Running head: CULTURAL ROADBLOCKS 1

Cultural Roadblocks: The Negative Effects of Parentification

Roles

On Educational Attainment for African American Daughters

Thomas Flunker

Walden University

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Abstract

For the African American daughter, having to manage the

roles brought about by childhood parentification: sibling

caretaking, housekeeping, household scheduling, and parenting,

can have significant repercussions on their self-esteem, sense of

worth, physical and mental health, as well as academic

performance. While some studies have led researchers to discover

that in specific circumstances, or within certain cultural

settings that, for positive effects to emerge is not uncommon,

the larger portion of studies that explore the realm of

parentification tend to emit a negative light on this construct.

The purpose of this paper was to further explore this topic,

especially as it pertains to the impact it has on African

American girls. By first taking a broader look at various

elements within adultified/parentified circumstances, including

briefly glimpsing at the diverse types of parentification, one

gains a better perspective into some of the main causes of these

occurrences. Since this construct has had a long relational

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history within the African American community, this paper

specifically attempted to refocus attention not only on how the

African American daughter has been affected by undertaking these

surrogate roles, but also whether within the presence of the

abundantly adverse outcomes, there were options for positive,

long-lasting remedies, at the local level, as well as the

societal level, which in turn could minimize or eliminate the

factors that impede these young ladies from continuing their high

school or college education. While some of the empirical data

did occasionally describe the positive, life-long skills and

characteristics being fostered, not all of these daughters gained

self-confidence and resolve from being a parentified child.

Often times the push-pull effect that emerged from being the

responsible party within the household, in addition to the

discouraging social struggles, poor sleep habits, and academic

challenges, notably affected life at home, and at school. In

many cases, unfortunate, debilitating issues inhibited these

girls from pursuing, or even beginning to contemplate their

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academic dreams. It is due to these circumstances that

educators, counselors, and administrators at the local levels

within education, as well as key stakeholders, including the

politicians that affect programming, economic/financial decision-

making, and societal planning at all levels of education or the

workforce, need receive a wake-up call to take a solemn look at

how, and/or if the circumstances behind this construct are truly

being addressed. Empirical research within the current

literature/data cited in this paper depicts many of the negative

ramifications that often present themselves due to African

American daughters assuming parentified roles. This undoubtedly

includes any additional roadblocks that could, and does, impede

their chances of attaining a degree or acquiring a diploma.

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Cultural Roadblocks: The Negative Effects of Parentification

Roles

Educational Attainment for African American Daughters

Introduction

During the early stages of my Master’s program, I wrote a

paper that addressed a phenomenon called sibling caretaking, or

parentification. This construct is a unique occurrence that

takes place within various aspects of our global society,

however, within the borders of the United States, this phenomenon

can often be found within African American households.

Throughout the paper, I attempted to provide a balance between

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the negative barriers that this phenomenon poses, as well as the

positive effects and influences that are associated within those

circumstances.

As 20-year educator, especially during my first 8 to 10

years, a sizeable number of my students found themselves acting

as a surrogate parent for their siblings due to a variety of

household, societal, and/or socio-economic circumstances such as:

single parenthood with multiple jobs, parental drug abuse, and a

parent’s inability to provide emotional support to their

child(ren), while expecting to fulfill their own needs by means

of adultifying their child. Stocker (1997) also drew attention

to this construct by adding several more occurrences that are

commonly associated with parentified circumstances, including the

presence of a disabled sibling, and/or the need to provide care

for an elderly parent. While there were undeniable circumstances

for which there may be benefits to this phenomenon, whether it

provided valued assistance for the parent(s), or enhanced the

maturity level of the child providing the caretaking, there

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seemed to often be clear disadvantages or drawbacks that ensued.

The immediate effects that recurrently took shape were: loss of

sleep, perpetually being “on call”, unfinished homework, and

higher levels stress and tension leading to moodiness.

Unfortunately, the negative effects did not end there. In her

article on family support, Lanita Sledge (2012) described the

push-pull effect that parentification has had on these

individuals, often making it challenging to attain a diploma or

degree, or creating additional restraints that make them feel

compelled to stay an offer support instead of pursuing or

completing their education.

With this in mind, the chosen topic: “Cultural Roadblocks:

The Negative Effects of Parentification Roles on Graduation for

African American Daughters”, sheds some empirical light on this

often misunderstood, or overlooked phenomenon. Upon entering the

field of education, my motives undoubtedly included providing

guidance and resources to the students and families that I came

in contact with, in efforts to increase opportunities. These

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overarching goals still remain, however, within this particular

area, my goal is to take the research that identifies the various

influences and pressures within the confines of sibling

caretaking that negatively affect graduation for African American

daughters, and use it to establish an answer to the question:

What can be done to improve graduation rates for African American

Daughters who are sibling caretakers? The ultimate goal within

this project is to generate interventions that will stimulate

improved and/or increased opportunities for these young women to

complete their education.

Problem Statement

A generous amount of the literature regarding the topic of

parentification has highlighted the roles that African American

daughters take on as surrogate parents, or caretakers for their

siblings. The literature often shows how this phenomenon can

have a negative effect on their opportunities, resolve, and/or

expectations to complete high school, or graduate from college.

