Cultural Imbalance:

How The Cultural Significance Of Software Affects Canadian Offshore Schools In China

Submitted by

Nathaniel Swires

EDLM 610

Royal Roads University

1. June 2014

Instructor

Prof. J. Walinga

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Table of Contents

Introduction & Statement Of Opportunity......................................................................................3

Rationale For Studying The Cultural Significance Of Software....................................................4

Personal Reasons........................................................................................................................4

Management Reasons................................................................................................................5

Leadership Reasons....................................................................................................................6

Significance Of Opportunity...........................................................................................................6

Organizational Context...................................................................................................................7

Foreign Operating Systems...................................................................................................7

Organizational Culture..........................................................................................................8

Literature Review...........................................................................................................................9

Canadian Overseas Schools.......................................................................................................9

British Columbian Offshore Schools..................................................................................10

Neocolonialism....................................................................................................................14

Macaulayism.......................................................................................................................15

Orientalism..........................................................................................................................16

Free & Open Source Software (FOSS)....................................................................................18

Economics, Developing Countries & The Freedom To Create...........................................19

Intellectual Property & Software Piracy.............................................................................21

Psychological Issues Pertaining To FOSS...........................................................................22

Use In North American Schools..........................................................................................27

Conclusion....................................................................................................................................27

Recommendations.........................................................................................................................29

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FOSS........................................................................................................................................29

Communications..................................................................................................................30

Inter-campus ICT Team.......................................................................................................30

Multiculturalism.......................................................................................................................31

Change Management Plan............................................................................................................33

Further Research...........................................................................................................................34

References.....................................................................................................................................35

Appendix A: Job Posting..............................................................................................................42

Appendix B: Tables.......................................................................................................................44

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Introduction & Statement Of Opportunity

In the fall of 2010, I took my first job as an information communication technology (ICT)

teacher in China. My immersion into Chinese ICT culture proved shocking: schools had no

security software or passwords in place, the majority of the software and all the operating

systems (OS) were pirated, and viruses and malware infected nearly every machine. As a

Canadian, I believed the solution was for the school to buy legitimate software and OS as soon

as possible. This, however, proved nearly impossible to convince the Chinese school

administration of as it required large expenditures of money. I, therefore, began researching free

and open source software (FOSS) and alternative operating systems.

I joined Shanghai United International School (SUIS) in 2012 and found similar problems

to those I had encountered at my two previous Sino schools. I therefore set about implementing

a plan I had developed and introduced FOSS to SUIS's Jiaoke campus (Swires, 2013c). Despite

careful planning and change management by the ICT department, FOSS encountered significant

resistance from the Canadian teachers on campus.

The resistance to FOSS was not universal in the school, but was far more prevalent

amongst Canadian teachers than Sino teachers. This puzzled, confused, and frustrated me. How

could Canadian teachers who openly admitted to knowingly using pirated computer systems not

be appalled by it? Why would they not want a secure and stable system which the Chinese could

maintain for them in Chinese, but which they could use in English? I spent months analyzing the

situation and reached a thought provoking conclusion: the teachers' resistance to FOSS was

traceable to a power struggle between cultures and peoples on a scale far greater than that of my

school alone.

Utilizing my background in cultural anthropology, I explore the Canadian teachers'

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resistance to FOSS, its place in the globalization of education, and its neocolonial implications

throughout this paper by asking: How can school leaders in developing countries navigate the

risks to their cultures in procuring and using computer software in global educational contexts?

Rationale For Studying The Cultural Significance Of Software

Personal Reasons

Power, society, and cultural studies formed the minor of my undergraduate degree at the

University of British Columbia. Utilizing this knowledge and pondering the resistance to FOSS

I observe within my school, I have asked myself many questions regarding my assumptions

about BC offshore schools. Furthermore, I know the head of ICT has posted for someone to help

lead the entire SUIS district towards a greater adoption and utilization of FOSS (Appendix A).

From my experience in implementing the ICT change management plan of introducing FOSS at

Jiaoke, I know if FOSS is imposed upon the district without understanding the cultural

ramifications thereof, teachers and administrators will undermine its effectiveness. This

knowledge has overwhelmed, and at times impregnated me with questions: What is the cultural

significance of software? How are software creation and ideas about intellectual property

embedded within Western business and educational systems? What is the purpose of a B.C.

offshore school? What is the purpose of an international school? How do the two differ/the

same? Are the Chinese at risk of or have they already adopted a colonial mentality? Is

Macaulayism and/or Orientalism, being taught at SUIS? Can a change in software pave the way

for SUIS to adopt a culture of learning in its schools? Is FOSS a viable alternative for the

district?

Software and OS are artifacts. That they were made by a particular culture and might

influence another had never entered my mind. They were a given, an inescapable fact.

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Nevertheless, upon reflection I acknowledged the possibility. I grew apprehensive, however, at

the affects these artifacts may be having upon Sino culture and society – in large part due to the

history of Canadian residential schools. Canada has a history of marginalizing and seeking to

destroy non-Western cultures through education. The history of residential schools in Canada

has brought decades of misunderstanding, hardship, and shame to the people of that country

(Milloy, 1999). The thought of this history repeating itself on a global stage so disturbs me that I

initially hoped to disprove my conjectures and settle my misgivings that Canadians were in fact

knowingly/unknowingly undermining Sino culture and society by insisting upon computer

systems from North America.

Management Reasons

Change management has two separate meanings in the contexts of ICT and organizational

change (Swires, 2013c), and the introduction of FOSS to Jiaoke in 2013 highlighted the

necessity of addressing both facets. It proved insufficient for the ICT department to develop and

implement a change management strategy focused primarily on the technical side of things

without the active engagement of the administrators and teachers in organizational change.

Change management in SUIS is complicated by language division. The primary language

of the ICT departments for the district is Mandarin Chinese; the primary language of school

administrators, however, is English. Because neither group can speak the others language well,

if at all, they do not communicate much. The use of an interpreter is cumbersome and further

complicated by ICT jargon, and so is used only when urgent action is required. Therefore,

making a case for adopting FOSS which the school administrators can understand so that proper

change management in an organizational context may take place along side that of ICT, is of key

importance to this study.

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Leadership Reasons

While I shall not be able to personally act upon the findings of this study due to my

forthcoming departure from China in July, I feel a sense of duty to provide as much leadership

in the area of FOSS as possible. My duty is not to SUIS, but to the people who make up SUIS –

the teachers, staff, students, and administrators. I hope to leave behind a document which can be

used by not only the ICT department, but by the people of SUIS to better understand the systems

at work within the district and which will facilitate better decision making and cultural

understanding between the Chinese and their foreign guests.

