerations. Mechler notes five risk

control strategies including (Mechler, 2004):

Exposure Avoidance, the best way to reduce exposure is to stop the

activities with risk. The objective is to reduce the probability of risk to zero. In

the context of fisheries in MPA, such no-take zone in Raja Ampat provides

good example of reducing risk particularly in destructive fishing practices.

Loss Prevention, this technique focuses on reducing the loss rate of

recurrence and not the severity. Reducing risky activities will decrease the

probability of potential loss. Conservation measures implemented on Raja

Ampat regulates visitors and fishers to gain access to the MPA.

Loss Reduction, this strategy emphasizes on the severity of impact

should loss prevention fails. No known implementation of this type existing

on Raja Ampat, thus principles of self-organization, replenishment, succession

and resilience play greater role in reducing the degree of impact or

disturbances.

Segregation of Exposures, this technique comes after loss reduction,

with two directive options: segregate supplies, service delivery on

management operations or to a number of locations. Distribution of exposures

on Raja Ampat remains sporadic and mainly accumulates on fringing coral

reefs which certainly requires large scale of monitoring program.

Contractual Transfer, this option allows transfer some or all function

to a contractor who accepts the risk exposure. This is not an option for a

municipality for the majority of its mandated functions. Local wisdom of Raja

Ampat, however, recollects sense of belonging to the community and natural

landscape. This means that responsibility and activities are held within the


local communities, regional administrations, private sectors, and non-

governmental organizations.

4.3 Tsunami

The word tsunami (pronounced tsoo-nah-mee) means “harbor wave” in

Japanese. Some people call tsunamis “tidal waves”, but this definition is

inaccurate. Tsunamis are not related to tides but technically defined more as

series of waves or wave trains, usually caused by earthquakes (Dahuri, 2001).

The height of the tide at the time tsunami reaches inland has some

effect on the scale of damage (Brune et al., 2010). Another name for tsunamis

is “seismic waves.” This term is not quite accurate either since earthquakes are

not the only drivers of tidal waves. It is also possible that tsunami is moved by

landslide, volcanic eruption and meteorite impact (Brune et al., 2010).

4.3.1 Tsunami Causes

The larger the disturbance imposed on the water, the larger the scale

of tsunami impacts will be. Sometimes tsunami waves reaches up to 120 ft. As

the wavelength shortens, the height increases when the wave enters shallow

water. The strength of the disturbance, the distance, the wave travels and the

shape of the coastline combined determine the tsunami's height and

ultimately its level of destructiveness (Brune et al., 2010). Notably, tsunamis

can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces

the overlying water (Gautam, 2008). In deep water tsunami forms long,

shallow waves, which mean they do not lose initial force. These waves can

travel over vast distance until they are slowed by forms of resistance from the

sea floor near shore (Gautam, 2008).


Figure 22. Tsunami causes (Mechler, 2004).

4.3.1.1 Earthquake generates tsunami

By far, the most destructive tsunamis are generated from large, shallow

earthquakes with an epicenter or fault line near or on the ocean floor

(Gautama, 2008). These usually occur in regions of the earth characterized by

tectonic subduction along tectonic plate boundaries. The high seismicity of

such regions is caused by the collision of tectonic plates. When these plates

move passing each other, they cause large earthquakes, which tilt, offset, or

displace large areas of the ocean floor from a few kilometers to as much as a

1,000 km or more (Brune et al., 2010). The sudden vertical displacements

over such large areas, disturb the ocean's surface, displace water, and generate

destructive tsunami waves (Gautam, 2008).

Travelling over long distance, the Great 1960 Chilean tsunami was

generated by a magnitude 8.3 earthquake with a rupture zone of over 1,000

km. Its waves were destructive not only in Chile, but also as far away as

Hawaii, Japan and elsewhere in the Pacific. It should be noted that not all

earthquakes generate tsunamis however. Typically, it takes an earthquake

with a magnitude exceeding 7.5 Richter to produce a strong and destructive

tsunami (Brune et al., 2010).