Approximately four years ago Hooper, Marotta, and Depuy (2009)

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took a similar look at this topic realizing that for individuals

who had experienced this phenomenon, there were documented life

altering, detrimental, and enduring mental health outcomes.

When Hooper et al. (2009) addressed this issue specifically

from a mental health perspective, they pointing out the adverse

posttraumatic ramifications that ten to ensue from the roles and

responsibilities that these children generally face within the

parentification construct. These same authors also quoted Van

der Kolk (2005) as he touted this phenomenon as being one of the

crucial public health ordeals within the USA. Although there

have been ample studies documenting the negative side-effects of

parentification on issues that have manifested in the realm of

mental health, such as: PTSD, dissociative disorders, or other

psychological difficulties (DiCaccavo, 2006), this particular

paper focuses on these occurrences more specifically from the

perspective of the adultified, or parentified African American

daughter. Belgrave (2009) provided a jumpstart for this journey

as she discussed the various attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs

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that are commonly engrained into these African American girls,

typically meant to equip them with functional components like:

life skills, racial identity, a more concrete view of self, and

other practical lessons to help navigate the journey. In the

process of negotiating some of the main factors that cause

parentification in children, one of the key goals is to

purposefully curb, or completely eliminate, any factors that may

deter these particular African American daughters from completing

their education with a diploma. Included within this article are

two proposed resolutions that call for explicit actions to take

place be it locally, or societally, and that specific resources

be allocated to improve these odds.

Integrated Literature Review

Prelude to the Literature

Throughout the 1900s numerous studies were conducted that

delved into a little known societal predicament in which children

took on roles and responsibilities, or were exposed to

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information that would have previously been reserved for adults

(Burton, 2007). This peculiar construct was not to be a passing

fad unique to that particular era, as the pervasive nature of

this phenomenon still has impactful, long-term ramifications

today. Burnett, Jones, Bliwise, and Ross (2006) studied how the

unpredictability of a family’s circumstances, or the

addiction/proneness toward alcohol could be a catalyst in the

instigation of the parentifcation construct. Hooper, Marotta,

and Lanthier (2007) attempted to veer away from the negative

aspects of this occurrence, by looking at the potential growth

and favorable elements of resiliency for those who had been

associated with parentification. Hooper (2007) later expanded

upon that collaboration in a follow-up article that highlighted

the contrastive, and somewhat contradictory data, which suggested

a need for a more balanced discussion.

Parentification and Psychological Adjustments

History has used different terms to describe the occurrence

in which a child gives up most of their adolescent lives,

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activities and behavior. Children from varying societies

throughout the world have been known to take on the

responsibilities, and emotional constraints of acting “adult-

like”. These responsibilities have also included acting as a

proxy parent to their siblings. Hooper (2011) explained that it

is possible for adolescents to benefit developmentally from

taking on controlled or supervised care giving responsibilities

from time to time. Nevertheless, when adolescents assume adult-

like roles on a habitual basis, it is then that the term

“parentification” is used, as these responsibilities are beyond

the conventional emotional, and/or appropriate developmental

roles that children undertake. As Williams and Francis (2010)

pointed out, this role reversal has taken on the more

comprehensive term, parentification. In this article, the

authors went beyond providing a basic description of

parentification, by offering a more concise dissection of the

actual roles and duties within this particular occurrence.

Williams and Francis (2010) also delved into the psychological

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nature of this phenomenon, to explore what particular

circumstances may negatively or positively affect the likelihood

that these children will either battle stages of depression, or

bypass the negative stigma that parentification often is

associated with, in exchange for fulfilled dreams and genuine

happiness, unaffected by the nature of this experience.

Merits vs. Drawbacks

In reference to the title of this paper, the larger portion

of research on this topic tends to circumscribe to the

detrimental outcomes associated with parentification, more

specifically as to how this phenomenon, as a cultural construct,

can negatively affect graduation for African American daughters

who model parentified roles and responsibilities. Belgrave

(2009) underscored the strengths and resiliency of the adolescent

African American girl. The author pointed out the tendency for

these young ladies to carry themselves with confidence, and have

high self-esteem. They are often guided by a higher cause,

including religious and spiritual convictions, and often have

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lofty, but ethical, expectations of themselves. Unfortunately,

many of the surrounding circumstances, such as: family

unpredictability, parental association with alcohol and/or drugs

(Burnett, et al., 2006), single parent households tied in with

poverty, and other difficult socio-economic elements (Burton,

2007), have had an adverse effect on their academic goals and

achievements. It may be true that many of the roadblocks and

barriers begin with their own ill-considered behaviors, namely:

teen pregnancy, parenting, sexually transmitted infections, or an

increased use of drugs, (Belgrave, 2009). For purposes of this

paper, however, the focus was placed on the very real construct

of adultification, and more specifically, on the effect that

parentification roles have had on these girls.

