Farmers Market Metrics:

Economic, Human, Social, and Ecological

A Review of the Literature

Project Team

Youn Hee Jeong, M.S., Graduate Student of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Wisconsin-

Madison (UW)

Anne Roubal, Ph.D., MPH, Research Scientist, Population Health Sciences – University of Arizona

Health Sciences Center

Alfonso Morales, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Madison-

Wisconsin (UW)

Suggested Citation: Jeong, Youn Hee, Anne Roubal, and Alfonso Morales. 2015. Farmers Market

Impact Indicators: Economic, Human, Social, and Ecological. University of Wisconsin – Madison,

URPL Working Paper, 2015-001

Acknowledgements

The University of Wisconsin Project Team appreciates the thoughtful contributions of its members in the

development of this literature review. Reviewers included Lauren Suerth, MS (University of Wisconsin – URPL),

Jen Cheek, and Sara Padilla, Darlene Wolnik (Farmers Market Coalition), Stacy Miller (Farmers Market Metrics

Project Consultant), and Rebecca Jollay.

Funding from the USDA’s Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (grants 2011-68004-30044 and 2014-68006-

21857) supported this study.

Table of Contents

I. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Methods: How We Processed ........................................................................................................................... 2

Limitations ........................................................................................................................................................ 2

II. Research into Existing Tools and Methodologies ...................................................................................... 3

III. Relevant Tools for Research Questions in Farmers Markets Research ...................................................... 5

1. Economic Impacts and Data Collection Tools ............................................................................................... 5

2. Human Impacts and Data Collection Tools ................................................................................................. 13

3. Social Impacts and Data Collection Tools ................................................................................................... 16

4. Ecological Impacts and Data Collection Tools............................................................................................. 18

5. Integrated approaches to assessing farmers market performance ........................................................... 19

IV. Conclusions: Key Learnings and Implications for Practice ...................................................................... 22

References ................................................................................................................................................. 24

Appendix A. Survey Questions to Measure Impacts of Farmers Markets .................................................... 29

Appendix B. Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................... 33

1

I. Introduction

Markets have been the beating hearts of communities for centuries. Morales (2011) outlined this

history and summarized the literature on the four types of benefits marketplaces produce: public health,

economic well-being, social/political life, and ecological concerns. While a variety of complementary

local food and farm marketing enterprises have emerged and grown in recent years (Martinez, 2010),

farmers markets remain the most prominent and public forums supporting direct agricultural commerce.

Markets are initiated by a variety of grassroots community stakeholders (Friedlander, 1976), and as

such, their goals are aligned with the unique issues or assets found in their respective places.

The number of farmers markets in the United States grew to 8,268 in 2014, a 371-percent increase

from 1994 (USDA, 2014). Alongside the rapid growth of farmers markets, multiple research reports on

their benefits and impacts within communities were and still are being released. Successful farmers

markets in communities often make the difference in whether innovative producers can successfully

market new crops and varieties, develop viable business models, and employ others in rural areas.

Communities use farmers markets as a civic platform to address food access issues, raise awareness

about sustainable agriculture, test new policy directions, as well as to explore and expand the “green

economy” (Alkon, 2012).

This review of the literature responds to a pressing question: how have market organizations and

their project partners collected decision-making data on their various activities? To date, markets and

their partners have used two broad types of data collection practices: macro-level measurement toolkits

and do-it-yourself (DIY) on-the-spot customer or vendor surveys. The DIY surveys quantify the addition

of new shoppers, assess their preferences, or collect other demographic characteristics while the toolkits

take a more comprehensive approach to impact measurement. This review produces a more nuanced

view of these practices by categorizing the different tools, describing the research questions addressed

by those tools, discussing the pitfalls and promises associated with the tools, and describing the broader

approach associated with each type of tool.

2

The impact of farmers markets in the United States is a topic that has been explored by multiple and

diverse researchers. For this paper, we reviewed a selection of the existing research to understand the

current status of data collection and measurement tools available and in use at markets to assess the

impact at the community level. The purpose of the current paper is to examine indicators and methods

utilized at farmers markets for data collection, as well as to discuss impacts that have been identified

through existing research, and to identify what is missing in order for reliable data collection to take

place in the market environment.

Specifically, we respond to the following questions:

1) What instruments or tools are employed for data collection at farmers markets?

2) What are the research questions markets are seeking to answer? What kinds of research are they

accomplishing?

3) What indicators and metrics are being examined?

4) How valid and applicable is the methodology?

Additionally, we address the issue of challenges and barriers to data collection at markets in this review.

Methods: How We Processed

The process used to assemble this literature review included:

Review of scholarly articles and other published documents

Review of national websites and a general internet search

Outreach to experts, academics, and practitioners in the field to identify current methodology and

projects underway

Categorization of the literature according to specific themes that emerged throughout the process

Collaborative suggestions from internal and external audiences

The list of selected literature on farmers markets and data collection was compiled as part of a new

initiative led by the Farmers Market Coalition and the University of Wisconsin – Madison, entitled

Indicators for Impact: Farmers Markets as Leaders in Collaborative Food System Data Collection and

Analysis. It is intended to inform the process by which a meaningful list of indicators and metrics is

developed for the design and implementation of a data collection process to take place over three years.

Additionally, this paper will enhance our understanding of the indicators used to collect data common to

all markets.

Limitations

This examination of the literature attempted to map the methods commonly employed, as well as

those less commonly used. However, it is possible that certain articles, reports, surveys, or other

resources that may contain relevant information have been overlooked in this review. Additionally,

some of the articles highlighted fall into multiple categories or themes.

3

II. Research into Existing Tools and Methodologies

The results of the literature search unique to farmers markets and data collection or evaluation

revealed 67 peer-reviewed articles published or otherwise reported between 1999 and 2015. The

literature search not directly related to farmers markets yielded 31 articles, books, or relevant materials.

The articles describing data collection efforts and methodologies used at venues other than markets and

strategies for working with non-market data collection initiatives were also included.

We found four types of research tools, including surveys (farmer/producer/vendor/shopper),

interviews (qualitative), multivariate analysis (OLS/Logistic/multiple regression, generalized estimating

equations modeling), and model analysis (IMPLAN/I-O MODEL). A total of 98 peer-reviewed articles

and agency or organization reports were selected for this review of the literature. In order to identify and

analyze relevant scholarly and non-scholarly or popular literature, we employed the following process:

Participating in regular conference calls of the Indictors for Impact project team (UW and FMC),

we selected relevant reports that frame current conditions, efforts, and gaps in research and/or

measurement of the impacts of farmers markets on communities.

We conducted a search on leading practitioner websites and mined existing reports found to be

relevant in terms of measuring benefits/impacts of farmers markets (e.g. Market Umbrella,

Project for Public Spaces, Farmers Market Coalition, Vancity Community Foundation).

The search engines Web of Science and Google Scholar were utilized using terms such as

‘farmers markets, ‘direct farm marketing’, ‘public markets’, ‘local food systems’, ‘impacts’,

‘measurement’, ‘assessment’, ‘indicator’, and ‘outcomes.’

Primary criteria for selecting literature included whether the research explored or measured

impacts or benefits of farmers markets in terms of social, economic, and ecological capital, or

contained survey instruments designed to collect quantitative or descriptive data from farmers

market participants.

From the selected literature, a list of frequently mentioned impacts and tools were categorized

according to work the Farmers Market Coalition (FMC) did in 2011 with community-level coordinators

of CDC’s Communities Putting Prevention to Work (CPPW). Together they crafted a draft set of

indicators for measuring farmers market activities and outcomes. They engaged a community-level

process that sorted the indicators into four types of capital:

Economic (ex. producer sales, related sales to restaurants, number of new food businesses,

creation of jobs on farm and in host community, sales at neighboring businesses, financial or in-

kind investments by sponsoring organizations.)

Human (ex. shoppers learning new recipes, trying new vegetables, producers learning new

languages to communicate better with shoppers, or community partners learning about market

shopper behavior and preferences.)

Social (ex. instances of civic engagement, volunteer hours, nonprofits conducting education at

market, producers donating food to social service agencies.)

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Ecological (ex. acres in production or preserved, distance from harvest to final consumers, crop

diversity, water conservation, nutrient management, humane livestock practices, and certified

and non-certified sustainability practices.)

While there is a common understanding that farmers markets serve many different audiences in a

variety of ways, the leaders of the FMC work in 2011 felt that the sector has relied too long on

assumptions or case studies, and identified a need to apply greater discipline to the collection of accurate

information and analysis of these diverse impacts. Another general review of the literature on

marketplaces by Morales (2011) also identified four, similarly categorized types of market benefits.

