COOPERATIVE NATIONAL PARK RESOURCES STUDIES UNIT

UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII AT MANOA

Department of Botany

Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

Clifford W. Smith, Unit Director Associate Professor of Botany

Technical Report 45

THE PROSPECTS FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF NONNATIVE PLANTS IN HAWAIIAN NATIONAL PARKS

Donald E. Gardner and Clifton J. Davis

Donald E. Gardner National Park Service

Cooperative Park Studies Unit Department of Botany

University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

and

Clifton J. Davis Hawaii Field Research Center Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

Hawaii 96718

October 1982

UNIVERSITY OF hAWAII AT MANOA

Cooperative Agreement No. CX 8000 2 0001

ABSTRACT

Nat ional Park Se rv i ce (NPS) p o l i c y emphasizes t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of p roces se s through which n a t i v e ecosystems a r o s 2 , a s wel l a s t h e unique f e a t u r e s of such ecosystems. Encroachment o f e x o t i c ( n o n n a t i v e ) p l a n t s i n t o n a t u r a l NPS a r e a s i s i n c o n s i s t e n t wi th t h i s po l i cy . Prev ious a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l such p l a n t s i n Hawaiian NPS a r e a s have involved mechanical removal o r t r ea tmen t w i t h h e r b i c i d e s , bu t t h e s e nethods a s p r e s e n t l y employed a r e inadequate t o p rov ide c o n t r o l on a long-term b a s i s f o r many e x o t i c s p e c i e s . They a r e a l s o expensive and con t inuous .

Previous e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l noxious weeds i n Hawaii w i t h phytophagous i n s e c t s have been conducted by t h e Hawaii S t a t e Department of A g r i c u l t u r e p r i m a r i l y f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s . S imi la r approaches f o r t h e c o n t r o l of e x o t i c p l a n t s i n Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala Nat ional Parks may have p o s i t i v e a s wel l a s c a u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s which m u s t be cons idered . A l i t e r a t u r e review revea led numerous r e f e r e n c e s t o i n s e c t s and d i s e a s e s a s s o c i a t e d with Hawai i ' s e x o t i c p l a n t s , or r e l a t e d s p e c i e s , i n o the r r e g i o n s of t h e world. Some of t h e s e , o r o the r s u i t a b l e organisms no t r epo r t ed h e r e , may o f f e r p o t e n t i a l i n f u t u r e b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l programs.

TABLE O F C O N T E N T S

A B S T R A C T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

S t a t e m e n t of t h e P r o b l e m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T H E H I S T 3 R Y 3 F 3 I O L O S I C 4 L C O N T R 3 L OF W E E D S I N H A W A I I . . . .

S i o c o n t r o l of L a n t a n a i n H a w a i i - - A C a s e H i s t o r y . . . . . P R E V I 3 U S E X O T I C P L A N T C O N T R O L E F F O R T S I N B A W A I I A N N P S A R E A S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C O N S I D E R A T I O N S FOR B I O C O N T R O L I N H A W A I I A N N P S A R E A S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S P E C I F I C E X O T I C P L A N S F 3 R W H I C H B E T T E R C O N T R O L IS D E S I R E D I N H A W A I I V 3 L C A N D E S 4 N D H A L E A X A L A N 4 T I O N A L P 4 R K S . . . . . . R E S E A R C H AND R E S O U R C E S Y A N A S E M E N T C O N C E R N S . . . . . . . . . R E F E R E N C E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

L I S T 9F T A B L E S

1 T h e s t a t u s of b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l of w e 2 3 3 i n Hawsii, 1 9 8 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INTRODUCTION

Sta tement of t h e Problem

Weeds, commonly de f ined a s unwanted p l a n t s , o r p l a n t s o u t of p l a c e , a r e undoubtedly a problem i n every coun t ry of t h e world where they occur e i t h e r a s n a t i v e p l a n t s o r were a c c i d e n t a l l y o r purposely in t roduced ( e . g . , a s o rnamenta l s , ground cove r , p o t e n t i a l a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s , a s l i v i n g fence p l a n t s f o r s h e e p ) . With a few excep t ions ( such a s Leptospermum scoparium J . R. & S. F o r s t . and Acaena sanquisorbae -- Vahl of New Zealand and 0-a Spp. o f Santa Cruz I s l a n d , C a l i f o r n i a , which a r e n a t i v e "weeds") in t roduced weeds have rece ived t h e most a t t e n t i o n with e x t e n s i v e documentat ion i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