The Roots of Parentification

Unlike many other articles that covered this topic, Burnett,

Jones, Bliwise, and Ross (2006) took on the parentification

phenomenon from a slightly different angle. Data empirically

provided a connection between single parent families, and low

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socio-economic environments, in reference to the prevalence of

parentification. In many of these cases, the literature tended

not put this phenomenon in very good light, even if the

parentified child proved very capable as a substitute. Burnett

et al. (2006) pointed out that at times temporary parentification

can be a beneficial tool within households. However, the

research also explained that the construct is believed to be most

problematic when parents/guardians place children into roles for

which they are expected to habitually continue to execute parent-

like responsibilities, to the extent that they become dependent

upon these services. In their research, Burnett, et al. (2006)

strived to gather data that would delineate what effect, if any,

parental alcoholism, and family unpredictability might have had

in the origination of parentification. The alcoholism component

was quite explicit, however unpredictability brought a whole

array of circumstances, which could have included: inconsistent

discipline, sporadic and inconsistent displays of nurturance, a

lack of mealtime rituals, or inconsistent or limited financial

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resources. According to the report, family unpredictability was

often linked to alcoholism. Since a household that is

accompanied by parental alcoholism, has a higher level of

unpredictability, children within those homes may often feel

alienated, and unbalanced or out-of-control (Burnett, et al.,

2006). Their theory suggested that parentification within this

type of household would allow for some consistency and balance,

in the midst of the habitual chaos. As had been predicted, both

family unpredictability, and parental alcoholism, each played

independently significant roles in the incitement of

parentification. While this study did not focus on the

ethic/racial background of the individuals, it did also reaffirm

that within this particular sample study, females tended to be

more likely to report being parentified than males (Burnett, et

al., 2006).

The interconnectivity of factors surrounding parentification

does allow for predictions as to whether parentified children can

successfully navigate the obstacles of daily life, and school,

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eventually progressing consistently toward graduation. As

Hooper, Marotta, and Lanthier (2008) conveyed, there are

indicators of posttraumatic growth for individuals who have

undergone parentification. This data led them to believe that

this particular construct may not always be an indication of

problems to come. Similar to Belgrave’s explanation of the

resiliency of the African American girl (2009), this study

conducted by Hooper, et al. (2008) found that the resilience

factor, after occurrences of parentification maltreatment

navigated a 14% variance in posttraumatic growth. However, even

with using the data and the models from within their research,

their study provided only limited progressive data in favor of

parentification. The study looked at instrumental parentification,

which offered some beneficial components due to the strengths and

skills that may be acquired, but it also looked for the

consequences of - emotional parentification, which often was

linked to distress and increased risks. Hooper, et al. (2008)

suggested that parentification be examined in a multifactor

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format in future studies, since there were encouraging aspects

associated with their study. Paired with the strong, positive

identity maintained by the African American girl described by

Belgrave (2009), there could be increased support, although

meager, for the promotion of a very specific and guided concept

of parentification.

Unfortunately, the negative elements of parentification,

especially with respect to African American girls, are often

compounded by the competing demands on her time (Belgrave, 2009).

While the African American daughter can be a self-confident,

spiritual, and focused individual, when the responsibilities of

maintaining good grades, and being a good friend to others (who

also may be surrounded by drama) is accompanied by the role of

being a caretaker/surrogate mother to siblings, Belgrave (2009)

admitted that this was enough to exhibit the unfortunate

realities of having high expectations, yet live in a complex

environment. Additionally, while the African American girl may

typically expect to graduate from high school, and even go to

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college, many of the afore mentioned life-course expectations

have been influenced by community, environmental, and personal

factors. In situations involving parentification, one of the

crucial components…the parental/college role model, has often be

absent. Whether resiliency in posttraumatic growth, which is the

cause for leading the charge on future studies promoting

parentification (Hooper, et al., 2008), or if Burton (2007) was

able to support the four successive levels of

adultification/parentification, or not, ultimately, if family

unpredictability, parental alcoholism (Burnett, et al., 2006), or

the push-pull effect paired with a lack of college/parental role

models, exists within the boundaries of the African American

daughter’s surroundings, her life-course expectations may

continue to be negatively influenced.

Exchanging Ignorance for Understanding

Is it possible to explore the topic of parentification from

a broader perspective? Linda Burton’s article (2007) also

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presented this phenomenon, but introduced it starting with the

concept of adultification. This is an occurrence that features

a) the precipitous social, and developmental exposure of adult

awareness, b) the plight and inopportune socio-economic

circumstances that can often lead to adultification, and c) the

wide range of long-term effects that this over-all phenomenon

presents. In a somewhat analogous article, Hooper (2007) also

discussed the effects of parentification, alluding to potential

outcomes, as well pointing out the relationship between this

phenomenon and subsequent psychology. Both articles touched on

the more specific and focal occurrences that are by no means

atypical to this environment…the parentification phenomenon. The

distinction, however, stemmed from one focused on the effects of

placing children into roles customarily earmarked for adults,

while the other gave emphasis to the lack of emotional support

provided to children often due to a) an inability of the adult

figure to offer it, and/or b) the expectation that the child will

forego their needs to accommodate those of her parent(s), or

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sibling(s). Burton (2007) offered a description of single

mother, Elizabeth, and her three, early teenaged children, all

whom have been adultified in some aspect. The poverty-stricken,

and shoddy surroundings associated with Elizabeth’s world

(economic status, employment limitations, housing options) have

uniquely led each of her children to have specified roles that

are crucial for their own life adaptations, as well as the

survival of the family as a whole. The article pointed out the

need to pay attention to the distinction in how Elizabeth’s

daughter manifests the construct of adultification. Burton

(2007) explicitly described Drenika’s parentification as being

advanced and purposeful. At the age of 13, she is the manager of

the home. She is not the oldest child, nevertheless, is very

proficient in her duties in light of her mother’s physical, and

often emotional absence.