Table 1. Key Indicators and Tools for Impacts of Farmers Markets Presented in Selected

Empirical Studies Impacts Indicators Tools/Measurement Methods

Economic Impacts on the local and/or regional economy

(multiplier effect): Total annual sales, Jobs

created, and leveraged dollars

Impacts on neighboring businesses

Market expansion and fostering entrepreneurship

Change/difference in food affordability

Tools for data collection:

Farmer/Producer/Shopper Survey

Price and quality comparison survey

Observation

Interviews

SEED

Rapid Market Assessment

Measurement Methods:

I-O Model/ IMPLAN/ RIMS II

Survey data analysis

Multivariate analysis (OLS, Logistic regression)

Human More consumption of fresh produce

Change in availability of fresh produce (fruits and

vegetables)

Satisfaction with access to fresh produce

compared to local stores

Change in family food consumption behavior

Change in cooking, eating habits

Change in market visitors’ food knowledge

The relationship between the presence of the

farmers market with these changes

Tools for data collection:

Survey

Observation

Interview

FEED

Measurement Methods:

Quantitative & qualitative analysis

Generalized estimating equations modeling

Stepwise multiple regression analysis

Social Consumers’ motivation and primary reason for

attending farmers markets

Consumer social interaction and influences on

vendors Diversity in public space

Contribution to community building and social

ties

Tools for data collection:

Survey, NEED

Measurement Methods:

Survey data analysis

Multiple regression analysis

Ecological Farmers’ willingness to reduce chemical inputs Reducing food miles/shopper miles and food

waste Encouraging environmentally sound farming

practices

Tools for data collection: Survey

Measurement Methods:

Survey data analysis

Multiple regression analysis

Table One presents key impacts and tools discussed in the selected studies on outputs and impacts of

farmers markets. A total of 30 empirical studies that discuss or measure impacts with unique methods

5

and data are included. We also reviewed scholarly literature review papers but did not include them in

the table, as this table shows only literature with its own data, methodology, and applicable metrics.

III. Relevant Tools for Research Questions in Farmers Markets Research

In this section, we examine four types of impacts1 and the tools used for measurement, including

how and what they measured, and also identify which indicators or metrics are used to determine

whether those impacts were realized.

Economic Impacts and Data Collection Tools

The expansion of farmers markets suggests that farmers have benefited from increased

opportunities to sell their products directly to consumers (Brown et al., 2007; Henneberry, 2009).

Furthermore, it implies that consumers are purchasing an increasing portion of their food from local

sources, enjoying better prices and easier access (Kunkel, Luccia, & Moore, 2003; Larsen &

Gilliland, 2009; Suarez-Balcazar et al., 2006). Farmers markets have been found to have positive

impacts on local economies in terms of job creation, increased revenue and income, and business

incubation. Citing a study by Tulane’s A.B. Freeman School of Business, a green paper published by

Market Umbrella (1999) suggests that a farmers market is an efficient tool for economic

development of participating agricultural enterprises, as well as the downtown area and the rural

communities from which vendors travel.

In order to estimate the economic contribution of farmers markets, several studies utilized the

regional modeling system such as Impact Analysis for Planning input-output (I-O) model and

Regional Input Modeling System (RIMS). A study by the Union of Concerned Scientists explained

the logic of measuring the economic multiplier effects of the farmers market as follows.

“The value of goods and services sold by a business, or the direct effect of a market, is just one

component of a given market’s economic impacts. Each business represented must also purchase

inputs to produce and market its goods, and these collective expenditures are the indirect effects of a

market. Direct and indirect effects lead to increases in labor and capital income in households. This

results in additional expenditures by households, which are the induced effects of a particular market.

The economic multiplier of a market is a measure of the increase in economic activity that occurs as

a consequence of direct market sales (p.16)2.”

To undertake such an analysis, farmers market researchers administered surveys of farmers

markets within a specified region (like a state), and then they relied on model parameters to

1 For the definition of metric, indicator, and impact, see Appendix B. Glossary of terms. 2 For more information, read market-forces-report.pdf text version. (July 22, 2015). Retrieved from

http://www.readbag.com/ucsusa-assets-documents-food-and-agriculture-market-force

6

determine the economic impacts of the farmers markets on other industries for which primary data

had not been collected.

Table 2. Indicators for Economic Impacts of farmers markets (Multiplier Effect) Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Otto and

Varner

(2005)

Consumer interview: interview by trained

enumerator during three points of the market

season

Vendor survey: copies of paper surveys

distributed by managers once at the end of the

2004 market season IMPLAN Input-Output Model

Total sales for market season The economic impact of the total statewide

Henneberry

et al. (2009) Survey of randomly chosen 21 farmers markets

in Oklahoma, in 2012

Market manager mail survey Customer and vendor in-person surveys

Additional personal interviews IMPLAN Input-Output Model

Market Profile: Total farmers market gross

sales, number of people employed by farmers

markets, the annual average of farmers market

producers/vendors’ household income, and total

farmers market visitors’ expenditures in other

sectors IMPLAN: Three estimates calculated: Impacts

on the total value of economic transactions

(gross sales), the overall level of personal

income, and the number of Jobs (the number of

full-time-equivalent positions in the economy).

Total impacts were categorized into direct,

indirect, and induced effects. Econsult

Corporation

(2007)

Vendor /Manager survey

Regional Input-Output Modeling System

(RIMS)

The direct, indirect, and induced expenditures

sum to the total economic output

A matrix of impact multipliers specific to each

market, vendor, and local economy type

Hughes et al.

(2008) Vendor survey of 34 Farmers Markets across

West Virginia in 2005 IMPLAN-based I-O model

The value of direct sales by local producers (The

midpoint of each of 21 categories of a range was

used to provide an estimate of sales per

respondent) Number of jobs (FTE) Gross impacts on industry output

Gross state product Net economic impact (The effect of direct

revenue losses (opportunity cost)) City of

Portland

(2008)

Survey of sales estimate by product type,

fees/sales from prepared food vendors, and

vendor fees.

Farmer/Producer Interviews

Market Manager Interviews

Development of a Site-Evaluation Tool

IMPLAN

GIS mapping of current farmers market

locations, primary trade areas for the markets,

and farmers serving Portland area markets

Total sales volume

Sales growth

Distribution of sales (% of dollar volume) by

product type (e.g. vegetables 32%; fruit 13.8%)

Employment

Employee compensation

Vendor fees collected

Spaces (sq. ft. and aisle width)

Percentage of vendors by product type

Number of blocks from local business

community

Total sales

Total Number of vendors on opening day;

Highest Number of vendors; Average Number

of vendors

Vendor waiting list (Yes/No)

7

Number of adult customers on average day

(high and low estimate requested)

Several qualitative metrics included also

Market

Umbrella (2012)

SEED methodology: Survey, The Regional Input-Output Modeling

System II multiplier

The market’s total combined economic impact:

Total immediate economic benefit to vendors,

nearby businesses, and the local community and

BEA RIMS II multiplier or comparable

multiplier. Market impact on vendors with multiplier

(Average gross receipts, Average gross receipts

per market sq. ft., Projected gross annual

receipts) Local area impact with multiplier (Average

gross receipts, Projected gross annual receipts at

businesses near the market, Projected annual

state & municipal sales tax revenue) Project tax revenue (the sales taxes nearby

businesses pay to local and state authorities

from the purchases made by market shoppers)

Sadler, Clark,

and Gilliland

(2013)

Customer surveys (N=895)

SPSS analysis

Spatial analysis in GIS

A modified economic impact multiplier

(Econsult Corporation (2007) methodology)

The socioeconomic distress index

Consumer characteristics (gender, age,

Frequency of visits, distance from market, mode

of transportation)

Products purchased

Reasons for coming

How heard about market

Time spent at market

Money spent at market

Spatial distribution of customers by level of

urbanization and presence of above-average

neighborhood socioeconomic distress

Kernel density of customers weighted by dollars

spent

Table Two identifies how these studies administered surveys of farmers markets and used

acquired estimates for calculating the economic impact of farmers markets by using IMPLAN or

RIMS. Otto and Varner (2005), Henneberry et al. (2009), Hughes et al. (2008), and City of Portland

(2008) used IMPLAN and survey data to evaluate economic impact of farmers market, while

Econsult Corporation (2007) and Sadler et al. (2013) used RIMS and survey data. Otto and Varner

(2005) estimated the sales, income, and job multipliers of Iowa farmers markets using the IMPLAN

Input-Output (I-O) model. The multiplier effect for gross sales and personal income was 1.58 and

1.47 respectively. The multiplier effect for jobs was 1.45. Similarly, multipliers associated with

farmers markets in Oklahoma have been estimated to be 1.41 (employment), 1.66 (personal income),

and 1.78 (gross sales) (Henneberry et al. 2009). Market Umbrella designed the Sticky Economy

Evaluation Device (SEED), a tool to measure a public market’s impact on the local economy.

Customer-intercept surveys, head-count tabulations, and the Bureau of Economic Analysis’ RIMS II

economic multiplier are used for collecting data and estimating economic impacts (Market

Umbrella, 2012).

8

On the other hand, Hughes et al. (2008) pointed out that these approaches did not consider the

opportunity cost of money spent at farmers markets. They examined the net impact of farmers

markets on the West Virginia economy, using an IMPLAN-based input-output model. Gross impacts

were 119 jobs and $2.389 million in output, including $1.48 million in gross state product. When the

effect of direct revenue losses, referred to as the opportunity cost, was included, the impact was

reduced to 82 jobs, $1.075 million in output, and $0.653 million in gross state product (2008, 253).