Questioning the status quo and introducing FOSS within my school has led to personal

growth for me. The Canadian staff dislike what I have done and are suspicious of any new

changes I suggest. The Sino staff on the other hand, and in particular the ICT departmental staff,

greatly appreciate my efforts. As a leader within this school, and in moving on to other schools,

I believe addressing these issues – working with cultural groups, addressing change

management issues, and seeking to build buy-in to ideas before implementing change – are all

significant in providing wise school leadership.

Significance Of Opportunity

Canadian overseas schools are poorly understood due to a lack of research. Research such

as mine into understanding the impact cultural artifacts have upon host nations of overseas seas

schools proves important not only for Canadian governments, administrators, and teachers, but

also for governments, administrators, and teachers of the host countries themselves. The

importance lies in ensuring local students are not harmed by Canadians seeking to educate them.

Undermining another society's values, systems, and/or cultures is inherently wrong and must not

be done – even unintentionally. Therefore, papers like this are crucial to enhancing the

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understanding of Canadian overseas schools by both indigenous and foreign peoples wherein the

schools are located.

Without the knowledge gained and presented herein, teachers and administrators at my

school may well continue practices, such as insisting upon computer systems identical to those

in place within BC high schools, which are neocolonialistic and continuations of Orientalism.

Both of these undesirable ideological positions stand in need of replacing with a truly more

modern and glocal ideal – multiculturalism (Meer & Modood, 2011).

Organizational Context

SUIS is a conglomerate comprised of six main campuses using three distinct international

curriculums – American, British, and British Columbian – in connection or conjunction to the

mainstream Shanghai curriculum. Touted as one school by SUIS's parent company, Xiehe, it in

reality operates on par with a North American school district. In this paper, therefore, I refer to

SUIS as a district rather than a school or organization.

Foreign Operating Systems

SUIS is currently seeking to fill an inter-campus ICT coordinator position (Appendix A).

The job posting refers to and/or requires familiarity with FOSS 10 times. The urgency for

someone to take a leadership role with regards to the training and transitioning of SUIS from

mostly pirated Windows XP systems and accompanying software can be felt from the

advertisement. Members of SUIS's ICT department are acutely aware Microsoft's April 8, 2014,

deadline for Windows XP support has passed, and that the many vulnerabilities the platform

faces leaves the district open to cyberattack and its information vulnerable, (Cuthberston, 2013;

Murphy, 2014). The head of the department has a plan to address these issues; however, the ICT

department vision is not shared by the school administrators. This is in large part due to

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language and communication difficulties outlined previously.

Organizational Culture

The organizational culture at SUIS is complicated. With four educational systems working

within the district, each campus has its own unique characteristics. In this paper I focus on one

campus – Jiaoke – with two educational streams, a BC offshore educational program and a Sino

educational program: “Each stream has its own culture and communication style, and both view

one another from a cultural perspective” (Swires, 2013a). This is to be expected, but is also a

source of continuous tension and conflict. Again the language barrier is a contributing factor as

“organizational culture and communication are connected in two important ways. First, past

learning is stored in culture and culture provides the primary instrument for communicating

accumulated knowledge to organization members. Consequently, organizational culture is a

source of acquired knowledge and a framework for interaction that refines existing knowledge

or produces new knowledge” (Kowalski, Fusarelli, & Petersen, 2007).

Although expected, the organizational cultures of each educational system has led to

organizational uncertainty at Jiaoke. The Canadian and Sino staff hold differing opinions as to

the purpose of the foreign (BC) stream. Kowalski points out: “This condition is created by

ambiguity in philosophy, mission, and structure. Its presence causes confusion regarding

institutional mission (i,.e., knowing what the organization is supposed to accomplish)” (2007).

Many of the Canadian staff believe the purpose of the foreign stream is to recreate a BC school

in Shanghai. This perspective, however, is not shared by their Sino counterparts. They believe

the BC program's purpose is to enhance the established Chinese stream fill the campus and raise

its prestige within the city (Swires, 2013a).

Confusion stemming from the organizational culture of SUIS coupled with communication

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issues has hobbled the ICT department and prevented it from effectively implementing FOSS

throughout the district.

Literature Review

Canadian overseas schools are poorly understood both within Canada and within the

countries they are located. While they are very popular, questions remain as to their purpose for

existence and their exporting of Canadian cultural norms to other countries. If Canada is not to

repeat its sad history with residential schools (Milloy, 1999), then it must be aware of attitudes

towards the foreign cultures wherein it locates its schools and how exported artifacts such as

software and computer operating systems affect those cultures, either positively or negatively.

Canadian Overseas Schools

Canada entered the overseas education market in 1997 with the opening of a New

Brunswick school in China by Atlantic Education Incorporated (Atlantic Education

International, n.d.). Since then a number of other provinces have entered the overseas education

market. Currently there are 103 Canadian overseas schools in 25 countries under the jurisdiction

of seven provinces (“CICIC,” n.d.). The design and operation of these schools differs by

provincial jurisdiction, but their mandate to export a provincial education to a foreign country in

return for future economic benefits either from immigration of a wealthy, educated class to the

province and/or closer ties with overseas markets is universal:

In 2010, Canada's five national education associations signed a

Memorandum of Understanding to establish the Canadian Consortium for

International Education Marketing – the first national initiative with a

similar objective to better align efforts to market Canadian education

overseas. The increased commercialization of Canada's Trade

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Commissioner Services has also meant that Canadian Trade

Commissioners (particularly in East Asia) work hard to find new inroads

for the Canadian brand of education overseas. The Canadian Ambassador

to China most recently commented on his hopes of making the Canadian

Mission in Beijing the 'Education Embassy,' a clear signal of the

recognition of education as a mechanism for Canadian diplomacy, and a

way to build partnerships across the Pacific (Cosco, 2011).

Several questions arise from Canada's exportation of education abroad, especially to non-

western countries: is it a form of neo-colonialism or is it simply the globalization of education?

How do Western beliefs, ideals, and systems of education fit within the context of Asian

countries and cultures? Are they net beneficial to countries such as China, or does Canadian

educational systems supplant and subvert indigenous cultures, customs, and practise?

Combined, these questions have driven me to an examination of software and operating systems

being used within Canadian offshore schools, specifically SUIS's British Columbian (BC)

offshore schools

British Columbian Offshore Schools

Of the 103 Canadian overseas schools, BC offshore schools comprise 37. A total of 78% of

all BC overseas schools are located in China, and dominate the market there with 54%

(“CICIC,” n.d.). This makes BC the Canadian curriculum of choice for the world's second

largest economic player.

BC's purpose in targeting China is not ambiguous but clearly delineated in its Offshore

Operating Manual: "attracting more international students to study, and eventually work and live

in BC" (B.C. Ministry of Education, 2013). Thus the purpose of BC offshore schools is in line

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with the stated purposes of Canadian overseas schools, and the same questions remain regarding

appropriateness of teaching materials in non-Western cultures.