Although Burton’s goal was not to focus on the various

situations (i.e., drugs, alcohol, illness, divorce) that can lead

to, or are associated with, the general construct of

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adultification, and the closely related sub-construct of

parentification; her goal was to present a conceptual

representation drawn from empirical research studies, that will

assist in offering recommendations for educators, health care

professionals, and social service providers. In comparable form,

Hooper’s (2007) promotion of understanding toward those who have

lived and experienced these types of environments, serve as a

call for informative prevention and intervention by those

offering counseling, and/or therapy. These recommendations serve

to incorporate the process of “sensitizing” (Burton, 2007), in

addition to reducing misconceptions and/or ignorance, as Byng-

Hall (2008) pointed out, especially as educators, counselors, and

family therapists deal with circumstances within lower socio-

economic environments in which these constructs are often more

prevalent. To illustrate this point, Burton (2007) explained the

need for social institutions to understand the inconsistent

message that parentified children are faced with. When managing

the household, they girls need to be assertive and strong-willed

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as they deal with their siblings, as these actions are necessary,

and are considered virtuous behaviors from within those confines.

On the other hand, within the walls of the classroom, and as a

student, that type of conduct is viewed as an inappropriate

hindrance (Burton, 2007), creating a push-pull effect, placing an

added burden on the student/caretaker. On one side the

individual is regarded as an adult, but on the other they may

perceived as a rude, self-centered, and possibly bully-like

child.

In response to the negative connotations associated with

parentification, all three of these articles provided several

examples of adultification, or parentification, that could be

used to promote favorable outcomes: precocious knowledge,

mentored-adultification, peerification/spousification, and

parentification. As in most cases, there are multiple factors at

play, and as such, Burton (2007), Hooper (2007), and Byng-Hall

(2008) discussed the negative and positive developmental values

of these models.

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Cause and Effect:

Parentification, a specific type of childhood

adultification, is a phenomenon in which children assume

functions that are typically identified as being parental

responsibilities. In the most sever of these circumstances,

children often sacrifice their own wants or needs to assure that

the needs of a) their parents, and/or b) their siblings, are met.

As such, with the occurrence of these extreme types of

circumstances, many have pushed to classify this type of child

adultification, as the equivalent of neglect (Hooper, Marotta, &

Lanthier, 2007).

Studies have shown that this phenomenon most often takes

place when the family structure is disorderly, or has become

muddled. At times this comes about due to an unfortunate

disruption within the household, which often has an affect on

family routines. Williams and Francis (2010) expand on this a

bit further by pointing out that parentification can occur within

the confines of a wide range of family conditions. For instance,

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some of these specific circumstances may include: a parent

becoming terminally ill, a debilitated parent or sibling, or

parent who battles issues with alcohol or drugs (Stein, Rotheram-

Borus, & Lester, 2007). Garber (2011) illuminated this topic by

providing the “parental alienation” perspective, which could more

aptly fall under the realm of neglect. He described this

phenomenon from one of these three constructs: a child is

prematurely elevated to serve as a parent’s teammate or

associate, a child is upgraded to assume the role of the parent’s

caregiver, or a child’s needs, or development, become secondary

due to the pressing needs of the parent (Garber, 2011).

The result of a child taking over parental functions may

have a significant affect on everyone in the household,

especially if the disruption in family structure is introducing a

new model that will replace a previous, more traditional or

orderly model. Williams and Francis (2010) indicated that the

impact of parentified circumstances has shown to have both

positive and negative effects. To what degree this phenomenon

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has lead to positive or negative outcomes, depends on the actual

framework of the situation. While the research has been inclined

to point out the damaging effects of parentification, Stein,

Rotheram-Borus, and Lester (2007) expressed that within some

ethnic minority cultures, certain parentified behaviors may be

viewed as the norm, or perhaps be viewed as conduct/actions that

are culturally pertinent. This is often the case within Latino

households, as well as African American families. The rational

behind this view stems from a belief that these roles foster and

reflect interdependence, and collectivistic cultural values,

instead of a social abnormality (Stein, Rotheram-Borus, & Lester,

2007).