4.3.1.2 Volcanic eruption generates Tsunami

Although relatively infrequent, violent volcanic eruptions represent

also impulsive disturbances, which can displace a great volume of water and

generate extremely destructive tsunami waves on the immediate point of

source (Katili, 1975). In this respect, waves may be generated by the sudden

displacement of water caused by a volcanic explosion, by a volcano's slope

failure, or more likely by explosion, collapse or engulfment of volcanic magma

chambers. One of the largest and most destructive tsunamis ever recorded was

generated in August 26, 1883 after the explosion of an active volcano,

Krakatau, in Indonesia. History records the eruption generated waves that

reached 135 feet, destroyed coastal towns and villages along the Sunda Strait

on both islands of Java and Sumatra, killing 36, 417 people (Katili, 1975).

4.3.1.3Landslides generates Tsunami

Less frequently, tsunami waves can be generated from displacements of

water resulting from rockfalls, icefalls and sudden submarine landslides or

slumps. Unstable and sudden failure of submarine slopes triggered by the

ground motions of a strong earthquake are of potential causes for landslide

generated tsunami (Katili, 1975). In the 1980's, earth movement and

construction work on airport along the coast of Southern France triggered an

underwater landslide, which generated destructive tsunami waves on the

harbor of Thebes (Katili, 1975).

Close to Raja Ampat, many scientists believe that the 1998 tsunami,

which killed thousands of people and destroyed coastal villages along the

northern coast of Papua-New Guinea, was generated by a large underwater

slump of sediments, triggered by an earthquake (Brune et al., 2010). In

general, the energy of tsunami waves generated from landslides or rock falls is

rapidly dissipated as they travel away from the source and across the ocean, or

within an enclosed or semi-enclosed body of water - such as a lake or a fjord.

However, it should be noted, that the largest tsunami wave ever observed

anywhere in the world was caused by a rock fall in Lituya Bay, Alaska on July

9, 1958 (Katili, 1975).


Triggered by an earthquake along the Fairweather fault, an

approximately 40 million cubic meter rock fall at the head of the bay

generated a wave, which reached incredible height of 520-meter wave (1,720

feet) on the opposite side of the inlet (Katili, 1975). An initial wave of 180

meters (600 feet) raced at about 160 kilometers per hour (100 mph) toward

the bay debarking trees along its path. However, tsunami energy and height

diminished rapidly away from the source area and once reaches to the ocean it

could not be recorded by tide gauge stations (Katili, 1975).

4.3.2 Tsunami Protection

4.3.2.1 Tsunami Warning System

On the aftermath of tsunami on 26 December 2004, people realize that it

is very important to learn more about tsunami and how to deal with tsunami

(Samek et al., 2004). In 1995, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) began to do research about the Deep-ocean

Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) system. By 2001 an array of

six stations had been deployed in the Pacific Ocean.

Figure 23. Tsunamimeter (DART)

DART operates by using pressure gauge anchored to the seafloor.

When tremors felt on seabed exerting energy and create pressure change, the

sea-floor gauge sends signals to a surface buoy that transmits data to satellite.

Computational models and analyses are then processed on terrestrial stations

which then can quickly recommend such warning (Brune et al., 2010).


Warning system should be communicated intensively as failure in

effective communication is believed to have caused confusion and delays in

evacuation. This was the case in Mentawai on October 2010 (BNPB, 2010). As

part of the procedure, a tsunami warning was cancelled as soon as potential

threat became inactive. Oblivious to the actual condition, tsunami waves

swept most of the south west of Mentawai islands within minutes. It is clear

nevertheless, that tsunami warning system can only avoid casualties, not on

physical property and open environment (Brune et al., 2010).

4.3.2.2 Tsunami Wall Protection

Figure 25. Seawalls on Raja Ampat (Ministry of Public Works, 2010)

At a number of beaches, low seawalls were in place, presumably to

protect against high perigean tides (spring tides which occur soon after the

moon passes her perigee) and storm waves. Most of these walls were not

damaged by the tsunami and despite the fact that the walls were overtopped

by much higher tsunami waves; structures landward of the walls were

somehow protected (Kaistrenko, 2001).