BC Overseas Schools Overview & Contextualization

Although BC holds a dominate position in the key Asian market, its overseas schools are

not well known or understood either by its domestic populace or ex-patriot teachers (Cosco,

2011). Much confusion surrounds the school's operations – especially with regards to

governance, purpose, and operational systems (Cosco, 2011; Schuetze, 2008). Of fundamental

confusion in the minds of Canadian expatriate teachers are the differences between international

and offshore schools. Many expatriates fail to recognize Canadian overseas schools fall

primarily within two categories – international schools and overseas schools (Table 1). The

Table 1

Definitions Of Canadian Overseas Schools

International School

Overseas schools originally servicing expatriate communities, offering

curricula of the ‘home’ country to facilitate the potential re-integration of

expatriate children. Student bodies tend to be highly multicultural.

International schools have experienced increased interest from local

parents wanting to place their children into an international school

setting, and many keep extensive waiting lists to accommodate this

demand.

Offshore School

Overseas schools which are run for profit and service citizens of the local

society in which it operates. Student bodies are almost always made up of

local citizens (100% Korean or Chinese students for example). The end

goal is to graduate local students with a Canadian high-school diploma.

Canadian Overseas SchoolsIn this context, a term used to encompass both provincially accredited

international and offshore schools at the K-12 level.

Note. Adapted from “Canadian Overseas Schools: A Unique Approach to the Export of Canadian Education” by L. Cosco, 2011. Vancouver:

Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.asiapacific.ca/sites/default/files/filefield/overseas_canadian_schools_final.pdf

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majority of BC's schools in China fall into the later category and this has led to numerous

conflicts between Canadian & Sino teachers and administrators who fail to agree to or

understand the purpose of the BC schools: “Besides the in-built cultural tension within the

schools already mentioned, there is an ideological rift which runs potentially deeper. This

concerns different philosophies of society and individualism – and the role education plays in

preparing young people for life” (Schuetze, 2008). What Schuetze points out is a failure on the

part of both the Chinese and Canadians to fully understand the systems within which Canadian

offshore schools operate in China. Figure 1 illustrates Schuetze's argument and my own

experience with Canadian overseas schools.

Systems thinking is not new, but it is not readily taught, applied, nor understood by many

Canadian or Sino teachers. This proves unfortunate as people who do not fully understand the

Figure 1. Canadian Overseas Schools Embedded in Cultural Systems

Figure 1. Canadian overseas schools exist and operate simultaneously within Western and Asian systems. These operations do not run smoothly due to conflicts between educational systems, business systems, cultural systems, and preconceived expectations by parties operating within the Canadian overseas school system itself, but without full understanding of its dualistic nature.

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systems within which they operate jeopardize long-term goals for short-term gain (Forrester,

2012). If systems thinking were obligatory in teaching, then many of the following problems, in

fact the very need for this paper, would be resolved or never have arisen in the first place.

Hans Schuetze in Canadian offshore schools in China details how BC offshore schools are

governed and why their governance is a near constant source of irritation for both Sino &

Canadian educators (2008). As Figure 2 illustrates, the dualistic nature of Canadian overseas

schools arising from competing systems do not work in harmony, but rather seek to dominate

each other in a perpetual struggle.

These tensions have until very recently been exasperated by a perceived lack of careful

oversight by the BC Ministry of Education. This the Ministry has sought to change with its new

Operating Manual for Offshore Schools (2013). I question, however, whether or not the Ministry

itself fully understands the systems within which the schools operate as its new operating

manual is skewed in such a way as to exasperate the problems overseas by placing greater

emphasis upon BC overseas schools being more Canadian.

The lack of agreement as to purpose for the school and its dominate nature within China,

make BC offshore schools of primary interest to me and my research. Furthermore, I have been

employed within a BC offshore school for three out of my four years in China, and my present

school is also BC certified. My primary concern is the lack of understanding by all parties of

how BC offshore schools exist simultaneously within a Canadian/BC education system and a

Chinese education system and what effects the embedded nature of these systems has upon the

host country's culture and people.

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Neocolonialism

Much of the world has not forgotten its subjugation to European colonial powers. While

overt colonialism came to an end in the 1960s & 70s, many former European colonies claim

they are now subjugated to neocolonialism. I have pondered whether or not neocolonialism is

taking place within the BC offshore schools, and hereafter explore the possibility.

Definition

Neocolonialism is “the policy of a strong nation in seeking political and economic

hegemony over an independent nation or extended geographical area without necessarily

reducing the subordinate nation or area to the legal status of a colony” (“neocolonialism,” n.d.).

Neocolonialism & Education

Education is seen to be a key player in the spread neocolonialist ideas, ideals, and covert

Figure 2. Organic Conflict Between Canadian Overseas Schools' Cultural Systems in China

Figure 2. Cultural systems act as living things: they seek to perpetuate themselves, make since of their environments, and dominate other cultural systems within their territory. Thus the conflict between Sino & Canadian cultural systems within a Canadian overseas school may be thought of as natural and organic in nature.

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replacement/subjugation of non-Western cultures (Forstorp, 2008; Nozaki, 2009; Rai & Prakash,

2013; Wachholz & Mullaly, 2001). According to the functionalist theory of education, education

is the primary perpetuator of culture and society: "Society can survive only if there exists

amongst its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces

this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning the essential similarities which

collective life demands"(Emile Durkheim as quoted by Agnihotri, 2008; English, 2006).

In this light, Canada and its provinces can be seen to be a neocolonialising powers. I must

conclude that by seeking to impose its hegemony of ideas and practices regarding business,

education, and the software used by both of these mutually reinforcing systems upon Chinese

students (Figure 1), Canada and its overseas schools are undermining Sino societal norms and

replacing them with Canadian ones. Thus the Canadian teachers are (un)knowing agents of a

colonizing power.

Macaulayism

If Canada is a neocolonizing power, then there must be some ideological reason from

which it stems. From my research into neocolonialism, I branched out to find this ideology –

Macaulayism.