A compilation of the extensive research into the effects of

this phenomenon frequently showed that while there may be

cultural ties to adultification of children, or more

specifically, the parentification phenomenon, the long-term

ramifications for the children assuming these roles, is typically

not positive. While younger siblings may benefit from having

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someone care for their daily needs (food, clothes, homework, and

schedules)…as it is better than having to completely fend for

themselves, Stein, Rotheram-Borus, & Lester (2007) explained that

there is an internalized emotional distress that is present for

those who have had to take on a parentified role, and this

especially true for girls.

In this particular cause and effect analysis, indicators

have pointed to a greater prevalence of parentification in

cultures that view this construct in a more normative fashion.

Research has also indicated that while the parentification

construct does affect boys, girls tend to be affected by these

roles to a greater degree (Garber, 2011). Belgrave (2009)

described the commonplace scene in which the African American

girl/daughter was responsible for the family. The duties that

are often referred to include but aren’t exclusive to: household

chores, preparing meals, and laundry, as well as taking care of

younger siblings. Depending on which parental functions are

assumed or assigned, duties could begin around age 11 or 12.

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However, the role of sibling caretaker can often begin even

earlier. If this is accurate, and parental roles begin that

early, what kind of effect does parentification have on the

African American daughter? As agreed to by Stein, Rotheram-

Borus, and Lester (2007), and Belgrave (2009), Williams and

Francis (2010), referred to these parentified responsibilities as

having the potential of being both beneficial, and detrimental,

to the developmental growth of these girls. Tending to such

functions cultivates responsibility and reinforces other life

skills. The assistance that these girls provide can offer an

opportunity for the family to save money, while also offering a

household structure that provides an orderly schedule that may be

beneficial not just to their siblings, but also to them

(Belgrave, 2009).

The extensive research on this topic also points out the

negative affects that the construct of parentification presents

in the development of the African American daughter. Lanita

Sledge (2012) expressed the notion that these girls already deal

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with a smaller support system, which is necessary to encourage

the proper focus and modeling in areas such as: self-esteem,

healthy values and racial identity (Belgrave, 2009). In

addition, these parental roles often restrict, or impede, the

progress that could be made in social domains, as well as in

academic life (DiCaccavo, 2006; Sledge 2012). Research suggests

that these parental roles can often cause African American

daughters to be caught in a push-pull type of environment,

especially as they begin to focus on life after high school, and

the possibility of pursuing a degree (Sledge, 2012). Whether the

parentified role was assumed out of the need to care for an

elderly or incapacitated parent, or was forced on the daughter by

a sudden disorganization of the household structure, the

emotional struggle that ensues due to the continual support for

the family, often takes precedence over their own development,

and/or education (Belgrave, 2009; Sledge, 2012).

Children who assume the roles of sibling caretakers are

often forced to grow up/mature quickly. While the specific

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duties that the parentified child may have can vary, research has

shown that parentification can be extremely emotional (Hooper,

Marotta, & Lanthier, 2007). The responsibilities that a child

may be responsible for within this construct: cooking, cleaning,

groceries and finances, in addition to the daily care of

siblings, and/or adults, as well as the psychological weight

assumed or placed upon them, can be a hefty weight and in many

cases psychologically overwhelming.

Critical Analysis.

Notwithstanding the fact that the parentification phenomenon

has been an integral occurrence within numerous cultural settings

for many years, the child-parent, or sibling caretaker concept

has really only been examined in greater detail going back to the

1980s. There are copious reasons for which a child may be

expected to take on the role of surrogate parent, or main

caregiver to siblings, perhaps even the household in its

entirety. Some form of disruption may often occur within the

family/household that creates what Williams and Francis (2010)

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referred to as a disorganized family system. The problem may be

due to a variety of circumstances: terminal illness, a

psychological condition, or a mental disorder. Perhaps the issue

was generated by the consumption and abuse of alcohol and/or

drugs. While parentification may be instigated by an array of

differing factors or life circumstances, there are plenty of

persistent and widespread conditions that have made this

phenomenon worth expanded exploratory research.

Williams and Francis (2010) offered two possible

designations that are later reiterated by Harrison and Albanese

(2012) in their article on parentification in relation to

military deployments. These designations, instrumental and

emotional, have be used to describe the child-parent’s role

within these types of circumstances. This first category is

defined as the caring for physical needs, such as feeding the

siblings, or even making sure the bills get paid. The second

depicts more of the psychological realm, as the child may also be

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the emotional support and confidant to the parent(s), as well as

to their own siblings (Williams & Francis, 2010).

Research continues to debate the impact that parentification

has on the individuals who are currently, or had been in the role

of the sibling caretaker in the past. More of the recent studies

have attempted to demonstrate the positive impact that

parentification can have, not just for the parents who are the

beneficiary recipients of having a child/household caretaker, or

the younger children who may be too young to fend for themselves,

but there is also literature that points out the increases in

aspects such as: coping skills, social competence, and other

adaptive behaviors and functions (Williams & Francis, 2010). At

the same time, there also has been ample literature that has

countered these claims, by detailing the negative, or maladaptive

aftereffects of children persistently having to forego

traditional childhood functions, to be able to fulfill their

duties as pseudo parents. Some of these outcomes include:

increased substance abuse, behavioral problems, and lower

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academic performance (Williams & Francis, 2010). It has become

increasingly difficult to say that this phenomenon is solely

detrimental, exclusively beneficial, with regard to the long-term

psychological, academic, and social impact.