This study identified that displaced economic activity by farmers markets within the local

community reduced the positive economic impacts of localization, although estimated net benefits

were still positive.

Portland’s analysis of its farmers markets also took into account the substitution effect.

“Assuming that all goods sold at a traditional grocery store are imported to the region (to

simplify the analysis), IMPLAN estimates that nearly three-quarters of the direct impact leaks

outside the region with the estimated $11.2 million in spending at farmers’ markets equivalent to

approximately $3.4 million in economic impact in a traditional grocery market, because of the

household margins associated with retail sectors.”

Martinez et al. (2010) pointed out that it is not clear how estimates of net economic benefits

would be affected if the costs of public investments were accounted for in the empirical studies of

economic impact of local food markets. For instance, the Farmers Market Promotion Program has

provided public financing to support farmers markets for several years since 2006, and local

governments often either directly operate local markets or provide resources to support their

operation. These costs have not been explained in existing research on the economic impacts of

farmers markets (2010, 45).

The recent USDA (2015) report contends that it is hard to draw conclusions about the local

economic impact of local food systems because the existing literature has narrow geographic and

market scope, making comparing studies complicated. This study notes that data necessary to

conduct the economic impact analysis are costly to obtain, and there is no standard way of

accounting for the opportunity cost. The authors conclude that many questions surrounding the

economic impact of local foods remain unanswered and could be addressed by future research.

The existence of farmers markets may also spur consumer spending at other businesses in a

community. People who come to a market also spend money with nearby merchants. This is one of

the direct economic benefits of farmers markets acclaimed by community leaders and market

organizers. Lev et al. (2003) and Bubinas (2009, 2011) found that many farmers market shoppers

who traveled to downtown areas specifically to patronize the market also spent additional money at

neighboring businesses. Bubinas calculated the direct economic benefit of a farmers market to

downtown and neighboring business storeowners and vendors in two farmers markets in Kenosha

and Waukesha, WI. Lev et al. (2003) estimated spillover sales generated by farmers market shoppers

who also make purchases at neighboring businesses in Oregon farmers market during 1998-2003.

9

Table 3. Indicators for Economic Impacts of farmers markets on neighboring business

Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Bubinas

(2011)

Questionnaire survey (Vendors, customers, and

downtown storeowners)

Semi-structured interview with vendors and

storeowners

Percentage of market customers who visit the

downtown area

Direct economic benefit of farmers market to

downtown storeowners and vendors; number of

customers spending money, percentage of

customers spending money, and average amount

spent

Indirect economic benefit: utilize FM for

advertising and earning revenue, a nurturing

venue for local entrepreneurs, and create

additional employees on market days

Lev et al.

(2003)

Customer survey: To estimate spillover sales

generated by farmers market shoppers who also

purchase at neighboring businesses

Percent of shoppers who visit downtown

specifically for farmers market Percent of people who also shopped outside

market Estimated total spent outside market and

Estimated total spent inside market Spending ratio (outside/inside market)

Ostrom and

Donovan

(2013)

A survey of market managers to 169 farmers

market locations in Washington State in 2010.

Among them, 127 farmers market participated

in the survey.

Follow-up phone interviews were conducted in

2011.

The total annual market sales, Average farmer

vendor sales compared to past five years, Impact

of accepting credit/debit cards, Vendor business

incubation, Total number of farmers market

employees by status, Average employee at

farmers markets, Farmers market manager

compensation, Types of farmers market

manager positions, Farmers market manager

experience (years managing) Ohio

University

(2013)

The Rapid Market Assessment model: A dot

survey and brief questionnaire

Percent of shoppers and shopping frequency at

neighboring businesses or restaurants

Percent of shoppers who visit downtown

specifically for farmers market

Ostrom and Donovan (2013) conducted a survey of farmers market managers and documented

the current capacity of Washington state farmers markets to generate income for farmers, improve

the environment, and provide assets to communities. This study also assessed their long-term

sustainability by analyzing survey results. The methods used include participatory research,

collecting existing data, Rapid Market Assessment, market manager survey, farm vendor survey,

case study communities, and focus groups. Using these data collection methods, Ostrom and

Donovan assessed the impacts of farmers markets. Ohio University (2013) conducted a dot survey

for shoppers at the Athens Farmers Market and found that the vast majority of queried shoppers

reported that their primary reason for coming to East State Street was to shop at the market. Over

half of these shoppers reported that they often or always shop at other businesses or restaurants when

they come to the market.

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Market Expansion for Farmers and Fostering Entrepreneurial Activity

Farmers markets may facilitate entrepreneurial activity within the local economy by improving

business skills and opportunities. Feenstra et al. (2003) examined the role of farmers markets in

creating and sustaining new businesses. In this study, the capacities of farmers market vendors,

which are associated with entrepreneurial outcomes, were examined. In particular, this study

explores how vendors’ business activities and capacities are associated with different sizes of

enterprises by conducting a mail survey of up to 400 vendors from 20 markets in each state in 1999.

They concluded that farmers markets helped medium- and large-scale enterprises to expand or

complemented existing, well-established businesses. For small vendors, farmers markets appeared to

operate as a relatively low-risk incubator for new businesses and a nurturing primary venue for part-

time enterprises.

Using the same data from a 1999 mail survey of farmers market vendors, Hinrichs et al. (2004)

examined the role of social learning in vendor innovation. Social learning through engagement with

customers contributed to more innovative marketing by vendors while social learning through

engagement with customers and fellow vendors increased the likelihood of vendors diversifying to

additional markets beyond the farmers market. Brown and Miller (2008) suggested that farmers

markets allow farmers to expand their business and increase market sales and household income by

reviewing research conducted on farmers markets since 2000.

Table 4. Indicators for Market Expansion and Fostering Entrepreneurial Activity through

Farmers Markets

Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Feenstra et al.

(2003)

Survey analysis

Mail survey of farmers market vendors of New

York, Iowa, and California in 1999

Vendor’s entrepreneurial activities and skills

gained through the farmers market experience

Activity: added new product category, expanded

existing product lines, begun additional

processing, developed mailing list of farmers

market customers, and made new business

contacts

Skills: Customer relations improved, business

self-confidence improved, merchandizing skills

improved, pricing skills improved, cooperating

with business people

Hinrichs et

al. (2004) Multivariate analysis: Ordinary least squares

regression, Logistic regression The same survey conducted by Feenstra et al.

Dependent variables: Intensity of innovative

marketing practices3, Expansion beyond this

farmers market4

3 The questions asked whether, since selling at the farmers market, vendors had (1) ‘‘added new categories of products (like

a fruit vendor who added baked goods, or a vegetable vendor who added handcrafted birdfeeders);’’ (2) ‘‘expanded existing

product lines (like a vegetable vendor who added a new variety of pepper or a potter who added a new kind of vase);’’ (3)

‘‘begun additional processing to add value to one or more products;’’ (4) ‘‘developed a mailing list of your regular farmers

market customers;’’ (5) ‘‘provided opportunities for farmers market customers to visit your farm;’’ and (6) ‘‘made new

business contacts through the market, e.g., with restaurants, stores.’’ A summated measure of scores for the six individual

practices provided one dependent variable, intensity of innovative marketing practices (p.42). 4 This study asked a fixed-choice question: ‘‘How do you think selling at the X market (i.e., the market through which the

vendor was surveyed) has affected sales of your products in other outlets?’’ and created a dichotomous variable where

‘‘increased sales in other outlets’’ was the reference category (p.42).

11

(2013) Explanatory variables: Regional community

context, social learning at farmers markets,

Individual characteristics, Enterprise

characteristics

Improving food affordability

Studies found mixed results on the relationship between the presence of a farmers market and its

likelihood of improving food affordability. Several studies found that farmers markets in food

deserts had more affordable and quality produce (Park et al., 2011; Suarez-Balcazar, 2006) than

neighborhood corner stores and supermarkets. When market basket price comparisons are made,

farmers market prices are often found to be more affordable. For instance, using comparing the

average price of a healthy food basket between average supermarket and low-income neighborhood,

Larsen and Gilliland (2009) showed that farmers markets provided enough competition to lower

supermarket prices on produce.

On the other hand, Lucan et al. (2015) argue that it is not evident that farmers markets contribute

positively to an urban food environment in terms of accessibility and price. They investigate 26

farmers markets in Bronx County, NY, to compare farmers markets’ accessibility as well as produce

variety, quality, and price to that of nearby stores. This study concludes that farmers markets’ lower

accessibility, restricted variety, and higher cost, might provide little net benefit to food environments

in the urban community although farmers markets might increase access to local and organic

produce.