The idea of undermining or supplanting an indigenous culture through education is not

unique to Canada, nor its history limited to Canadian residential schools. Many British colonies

practised some form of the idea commonly known as Macaulayism. Lord T. B. Macaulay's

educational philosophy was characterized by its Eurocentric/Westerncentric views, teaching

indigenous peoples in English, and its repressing of non-Western logic/thinking in science:

“How, then, stands the case? We have to educate a people who cannot at present be educated by

means of their mother-tongue. We must teach them some foreign language. The claims of our

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own language it is hardly necessary to recapitulate. It stands pre-eminent even among the

languages of the west” (Macaulay, 1835). Macaulay's ethnocentrism is often associated with

Rudyard Kipling's The white man's burden: “Take up the White Man's burden . . . By open

speech and simple, / An hundred times made plain, / To seek another's profit, / And to work

another's gain” (1899). Together the two paint a picture long held by colonial powers of

superiority of mind, culture and learning – one which still lives on in the minds of many peoples

today: “The West purportedly provides the ideal template to which all other civilizations and

cultures must contort, be pruned, trimmed or reconfigured to fit, or else be eliminated or

sidelined by some means” (Malhotra, 2012). I attest to seeing this first hand within my own

school. For in seeking to recreate BC schools in China with the same texts, software and

operating systems, procedures, insistence on, and frustration with a lack of students speaking

English in and out of the classroom, and a lack of adaption of testing modern Canadian

educators not so far removed from Macaulayism as they would like to believe. Rather they have

taken up the white man's burden and carrying it forward in a new guise – globalization.

Orientalism

Orientalism is a Western belief founded in Europe and grounded in its interactions with

Asian people's over hundreds of years. This concept is not new to me as I once wrote of its

presence in Vancouver, BC for an undergraduate history class, but I include it here because of its

natural flow and connection with both neocolonialism and Macaulayism.

Edward Said, one of key founders of post-colonial studies, wrote: “Orientalism is 'a way of

coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western

experience'” (As quoted by Nozaki, 2009). In traditional interpretations of Orientalism, the

Orient, or Asia, has been seen as being in a dichotomy with Europe: whereas Europeans were

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considered masculine, Asians were considered feminine; whereas Europeans were considered

logical, Asians were considered mystical, and so forth. “In short, Orientalism is 'a Western style

for domination, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient'” (Said as quoted by Nozaki,

2009).

Orientalism at its core is based on the principle of us versus them, or The Other. Stuart Hall

identifies The Other as the Rest, in his book The West and the Rest, and “finds that stereotyping,

dualism and splitting are the ubiquitous features, and therefore the underpinning strategy of the

West and the Rest discourse. Furthermore, he points out not only that the discourse of the West

and the Rest worked its way into ‘‘classic works of sociology such as those by Marx and

Weber’’, but also that ‘‘its effects can still been seen [...] in the language, theoretical models, and

hidden assumptions’’ of modern sociology and the other social sciences” (Nozaki, 2009).

Ideas of Orientalism are so engrained into Western cultures that modern discourses

regarding education, and even the news, are affected by them (Luyendijk, 2010; Nozaki, 2009;

Takayama, 2008). Thus it is seen that learned people, who should know better, in fact perpetuate

Orientalism. Canadian educators in BC offshore schools are no different. They consistently

identify themselves in opposition/contrast with the indigenous people. There has been a very

real us versus them mentality at Jiaoke campus – especially under the previous administration

(Swires, 2013a). This has led to a conscious seeking of domination and authority over the

Chinese by the Canadians, and vice versa. Tension still remains between the two cultural

systems although a change in principals has lessened open hostility. Nevertheless, for real

cooperation and the collaboration of equals to truly exist, all vestiges of Orientalism need be

removed, including Western propitiatory software and OS.

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Free & Open Source Software (FOSS)

Canadians in offshore schools can answer the charges of neocolonialism, Macaulayism,

and Orientalism by giving up those things which allow them to dominate and exercise control

over the indigenous population. This means taking the difficult step of replacing familiar

proprietary software & OS with unfamiliar, yet equally capable, FOSS computer systems.

FOSS for many embodies the original ideals on which personal computers (PCs) and the

Internet are based. By definition FOSS is free to both users and developers. This does not mean

it is just free to use, but the source code itself must be free in order to be said to be FOSS.

Paradoxically, it is the very fact it is free which often has traditional users of PCs wary of

it. Users in North America are conditioned to believe anything which is free must be inferior to

that which is not. This belief instead of being questioned by educational systems within North

America, has instead been perpetuated. Western teachers, students, and parents collectively shy

away from FOSS in large part due to mindshare (explored later) – which feeds the perpetual

cycle of usage. Chinese/overseas teachers, students, and parents fail to embrace FOSS in turn

because they see their Western peers not using it, and thus they fall into the traps of essentialism

and having a colonial mentality. The use of propitiatory systems by Chinese/non-Western

peoples, however, further leads to conflict between Western and developing countries due to

differences in understandings of intellectual property, the use of pirated software, and a

fundamental misunderstanding of the economies of developing nations by the West.

The Canadian staff at Jiaoke prove reluctant to move towards FOSS in large part because

of its unfamiliarity and the belief in the superiority of proprietary North American computer

systems. They fail to realize, however, that some North American schools & districts have

themselves embraced FOSS with tremendous success, and that these can/should serve as a

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template for Canadian offshore schools.

Economics, Developing Countries & the Freedom to Create

Moral Obligation To Use FOSS For Canadians

China's status as a developing country is oft forgotten by Canadian expatriates. Working in

private schools or exclusive departments of Sino schools with students from the upper-middle

and high class reaches of society blinds expatriates to the poor and working class of China:

“'Educators must be diligent in ensuring that no attitudes, beliefs, or

practices bar students from access to the necessary knowledge.' When

school practices result in the maldistribution of knowledge with poor and

minority students receiving less access, it is morally wrong 'whatever the

arguments regarding teachable classes, teachers' comfort, parents'

preferences, and even achievement'” (John Goodlad as quoted by

Cambron-McCabe, 2012).

It is not for the students immediately within the BC stream of Jiaoke alone that Canadian

teachers need embrace FOSS, but for all Sino students. Students within the Sino stream of

Jiaoke for example should also have access to the same computer systems as their

internationally streamed peers: “People ... have a right to expect their schools to be guided by

moral principles such as justice, fairness of treatment, liberty, honesty, equity in the distribution

of resources, and respect for differences” (Cambron-McCabe, 2012). Thus is it a moral

imperative for the Canadian staff to embrace FOSS and advocate its usage throughout SUIS.

Arguments For FOSS Adoption By The Chinese

Many agencies throughout the world argue for the use of FOSS in the developing world

(Ghosh, 2004; Noronha, 2003, 2003; Open Source Initiative, n.d.; Subramanyam & Xia, 2008;

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UNESCO, 2007; Weerawarana & Weeratunga, 2004; Yeaton, 2012). They argue the digital

divide between peoples and countries in developed and developing countries can be in large part

overcome through the use of FOSS. Furthermore, proponents of FOSS for developing countries

argue that free can mean more than just lack of monetary exchange to those people using FOSS,

it can also mean freedom to learn, develop and create ICT solutions for indigenous peoples by

indigenous peoples to meet local challenges:

Ghosh's arguments (Figure 3) are echoed in a report in part funded by the International

Development Research Centre of Canada entitled Breaking barriers: The potential of free and

open source software for sustainable human development – A compilation of case studies from

across the world. This UNESCO report states: “The benefits offered by FOSS have been

extremely useful for developing countries around the world. In particular, the ability to obtain

FOSS without licensing fees has proven to be beneficial to users in these regions as this makes

the use of ICT more affordable to them” (2007).