In Patong Beach, the most populous beach on Phuket Island where low

seawall is stretched across on beach and steep offshore contour caused the

leading crests of the tsunami to break away as it nears to shore. The low

seawall deflected much of the momentum of the waves reducing the forces

toward the land (Kaistrenko, 2001).. Eventhough it reached to more than half

a kilometre inland flooding to dense districts, the loss of life was very low.


Figure 26. Tsunami Wall Protection in Japan

There is no way to stop a tsunami once set in motion, but there are

ways to avoid getting killed by one. The Japanese government, for example,

has invested billions in coastal defences against tsunamis -- for example,

building concrete sea walls to blunt the impact of the waves and gates to

protect harbours (Kaistrenko, 2001).

Despite the rarity of tsunami, the degree of severity and extreme

consequences influence the design of civil engineering structures in tsunami-

prone regions. In Japan, efforts are under way, at great cost and expense, to

ensure that ports are tsunami-proof and that populations living near the sea

are protected through appropriate construction and alerted through warning

systems (Kaistrenko, 2001).

For example, on Okushiri Island, a 4.5 meters high seawall was built to

protect the Aonae peninsula. However, this wall was overtopped by a tsunami

in 1993 resulting in more than 185 people were killed. The wall then is rebuilt

leaving debates as it obstructs view of the sea and was extremely expensive.

Today, nations on the vicinity of Indian Ocean are to decide whether to allow

rebuilding on the coast, which type of coastal structures in order to minimize

losses in future tsunamis (Kaistrenko, 2001).


4.4 Bathymetry

Based on the satellite image of Raja Ampat, secondary data on

vegetation, geology and coral reefs, bathymetric map then is created.

Elevation data calculated from the surface to bottom is taken from previous

literature review below. Following to digitizing and overlays of spatial data is

spatial analysis on each of four island; Misool, Salawati, Waigeo, Batanta and

Kofiau.

Figure 27. Elevation map of Raja Ampat

In hypothetical tsunami threat, focus is set on the existing ecosystem

services particularly through fisheries, mangroves, coral reefs. Through base

line data revealing spatial distribution of coral reefs and mangroves, one can

calculate the exposed area of land use on Raja Ampat; 941 hectares.


No Landuse Area (ha)

1. Alluvium and flat plains 380

2. Forest on ultrabasics 30

3. Hill forest on limestone 20

4. Hill forest on volcanics 51

5. Lowland forest on limestone 190

6 Lowland forest on sandtone 51

7 Lowland forest on volcanics 192

8 Mangrove 5

9 Open scrub on ultrabasics 8

10 Savanna and grassland 9

11 Submontane forest on limestone 2

12 Submontane forest on volcanics 3

Sum 941

Table 8. Exposed area of landuse

4.4.1 Fisheries

Figure () below shows the distribution and area of coverage on fisheries

of 6000 hectares. With artisanal fisheries currently valued at US$7 million

(Bailey 2004), it seems evident that ensuring sustainable yields through time

should be a priority for the government, not to mention conserving ecosystem

services through time.

Apart from potential loss of fish resources from tsunami, Bailey

stretches that if the present-day situation continues, with no monitoring and

enforcement by the government, the use of explosives and cyanide in Raja

Ampat may lead to a decline in snapper and grouper populations and catches

over time (Bailey 2004).


Figure 28. Fisheries catchments area

4.4.2 Mangroves

A group of palm trees along not only adds aesthetic value but also can

strengthen coastal protection in patches of residential area (Anwar et al.,

2001). This area plays an important role as a catchment area but is facing

severe deforestation. There are some useful plants to reduce erosion and

landslides in tropical areas such as: Bambusa sp, Aleurites moluccana,

Homalium tomentosum, Melia azedarach, Acacia villosa, Eucalyptus alba,

Leucaena leucocephala, Swietenia macrophylla, Tectona grandis (Karnawati,

2001).

The abundance of mangrove vegetation reflected here are significant

only on Misool Island. Mangrove roots help to minimize coastal erosion as it

reduces wave energy by lowering the height of waves. Essentially, they are


effective at dissipating wave energy and reducing flow velocity (Dahuri, 2001).

In addition, they can also be planted in front of groins and seawalls.