As Harrison and Albanese (2012) studied the parentification

topic from a completely different angle, they came to conclude

that while most studies have attempted to prove this phenomenon

as being either “normal” or “abnormal”, in terms of childhood

development, their research showed that the degree to which

children were affected negatively or positively was often

contingent on gender, relationship to the parent that is still at

home, and how they view the reinforcement they may receive at

school. In other words, the possible ramifications could be

based solely on the social context. However, the authors made it

clear that in a comparable fashion to non-military families, this

type of disruption in family structure, can be very difficult and

present numerous challenges that similarly may affect children of

a deployed parent (Harrison & Albanese, 2012).

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Ultimately, this article reviewed the social cognitive

theory, in order to empirically scrutinize the relationship

between the specific impact and outcomes of the phenomenon of

parentification. Williams and Francis (2010) described the

power, or locus of control, that many individuals have that

allows them to apply self-control over their feelings, thoughts

and actions. In a sense, the article implied that some

individuals control their own destiny. The authors hypothesized

that those children who have been able to master their locus of

control, and make needed adjustments accordingly, should more

adequately be able to diminish the negative outcomes that can

typically be associated with parentification (Williams & Francis,

2010).

Final Analysis

Parentification is by no means a new phenomenon, as its

roots reach far beyond the confines of the United States. To say

that the preeminence of the circumstances behind this phenomenon

is growing to epic proportions may not be entirely accurate

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either. Sibling caretaking has been an instrumental component

within other cultures for decades, perhaps even centuries

(Flunker, 2012). It is possible that studies regarding the topic

of parentification stem back to the 1600s and 1700s,

unfortunately, Hooper, Wallace, Doehler, and Dantzler (2012) have

pointed out that due to the limited population demographic that

was studied during that period, the information may be completely

irrelevant today, as population demographics have continued to

change, and society has become much more diverse. According to

Wong Tam (2009), one of the earliest available qualitative

studies that may adequately encompass this phenomenon was

published in 1977. It discusses the processes involved, as well

as the psychological impact it had on the parentified children.

This issue of abundant, yet somewhat irrelevant articles became

apparent to me while working finding literature for this paper.

There is an abundance of materials and literature on this topic,

however much of it is dated back to 2000, or earlier.

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While this paper weighs the effects of parentification on

the African American daughter, with an expressed focus on her

capabilities and/or motivation to gain an education, it is

apparent that many different factors are notably present. No

single reason takes center stage as being the main cause of this

form of adultification. Wong Tam (2009) explained that

parentification is a complicated construct, for which a plethora

of combined factors exist. Moreover, this paper’s comprehensive

analysis alludes to the occasional, but potential benefits of

experiencing these parentified roles: increased coping skills,

social competence (Williams & Francis, 2010), cultivating

responsibility (Stein, Rotheram-Borus, and Lester, 2007), and the

financial alleviation that may result due to not having to pay

for daycare/childcare (Belgrave, 2009). Despite those potential

advantages, Wong Tam (2009) added clarification regarding the

various causes of this construct, even though they, in and of

themselves, aren’t exclusive to the emergence of this phenomenon.

Whether a result of low socioeconomic status and a lack of

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resources, alcohol and/or drug abuse, living in a single parent

household, having a non-flexible work schedule in addition to

multiple jobs, or being influenced by academic factors, all play

a significant role in how parentification has evolved into such a

difficult circumstance to address.

More often than not, the circumstances behind the

parentified child phenomenon either contribute to negative

developmental issues, or produce long-lasting psychological

damages, especially if the framework behind the adultified role

is sustained. In the case of an African American daughter,

according to Belgrave (2009), the effects may begin to surface

quite early on, since it is not uncommon for African American

girls to begin assuming some of these adultified roles in their

early teens, or before. The pressures of being the surrogate

head of household, parent, and transporter, especially in a

single parent home, may be an expected or anticipated cultural

norm. Nevertheless, as Sledge (2012) pointed out, these roles

often stifle social progress, or the communal needed

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encouragement, which regrettably may have already be minimal. Of

course, no matter what the initial cause of the disruptive

circumstances at hand (Williams and Francis, 2010), it is

feasible that areas such as: household cleanliness, essential

structure for younger brothers and/or sisters, and perhaps even

the upkeep of family financial matters, may each be covered under

these adultified roles, allowing for one or more parents, and/or

siblings to reap the benefits. The ramifications on the other

hand could be quite deflating, even debilitating, to these young

girls. Assuming these roles may inhibit sleep, since due to the

circumstances, they may perceive to always be on call, hamper

social growth - as they may have no time for friends, and

restrict academic life or progress – in as much as they also have

to contend with their own studies after managing everything else

(DiCaccavo, 2006). Unfortunately, empirical studies have

continued to point out that the long-term affects of

parentification are substantial, and the list of conditions or

ailments is often lengthy. Trauma, distress, anxiety, eating

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issues, detachment and alienation, substance abuse, and

personality disorders including, but not limited to, depression,

have been just a few of the adverse symptoms (Hooper, et al.,

2012).