Figure 3. Why Free/Libre/Open (FLOSS)?

Cost – Total Cost of Ownership!The broad, socio-economic change long promised by ICTs would be limited to a tiny elite without FLOSS

Performance, flexibility, localisationMany FLOSS applications provide superior performance & security; adaptation is permitted, e.g. for local languages

Skills developmentFLOSS is a training environment that increases the earning capacity of community participants without any explicit investment in training: a novel form of technology transfer?

Figure 3. Adapted from “Why developing countries need to use and create free software: and how it promotes Gross National Happiness,”by R. A. Ghosh, April 9, 2004. Slideshow presented at MERIT/Infonomics, University of Maastrict, Thimphu, Bhutan.

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In a breakdown of real cost for a copy of Windows XP & MS Office, Ghosh estimated that

in 2004, the cost to an American would be $560 USD, but to a person in Bhutan the cost would

be the equivalent of $30,668 USD (2004; Appendix B.1). This highlights the unrealistic

expectation Westerners have of developing countries to be able to afford legitimate copies of

software.

Nir Kshetri disagrees. He believes there are both positive and negative effects on micro and

macroeconomics with developing countries choosing to adopt Linux (Kshetri, 2004; Appendix

B.2). Kshetri is right in pointing out that adoption of FOSS by developing countries is not as

simple as loading an OS, but he fails to Ghosh's other two major points – localization and skills

development. Without FOSS, developing countries remain dependent upon businesses in

advanced economies for logistic support. In the case of Windows XP, despite China's begging

Microsoft for continued help, security patches for the OS have been discontinued (Cuthberston,

2013).

Economics and education cannot be separated: “The relationship between education and

development cannot be debated without linking the structure of educational systems to the

economic and social character of societies. That link between education and development is a

two-way process. Educational systems, for the most part, reflect the socio-economic structures

of the societies in which they function” (Joseph, 2007). Thus the use of proprietary computer

systems in China is out of place. They do not fit with the socialist ideals of China, but FOSS

does. Those systems belong to and reflect a Canadian or Western socio-economic structure not a

Chinese one, and, therefore, should be abandoned and replaced by a system which is fair and

equatable for all.

Intellectual Property & Software Piracy

CULTURAL BALANCE 22

I have previously argued for the adoption of FOSS and its fit within best practices, moral

education, and Chinese society in large part to overcome intellectual property (IP) rights

violations (Swires, 2013b). Nevertheless, Canadian staff at Jiaoke often bring up the

commonality of pirating software in China as though it were a part of Sino culture to ignore IP –

which is not the case: “This article explores the impacts of Chinese culture on users’ attitudes

and intentions about software copyright and piracy. The findings reject the pervasive position

that Chinese culture resists software copyright and encourages piracy behaviours. Instead, the

study reports that Chinese culture has no significant impact on users’ intentions to use pirated

software programs” (Lu, 2009). Of greater importance, however, to IP and the high rate of

software piracy in China are economic development and income distribution (Husted, 2000; Lu,

2009). Despite China's leading role in IP theft (BSA, 2012), the issue is not tied to culture, but

economics. Therefore, providing a viable, cost-effective alternative to IP theft should be a

serious consideration in the adoption of FOSS by BC offshore schools.

Psychological Issues Pertaining to FOSS

There are moral, ethical, and legal reasons for FOSS adoption by Canadians in offshore

schools, but there also psychological barriers to doing so. FOSS is a system interacting,

influencing, and being influenced by other systems e.g. schools, business, economics, culture, IP

rights, politics, et cetera. Created by humans, it is endowed with psychological meaning.

Understanding the completeness of such meaning is beyond the scope of this paper;

nevertheless, two psychological phenomenon bear scrutiny, essentialism and mindshare, as their

presence, I believe, greatly hinders FOSS adoption at Jiaoke.

Essentialism

“In general terms, essentialism is the doctrine that (some) objects have essential, rather

CULTURAL BALANCE 23

than merely accidental or contingent properties” (Bevir, 2010). With regards to FOSS,

essentialism factors into its lack of acceptance by Canadian teachers in at least two ways: where

software comes from has meaning due to its essential quality; and the association of FOSS with

the Other (Huang, 2013; O’Mahoney, 2012; Tsukamoto, Enright, & Karasawa, 2013).

Place of Origin

Consumers are often acutely aware of where something is made (“The Science of

Morality,” 2013):

“No review of a modern, high-end bike would be complete without

someone posting a comment to the effect of, 'it's just some overpriced,

cheaply made frame out of Asia.' Truth be told, most bicycle frames these

days do come out of China or Taiwan. But should that really matter?”

(Huang, 2013).

As this blog from a popular bike website shows, people tend to associate price and quality of a

product with a certain place. This is in keeping with the theory of psychological essentialism –

objects from a particular place are endowed with ideas, feelings, and properties pertaining to

that place. FOSS suffers from this form of essentialism: “Speaking strictly in terms of the

product itself . . . an item's country of origin ultimately shouldn't matter as much as whether the

consumer still ends up with a high-quality item at a fair price” (Huang, 2013). Because FOSS

does not originate in Silicon Valley, it fails to have the same essential properties as propitiatory

software which does in the minds of Canadian staff at Jiaoke.

FOSS as The Other

Many types of FOSS exist. Some programs such as VLC Player and Firefox are well

known and used by people without thinking too much about their essential qualities. Some

CULTURAL BALANCE 24

programs such as LibreOffice and Linux OS, however, are not well known in mainstream

Canadian culture. They are stigmatized as 'the other' software which is available. Due to

proximity, feelings regarding the otherness of FOSS can be interwoven with the otherness

Canadians feel towards the Chinese. Thus the essentialism associated with FOSS can become

interwoven with Orientalism:

Disliking an out-group (i.e., a group from which the self is excluded) as

opposed to liking one’s own in-group is undoubtedly a contributor to the

conflict found between various regional, ethnic, and/or national groups in

today’s world. Such biased attitudes are often determined by national

identity, which refers to the feeling that in-group nationality and/or

ethnicity is superior (i.e., nationalism) or more favorable (i.e., patriotism)

than other groups (Tsukamoto et al., 2013).