Additionally, nationwide a trend has emerged to provide incentives to Supplemental Nutrition

Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly food stamps) recipients at farmers markets. This serves to both

stimulate local economies by drawing SNAP recipients to spend their benefits at farmers markets

and to increase access to healthy, local foods for people with limited incomes (Zandi 2008; Bartlett

et al 2013). In many communities where a high density of SNAP recipients reside, few healthy food

retail options exist that are accessible in terms of cost and physical proximity (White House Task

Force on Childhood Obesity 2010). According to one study, SNAP recipients report that they find

more variety and better-quality fruits and vegetables at the farmers markets than in other stores

(Karakus et al., 2014). In terms of prices, most shoppers believed that the prices of fresh fruits and

vegetables at farmers markets were lower or at least the same as in other stores. This study also

found that financial incentives were very important for drawing SNAP recipients to farmers markets

and that they shopped more often at farmers markets because of these incentives. Furthermore,

SNAP recipients reported that their household members ate more fresh fruits and vegetables as a

benefit of the incentives.

SNAP benefits are primarily utilized by program participants at farmers markets through

Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT), wherein dollars are deducted from the customers’ EBT cards

using a United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)-authorized point of sale machine. The

dollars are then issued in the form of a market SNAP currency, namely tokens or paper scrip.

However, some farmers markets lack the necessary equipment for electronic processing and instead

collect SNAP transaction information on paper receipts and process these manually over the phone.

In order to offer market incentive programs, the administering organization raises a reserve of

12

supporting funds to provide a ‘match’ to withdrawn SNAP benefits up to a certain dollar amount,

typically between $5 and $30 dollars. Consumers spend their SNAP benefits and these bonus funds

on eligible foods and plants, with some programs restricting the use of bonuses to only fresh fruits

and vegetables. To offer SNAP-based incentives, a market must request a waiver from the USDA

given that the program provides different treatment to SNAP recipients than other customers. The

primary hurdle in implementing bonus incentives is securing sustaining funds for both the matching

dollars and the staff hours required to administer these programs.

Incentive programs have a positive economic impact on farmers market sales. A study lead by

Lydia Oberholtzer evaluating just over 100 farmers market incentive programs in their second year

of implementation found an average increase of 134% in SNAP sales between years one and two.

The usage of incentives also increased by 61% between years one and two (Oberholtzer 2012).

Additional studies that look at the difference in SNAP spending before and after the introduction of

incentive programs show impressive increases, ranging between 117%, 179%, and 328% at different

markets (Bodonyi and Gilroy 2011; New York City Department of Health and Hygiene 2010).

Regionally, several Midwestern states are on the forefront of incentive program implementation,

with Minnesota and Michigan working with partners to implement initiatives at farmers markets

statewide (Blue Cross Blue Shield 2014; Fair Food Network 2014), and Citywide initiatives in

Wisconsin (Dundore and Morales 2015).

Analyses of prices at farmers markets and nearby grocery stores are limited and have focused on

specific geographic areas. However, by using a nationwide survey of 2006 Nielsen Homescan panel

data, ERS (Economic Research Service, USDA) conducted price comparisons of DTC (Direct to

Consumer) outlets including farmers markets and retail stores nationally. For some product and

location combinations, DTC food prices were higher than retail store prices (USDA, 2015).

However, this study finds that selected produce prices at DTC outlets are generally lower, on

average, than prices at retail stores in all seasons.

Table 5. Indicators for Food Affordability Improvement of Farmers Markets: Price data

comparison, Survey, and Interview

Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Suarez-

Balcazar (2006)

Survey (Consumer survey by interviewer,

farmers survey by interviewer)

Spending patterns at farmers market (Spending,

and use of senior discount coupon, farmers

market coupon, and a Link card) Satisfaction with access to fresh fruits and

vegetables compared to local stores (price,

location, quality, variety, cleanliness,

availability of organic produce, overall

satisfaction with access) Larsen and

Gilliland (2009)

Price data comparison ‘Before and after’ approach to assessing food

price and availability (data for 2005 and 2008)

Comparison of the average price of a healthy

food basket (ONFB) between average

supermarket and low-income neighborhood Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

Two survey comparison: two shopper surveys of

2010 and 2012 (386 farmers market shoppers,

representing 58 different markets, surveyed in

Ontario, Canada)

Comparing qualities of markets & supermarkets,

including value, convenience, and price

13

Community

Science

(2013)

Cluster evaluation for 31 sample sites of the

healthy food incentive programs (SNAP)

The data collected by the individual projects or

organizations that participate in the evaluation

Market sites profile/Monthly transaction

reporting forms

Consumer Survey

Vendor Survey

Market Manager Survey

Program manager semi-structured interviews &

survey

Characteristics of farmers markets offering

SNAP incentives

Change in SNAP recipients food purchasing

behaviors as a result of incentive.

Effect of incentive programs on local farmers

(e.g. revenues, jobs) and the local economies

Cost implications of implementing the healthy

food incentive programs

Essential strategies & components of

“effective” healthy incentive program

Factors & conditions that can affect

implementation

Lucan et al

(2015)

A Cross-sectional assessment by field

investigators of all FMs in Bronx County, NY,

and of the nearest store(s) selling produce within

a half-mile walking distance to compare FM

accessibility as well as produce variety, quality,

and price.

Investigator observation

Interview

Data analysis

Food-source accessibility: how far stores were

from FMs along street-network walking routes

Food-item variety: Food variety including best –

selling items, specific tailored-items, or

promotion items

Produce quality: freshness (the number of days

since harvest), purity/naturalness (organic)

Produce price: price comparison

Table Five presents methodology and indicators that measure food affordability in the existing

literature. In order to evaluate the increased food affordability of farmers market, several studies

carried comparison of the price and quality of the products of farmers markets and supermarkets.

This comparison data is also used to evaluate the health impact of farmers market (see also table

six). Some organization related to agriculture offer price data of fruit and vegetables in farmers

markets to support agriculture. For instance, Center for crop diversification of University of

Kentucky offers weekly price report of fruit and vegetable from a selection of farmers markets in

Kentucky, Illinois, and Tennessee in order to meet demand for crop diversification information for

farmers5.

Human Impacts and Data Collection Tools

For the purpose of the project informed by this paper, we define human capital or practices as

those that improve the capacity, skills, and motivation of individuals to make healthy or healthier

choices. Accordingly, human impact is presented as changes in behavior and not as an impact to

physical health. However, in this review we identified a number of articles that suggest that farmers

markets provide broad, sustainable health outcomes by improving access to fresher food. The health

impacts most commonly cited and discussed in the research included improved food access and

security, increased fruit and vegetable consumption, and healthy cooking and eating practices.

Placing farmers markets in ‘food deserts’ has been identified as a strategy for healthy eating by

the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2013). By exploring the location of farmers

markets across the U.S., Roubal (2015) identified that a higher percentage of farmers markets census

5 For more information, read Price Reports of Center for Crop Diversification of University of Kentucky. (Nov. 21, 2014).

Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/price.html

14

tracks were food deserts and suggest that farmers markets have the potential to reduce food

insecurity through location. She found that in Wisconsin seasonal summer markets improved access,

transforming food “deserts” into places of accessible food. Additionally, incentive programs at

farmers markets increase the ability of low-income individuals to purchase fresh produce. Through

the CDC’s Communities Putting Prevention to Work initiative during 2010-2012, more than one

million Americans in 14 communities were able to use SNAP, EBT and/or WIC to purchase foods

from local farmers markets and other healthy food retailers.

Farmers markets have been found to provide residents with significantly higher access to fresh

fruits and vegetables (Larsen & Gilliland 2009, Park et al. 2011, Suarez-Balcazar, 2006).

Furthermore, neighborhoods with farmers markets had higher fruit and vegetable consumption rates

among people of color (Park et al., 2011). This was particularly true in low-income markets where

WIC funds or EBT were available (McCormack et al. 2010; Krokowski, 2014). Evidence also

suggests that healthy eating habits are associated with participation in the Senior Farmers Market

Nutrition Program (Kunkel et al., 2003). According to Ruelas et al. (2012), access to alternative

sources of fresh produce, such as farmers markets, might help to mitigate the impact of healthy food

disparities by both lowering the cost of produce in the food deserts and improving healthy food

choices (555).

The ability of farmers markets to accept SNAP EBT cards will be critical if low-income

populations are to be reached. Recent results from the Washington State Farmers Market

Technology Improvement Pilot Program indicate that such technology increased the use of Basic

Food Dollars at Washington State farmers markets by over 300% (Bollen et al., 2010. 9). The newly

awarded FINIP grants are seeking to increase consumption of fruits and vegetables among SNAP

consumers. There is a significant evaluation component to these grants; the larger class of grants is

required to conduct program evaluations.6 This demonstrates the national interest in further research

on this area.

Key metrics to measure human impacts of farmers markets from the existing studies are

presented in Table Six. These metrics measure changes in behavior including purchasing, cooking

and eating habits. For instance, Market Umbrella (2012) used the FEED tool to measure individual

human capital at the Crescent City Farmers Market in terms of shoppers’ food knowledge. The logic

behind this tool is that measuring market-goers’ food knowledge offers strong indicators of the

market’s role as a place for improving shoppers’ relationship to the food they eat and the way they

interact with their food environments.