The i n t e n t of t h i s paper i s t o d i s c u s s t h e po l i cy o f t h e Nat iona l Park Se rv i ce (NPS) regard ing nonnat ive p l a n t s i n na tur a1 a r e a s , 3nd t o e v a l u a t e t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e s e s p e c i e s through t h e use of phytophagous i n s e c t s o r p l a n t d i s e a s e s . The s e c t i o n d i s c u s s i n g p o s s i b l e u t i l i z a t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l agen t s i n f u t u r e programs i s based on an overview of t h e l i t e r a t u r e regard ing i n s e c t s and d i s e a s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h nonna t ive p l a n t s i n Hawaii, o r w i t h r e l a t e d s p e c i e s i n o the r r e g i o n s . No c la im is intended o r implied by t h e mention of any organism t h a t such an organism would be e i t h e r d e s i r a b l e o r u n d e s i r a b l e a s a c o n t r o l agen t beyond the s p e c u l a t i v e p o i n t s o f f e r e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n . Often very l i t t l e , o r no in format ion i s recorded i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e w i t h regard t o e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p r e d a t i o n , v i r u l e n c e , h o s t range, r ep roduc t ive p o t e n t i a l , d i s p e r s a l c a p a b i l i t i e s , geog raph ica l range, e t c . of t h e s e organisms. T h i s r e p o r t i s n o t in tended i n any way t o c o n s t i t u t e an a p p l i c a t i o n , o r e i t h e r an o f f i c i a l or u n o f f i c i a l a t t empt t o import any organism i n t o Hawaii f o r c o n t r o l purposes . Such impor t a t i on i nvo lves a s e p a r a t e , c a r e f u l l y reviewed a p p l i c a t i o n procedure a s i s desc r ibed l a t e r i n t h e r e p o r t .

Although t h e l i t e r a t u r e was searched a s thoroughly a s was p r a c t i c a l w i th in t h e scope of t h i s r e p o r t , t h e t r ea tmen t of t h e s u b j e c t of b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l i s an ongoing p roces s w i t h new o b s e r v a t i o n s and r eco rds c o n t i n u a l l y being suppl ied and discovered . I t should t h e r e f o r e no t he assumed t h a t a l l p e r t i n e n t r e f e r e n c e s have been noted. I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s o r omiss ions may be r e a d i l y appa ren t . T h i s r e p o r t s e r v e s a s a b a s i s upon which t h e s u b j e c t o f b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l i n n a t u r a l 3 r ea s may be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r f u r t h e r development.

The purpose o f t he NPS according t o t h e a c t whereby i t was e s t a b l i s h e d i s s t a t e d a s fo l lows ( 1 1 8 ) :

The S e r v i c e t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d s h a l l p romote and r e g u l a t e t h e u s e of t h e F e d e r a l a r e a s known a s n a t i o n a l p a r k s , monuments, and r e s e r v a t i o n s , which p u r p o s e i s t o c o n s e r v e t h e s c e n e r y and t h e n a t u r a l and h i s t o r i c o b j e c t s and t h e w i l d l i f e t h e r e i n and t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e en joyment o f t h e same i n such manner and by such means a s w i l l l e a v e them un impa i r ed f o r t h e en joyment o f f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s .

S i n c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f n o n n a t i v e s p e c i e s o f p l a n t s and a n i m a l s d e v i a t e s from t h i s o b j e c t i v e , NPS p o l i c y s t a t e s t h a t "Non-na t ive s p e c i e s of p l a n t s and a n i m a l s w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d where i t i s p o s s i b l e t o do s o by approved methods which w i l l p r e s e r v e w i l d e r n e s s q u a l i t i e s " ( 1 1 8 ) . However, an o v e r r i d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n is t h a t t h e e x o t i c o rgan i sm w i l l o n l y be c o n t r o l l e d i f i t i n t e r f e r e s w i t h n a t i v e e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . A s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , t h e c o n t r o l method i t s e l f must b e i n keep ing w i t h NPS o b j e c t i v e s .

The n a t i v e o r n o n n a t i v e s t a t u s o f p l a n t s i n i s l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s , s u c h a s i n Hawa i i , i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e a s i l y d e f i n e d due t o t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e s e i s l a n d s from c o n t i n e n t a l l a n d masses . Those s p e c i e s which a r r i v e d and became e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h n a t u r a l means ( w i t h o u t t h e a i d of humans) i n a n c e s t r a l fo rms an3 which have c u r r e n t l y e v o l v e d t o b e d i s t i n c t f r o n such forms a r e termed endemic , whe reas p l a n t s and a n i m a l s i n t r o d u c e d by humans a r e c o n s i d e r e d e x o t i c . I n d i g e n o u s p l a n t s a r e t h o s e which a r r i v e d i n t h e Hawaiian I s l a n d s by n a t u r a l means f rom e l s e w h e r e , b u t which have n o t e v o l v e d t o become 3 i s t i n c t s p e c i e s from t h o s e i n o t h e r l o c a t i o n s where t h e s e p l a n t s a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d n a t i v e . I n d i g e n o u s s p e c i e s a r e t h e r e f o r e n a t i v e t o Hawaii a s w e l l a s t o o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s .