Figure 29. Mangroves on Misool

4.4.3 Coral reefs

Coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds are naturally dynamic and

adaptive ecosystems (Salm & Mcleod, 2008). In Melanesia they are impacted

by seasonal monsoon winds and rainfall as well as episodic storms, flooding,

tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and increasingly by such climate

impacts as coral bleaching. These systems experience continuous disturbance

and change which helps form their extent and structure. The ability of these

systems to absorb, resist or recover from such disturbances or to adapt to

change while continuing to maintain essential functions and processes is the

essence of ecological resilience (Salm & Mcleod, 2008).

Protection to coral reefs is without doubt the main subject of MPA on Raja

Ampat (CI, 2008). According to Mckenna et al., biodiversity of marine

organisms are composed of;

• Corals; 456 species of hard corals were found accounted to more than

half of the world’s total.

• Molluscs; high diversity with 699 species recorded


• Reef fishes; a total of 828 species

• Reef fisheries; composed of 196 species; 59 genera and 19 families

• Coral condition; 60% surveyed were in good or excellent condition

For the purpose of analysis, risk zone is based on bathymetric from the

sea level surface downward. This technique corresponds to the response of

seawalls that break waves upward. Hence, the deeper the coral reefs, the less

impacts of wave energy suffered. One can note then that bathymetric analysis

on the coverage of coral reefs below suggests fringing reefs on shallow waters

are of medium to high risk of tsunami.

Figure 30. Batanta and Salawati reef coverage


Figure 31. Waigeo reef coverage

Figure 32. Misool reef coverage


4.5 Coastal management

The establishment of Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (DKP) in

1999 by Indonesian government was realized to develop and to integrate

coastal management into national development plan (Patlis et al., 2001). The

DKP shares roles and tasks with the regional authorities to implement

numbers of laws and regulations.

In principal, according to Act number 22/1999, the role of central

government, represented by DKP, is to develop guidelines and policies rather

than directly control and manage activities on local scale. Thus, the voluntary

scheme of actionable plans and implementation lies with the regional

administration as shown on the figure 5 below.

Figure 33. Modified ICZM scheme (Patlis et al., 2001).

In a scientific study assessing the impact of Tsunami, Sonak et al

(2008) suggest the conceptual model of contingency plan within the

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) (Patlis et al., 2001). Disaster

Management concepts and practices may be carried in parallel to the routine

coastal zone protection program while both aim to protect marine

ecosystems, habitat, natural resources and human lives.

4.5.1Policy and Regulation on Disaster Management

Through the publication of the Act Number 24/2007 on Disaster

Management, a new and permanent institution named National Agency for

Disaster Management (BNPB) was created (BNPB, 2010). This Agency

replaced a former organization named Coordinating Body for Disaster


Management (Bakornas). The main task of Bakornas is forming an adhoc

committee to coordinate first aid after a hazard. After certain a time, the

committee will be closed (BNPB, 2010).

At the moment, BNPB is responsible for hazard management (before,

during and after the occurrence). BNPB also has the responsibility of

rehabilitation and reconstruction (Article 57) (BNPB, 2010). Some

rehabilitation as mentioned in Article 58 [1] is done through activities such as:

improvement of the environment of the disaster area, improvement of public

infrastructure and facilities, delivery of community housing repair assistance,

psychosocial recovery, health services, conflict reconciliation and resolution,

cultural, socio-economic recovery, restoration of security and order, recovery

of government function, and recovery of function of public services (BNPB,

2010).

Reconstruction activities as mentioned in Article 59 [1] are done

through improved development activities, which are comprised of: rebuilding

of infrastructure and facilities, rebuilding of community social facilities,

reviving of community social cultural life, application of proper design and

engineering and use of better and disaster resistant tools, participation and

role of community-based institutions and organizations, the business world,

and community, improvement of social, economic, and cultural conditions,

improvement of the function of public services, and improvement of primary

services in the community (BNPB, 2010).


Figure 34. ICZM approach on contingency measures

4.6 Problems with Reliance on Aid for Natural Disaster Relief

The funding for relief program (post disaster) is likely received through

international NGOs or donors. In 1992, during earth summit held in Rio, there

was an agreement that there would be 0.7 % funds reserved from donor

countries from their total GNP for relief aid. However, in fact, in 1997 there

was only 0.22 % of fund being made reserved (IFRC 1999:102).