These parentified girls often face two distinct push-pull

forces. First, Burton (2007) discussed the issue of being an

“adult” while in the home, in charge of pretty much every aspect

of the household, and yet while at school, they are treated as

little kids in comparison, and perhaps even considered bossy,

disrespectful, and opinionated. This can be extremely difficult

for someone used to being in charge, and can begin to leave

unfavorable impressions regarding academic institutions. The

second push–pull force actually originates at home. Belgrave

(2009), and Sledge (2012) both referred to the emotional

constraints, and internal battle caused by the guilt that can

ensue when these girls walk out on those that have been receiving

services and care. This adultified construct has been so

engrained in these girls, that even when the door to opportunity

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is open, and the capabilities and knowledge are quite obvious,

duty to home and siblings pulls them away from the options to

complete or continue their education.

Hooper, et al. (2012) revealed some crucial bits of

information relevant to parentification and adultification

constructs, specifically from the stance of Black Americans and

African Americans. It is important to note that much of the

older research that exists was originally based on populations

that were largely white. However, Hooper, et al. (2012), and

Belgrave (2009) both indicated, there are significant differences

in how cultural identity affects this phenomenon. While phrases

such as: neglect, abuse, or parental alienation, may often be

used in association with the ins and outs of parentification, it

needs to be understood that within some cultures, the idea of

adultified roles, especially that of the sibling caretaker, is

viewed as the norm, and is actually highly regarded in value.

Stein, Rotheram-Borus, and Lester (2007) chimed in on this

sentiment by explaining that by placing these expectations on the

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children, and more specifically in this case, African American

daughters, collectivistic social and cultural values, as well as

the qualities of autonomy and self-reliance are encouraged.

While it is true that at times these values may lead the

parentified child to disregard their options toward continuing

their education, or even completely give up their current

studies, Hooper, et al. (2012) added that by viewing

parentification from the stance of their ethnic and cultural

identity, more appropriate, and increasingly accurate assessing

of the effects or outcomes faced by these girls, and perhaps by

other minority groups in the future, will provide some balance to

any approaches toward intervening.

Proposed Resolutions

The historical references regarding this topic, as well as

the plethora of varied circumstances behind the causes of

parentification, have prompted many arguments portraying this

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particular construct as having both positive and negative

effects. On one hand, some have asserted that children who take

on parentified responsibilities often grow up with a heighted

sense of responsibility. They tend to be more resilient, and

have reinforced life skills, in addition to being able offer a

feasible money saving option for the home. Nevertheless, most of

the research on this topic has often been overwhelmingly

negative, as these children are often placed in situations in

which they not only have to cope with the adversity of their

surrounding environment, which often include: alcoholism/drugs,

the disability of a parent or sibling, or possible abuse, but

oftentimes also have to concern themselves with the strain of

being: the head of household, caring for siblings, tending to the

finances of the family, in addition to attempting to navigate

their own world of academia, not to mention getting some sleep.

Aim of Resolutions

Despite the profusion of data and information that has

highlighted different facets of this topic, the central focus for

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this Capstone has been on the parentified African American

daughter, mainly because a) it is not uncommon for this

phenomenon to be present within many African American households,

and b) while this construct may be viewed by some to be a

normative social behavior for many daughters within this

population (Stein, Rotheram-Borus, & Lester, 2007; Anderson,

1999) it appears that the negative effects many times include an

inability to achieve or pursue a college education.

Societal Modifications

Since there are several different causes associated with

parentification, the resolutions may vary depending on the

circumstances. For example, an African American daughter may be

an excellent student, full of potential and wit, however, the

option of leaving home for college to increase the possibilities

of escaping the present circumstances, is trumped by the guilt of

needing to care for siblings because she lives in a single parent

setting, and mom is always working to make ends meet. In order

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CULTURAL ROADBLOCKS

to resolve this dilemma, it is imperative that a monumental

transformation within society occur to eliminate the longstanding

and current institutional observance of racism that has denied

entry for multitudes of African Americans/females to social

establishments, (Anderson, 1999) including: decent housing, top

notch education, and gainful employment for those who truly are

longing for these revamped opportunities. This monumental

upgrade equivocally would need to include a change within the

aspects of upward mobility. However, it can also be argued that

these same issues have been a catalyst for the encouragement of

interdependence amongst this collectivist and spiritual society,

despite being surrounded by traditional and historical Euro-

Western views. For those adults/parents who don’t feel

parentification is a problematic issue (Willert, 2003)

Community Education

While the previous resolution focuses on the societal level,

there is a more practical local, community based response to the

issue of parentification, especially since this phenomenon has

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had the capabilities to thwart education achievement. Connie

Siskowski (2012) pointed out that with over 1.3 million child

caregivers in the United States, in addition to concerns such as:

physical strain, emotional distress, and loss of childhood, there

are significant socialization impacts, as well as academic

challenges. Burton (2009) stated that many of the individuals

and programs that positioned to work with parentified children,

might actually do more harm than good. One need only take a

glance from lower socio-economic perspectives, as did Sorhagen

(2013), to make note of the wide range of effects that can occur

due to inaccurate teacher expectations of low-income students.