I n Hawa i i , a d i s t i n c t i o n i s made between s p e c i e s i n t r o d u c e d by p r e h i s t o r i c P o l y n e s i a n c o l o n i z e r s and t h o s e b r o u g h t by f o r e i g n p e o p l e s a f t e r t h e y e a r 1778 when t h e Hawaiian I s l a n d s were f i r s t v i s i t e d by E n g l i s h s e a c a p t a i n James Cook. The NPS c o n s i d e r s o n l y t h o s e s p e c i e s of t h e l a t t e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a s e x o t i c s and t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t t o c o n t r o l measu res . Some such s p e c i e s have a g g r e s s i v e l y s p r e a 3 i n t o n a t i v e e c o s y s t e m s and a r e compet ing w i t h n a t i v e p l a n t s , t h e r e b y i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h n a t i v e e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h y of t h e NPS i n d e f i n i n g t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o r u n d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s p e c i e s i s c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d . his c o n c e p t i s f r e q u e n t l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d o r n o t f u l l y comprehended by t h e g e n z r a l p u b l i c , and h a s even be2n i n t e r p r e t e d more l i b e r a l l y on o c c a s i o n by NPS managers t h e m s e l v e s . NPS p o l i c y p r o v i d e s f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f n a t i v e h a b i t a t s and e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , and f o r t h e e r a d i c a t i o n of a l l p l a n t s p e c i e s whose p r e s e n c e d e t r a c t s from t h i s o b j e c t i v e , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e b e a u t y o r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , h o r t i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t , economic i m p o r t a n c e , o r any o t h e r w i s e d e s i r a b l e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e s e p l a n t s . Hence, NPS a r e a s c a n n o t be used a s a r b o r e t a o r p r o t e c t i v e r e f u g e s f o r even t h e most

endange red s p e c i e s i f s u c h s p e c i e s a r e n o t n a t i v e t o t h e p a r k . T h i s p o l i c y o f t e n d o e s n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l o r o t h e r economic i n t e r e s t s , o r t h o s e o f i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t y owners who c u l t i v a t e o r e n c o u r a g e p l a n t s f o r t h e i r a e s t h e t i c v a l u e w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e s t a t u s o f t h e i r o r i g i n s .

Accord ing t o t h e F e d e r a l Noxious Need Act o f 1974 , a n o x i o u s weed is d e f i n e d by t h e U . S. Depar tment o f A g r i c u l t u r e a s ( 1 8 4 ) :

... any l i v i n g s t a g e ( i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o , s e e d s and r e p r o d u c t i v e p a r t s ) of any p a r a s i t i c o r o t h e r p l a n t o f a k i n d , o r s u b d i v i s i o n o f a k i n d , which i s of f o r e i g n o r i g i n , i s new t o o r n o t w i d e l y p r e v a l e n t i n t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s , and c a n d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y i n j u r e c r o p s , o t h e r u s e f u l p l a n t s , l i v e s t o c k , o r p o u l t r y o r o t h e r i n t e r e s t s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , i n c l u d i n g i r r i g a t i o n , o r n a v i g a t i o n o r t h e f i s h and w i l d l i f e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s o r t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h .

The S t a t e o f Hawaii i s p u r s u i n g a program f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f n o x i o u s weeds, which i t d e f i n e s a s ( 7 5 ) :

. . . g o r s e and any o t h e r p l a n t s p e c i e s w h i c h i s i n j u r i o u s , h a r m f u l o r d e l e t e r i o u s o r which may be l i k e l y t o become s o t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r e , h o r t i c u l t u r e , a q u a c u l t u r e , l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r i e s o f t h e S t a t e , a n 3 t o f o r e s t and r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s and c o n s e r v a t i o n d i s t r i c t s o f t h e S t a t e , a s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e d e p a r t m e n t from time t o t i m e .

I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l and r e l a t e d c o n c e r n s have r e c e i v e d by f a r t h e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n o f t h e a b o v e - l i s t e d a r e a s . Thus , p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s p e c i e s may be c o n s i d e r e d n o x i o u s b y one agency and d e s i r a b l e by a n o t h e r based on t h e d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e a g e n c i e s .

An example o f t h i s c o n f l i c t i n Hawaii i s t h e s h r u b a ' a l i ' i (Dodonaea g r i o c a r p a Sm.) which o c c u r s a s an i n d i g e n o u s p l a n t ( a n d is t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e " n a t i v e " c a t e g o r y by t h e NPS) and must b e p r e s e r v e d under NPS p o l i c y , b u t which i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o x i o u s p l a n t by c a t t l e r a n c h e r s (111) where i t o c c u p i e s r a n g e l a n d s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f more d e s i r a b l e f o r a g e s p e c i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , k i k u y u g r a s s ( P e n n i s e t u m c l a n d e s t i n u m Hochs t . e x Ch iov . ) i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o x i o u s w e e d o n t h e U . S. main land by t h e U . S. Depar tment of A g r i c u l t u r e ( 1 8 7 ) , S i n c e i t i s an a g g r e s s i v e e x o t i c s p e c i e s i n Hawa i i , i t i s a l s o an u n d e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s i n Hawaiian NPS a r e a s , b u t i t i s v a l u e d a s a f o r a y e c r o p by l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c e r s i n o t h e r a r e a s o f Hawaii ( 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 ) . On t h e o t h e r hand , i n some i n s t a n c e s t h e r e i s ag reemen t among a l l conce rned a g e n c i e s a s t o t h e u n d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s , a l b e i t p e r h a p s f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s ( e . 3 . banana ~ o k a (Pass i f lo_r_a m o l l i s s i m a ( H B K . ) B a i l e y ) ) .