This shows uncertainty problems in relying on donor’s aid for disaster

relief. The first problem is funding given by the donors usually is used to

return the condition into pre disaster state. Evidently, modern management

still can not pay back the debt through risk management budget plan. Thus,

investing some of the funding into risk measurement can potentially reduce

the cost of rebuilding and reconstructing after the disaster. For example:

China prepared 3.15 billion US$ for the last 40 years for flood control and

successfully reduced the cost of loss of 12 billion US$ (IFRC 1999:110). There

should be better management on funding; it should not only focus on relief

program but also put more emphasize on pre disaster management plan.


The second problem is that the funding given by the donors are usually

considered as loans so at the end of post-disaster phase, the government has

an obligation to pay back the loans with the incurring interest rate, implying

to economic burden in the future (Bugl, 2005). Overtime, international loans

can not be overlooked when inflation rate goes up and central bank started to

take on unlimited debt, then scarce resources may have to be diverted to debt

service as tax increases (Peffekoven 1992:529-534). Due to this problem

World Bank and IMF established new organization called HIPC (Highly

Indebted Poor Countries), there have been already 22 countries received

numbers of debt relief.


5 Conclusion

5.1 Landscape and population

The idea of protecting the landscape or the environment means that it

also protects the health and safety of the people living on the islands.

However, that is not the case in Raja Ampat. Here, the author notes that

public attentions both in financial and administrative resources are allocated

mostly on maintaining ecosystem to produce economic goods and services. In

short, human and social development lags behind the pace of ecological

targets (Cook, 2010).

Encountering anthropogenic threats through destructive fishing,

pollution, sedimentation, and overexploitation of marine resources, one can

argue that these activities can be mitigated through effective enforcement on

related environmental regulations. However, a natural threat such as tsunami

underlines the importance of pre-disaster education and awareness of risk and

evacuation plans (BNPB, 2010).

5.2 Strength, weaknesses, future research

Understanding the economic value of ecosystem services essential to

the MPA of Raja Ampat which consists not just provisioning fisheries but also

cultural and most importantly the comprehensive integrity, can drive local

stakeholders to seriously take part on the decision making processes related to

spatial planning and use of resources. Maps of reefs revealed most of the

scenic underwater sights which can be used to promote and continuously

protect outstanding biodiversity in which Raja Ampat is known of.

The natural resilience of marine ecosystems and species populations in

Raja Ampat are being harmed by human activities such as deforestation,

mining, habitat encroachment, over-fishing, pollution, and destructive

practices. On the positive part, many areas here are relatively undeveloped

leaving the natural systems and species populations retain their resilience. On

the negative side, development on seascape will continue causing degradation

and loss of marine ecosystems, such as the smothering of coral reefs with silt

(McLeod & Salm, 2008).


Due to unavailable data on current residential area and topographical

contour of the area, this study can not reveal immediate risk of zone on

terrestrial landscape. Thus, there is an opportunity to map out the villages that

are situated along the coast line within 0-15 m range of elevation above sea

level.

5.3 Recommendation on Management and Policies

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is adaptive type of

management that responds to environmental changes due to human activity

or natural cause. Design for coastal protection in Raja Ampat may include the

rehabilitation of mangroves which can better support the ecological functions

in maintaining marine species richness. It should be noted that social pillar of

ICZM, in this regard the local community which inherently is the subject of

coastal protection, can not be separated from future marine spatial planning

and development.

• Enforce fishing license and practices effectively along with education and

socialization of game theory which provides idea of fish population on the

area of catchments.

• Engage local stakeholders for social dialogue and public hearing to ensure

active participation of each member of the local community.

• Reviews boundaries of existing wildlife reserves to best justify cross section

of various ecosystems and ecotones on the area.

• Implement long term environmental monitoring program

• Continuous effort on pre disaster management program is vital and

necessary. Mitigation plan should be actively communicated.

• Consider re-financing fund allocated specifically for disaster on regional

level.


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Ecosystem Services and Risk Analysis on MPA of Raja Ampat, Papua, Indonesia

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