Table 6. Indicators for Health Impacts of Farmers Markets: Survey and Interview

Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Park et al.

(2011) A mixed-methods convergence study:

qualitative interviews (28 women) and

quantitative analysis between dietary intake data

and neighborhood access to specific types of

retail food outlets (345 women)

The relationship between ‘the presence of a

farmers market’ with ‘consumption of more

total serving per day of fruit, vegetables, and

juice,’ and ‘consumption of more servings per

day of meat’

6 See the program guidelines and awards at http://nifa.usda.gov/program/food-insecurity-nutrition-incentive-fini-grant-

program

15

Kunkel et al.

(2003) A random sample survey of 1,500 participants

of SFMNP and a similar survey of a random

sample of 102 farmers.

Comparison of the quality of the fruits and

vegetables at the farmers market to the grocery

store

More intakes of fruits and vegetables Buying fresh fruit or vegetable that had never

tried before Learning a new way to cook fresh fruits and

vegetables Ruelas et al.

(2012) Two years of evaluation from customer survey

(2007, 2009) in two farmers market in low-

income urban communities in Los Angeles. (415

customers from East LA and 1374 customers

from South LA)

Satisfaction with the market and the type and

quality of produce offered (5-point Likert

Scales) Changes in Family food consumption behavior,

food insecurity physical activity and utilization

of WIC and SFMNP checks

Estimated annual income and household size CDC (2013) Presenting Indicator of fruits and vegetables

consumption

Availability of Healthier food retail in

communities:

Number of farmers markets per 100,000 state

residents

Percentage of farmers markets that accept SNAP

benefits

Percentage of farmers markets that accept WIC

FMNP coupons

Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

See also Table Five

Impact on cooking, recipes, and sharing

Eating seasonally (including adaptation in

winter)

Comparing product qualities at markets &

supermarkets

Impact on eating and cooking

Impact on children’s eating

Impacts on food waste

Frequency of product purchasing at markets

Market

Umbrella

(2012)

FEED tool: use of surveys and visual cues to

measure shoppers’ food knowledge, shopping

behaviors, and familiarity with fresh produce

Changes in market visitors’ food knowledge,

shopping behavior, and the role of shopping

experience at the farmers market in those

changes

Chapman-

Novakofski

and Wheeler

(2014)

Price comparison: Prices were collected

biweekly from grocery stores and Farmers

market vendors. Participants were recruited

from Special Supplemental Nutrition Program

for Women, Infants, and Children clinic to

complete a survey of Fruits and Vegetable

intake, psychosocial variables, and Farmers

Market usage.

Stepwise multiple regression analysis

Comparison of fruit and vegetable cost at

commercial grocery stores and farmers markets

The relationship between fruit and vegetable

survey items and intake

Chapman-Novakofski and Wheeler’s 2014 study on cost comparisons between supermarkets and

farmers markets and the relationship to fruit and vegetable intake showed that farmers market

vouchers (FMNP) facilitated purchasing more vegetables than a family might otherwise be able to

afford, especially when farmers market produce was more expensive than grocery stores. The FMNP

also motivated more WIC participants to go to the markets. This study found that, despite higher

costs, farmers markets were often used, and farmers markets users had a better vegetable intake

pattern.

16

The State Indicator Report on Fruits and Vegetables (CDC, 2013) provides environmental and

policy indicators of support for fruits & vegetables consumption. As a proxy to measure the

availability of healthier food retail in communities, the report uses some metrics relating to farmers

market policies: Number of farmers markets per 100,000 state residents; Percentage of farmers

markets that accept SNAP benefits (new); and Percentage of farmers markets that accept WIC

Farmers Market Nutrition Program coupons.

“Creating greater access to quality and affordable fruits and vegetables (F&V) nationwide is an

important step to increase F&V consumption. When state leaders, health professionals, food retail

owners, farmers, education staff, and community members work together, more Americans can live

healthier lives...Farmers markets are a mechanism for purchasing foods from local farms and can

augment access to F&V from typical retail stores or provide a retail venue for F&V in areas lacking

such stores. The number of farmers markets per 100,000 state residents provides a broad estimate of

the availability of F&V from farmers markets adjusted for variation in state population. Farmers

markets that accept nutrition assistance program benefits, such as Supplemental Nutrition

Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and

Children (WIC) Farmers Market Nutrition Program (FMNP) coupons, and WIC Cash Value

Vouchers (CVV), improve access to F&V for individuals and families with lower incomes.”

3. Social Impacts and Data Collection Tools

Farmers markets are directly connected to social capital and community building. Social

interactions through farmers markets can foster strong relationships between consumers and vendors,

as well as promote a sense of local identity (Hunt, 2007). Farmers markets are recognized as places

for gathering and fostering community. However, a number of articles discussed barriers

(limitations) of markets to reach diverse populations or communities of color. These include lack of

affordability, limited or no culturally appropriate food and space, and other barriers that may limit

inclusivity of low-income and residents of color among the farmers market customer base (Golden,

2013; Fisher, 1999; Suarez-Balcazar, 2006).

Table 7. Indicators for Social Impacts of Farmers Markets: Survey and Multiple regression

analysis Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Hunt (2007) A survey of 216 shoppers and 65 farmers and 16

other vendors at eight farmers markets in Maine

(2 weeks in August 2004) Multiple regression analysis on the dependent

variables of farmer household income and

consumer spending to identify significant

influences on these variables

Consumer interactions and influences on

farmers market vendors Social interactions as important explanatory

variables on consumer spending such as the

market being a family event, having fun at the

market, and talking g with vendors.

Market

Umbrella (2012)

NEED methodology: measuring the social ties

among and between shoppers, vendors, and

neighbors using intercept surveys with a sample

of Shoppers, vendors, and neighbors on one or

more market days.

Time spent at the market Shopper’s primary reason beyond shopping

(The time of) remaining at the market after

finishing shopping The relationship with vendors (where you are

17

most likely to purchase) The origin of shoppers (Neighborhood or

outside from the neighborhood) The non-economic community benefits from the

market: meeting new people, new business

opportunities, supporting the market, supporting

the neighborhood. The degree of sense of community The level of trust between vendors and shoppers Neighbor’s perception of benefit on

neighborhood

Ostrom and

Donovan

(2013)

See Table Three. Primary motivation for starting farmers market,

Importance of and serving for low-income

community members, Impact of accepting EBT

on farmers market sales, Estimated pounds of

produce donated annually to food banks, soup

kitchens and shelters by farmers markets,

Perceived economic mix of shoppers, Perceived

racial/ethnic mix of shoppers, Volunteer service

at farmers markets (average volunteer hours/

Total volunteer hours) Diversity in public space: Number of visits to

the market per month, Time spent at the market

per visit, Months during which respondents

attend the market, Days respondents attend the

market, Purchasing practices Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

Second of two customer studies of the Greenbelt

Farmers Market Network in Ontario, Canada;

survey of 386 farmers market shoppers

(representing 58 different markets) surveyed in

Ontario, Canada in January-February 2012,

primarily focused on health impacts as reported

by respondents.

Sharing more meals with friends and loved ones

Experiencing a friendly atmosphere at markets

that is absent at supermarkets

Learning about food production at markets

Patrons bringing children to markets

Mathews

(2013)

Surveys, observations and interviews of both

market customers and vendors were conducted

at six tailgate markets in Western North

Carolina to study how the interactions that

people have at tailgate markets influence

purchasing behavior. During spring and summer

2012, a total of 348 surveys from 6 different

markets were collected.

Consumers’ motivations to attend the markets

Consumers’ value about shopping at the markets

The way how consumers select vendors/items

Interaction between a vendor and a consumer:

The average time spent at the stand by a

consumer before making a final decision,

Shopping alone or with a group? Who carried

the conversation? Familiarity in the interaction.

The main type and topics of conversation. The

impact of interaction with another customer or

vendor on purchase.

Market Umbrella (2012) developed the Neighborhood Exchange Evaluation Device (NEED) to

analyze social transactions in farmers markets, piloting it in New Orleans and Los Angeles farmers

markets. In this report, Market Umbrella measured the social ties in the Crescent City Farmers

Market by using NEED methodology. Market Umbrella evaluated how often farmers markets

facilitate social trust among and between shoppers, vendors, and neighbors. For NEED analysis,

trained research teams conduct intercept surveys with a representative sample of customers on

18

representative market days and compile quantitative and qualitative questions about their

experiences at the market. Indicators and data used for NEED analysis are presented in Table Seven.

NEED indicators have the capability to tell us a great deal about the market and its ability to create

and enhance social capital. Interpreting these indicators may help researchers deduce the market’s

role in facilitating both social transactions and market transactions with social components. Market

Umbrella suggested that the level of trust between vendors and shoppers could be quantified, and

reveal opportunities for creating and improving bonding and bridging for farmers market participants

and neighbors.