THE HISTORY 3 F B I O L O G I C A L CONTROL OF WEEDS IN H A W A I I

R a n c h e r s , f a r m e r s , and government l a n d managers i n Hawaii f a c e , an3 have f a c e d , t h e c o n s t a ~ l t menace of n o x i o u s p l a n t s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e i r domain. Some oE t h e s e p s s k s , s u c h a s p r i c k l y p e a r ca pamakani Regel ) , (=E=ato t h o u s a x

t u s

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r i c a f a y a A i t . ) , -- 4- - ( = E u p a t o r i u m aKa Maui pama

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akua r ium .---- (A.

e r e d e of

t i m e and money was n e c e s s a r y t o - r e c l a i m s u c h - l a n d s . I n one i n s t a n c e , a newly d i s c o v e r e d i n f e s t a t i o n o f p i r i p i r i (Acaena s a n q u i s o r b a e ) , a v e r y s e r i o u s p e s t i n New Zealand ( 8 2 ) , was found - --..-- on t h e Waimea-Keanakolu r o a d , Hawa i i , and was s u c c e s s f u l l y e r a d i c a t e d by P a r k e r Ranch p e r s o n n e l b e f o r e i t c o u l d s p r e a d ( 8 2 ) .

I n s t a t e an3 f e d e r a l l a n d s , banana poka , common guava ( P s i d i u m g u a j a v a L.), s t r a w b e r r y guava ( P . c a t t l e i a n u m -- S a b i n e ) , f i r e b u s h , Hamakua pamakani , K o s t e r ' s c u r s e - ( ~ l i d e m i a h i r t a ( L . ) 0 . Don) , w i l d b l a c k b e r r y (Rubus p e n e t r a n s ~ a q l e y ) , y e l l o w Himalayan r a s p b e r r y (R. e l l i p t i c u s Sm. ) , f o u n t a i n g r a s s ( P e n n i s e t u m se t aceum ( F o r s k . ) C h i o v . ) , and broomsedge (Andropoqon v i r g i n i c u s L . ) a r e some o f t h e i m p o r t a n t n o x i o u s weed p e s t s which -- have a l t e r e d t h e n a t i v e e c o s y s t e m s . The b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l program a g a i n s t l a n t a n a , which i s p e r h a p s t h e most w i d e l y known, h a s r e s u l t e d i n p a r t i a l t o s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l of l a n t a n a i n i t s wide e c o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s program is d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l a s a s e p a r a t e c a s e h i s t o r y due t o i t s i m p o r t a n c e and tho rough d o c u m e n t a t i o n .

Fo l lowing t h e e f f o r t s a g a i n s t l a n t a n a , 17 nox ious weeds were t a r g e t e d by t h e S t a t e f o r b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l . I n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r t h e s e were a s f o l l o w s :

1. Nut g r a s s ( C y p e r u s r o t u n d u s L . ) 1925

2 . Maui pamakani ( A g e r a t i n a adenophora S p r e n g . ) 1945

3 . P r i c k l y p e a r c a c t u s ( O p u n t i a A- s p p . ) 1949

4 . Gorse ( U l e x e u r o z a e u s L . ) 1952 - --- -- 5 . K o s t e r ' s c u r s e ( C l i d e m i a -- h i r t a ( L . ) D . Don) 1953

6 . B r a z i l i a n pepper t r e e o r B r a z i l i a n h o l l y ( l o c a l l y known a s w i l e l a i k i o r C h r i s t m a s b e r r y ) ( S c h i n u z t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s -- R a d d i ) 1954

7 . F i r e b u s h (Myr i ca f a y a A i t . ) 1955

8 . Emex (Emex s p i n o s a Campd.) 1957 --

9 . Emex (Ernex - -. a u s t r a l i s S t e i n h . ) 1957

1 0 . M a l a b a r m e l a s t o m e o r I n d i a n r h o d o n d e n d r o n ( M e l a s t o m a --- m a l a b a t h r icum L. ) 1 9 5 8 --

11. H a i r y f l e a b a n e o r s o u r b u s h ( P l u c h e a o d o r a t a (L.) C a s s . 1 9 5 8

-

1 2 . E l e p h a n t ' s f o o t ( E l e p h a n t o p u s m o l l i s H. €3. K.) 1 9 6 1 - 1 3 . P u n c t u r e v i n e ( T r i b u l u s t e r r e s t r i s L . ) 1 9 6 2