Or, as Raver (2012) described, many of the 21% of students that

hail from low income backgrounds, find themselves self-regulating

as they navigate the ponderous journey this is education. But

upon adding the parentification roles and responsibility to the

mix, there is often a complete lack of understanding by educators

as to the over-taxation and/or struggles that exist due to what

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CULTURAL ROADBLOCKS

these children are experiencing, often through no fault of their

own (Siskowski, 2012).

Before schools and community stakeholders can develop

programs to better assist and counsel parentified children, there

need to a programs to educate teachers, administrators, and

counselors, of how to identify adultification issues, and promote

increased sensitivity and understanding of: why these children

act/behave the way they do, what types of psychological and

emotional damages may surface, and what the long-term

ramifications may be.

Summary

Whether pertaining to sibling caretaking, or childhood

parentification, both refer to a particular type of construct

within the adultification phenomenon, in which a child assumes

responsibilities that are often viewed as adult functions. While

a large portion of the literature regarding this topic has

demonstrated the fact that this construct holds a prevalent spot

in history, going back decades, perhaps even centuries; it has

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CULTURAL ROADBLOCKS

also been apparent that at its core, this phenomenon not only has

affected many households, or…many children, within the United

States, but as Cicirelli (1994) pointed out in an earlier

article, this has also been true for various other cultures and

societies as well. For me, the prevalence of this issue came to

light while I was teaching 5th and 6th grades in the 1990s. There

were several African American female students in class who

regularly requested an extension on their assignments, which at

first did not make any sense to me, considering the higher level

skills and abilities that they commonly displayed in the

classroom setting. After inquiring as to the reason for this

increasing occurrence, despite the girls’ varied answers all

having distinctions in their settings and interpretation, all

carried a similar tune, or theme. Each of these young ladies

regularly spent a considerable amount of time caring for their

younger siblings after the school day ended. In some cases, this

phenomenon completely took the place of attending school during

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CULTURAL ROADBLOCKS

the day, due to having to stay home with a sick younger brother

or sister.

Although those circumstances were present over a decade ago,

at a different institution, as well as a different city, to this

day, I still encounter similar circumstances from students that I

come in contact with. At first thought, I considered these

circumstances to be of noble cause, having an applicable benefit

to all parties involved. The more thought I put into this

situation, the more concerned I became as I also began to see the

negative affects. These young ladies were already experiencing

the following conditions/pressures: responsibility for many of

their siblings needs (food, bedtime, homework help, keeping track

of appointments, general whereabouts, etc.); late nights due to a

sibling illness, or in attempting to complete their own school

work on time; arriving late to their own appointments/classes due

to their care of others; and the pressure to act as an adult

despite being often being children themselves.

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Conclusion

When delegated in smaller quantities, having a child assume

a few roles (babysitting siblings, helping out with some specific

decision making activities) can be lead children to grow in

responsibility and maturity. However, it appears that in many

cases these parentified children taken on the bulk of the

responsibilities that would typically be assumed by the parent.

While I have been overtly aware of this phenomenon since the

1990s, I began to think back to my childhood, and started to

recall specific circumstances in my neighborhood that indicated

how long versions of this construct has been occurring. Years

later, it quickly became apparent how significant an effect these

disparate circumstances had on school aged children, as a

sizeable number of students indicated experiencing first-hand

what it meant to be parentified child.  All of this occurred, in

addition to navigating own needs and academic responsibilities.

Throughout this paper, I mainly focused on one piece of this

unique puzzle, the African American daughter.  In the end, the

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goal was to point out what type of mindset would be necessary to

improve the number of parentified girls that would graduate from

college, or even high school. There is no doubt that with only

skimming the surface, I will be able to incorporate the steps,

background research, and proper voice gained from this paper, to

continue to more thoroughly address the causes of this

phenomenon, on a community level (within schools, churches,

community centers, etc.), and/or on a larger societal level

(government, corporations), and come up with resolutions.  At

same time there may be other areas similar to this construct that

could be addressed, culminating in positive social change and

action.  Many of these issues still may be an afterthought in

overall scheme of social change.

There are several things that this course did for me. It

forced me to look deeper into the many causes of the

adultification/parentification spectrum.  Where and how did all

of this begin?

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Was it on account of having a sick or elderly parent?  Did it

occur due to having a parent that worked multiple jobs to make

ends meet, thus not being available for the children?  Was it

because of one or more parents having an issue with drugs and/or

alcohol?  This topic goes much deeper than what I was able to

address in this paper. Nonetheless, I did enjoy the format of

this course, as it allowed me to focus on a particular area of

the paper each week, in addition to increasing my knowledge

regarding the various components of a Capstone/Thesis. This

process helped remind me that a journey has various parts, each

taking place at its own time, but through determination and

dedication, the end result does have the potential of benefiting

others, which ultimately, is our goal as practitioners/agents of

social change.

 

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