Leah G. Mathews of the University of North Carolina-Asheville conducted research on how the

interactions that people have at tailgate markets influence purchasing behavior. To measure the

characteristics of interactions taking place at the markets, he conducted surveys, observations, and

interview of both market customers and vendors at six tailgate markets in Western North Carolina.

This study shows that consumers and vendors value tailgate markets both for the social atmosphere

and interactions, and direct exchange of information.

Ecological Impacts and Data Collection Tools

Limited research exists addressing the environmental or ecological impacts of local food

systems. Existing research reports claim that local food systems can reduce fossil fuel energy use,

pollution, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by reducing ‘food miles,’ or the transport distances

for food (Martinez et al. 2010). However, there is little literature that examines the specific

contributions of farmers markets to environmental capital. It appears that the real and perceived

difficulties in attributing community-based activities (such as those at farmers markets) to ecological

capital (produced by complex, large-scale factors) serves as a barrier to research on the potential

relationships.

A growing number of farmers market host compost and/or recycling collection and education,

aiming to reduce the community’s landfill footprint.7 Unfortunately, data on the precise quantities of

food scraps and recyclables diverted from the traditional waste stream through farmers markets is

not readily available. Evidence suggests, however, that consumer interactions through farmers

markets are significant and have positive influences on vendors’ willingness to reduce chemical

inputs to meet customer demands. In turn, this may suggest that customer interaction has the

potential to affect the environmental quality (Hunt 2007).

Table 8. Indicators for Ecological Impacts of Farmers Markets and Farms: Survey and Interview

Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Hunt (2007) A survey of 216 shoppers and 65 farmers and 16 Applying fewer chemicals and using the

7 See for instance Suerth and Morales (2014). Also, consider these webpages: Some possible references, either for in-text

citation or a new row in the table

http://columbiafarmersmarket.org/composting-at-the-farmers-market/; http://www.grownyc.org/compost;

http://www.portlandfarmersmarket.org/index.php/programs-and-services/evergreen/, and

http://www.cambridgewinterfarmersmarket.com/food-scrap-collectioncomposting.html.

19

other vendors at eight farmers markets in Maine

(2 weeks in August 2004) Multiple regression analysis

environment as a selling point to meet consumer

demand

Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

Second in a series of customer studies of the

Greenbelt Farmers Market Network in Ontario,

Canada;

Survey of 386 farmers market shoppers

(representing 58 different markets) surveyed in

Ontario, Canada in January-February 2012,

primarily focused on health impacts as reported

by respondents.

Food Waste

Ostrom &

Donovan

(2013)

See Table Three. Environmentally-friendly means of getting to

farmers markets, Recycling and composting at

farmers market

Table Eight presents articles, which explore methods and indicators measuring ecological

impacts of farmers markets and farms. Hunt (2007) examined the influence of consumer social

interaction at the farmers market using survey data and statistical analysis. The result suggested that

customer feedback has a role in changing environmental quality by influencing farmer production

practices. Applying fewer chemicals and using the environment as a selling point were associated

with farmers changing their products to meet consumer demand. In his analysis, a third of farmers

(32%) who practiced low chemical applications reported that they also changed their products to

meet consumer demand, and about a quarter of farmers (27%) who used the environment as a selling

point had changed products to meet consumer needs. Informa Market Research (2012) suggested

that farmers markets have significant environmental benefits. Shoppers appreciated that markets

were environmentally friendly, with producers often using a low or no packaging market approach.

Also, shoppers reported that knowing the origin of market produce motivated them to waste less

market produce, and its overall freshness also led to less food waste. Ostrom & Donovan (2013)

provided additional indicators to measure environmental impact of farmers markets such as

environmentally friendly means of shopper transportation, and recycling and composting at farmers

markets, and the number of acres being used for agricultural production by market vendors.

5. Integrated approaches to assessing farmers market performance

Recently, a variety of researchers and organizations tried to address the need for data and

appropriate measures related to farmers market performance and organizational characteristics

(Morales 2011; Ostrom and Donovan, 2013; Mckenzie, Jewel E, 2012, Vancity Community

Foundation, 2013; Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture/Iowa State University Extension and

Outreach, 2013; Market Umbrella, 2012). Table Nine illustrates a shared measurement system of the

Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture and a toolkit for measurement by Vancity Community

Foundation.

The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture (2013) produced a document that outlines how

to implement a measurement system for collecting economic data to tell the story of the Regional

Food Systems Working Group’s impact in Iowa; This document was prepared for coordinators of

20

seventeen Regional Food Groups working in 88 counties in Iowa. Inspired by the article “Collective

Impact” in the Stanford Innovation Social Review, they applied the idea of shared measurement

systems to 17 geographically distinct regional food groups comprising the RFSWG collaborative.

This ongoing project provides a list of change indicators focused on economic outcomes and tools

for collecting data. Using farmer surveys, institutional surveys, and coordinator instructions, they

attempt to address change of the outcomes from farmers markets.

Table 9. Toolkits for Measuring Impacts of Farmers Markets Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators The Leopold

Center for

Sustainable

Agriculture

and Regional

Food System

Working

Group of

Iowa (2013)

A shared measurement system for collecting

economic data to tell the story of the Regional

Food Systems Working Group’s impact in Iowa Three tools—Farmer survey, Institutional

survey, and Coordinator instructions—are used

to facilitate data collection.

Local food sales by farmers markets; Local food purchases by institutions; Jobs created and expanded Leveraged dollars; Stories of noteworthy

business partnerships and arrangements that

result in increased commerce.

Lev et al.

(1998, 2008)

Tools for Rapid Market Assessments: The

combining of the two quantitative methods and

a qualitative method

Two quantitative analysis:

Attendance counts (adults only)

Dot surveys

A qualitative analysis: Constructive Comments

and Observation (CCO)

Ohio

University

(2013)

An assessment of the Athens Farmers Market

and its impact on the community. The Rapid

Market Assessment is used.

Traffic Counts by placing traffic tubes at

parking lot entrances

Attendance Counts by using a Modified Rapid

Market Assessment

Customer Engagement by a dot poster survey

and questionnaire

Financial Information from vendors by AFM

market managers

Vancity

Community

Foundation

(2013)

Develop and provide a Toolkit that measures

and communicates market impact. The toolkit

consists of three parts: Surveys, a data file, and

snapshot templates. Primary data are to be

collected from the survey of customers, vendors,

market management, and external stakeholder.

Local Economic Impact: How does the market contribute to small

business incubation and local economic growth? How does the market complement, or compete

with, local business? What are the market’s

direct economic effects? How does the market develop the social

economy? Community Building: How is the market a community hub? What kinds of relationships does the market

develop between participants? Does it contribute

to civic engagement and building resilient

communities? Food Security and Ecosystem Health: How does the market encourage sustainable and

responsible agricultural practices? Does the market contribute to protecting

biodiversity? How does the market promote local land

cultivation and stable food production? Market Operations:

21

What is the state of the market’s operational

strength, community engagement, and financial

sustainability? How does the market compare to other markets

in the province, and to past years of operation?

In 2013, Ohio University’s Voinovich School of Leadership and Public Affairs conducted an

assessment of the Athens Farmers Market and its impact on the community at the request of the

Athens Farmers Market and a member of the Athens City Council. To measure market performance

and impact, the study used the Rapid Market Assessment model including customer counts, vehicle

counts, customer engagement and a collection of financial information from vendors. Based on the

assessment, researchers conclude that Athens Farmers Market is a robust market with significant

impact on the community. The study provides the detail of data collection efforts and the methods

while the assessment focuses on economic impact.

Oregon State University’s Rapid Market Assessment model is an example of a simple but

efficient method of data collection. Larry Lev and Garry Stephenson developed and adapted this

technique for use in farmers markets assessment in their two studies (1998, 1999) and published the

update and revision of the original version in 2008. The technique described in table nine shows the

updated version (2008). They designed three simple, low-cost methods to help farmers markets

make effective changes and improvements based on reliable information. This method consists of

attendance counts, dot surveys and a qualitative method called Constructive Comments and

Observations. All three methods can make efficient use of time and money, which are generally in

short supply.

The Vancity Community Foundation and the British Columbia Association of Farmers Markets

(2013) collaborated on the development of a Farmers Market Impact Toolkit designed to give market

managers the tools to collect, analyze, and communicate the benefit that their farmers markets bring

to their communities. The toolkit contains three sections: 1) Surveys of customers, vendors, market

management, and external market stakeholders; 2) A data file to collect and interpret survey data;

and 3) Snapshot reporting templates to help create documents that easily present survey results.

The toolkit measures market impact across four related outcomes: Local Economic Impact,

Community Building, Food Security and Ecosystem Health, and Market Operations.

After conducting a pilot test among 20 farmers markets located throughout British Columbia,

Canada, the Vancity Community Foundation discovered several challenges associated with data

collection. Two significant issues they identified include, (1) the capacity of market managers to

collect critical information with limited resources, and (2) the difficulty of sharing key information

provided by vendors with stakeholders and others. This latter issue was found to depend on the level

of trust vendors have with the market or with the people they seek out for information.