1 4 . Nohu ( T r i b u l u s -- c i s t o i d e s L . ) 1 9 6 3

( n o t e : Nohu i s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a p l a n t w h i c h i s i n d i g e n o u s t o H a w a i i a n d would t h e r e f o r e f a l l u n d e r t h e N P S t s p r o t e c t i o n p o l i c y , b u t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o x i o u s weed b y t h e S t a t e w h e r e i t i n f e s t s a g r i c u l t u r a l and r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s . )

1 5 . B l a c k b e r r y ( R u b u s p e n e t r a n s B a i l e y ) 1 9 6 3

1 6 . K l a m a t h weed ( H y p e r i c u m p e r f o r a t u m L . ) 1 9 6 5 -- 1 7 . Hanakua p a m a k a n i ( A g e r a t i n a r i p a r i a K . & R . ) 1 9 7 3

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e p l a n t s , p h y t o p h a g o u s i n s e c t s i n t r o d u c e d a s b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l a g e n t s , a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r c o n t r o l a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 1.

An a c c o u n t o f b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l f a i l u r e s i n H a w a i i would i n c l u d e f i r e b u s h f o r w h i c h n o c o n t r o l s h a v e y e t b e e n f o u n d . A l t h o u g h i n t r o d u c e d i n s e c t s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d o n n u t g r a s s a n d h a i r y f l e a b a n e , t h e y h a v e l i k e w i s e n o t p r o v e n e f f e c t i v e . F a i l u r e s of c a n d i d a t e i n s e c t s i n q u a r a n t i n e may b e d u e t o f a u l t y h a n d l i n g t e c h n i q u e s , n a t u r a l phenomena s u c h a s d i a p a u s e , d i s e a s e , m i t e p r e d a t o r s , o r p a r a s i t i s m n o t e v i d e n t a t t h e time o f f o r e i g n o r d o m e s t i c e x p o r t . C a n d i d a t e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o p a g a t e d and t e s t e d i n t h e q u a r a n t i n e i n s e c t a r y a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y l i b e r a t e d may n o t become s u c c e s s f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d d u e t o p o o r p h e n o l o g i c a l s y n c h r o n y , m i s s i n g h a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s i s t a n c e s u c h a s p a r a s i t i s m , d i s e a s e , o r p r e d a t o r a c t i v i t y .

More s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t s a t b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l o f weeds i n H a w a i i h a v e r s s u l t e d i n p a r t i a l c o n t r o l o f l a n t a n a , first d o c u m e n t e d by p e r k i n s a n d Swezey ( 1 3 0 ) and l a t e r by D a v i s and K r a u s s i n 1 9 6 1 ( 4 ) , Maui p a m a k a n i ( 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 2 9 ) , c a c t u s ( 5 8 , 1 2 9 ) , emex ( 4 1 ) , Klamath weed (36), p u n c t u r e v i n e ( 4 0 ) , and Hamakua p a m a k a n i ( 1 8 2 ) . A p r o g r e s s r e p o r t o n t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l s t a t u s o f t h e s e n o x i o u s weeds was p r e p a r e d by D a v i s ( 3 0 ) and u p d a t e d a s shown i n T a b l e 1 u n d e r "Remarks" .

The p a p e r p u b l i s h e d by C a r p e n t e r i n 1 9 4 4 ( 2 5 ) r e g a r d i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e p r i c k l y p e a r c a c t u s ( O p u n t i a megacan- tha Salm-Dyck) i s o f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e s i n c e i t a p p e a r s t o be t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t i n H a w a i i t o c o n t r o l p l a n t s w i t h - a p a t h o g e n i c f u n g u s . A

v a r i e t y o f Fusar ium oxysporum S c h l e c h t . emend Sny. & Hans., which was f i r s t d E c o v e r e d above E I e e l e on t h e e a s t r im o f Hanapepe V a l l e y , Kauai ( S t e p h e n Au, p e r s o n a l communica t ion ) , c a u s e d a s o f t r o t i n b o t h l a r g e and s m a l l p l a n t s . T h i s pa thogen c o u l d be i n o c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e t i s s u e o f a h e a l t h y p l a n t and succes s fu1 l .y e l i m i n a t e t h e h o s t , w i t h g e n e r a l t i s s u e c o l l a p s e o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n 2 t o 5 weeks. When a l l f a c t o r s a r e t a k a n i n t o a c c o u n t , t h e e f f o r t t o c o n t r o l p r i c k l y p e a r c a c t u s may be c o n s i d e r e d t h e most s u c c e s s f u l b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l program t o have y e t been u n d e r t a k e n i n Hawai i .

While some s u c c e s s i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l of s e v e n n o x i o u s Hawaiian weeds have been documented, t h e d r a m a t i c r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h r e e a g e n t s i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e b i o c o n t r o l ( i . e . b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l ) Hamakua pamakani have u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t been p u b l i s h e d t o d a t e . These a g e n t s a r e a plume moth (Oidaemrnophorus s p . ) , Hamakua pamakani g a l l f l y ( ~ r o c e c i d o c h a r e s -- a l a n i S t e y s k a l ) , and a new s p e c i e s o f t h e p h y t o p a t h o g e n i c fungus C e r c o s p o r e l l a .