Canadians may not believe or recognize Chinese as the other in Canada the same way they do

when living abroad in China. According to Tsukamoto et al. “Research shows that psychological

essentialism influences prejudiced attitudes as a situationally induced variable” (2013). The

situational variable for Canadian staff at Jiaoke is what country they find themselves in. Thus

differences in language, customs, and culture heighten feelings of otherness for them at the

school and set the Canadians apart: “[T]raditional accounts of identity construction where

'othering' describes a process whereby the self is reflexively constructed through what it is not:

'the forceful exclusion and exorcism of what is Other is an act of identity formation'”

(O’Mahoney, 2012). Once an identity of us and ours is formed in relation to them and theirs,

resistance to otherness seems natural: “Essentialism provides a theoretical basis, not only to

discuss how the powers of discourse construct social identity, but equally how powers of a

CULTURAL BALANCE 25

reflexive agent can resist these” (O’Mahoney, 2012). This feeling of us and ours is part of

psychological essentialism, and this feeling of essentialism can, and I believe is, projected

outward to include curriculum, physical space, and software by the foreign staff at Jiaoke. Thus,

FOSS comes to be identified as the other due to its essential qualities of not being the norm in

Canada, and is therefore is met with resistance by the Canadian staff.

Mindshare

More than essentialism is at work when Canadians choose propitiatory software over FOSS

in offshore schools. Even if programs from both categories can preform the same function, or

even if a FOSS program is better suited to perform a function, staff will continue to choose

propitiatory software. There is a psychological reason for this – mindshare:

Mindshare is a psychological phenomenon that exists in the minds of

computer users. MS and other software companies have power because

users believe they do. Maintaining mindshare is less about software

performance or price, but rather the maintenance of user belief. With the

high degree of mindshare these companies have achieved, they gain power

in setting prices and conditions of use (Hepburn, 2005).

In Canada, mindshare with relation to propitiatory software is strong. So much so that the use

of certain software products is now “perceived as an obligatory point of passage, a point

through which we all need pass if we are to use ICT” (2005). And software corporations want to

keep it that way so as to continue their revenue stream.

Hepburn states “the main obstacle to making the transition to [F]OSS has little to do with

the software itself,” but rather “a particular conception of what software is necessary for ICT

and this is reinforced by the marketing efforts of powerful corporations”(2005). To even suggest

CULTURAL BALANCE 26

an alternative to the general wisdom of using propitiatory software enshrined in mindshare is

crazy talk (Lawrence Lessig as quoted by Hepburn, 2005): “Most people do not know a great

deal about [F]OSS and are likely to question it as a valid replacement for software that has come

to be taken for granted” (Hepburn, 2005). This last has been my experience with FOSS at

Jiaoke. Staff repeatedly question the decision to move to Linux Mint and FOSS. The move is

often thought of as crazy as it questions a given within the system:

Every occupation needs some form of reflective “questioning,” but it's

particularly important for teaching because teaching is a moral

undertaking. Teaching is not simply a set of technical skills for imparting

knowledge to waiting students. It involves caring for children and being

responsible for their development in ... society (Cambron-McCabe, 2012).

Questioning the mindshare of computer systems is for me therefore a moral obligation. I must

do it: “[As] some educational practices are moral and others are immoral. Our actions in the

classroom, whether in a public or private school, can enable or disenfranchise the students in our

care” (Cambron-McCabe, 2012). I would add to Cambron-McCabe's remarks by saying it is not

only the students within the teacher's care which are enabled or disenfranchised in an offshore

school context, bur all indigenous support staff, ICT staff, parents, relatives, and the greater Sino

society as a whole.

Adopting FOSS is a moral obligation, however, staff are resistant to its implementation. My

own ignorance and an underestimation with regards to organizational change management have

contributed to these feelings. I have learned that in order for FOSS to be successful throughout

SUIS, overcoming proprietary software's mindshare will need to be a priority. This will “require

leadership, planning, and a willingness to support and educate staff, students, and parents” with

CULTURAL BALANCE 27

regards to the benefits of FOSS (Hepburn, 2005). Specific recommendations to achieve this are

provided in that section.

Use in North American Schools

FOSS for the developing world is a great idea, but why should it be limited to those

countries? Why if it is so good has it not been adopted by North American schools? The answer

is, it has. While many BC onshore schools still use propitiatory software, other districts

throughout the province have already made the move to FOSS. Elementary schools in particular

have embraced FOSS; while high schools been slower to move away from Adobe, Microsoft,

and Apple products (Jiaoke principal K. Angelsiki, personal communication, April 2014). Some

BC and North American school districts, however, have gone much further. Schools and districts

in California, Indiana, Oregon, and New York in the U.S.A. have adopted FOSS (Emigh, 2009;

Houston, 2007; Minkel, 2003; “N.Y. School Districts Select Linux Desktops,” 2006). Ivy

League Yale uses Linux (Schwartz, 2003). And at least two BC school districts, District 73 –

Kamloops and District 33 – Chilliwack, have moved to FOSS based systems for all schools

(Chouinard, 2009; Montgomery, n.d.). SUIS staff and students can therefore be assured they are

not receiving a lower quality, unused, or unwelcome product when they shift to FOSS. They are

instead joining a revolution in schools who's time has come (Pfaffman, 2008).

Conclusion

The many questions which prompted this paper have been answered through a through

review of available literature. Of singular significance, this study proves software is an artifact

endowed with essential meaning by the culture which produced it. In the context of Canadian

overseas schools, this affects the host country and its indigenous peoples as well as the Canadian

expatriates working in overseas schools. How each group is effected by culturally endowed

CULTURAL BALANCE 28

software in large part depends upon the attitudes which accompany it. The literature review has

shown Canadians attitudes to be largely negative. Insistence upon familiar, Western software

leads to the inevitable conclusion (whether intentionally/consciously or not) that Canadians

portray attitudes of Macaulayism and Orientialism in Sino schools, and that taken together with

the stated purposes of Canadian overseas schools, there is no doubt Canada is acts in a

neocolonial manner towards China. This last is most certainly true of BC offshore schools at the

present time as the BC Ministry of Education seeks to align its offshore schools ever more

closely with models of education within the province itself.

That the above findings are not overt, except in the Ministy's insistence on closer alignment

of on and offshore schools, does not excuse Canadians from being responsibility. However, it

should be taken as a sign of good faith that individuals, such as myself, are recognizing these

negative attitudes and taking steps to bring about a proper balance between Sino and Canadian

interests at Jiaoke campus. The empowerment of local ICT departments within SUIS is one step

in this direction; the other is the removal of culturally harmful Western software and its

replacement with FOSS.

The literature review has proven FOSS to be the best choice for SUIS both now and in the

future. It is ideal in helping China as a developing country break free from economic and IP

controls imposed upon it by foreign powers. It is ideal in allowing Chinese the freedom to create

software more closely suited to their needs. And it is ideal in addressing the psychological issues

of essentialism and mindshare which accompany propitiatory software. That FOSS is being

adopted not only in developing countries but by school districts throughout North America

should reassure those detractors whom deem it of lower quality and ability to common Western

products. It is in fact on par with propitiatory software now and will only continue to progress in

CULTURAL BALANCE 29

the future.