The authors of this study argue that the bottleneck in data collection from farmers markets is due

less to a market manager’s skills or experience than due to volunteer turnover, vendor time, and

vendor willingness to participate in data collection efforts. This suggests that the challenge is

management-related rather than skill-related, implying that the importance of manager relationship

to vendors and to volunteer teams. Further, the methods, tools, and training should be simple and

22

continually reinforced to enhance vendor willingness to participate in consistent and effective data

collection.

IV. Conclusions: Key Learnings and Implications for Practice

This review of the literature found that studies of farmers markets present the benefits of farmers

markets in relation to social, economic, human, and ecological aspects. To collect data and measure

these aspects, virtually all these studies utilized surveys. However, the surveys were implemented at

single markets, or by state entities, and little is known at the national level beyond the effort to

enumerate the number of markets. Few of these studies address issues of data collection methods and

indicators at farmers markets (Diane Eggert (2009); Corry Bregendahl (2013); McCarthy (2010)).

Additionally, a limited number of universally applicable toolkits or manuals on data collection exist

(Market Umbrella (2012); Vancity Community Foundation (2013)), none of which is commonly

used around the country. Comprehensive and longitudinal studies with consistent metrics are needed

to have a fuller appreciation of markets’ contributions to social, economic, human, and ecological

capitals. Such data would enable and make more useful regional economic analyses.

The collection of data pertaining to farmers markets is recognized as important by researchers

and market practitioners. Currently, regular data collection is taking place at a limited selection of

markets across the 8,000+ active markets in the United States. Given the limited capacity and

resources available to many markets, it might be quite difficult to ensure that data collection is done

efficiently and effectively.

The results of this literature review show that a number of different methods to collect data for

measuring the performance of farmers market and its impact on the community already exist. These

include surveys, interviews and focus groups, observation, comparison, and mapping. Among them,

survey techniques are presently the core data collection strategy for measuring the impacts of

farmers markets. In existing research on farmers markets, survey data on the impacts of farmers

markets have been analyzed by various methods such as IMPLAN and RIMS that are based on

survey data that estimates sales. Multivariate regression analysis also utilizes survey data of sample

farmers markets. Additionally, survey data provides important measures of social, economic, and

human impacts of farmers markets. Surveys most frequently measure total sales, number of visitors

and vendors, number of employed individuals, time/money spent at markets/neighboring businesses,

motivations and satisfaction levels, price and quality of products, etc. Meaningful impact indicators

based on this data can help market organizations and their project partners collect and use data they

need to inform decision-making and annual planning.

Therefore, the design and implementation of surveys must be carefully considered as a critical

part of the assessment process. For instance, Bubinas (2009) conducted vendor surveys during

market hours and asked vendors to fill out the survey when possible during the day and then she

collected the surveys at the end of the day. Vendors who were too busy to complete the survey on

site were given a stamped University addressed envelope in which to return the survey. This

approach can raise the response rate of vendor surveys. However, we are not aware of systematic

research about the efficacy of this approach.

23

Financial incentives are another approach to enhancing participation in research. Sometimes

researchers use financial incentives such farmers market gift certificates that they raffle off to

respondents to encourage shopper participation in surveys. Researchers should also understand that

vendors may have different, non-financial motivations for participating in data collection activities.

From her survey of vendors, Bubinas showed that vendors derive significant personal satisfaction

from vending, which they see as performing a service for the community. Therefore, to facilitate

vendors’ active participation in data collection, it is important to share with them how their market is

performing this service and that the ultimate goals of data collection will benefit their field. Showing

vendors that their market cares about this work and how data collection will improve the market and

its contribution will enhance vendor participation in the data collection.

Even when the methods used are sound and the collection process efficient, the tedious and time-

consuming nature of data entry may serve as an additional bottleneck in the process. Online forms,

excel templates with built-in formulas, and even mobile applications allowing surveyors to enter data

into a portal site could prove useful in increasing the efficiency and accuracy of data entry. However,

we have no clear understanding of the differences, if any, between paper surveys/verbal

questionnaires and the online application of the same. Thus, we need experimentation with

computer/phone or other technologically assisted data collection. If possible, we need comparisons

between such technologically assisted data collection and the paper or other modes of data

collection. It is possible that for many questions, both formats will be required, at least at present.

However, no matter which data collection instruments are selected it is important remain sensitive to

the respondent’s needs and interest and to maximize their trust in the collection process.

In this regard, we need to consider how the capacity for data collection varies across farmers

markets. Markets need support to identify and implement data collection tools, and they need access

to technical assistance sensitive to their context. Well-tailored training materials and exercises from

which markets may learn are becoming available, but access to information is still limited or

unavailable. In addition to providing effective tools and strategies, it is important to consider the

management structure, staffing, and evaluation timeline for implementing data collection efforts.

There is a need for clear, tailored, and useful tools and training for measurement and evaluation of

farmers markets in order to identify their impact on social, ecological, economic, and human capital

and enable more constructive discussion on how such impacts can be maximized for wider

community benefit.

24

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Appendix A. Survey Questions to Measure Impacts of Farmers Markets

Table A1. Survey Questions for Economic Impact

Authors Survey questions Otto and

Varner

(2005)

Average consumer visit times per season Average consumer spending dollars per market visit Average vendor dollar sales Average vendor market attendance

Hughes et al.

(2008) A range for the value of sales at markets (21 categories)

Bubinas

(2011)

Does coming to the FM make it more likely that you will do other things in the downtown area?

Hinrichs et

al. (2004)

Social learning through engagement with customers: created by summing and averaging responses

regarding benefit for the vendor at the surveyed farmers market from 1) direct feedback from

customers, and 2) opportunities to educate customers about products and services Social learning through engagement with other vendors: created by summing and averaging

responses regarding benefit for the vendor at the surveyed farmers market from 1) encouragement

and social support, and 2) business ideas and information from other vendors

City of

Portland

(2008)

Farmer/Producer survey (For more information, see

https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/236582)

Where is your farm located? (General location, distance to Portland)

How many acres do you farm (Approx. acreage)?

a. General info – how long have you farmed?

b. Expansion/growth plans this year or in the near future?

What crops do you currently grow?

Are you planning to add new crops or expand into value-added processing and marketing? Yes/No

If yes, explain.

What market channels do you use to sell your crops?

How many weeks do you sell in the market(s)? Would you like a longer season? (Explain) What is the minimum sales volume (in dollars) that you need each day to stay involved in the

farmers market? $__ per day

Do you plan to add more farmers markets or pursue expanded space at your current market? Yes/No.

Why or why not?

If yes have you decided which farmer markets to add, why have you chosen them?

How do you staff your farmers market stands? (Is that a challenge for you?) How many staff per

day?

Are you considering expanding your marketing program with other (non-farmers markets) direct-

market channels? Yes/No

Which direct market channel(s)?

How much of your production is currently sold at farmers markets versus other market channels?

(Percentages and approximate volume in pounds of production) What distance do you think is the farthest you would travel to sell at a farmers market?

What are the two most significant actions managers of farmers markets can do to increase your

success in selling there?

Market Manager Survey (For more information, see

http://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/236583)

Suarez-

Balcazar (2006)

How much money do you spent at the farmers market today? Rate your satisfaction with the farmers market as well as access to food in the community in general

(a five-point Likert scale from “Very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied”)

Community

Science

(2013)

Consumer Survey:

Is this your first time ever using SNAP at this farmers market?

Is the (incentive program name) one of the reasons you are visiting today?

Outside of this farmers market, how easy or difficult is it to buy quality fresh fruits and vegetables in

30

your neighborhood? (Very easy – Very difficult)

Compared to other places you shop, the price of fruits & veg at this market are… (Much lower-

Much higher & Not sure)

Would you say that because of this program, the amount of fruits & veg in general that you buy has

… (increased, stayed the same, decreased, not sure)

Because of this program, are you buying about the same, some different, or many different kinds of

fruits & vegetables?

Market

Umbrella

(2012)

Days open for business each year State + municipal state tax rate Total number of surveyed shoppers, Average number of shoppers, Estimated annual market

attendance, Average dollars spent at the market, Percentage of shoppers who spend at nearby

businesses, Average dollars spent at nearby businesses, Average vendor stall space (sq./ft.), Average number of

vendors, Average vendor gross receipts per market, Market visitation

Ostrom and

Donovan

(2013)

Compared with the past five years, would you say your average farmer vendor sales in 2009 were

lower, the same, or higher? How has accepting credit/debit affected market sales? (Decrease, No increase, Small, Moderate, or

Large increase in sales) Within the past three years, have market vendors developed or expanded their business beyond the

farmers market?

Table A2. Survey Questions for Human Impact

Authors Survey Questions Park et al.

(2011) Servings per day of fruit, vegetables and fruit juice, Servings of meat products per week

Kunkel et al.