The work o f T r u j i l l o l e a d i n g t o t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f C e r c o s p o r e l l a s p . a s a b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l a g e n t ( 1 8 2 ) i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e . I t r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u c c e s s f u l u s e o f a p a t h o g e n i c f u n g u s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o Hawaii s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . T r u j i l l o c o l l e c t e d t h e pa thogen d u r i n g an e x p l o r a t o r y e x p e d i t i o n t o J a m a i c a and t h e s t u d y was conduc ted a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii Depar tment o f P l a n t P a t h o l o g y .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , however , and by l e g a l mandate ( 7 5 ) , p l a n t b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t s i n Hawaii have been conduc ted by t h e Hawaii S t a t e Depar tment o f A g r i c u l t u r e (HSDA)-Plant P e s t C o n t r o l Branch , which was, and s t i l l i s , o r i e n t e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o e n t o m o l o g i c a l b i o c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e u se o f p l a n t d i s e a s e s .

Hamakua pamakani i s an a g g r e s s i v e n o x i o u s weed of r anch l a n d s , a s w e l l a s on l a n d s o f f e d e r a l and s t a t e domain, o c c u r r i n g a t p e s t l e v e l s between 610 and 1372 m e l e v a t i o n . I n t h e p a s t , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 130 ,000 a c r e s o f l a n d were p l agued by t h i s weed, m o s t l y on r a n c h l a n d s on t h e i s l a n d o f Hawai i . S i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e two phytophagous i n s e c t s i n 1973 and 1974, and o f t h e p a t h o g e n i c f u n g u s ~ e r c o s ~ o r e l l a s p . i n 1975 , Hamakua pamakani h a s v i r t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d from some l o c a l i t i e s ( e . ~ . - - i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Volcano V i l l a g e ) , and i t s d e n s i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r educed i n o t h e r s . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is s u p p o r t e d by p h o t o d o c u m e n t a t i o n and an e x c e r p t from t h e HSDA, P l a n t P e s t C o n t r o l Branch , d a t e d F e b r u a r y , 1981 , which s t a t e s ( 7 7 ) :

Accord ing t o t h e manager o f t h e P a l a n i Ranch, i n t r o d u c e d b i o - c o n t r o l a g e n t s have r educed t h e pamakani i n f e s t a t i o n by 80%. Over 800 a c r e s which were i n f e s t e d a r e now r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f pamakani . A t P a r k e r Ranch, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h e r b i c i d e s and b i o - c o n t r o l a g e n t s have e l i m i n a t e d a b o u t 50% o f t h e Hamakua pamakani which i n f e s t e d o v e r 900 a c r e s . A t Honomalino, n e a r l y a l l o f t h e pamakani i n f e s t i n g 2 ,700 a c r e s were d e s t r o y e d by i n t r o d u c e d b i o - c o n t r o l a g e n t s .

The i n s e c t s and p a t h o g e n s a r e working w i t h good r e s u l t s i n Hawaii Vo lcanoes N a t i o n a l Pa rk (HAVO) ( p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , DG & C D ) .

B i o c o n t r o l of L a n t a n a i n Hawaii--A Case H i s t o r y

When an i n t r o d u c e d p l a n t becomes e s t a b l i s h e d , i t v e r y o f t e n d o e s s o w i t h o u t i t s n a t u r a l enemies and may c o n s e q u e n t l y f l o u r i s h , f r e q u e n t l y under n o r m a l l y u n f a v o r a b l e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . I t s s p r e a d may be a s s i s t e d by man, b i r d s , mammals, wind , and r a i n r u n o f f . A c a s e i n p o i n t i s l a n t a n a , which was p u r p o s e l y i n t r o d u c e d a s an o r n a m e n t a l i n 1858 by Wi l l i am H i l l e b r a n d , a p h y s i c i a n - b o t a n i s t who had a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t e r e s t i n n a t i v e Hawaiian p l a n t s . By 1902 v e r y l a r g e a r e a s i n Hawaii were o c c u p i e d by l a n t a n a and i t s s p r e a d was a t t r i b u t e d t o two i n t r o d u c e d b i r d s , t h e s p o t t e d o r l a c e necked dove ( ~ t r e p t o p e l i g c h i n e n s i s ) and t h e common mynah b i r d ( A c r i d o t h e r e s t r i s t i s ) . These b i r d s r e p o r t e d l y f e d a v i d l y on t h e b e r r i e s o f l a n t a n a ( 1 3 0 ) .

O b s e r v a t i o n s by r a n c h e r s on t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f a n immigrant s c a l e i n s e c t , t h e g r e e n h o u s e o r t h e z i a ( O r t h e z i g i n s i q n i s Browne) , on l a n t a n a s u g g e s t e d a s e a r c h f o r and s t u d y of i n s e c t e n e m i e s o f t h i s p l a n t i n C e n t r a l America. T h i s g a v e r i s e t o a b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l ( h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o by t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n b i o c o n t r o l ) of weeds program t h a t began i n 1902 ( 1 3 0 ) . H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h i s was t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l a weed t h r o u g h t h i s method i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and p e r h a p s i n t h e wor ld ( 1 7 8 ) , and r e s u l t e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e i g h t o f 23 i n s e c t s impor t ed from Mexico.