Of last, but not least, it is concluded Canadians have a moral obligation to adopt, advocate

for, and advance the use of FOSS in overseas schools:

The idea of moral responsibility typically is not raised in most educational

preparation programs. Nor is it discussed when one enters the teaching

field. Rather, when educators talk about responsibilities, they tend to focus

on professional accountability – developing students' knowledge and

understanding of subject matter, equipping students with high-level skills

to succeed in the academy and workplace, designing rigorous curricula,

and challenging students to meet high standards. Focusing attention solely

on these technical aspects of teaching . . . ignores the overarching moral

principles that must guide the work of teachers and administrators

(Cambron-McCabe, 2012).

To ignore moral aspects of education is without question foolish. To ignore the moral and ethical

ramifications of using pirated, proprietary software in BC offshore schools is criminal.

Therefore, Canadian staff must address the issue of morality in teaching if they are to provide a

socially just education which does no harm to the indigenous culture(s) they find themselves

within.

Recommendations

FOSS

SUIS should not adopt FOSS overnight. That it should move in move in the direction of

FOSS is clear; nevertheless, moving too quickly or making changes too suddenly would alienate

teachers, parents, students, and administrators throughout the district. Therefore a change

CULTURAL BALANCE 30

management plan needs to be made, after consultations and hearings into the matter have been

held at each campus. As Hepburn rightly points out: “Implementing [F]OSS could proceed on a

large scale such as in the case study described above, but this would carry with it the need to

address issues such as compatibility with existing software and ensuring that sufficient software

is found to meet all the educational needs within the school. Many of these problems could be

reduced, however, if the shift was approached in a more gradual way” (2005).

Fortunately, much of the initial ground work regarding compatibility and finding software

replacements has been done by the ICT department at Jiaoke. Using Jiaoke as a testing facility

and then rolling out FOSS to the entire district would be prudent. This would also fit with the

original name of Jiaoke campus – Jiaoke Experimental School. Nevertheless, for this to work a

FOSS specialist, such as the one being advertised for, would need to be based on site. Having an

on site FOSS educator would also work to reassure the local staff by providing information,

training, and technical support as FOSS products were rolled out.

Communications

Confusion in and about the organizational culture of SUIS needs to be addressed. At

present there is ambiguity in philosophy, mission, and structure not only with regards to SUIS as

a whole, but also at the local school level. This has led to confusion as to the purpose of the

BC/international stream at Jiaoke, the role of the ICT department in determining fixes for

problems relating to ICT systems, and the place of FOSS within SUIS. More and better

structured communication is the key to fixing these issues.

Inter-campus ICT team

Presently, SUIS's ICT technicians and managers support a move to FOSS and are actively

working towards its implementation; the various administrations, however, know little or

CULTURAL BALANCE 31

nothing of this (Jiaoke principal K. Angelsiki, ICT manager M. Huang personal communication,

May 2014). There is undoubtedly a communication breakdown between these two groups.

It would seem wise to appoint an English speaking Chinese person to act as liaison

between the two groups. I must advise against this. At a rudimentary level, Chinese and

Canadian/Westerners think differently (Blake, Diaz, Jones, & Nagaswami, 2004). Ask any

English teacher or student within SUIS, and they will confirm this – Chinese and Westerners

structure their thoughts differently. Due to this fact, communication between the groups of

Chinese and Westerners can be more than confusing, it can create confusion, frustration, and

hard feelings. Appointing one person to facilitate communications between the ICT group and

Western administrations fails to address this issue. On-going communication between

Westerners and Chinese requires a great deal of patience and some training to reach win-win

solutions, and an understanding of how both cultures think/approach issues.

I, therefore, recommend a two person team be setup to do this – one Westerner and one

Chinese. Both should be familiar with ICT and speak either English, Mandarin, or a

combination thereof. Together the team could work with the ICT department to facilitate

information exchange between them and all Sino and Western staff throughout SUIS. The team

could also be responsible for staff ICT training and coaching, testing FOSS systems, and

providing leadership with regards to having one, unified computer system district wide.

Multiculturalism

SUIS's 'East meets West' motto is commendable. I, however, recommend this motto be put

into action in a clearer manner by building a truly multicultural education environment within

the district and its schools (Figure 4). In such an environment, many of the issues with regards

to negative attitudes could be acknowledged and addressed. Furthermore, a multicultural

CULTURAL BALANCE 32

environment would address several of the organizational culture issues now seen within SUIS:

At its best, multicultural education engenders all areas of learning with

polyfocality. The more frames of reference that individual students can

apply to different tasks and subject matter, the more complete their

understanding. Polyfocality enables students to appreciate and deal with

complexity (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009, p. 321).

Neocolonialism may be a byproduct of Canada's overseas schools, but it does not have to be.

Instead, they could be models of multicultural education, if Canadian staff worked with Sino

staff, parents, and students to create it. This, however, requires a vision and leadership currently

Figure 4. Multicultural Ideal

Figure 4. Instead of working to dominate one another, the ideal multicultural education setting for SUIS's Jiaoke campus would see both the Canadian and Sino systems in balance and harmony. Though difficult to achieve, it nevertheless must the goal of each person on campus.

CULTURAL BALANCE 33

unseen in SUIS. Furthermore, it would require a willingness on the part of the Chinese people

within the school to break with some traditional modes of thinking and acting and to embrace a

more glocal view of the world than is currently seen.

Change Management Plan

This paper is based on an action research model. It has at its core a number of assumptions:

• “Action research is a practical way for individuals to explore the nature of their practice

and to improve it.

• Action research encourages practitioners to become knowledge-makers, rather than

merely knowledge-users.

• Action research uses action as a means of research; planned change is implemented,

monitored and analysed.

• Action research proceeds in an action-reflection cycle or spiral.

• The process can be messy; as research proceeds, wider links are likely to be identified.

• Action research is carried out by individuals, but these individuals may work

collaboratively.

• Action researchers may use a variety of research methods, both qualitative and

quantitative” (Waters-Adams, 2006).

There is, however, no one, clear definition of action research or how to engage in it

(Hollingsworth et al. as quoted by Waters-Adams, 2006). I would, nevertheless, encourage

others within SUIS to take up the challenge of making the district truly multicultural through the

adoption of FOSS and beyond. Special attention needs to be paid to the district hierarchy as it

may hinder research or facilitate implementation.

A change management plan with regards to the adoption of FOSS across the district needs

CULTURAL BALANCE 34

to be put in place. Table 4 is only a sketch of such a plan, but one which could be modified

going forward (Appendix B). I believe that taken together with my recommendation for an inter-

campus ICT team, this plan would work. Experimenting with solutions at Jiaoke is ideal due to

its dualistic nature. The two streams would allow the inter-campus team to work with both a

Chinese and a Western educational system and find solutions fitting both simultaneously.