(2003) When you were at the farmers market, did you buy extra fruits and vegetables with; Food Stamps,

Both cash and Food Stamps, Cash, Did not buy extra foods. Did having the coupons to spend at the farmers market change the way you eat? How would you rate the quality of the fruits and vegetables at the farmers market compared to the

grocery store? Will you eat more fresh fruits and vegetables all year round because of this program? Did you learn

a new way to prepare or cook fresh fruits or vegetables? Did you buy fresh fruit or vegetable that you had never tried before?

Ruelas et al.

(2012) Because of this market I now: Eat more fruits and vegetables, Eat more organic food, Eat food that is

fresher (less packaged food), Eat less fast food, Eat more foods that are traditional for my

culture/family background, Eat new kinds of food, Spend less money on food, Am better able to

provide food for my family and myself, Feel better about were my food comes from, A more

physically active. Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

In the last year, did you buy the following items regularly, occasionally, or never? (List provided,

pg. 28)

As far as you can tell, has shopping at farmers markets resulted in any ongoing changes? (List

provided)

Agree/disagree with statements about supermarkets vs. farmers market (Many questions include a

series of statements about their habits and perceptions to which respondents are asked to rate their

level of agreement).

Market

Umbrella

(2012)

Have you been introduced to new food at the market?

Has shopping at the market influenced the way you shop elsewhere?

31

Table A3. Survey Questions for Social Impact

Authors Survey Questions Hunt (2007) Consumer income, shopping frequency, enjoying the market, talking with vendors about seasonal

products, being a family event, attitude toward freshness Consumers’ interest in: connecting their purchase with helping farmers, improving the rural

economy, supporting their communities and supporting agricultural open spaces. Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

In comparing shopping at farmers’ markets and shopping at supermarkets, are farmers markets

Better, The same or Not as Good as supermarkets in terms of... (p. 39)

Here is a list of factors for comparing fresh produce you buy at farmers’ markets and fresh produce

you buy at supermarkets. Do you think that the produce you buy at the market/markets is Better, The

same or Not as good as in terms of ... than what you buy at supermarkets? (p. 37)

Ostrom and

Donovan

(2013)

In what ways does your farmers market benefit the community? (Bringing fresh, healthy local,

organic, quality food/produce into the community, creating a community gathering place and

enhance a sense of community, supporting farmers by providing direct sales to farmers and other

vendors.) How has accepting EBT affected market sales? (No increase, Small, or Large increase in sales) Purchasing practices (“do you ask vendors questions other than ‘how much’?”)

Market

Umbrella

(2012)

Shopper survey: What else do you like about the market besides shopping? (Supporting locals,

meeting people, and soaking up atmosphere) Once finished shopping, do you find yourself hanging

out at the market? Several vendors at the market are selling the same quality tomatoes. Where are

you most likely to purchase your tomatoes? Vendor survey: What is it about the market you like? (People, money, supporting market, etc.), What kinds of benefits besides sales do you get from this market? On a scale of 1 to 5, to what

degree do you feel a sense of community when you come to the market? Do you let any customers

purchase on credit? Neighbor survey: Do you know about the local farmers markets? Has the market benefitted this

neighborhood?

Table A4. Survey Questions for Ecological Impact

Authors Survey Questions Hunt (2007) Have you changed your products to meet consumer demands? (Low chemical applications, using the

environment as a selling point) The acres of land for producing

Informa

Market

Research

(2012)

Agree, Disagree, Don’t Know:

I think that I have less packaging waste when I shop at farmers’ markets.

I think that buying locally grown food at farmers’ markets means that we try harder not to waste it.

Ostrom and

Donovan

(2013)

In what ways does your farmers market help the environment? ; Reducing food miles, shopper

miles, fuel consumption and pollution, Encouraging environmentally sound and organic farming

practices among farmers’, Educating the public and modeling sustainable practices, especially

around waste reduction and recycling.

Table A5. Survey Questions in the toolkits for measuring Impacts of Farmers

Markets

Authors Survey Questions Vancity

Community

Foundation

(2013)

How much have you spent, or might you spend, at the farmers market today? Was the farmers market your primary reason for coming out/to this area of town today? Do you plan on doing additional shopping or eating while in this area of town today? If Yes: How much do you anticipate spending?

32

If Yes: Would you have visited these businesses today if you had not come to the farmers market? How is this farmers market a community hub? Please indicate the extent to which you agree/disagree with the following statements about this

market8. Please choose the top three ways in which participation in this farmers market adds value to your

farm/business9. Please indicate which of the following you produce and indicate how many varieties of each you

produce: vegetable, fruit, meat/poultry/fish, dairy/eggs, and others

What was your total farm revenue ($) in 2011? How much (%) of that was from farming product

sales? Of your total farm income from product sales, how much is exported or sold out of your local

community? How much of your total farm income came from direct sales through the following

local sales channels (% of total farm income or $): All farmers markets, This farmers market, CSA

shares, Restaurant direct sales, Farm gate sales, Local retail, Other local sales. Have any former or current vendors at the market gone on to start their own businesses that operate

outside of the market? The Leopold

Center for

Sustainable

Agriculture

and Regional

Food System

Working

Group of

Iowa (2013)

Within what geographic radius from your farm do you sell the majority of your food? _ Estimated

radius in miles What were your total local food sales between January 1, 2012 and December 31, 2012? Total local

food sales $_________ What were your total local food purchases in the past year? What were your institution’s total food

purchases last year? How many people are employed in this position? Write in the number of new jobs that were created

on the farm in 2012, Is this job filled year round? Is the job full-time? Dollars leveraged to support the work (grants, donations, etc.) Stories of noteworthy business partnerships and arrangements that resulted in increased commerce

Ohio

University

(2013)

Dot survey questions:

How often do you shop at this market?

How often do you shop at other businesses or restaurants when you come to this market?

What did you (or will you) buy today?

What is your PRIMARY reason for coming to East State Street today?

Brief questionnaire questions:

How many people are in your household?

Are you a student?

Where do you live?

How much did you (or will you) spend at the market today? (5) How did you travel to the market?

How old are you?

8 The statements about the market: The farmers’ market provides access to good quality, fresh food; The farmers’ market provides

opportunities to learn about how farm products are produced; The farmers’ market provides valuable connections to other community

activities (e.g. community service, local politics, neighborhood events); Shopping at the farmers’ market builds trusting relationships

between vendors and customers; The farmers’ market is a social hub/good place to socialize; Buying at the farmers’ market has a positive

impact on the local economy; Buying at the farmers’ market supports sustainable agricultural practices; The farmers’ market feels

welcoming to all people; I can reliably find what I am looking for at the farmers’ market; The farmers’ market is a destination for good

entertainment; The farmers’ market is a good use of public space; The farmers’ market is a good, family friendly place to bring children. 9 Sales Volume/Income, Branding/Marketing/Image, Building customer relationships, Meeting other vendors, Building distribution

networks, Product testing/Market insights, Access to new customers, Other.

33

Appendix B. Glossary of Terms

Impact

Impacts are the broader changes that occur within the community related to its economic status,

individual and community health, and/or natural environment as a result of program outcomes. Impacts

also define which group(s) are affected—vendors, shoppers, neighboring businesses, project partners,

etc. In many cases, impacts will be experienced by more than one group.

Indicator

An indicator compares a metric with a baseline or expected result, providing information on the state of,

or change in, the people, places, or systems that are being measured. It provides evidence that a certain

condition exists, or that certain results have (or have not) been achieved, enabling decision-makers to

measure progress toward the achievement of intended goals, outputs, or outcomes.

Methodology

Methodology refers to the research strategy that defines how data is collected and analyzed.

Quantitative data collection methods are used for that which can be precisely measured like

counting shoppers or numbers of SNAP sales per day and may include paper or video

interviews, online surveys, pre-and post-tests, clinical measurements, observation checklists,

or review of existing records.

Qualitative methods capture characteristics of what is being observed such as a market

neighbor’s perception of the market, personal experience of vendors. They may include paper

or video interviews, dot surveys, focus groups, open-ended survey questions, case studies,

field notes, and review of meeting minutes or news articles.

Metric

A metric compares two or more specific units of measurement, often expressed as {Number of X} per

{Unit of time or space}. In a market context, a metric might be expressed as “Total producer sales per

year” or “Total shopper visits per day.” Metrics might also be represented as percentages, increases, or

decreases; when two or more metrics are compared (for example “Total producer sales this year” and

“Total producer sales last year”), they are interpreted as indicators of change in producer income.

Outcome

An outcome is the short-term and intermediate change that occurs in learners, visitors, program

participants, etc., as a result of the activity, program or experience. Examples include acquisition of

skills or knowledge, a change in behavior or policy, or overall improvement to social, environmental,

economic, or civic conditions. When distinguishing between outputs and outcomes, it is helpful to think

of outcomes as the difference your outputs made in the community, which may take a year or more to

effectively measure.

34

Output

An output is the accomplishment of an activity or creation of a product, which can be described or

quantified. Examples of outputs might include a publication created, a workshop hosted, the number of

participants in an activity, or establishment of a new partnership.