I n t h i s i n i t i a l b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t t h e c a n d i d a t e i n s e c t s were c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d i n Mexico and s c r e e n e d f o r p a r a s i t e s and p r e d a t o r s i n Hawaii b e f o r e r e l e a s e . Hos t s p e c i f i c i t y t e s t s i n Hawaii were n o t c a r r i e d o u t . Of t h e e i g h t e s t a b l i s h e d l a n t a n a i n s e c t s , two were l a t e r found on o t h e r h o s t s . The i n s e c t s were Strymon e c h i o n ( L . ) , a minor p e s t o f e g g p l a n t , and Teleonemia s c r u p u l o s a S t a l , which h a s t w i c e been r e p o r t e d f e e d i n g on a n a t i v e Hawaiian t r e e , Myoporum sandwicense Gray ( 1 2 ) .

I t was d e t e r m i n e d by A u s t r a l i a n and Hawaiian e n t o m o l o g i s t s t h a t i n t r o d u c e d l a n t a n a i n s e c t s were n o t e x e r t i n g s u f f i c i e n t s t r e s s t o e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l t h e p l a n t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e t h e n Hawaii Board o f A g r i c u l t u r e and F o r e s t r y resumed work on b i o c o n t r o l o f l a n t a n a i n 1952. An e x p l o r a t o r y e n t o m o l o g i s t , N . L . H . K r a u s s , began work i n Cuba and c a r r i e d on i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t h r o u g h o u t t r o p i c a l hmer i ca and o t h e r r e g i o n s . I n 1953 t h e F i j i a n gove rnmen t , t h e T r u s t T e r r i t o r y o f t h e P a c i f i c I s l a n d s , t h e S t a t e o f Q u e e n s l a n d and t h e Commonwealth o f A u s t r a l i a j o i n e d t h e Board o f A g r i c u l t u r e and F o r e s t r y i n a c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t ( 3 7 ) . John Mann, e n t o m o l o g i s t o f t h e Q u e e n s l a n d Depar tment o f P u b l i c Lands , j o i n e d K r a u s s i n Mexico and c a r r i e d on i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h e r e from J u l y 1953 t o J a n u a r y 1954 . Between 1954 and 1961 X r a u s s made f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n F l o r i d a ; Mexico; C a l i f o r n i a ; U m t a l i , Zimbabwe ( S o u t h e r n

R h o d e s i a ) ; D i a n i B e a c h , Kenya; a n d V i t o r i a , E s p i r i t o S a n t o , B r a z i l .

T h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s y i e l d e d t w e l v e c a n d i d a t e i n s e c t s w h i c h were r e c e i v e d i n t h e H o n o l u l u q u a r a n t i n e i n s e c t a r y f a c i l i t y f o r s c r e e n i n g and h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y t e s t s . Of t h e s e , a c o s s i d , L a n g s d o r f i a f r a n c k i i Hubner f rom J a l a p a , Mexico , a n d a c h r y s o m e l i d , -- ~ c t o t o m a q u n d l a c h i S u f f r a i n f rom Havana , Cuba , f a i l e d t o p r o p a g a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y a n d t h e r e f o r e c o u l d n o t be t e s t e d f o r h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y . Of t h e t e n i n s e c t s which were s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s e d , t h e c e r e m b y c i d A e r e n i c o p s i s c h a m p i o n i - .-

B a t e s f rom Mexico , t h e n o c t u i d D i a s t e m a t i g r i s Guenee f rom t h e Panama C a n a l Zone, t h e t i n g i d ~ e l e o n e m i a -- v a n d u z e i Drake f rom C u b a , a n d t h e p y r a l i d B l e p h a r ~ m a s t i x a c u t a n q u l a l i s ( S n e l l e n ) f r o m Mexico w e r e n e v e r r e c o v e r e d . A e r e n i c o p s i s c h a m p i o n i d i d show p r o m i s e o f e s t a b l i s h m e n t , b u t a f t e r a g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d i n H a w a i i i t was n e v e r s e e n a g a i n .