Moving forward, the team could roll out FOSS systems throughout the district and incorporate

feedback from each campus as it became available.

Further Research

My time in China draws rapidly to a close, and I shall not be able to either oversee or

continue the work I have started in bringing FOSS to SUIS's Jiaoke campus. While I shall not

have the opportunity to work with an action research team in this regards, I nevertheless shall

encourage the principal, ICT staff, and district administration to continue the work which I have

started. I believe that such collaboration will lead to a greater understanding and better working

relationship between foreign and Sino people.

I, myself, look to continue researching FOSS and its usage in schools, as I also plan to

continue my research into Canadian overseas and BC offshore schools as a research practitioner.

CULTURAL BALANCE 35

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Appendix A: Job Posting

Career opportunity at SUIS (across campuses) http://www.suis.com.cn/careersNEW Job Opportunity at SUIS! See below for details.

Inter-campus ICT coordinator + Part time teaching ICT at Hongqiao campus

This person is the liaison between each campuses to make sure we share the same vision and the same technological standards and practices. He/She will also be offering a certain level of technical support and training to staff involved, etc.

Responsibilities include:

• Implementing & maintaining administrative resources such as the S.A.D. (Students Administration Desk) across all campuses (PHP/MySQL based)

• Trainings on using the LMS (Moodle)

• Installation and setting up of other LMS systems if needed

• Sharing good ICT teaching practices across campuses

• Support and installation of IT systems and promoting the use of Open Source software where it makes sense. Support and training of staff on these systems.

• Development of on-line resources such as report system and students database (PHP & MySQL based)

• Development and updates of the school's website (Drupal 7 platform)

• Installation and support of file servers & other similar resources across campuses

• Training of local ICT staff on new trends & technologies such as Linux and Open Sourcesoftware

• Liaison with local stream and training of their IT staff if needed.

• Teaching ICT part-time at least in Hongqiao Campus

Qualification requirements for this position:

• Passionate and knowledgeable about ICT and ICT in Education in general.

• Good knowledge and understanding of today's IT reality, and constantly keeping up-to-date with latest trends.

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• Familiar with most Operating Systems, including Windows, Mac OS X, Android and Linux.

• Must be open minded and willing to use, learn and promote the use of Free & Open Source software as much as possible, and where it makes most sense. Familiarity with FOSS programs like LibreOffice, GIMP, and Linux is a must!

• Familiarity and experience maintaining Linux servers will be highly valued and preferred.

• Familiarity and experience maintaining Windows servers also much valued.

• Familiarity and experience with LAMP stack (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP) is preferred

• Familiarity and experience with Moodle highly valued, if not, must be willing to learn it.

• Programming experience highly valued, PHP in particular. If not, must be willing to learn it.

• Basic understanding of the IB, Canadian British Columbia and National English Curriculums a plus

• Ability to speak and understand some English is a must.

Contact HR at mailto:careers@suis.com.cn for more details or to apply for this position.

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Appendix B: Tables

Table 2

Cost Really Does Matter

Country GDP/cap PCs ('000s) Piracy WinXP Cost:

Effective $USD GDP months

Bhutan 644 5 - $30,668.00 10.4

China 911 24222 92% $21,678.00 7.4

India 462 6031 70% $42,725.00 14.5

Japan 32601 44311 37% $606.00 .2

Korea, Rep. 8917 12142 48% $2,215.00 .8

Malaysia 3699 3000 70% $5,341.00 1.8

Philippines 912 1702 63% $21,658.00 7.4

Saudi Arabia 8711 1343 52% $2,268.00 .8

Tajikistan 169 - - $116,879.00 39.8

Thailand 1874 1698 77% $10,540.00 3.6

Asia 2128 102229 - $9,282.00 3.2

USA 35277 178326 25% $560.00 .2Note: Adapted from Why developing countries need to use and create free software: and how it promotes Gross National Happiness. by R. A.

Ghosh, April 9, 2004. Slideshow presented at the MERIT/Infonomics, University of Maastrict, Thimphu, Bhutan.

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Table 3

Macro & Micro Influences On Choosing Linux In Developing Countries

Positive Effects Negative Effects

Microeconomics:

OwnershipSlower obsolescence of basic infrastructure features help reduce total cost of ownership.

Lack of supports to deal with security vulnerabilities.

Effective Use

Amenability to modification makes localized customization easier.

Ordinary users can’t custom-configure the system.Costs of supporting custom changes can escalate dramaticallyover time.

Learning/switching

Switching costs might be lower compared to developed countries.Linux communities provide supportive environments for transition.

Undertaking to use the full complexity of Linux utilities and source code can lead to higher learning and switching costs.

Compatibility Linux has high levels of compatibility and portability for old and used hardware.

Likely to be incompatible with business partners’ technologies.Hardware-OS incompatibility if Linux device drivers are unavailable.

Macroeconomics:

Enforcement of intellectual property laws

Linux IP rules encompass both aggressive sharing of basic resources and support forbusiness growth.

Proprietary versions of Linux depend on IP laws.

National security Linux provides an easier basis forglobal sharing of security infrastructure.

Microsoft’s opening of codes increases Windows’ relative attractiveness.

Note: Adapted from “Economics of Linux adoption in developing countries” by Kshetri, N. (2004). IEEE Software, 21(1), 74–81.

doi:10.1109/MS.2004.1259224

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Table 4

Proposed Change Management Plan

2014

MaySurvey teachers and administrators with regards to software used and desired.

June Compile a list of FOSS replacements for software identified from survey.

AugustInstall FOSS software and test usability on a small scale basis (1-3 machines).

Build template and designate personnel to publish quarterly ICT e-newsletter.

September/OctoberInitiate discussions regarding FOSSusage within schools.

Publish first e-newsletter.Initiate quarterly ICT – administrator level meetings

October/NovemberShare findings of FOSS trail with ICT group.

Begin educating ICT group regarding FOSS usage, maintenance, and technical support.

DecemberShare findings of FOSS trails with staff SUIS wide through new ICT e-newsletter.

Survey Jiaoke staff & students regarding FOSS usage and issues.

2015

January – April/MayContinue district wide communications and consultations.

Educate ICT group regarding FOSSusage, maintenance, and technical support.

MayProvide district management & school administrators with strategic FOSS implementation report. Encourage feedback regarding report.

JuneProvide revised report to district & school administrations

Layout detailed plan for implementation of FOSS in special edition of e-newsletter.

July – AugustRole out FOSS in one or two schools.

Provide professional development for teachers before students return regarding FOSS usage.

2015-16 school year

Build upon success, learn from failure, and prepare for full district wide replacement of propitiatory/pirated software by September 2016.

Continue district wide communications, meetings and professional development opportunities.