Be tween 1 9 5 7 and 1 9 6 1 t h e f i r s t i m p o r t a n t b r e a k - t h r o u g h i n i m p r o v e d b i o c o n t r o l o f l a n t a n a o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n s e a l e v e l and 610 m e l e v a t i o n o n t h e i s l a n d s o f H a w a i i a n d Maui and up t o 244 m e l e v a t i o n o n t h e n e i g h b o r i n g i s l a n d o f M o l o k a i . The r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e t i n g i d T . s c r u p u l o s a S t a l - were new i n t r o d u c t i o n s . They w e r e a s f o l l o w s ( i n o r d e r o f i m p o r t a n c e ) :

1. Hypena - s t r i g a t a F . ( 1 9 5 7 ; Kenya , E a s t A f r i c a )

2 . T e l e o n e m i a s c r u p u l o s a ( 1 9 0 2 ; M e x i c o )

3 . Synqamia h a e m o r r h o i d a l i s Guenee ( 1 9 5 6 ; Cuba a n d F l o r i d a ) -- 4 . C a t a b e n a e s u l a D r u c e ( 1 9 5 5 ; C a l i f o r n i a )

T h e r e w a s , h o w e v e r , much t o be d e s i r e d i n l a n t a n a c o n t r o l i n t h e wet ter a r e a s o f t h e s t a t e . T h i s l e d t o t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n and e s t a b l i s h m e n t ( i n 1 9 6 1 ) o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e stem a n d r o o t b o r i n g c e r a m b y c i d f r o m Mexico P lag iohammus s p i n i p e n n i s Thompson i n t h e Kona and K a ' u D i s t r i c t s o f t h e i s l a n 5 o f H a w a i i . The l e a f m i n i n g c h r y s o m e l i d U r o p l a t a q i r a r d i P i c was a l s o i n t r o d u c e d f r o m V i t o r i a , E s p i r i t o S a n t o , B r a z l l i n 1 9 6 1 a n d was s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s e d i n Lawai V a l l e y , K a u a i ( w h i c h r e c e i v e d a n a v e r a g e o f 80 i n c h e s o f r a i n f a l l a n n u a l l y ) .

B e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 6 3 s i g n i f i c a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s o c c u r r e d , t h e f i r s t o f w h i c h was t h e r e c o v e r y o f t h e l e a f m i n i n g c h r y s o m e l i d O c t o t o m a s c a b r i p e n n i s G u e r i n a t W h i t e S a n d s , K a i l u a - K o n a . T h i s was t h e f i r s t r e c o v e r y o f t h i s b ee t l e s i n c e i t s r e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n 1953-1955. Be tween 1963-1965 i t s p r e a d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e Kona D i s t r i c t , o c c u r r i n g i n b o t h d r y a n d w 2 t h a b i t a t s a n d c a u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e f o l i a r damage t o l a n t a n a o n t h e M c C a n d l e s s Ranch. I n J u n e 1 9 6 5 ( 4 y e a r s a f t e r i t s l i b e r a t i o n ) t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f U . q i r a r d i e x p l o d e d i n Lawai V a l l e y a n d i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h i s i n s e c t s p r e a d 1 5 s q u a r e miles. On Oahu i t h a s a l s o s p r e a d e x t e n s i v e l y o n M t . T a n t a l u s .

The most e n c o u r a g i n g deve lopmen t , however , was t h e s p r e a d and damage c a u s e d by t h e l a n t a n a b o r e r P. s p i n i p e n n i s a t Kukui Paddock, Ka'u D i s t r i c t , where f i e l d adu l t s -were r e c o v e r e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . Accord ing t o K . C. S. H a r l e y , A u s t r a l i a n r e s e a r c h s c i e n t i s t , " A p a r t i a l s u r v e y o f t h e i n c i d e n c e o f t h i s i n s e c t h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t s e v e r a l a c r e s o f l a n t a n a a r e under heavy a t t a c k . I t may be a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t w i t h i n two o r t h r e e y e a r s e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l o f t h e weed may b e e f f e c t e d . The p o s i t i o n i s e x c e l l e n t and s h o u l d be viewed w i t h op t imi sm" ( 4 2 ) . Under Hawaiian c o n d i t i o n s , a d u l t s a p p e a r t o b e emerg ing be tween J u n e and August and p o s s i b l y l a t e r .

Dr. H a r l e y ' s r e s e a r c h a r e a was s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s t u r b e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y by r a n c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s and many o f t h e i n f e s t e d p l a n t s were d e s t r o y e d . A s m a l l r e s i d u a l p e r i m e t e r p o p u l a t i o n r ema ined , however , and P. s p i n i p e n n i s h a s s i n c e s p r e a d a d i s t a n c e o f 2 l i n e a r miles a i o n g t h e highway toward P a h a l a . T h i s cerambycid i s a l s o w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d on Hawaii on t h e Sherwood Greenwe l l Ranch, Kona, be tween 610 and 1 , 0 6 7 m e l e v a t i o n , and a t H i l o .

I n r e c e n t y e a r s p o p u l a t i o n s o f i m p o r t a n t l e p i d o p t e r o u s d e f o l i a t o r s o f l a n t a n a a p p e a r t o have become s t a b i l i z e d , p o s s i b l y d u e t o egg p a r a s i t i s m by t h e wasp Trichogramma s p . and l a r v a l an3 p u p a l p a r a s i t e s o f v a r i o u s o t h e r s p e c i e s ( t h e s e i n t r o d u c e d a s b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s many y e a r s b e f o r e ) . The l e a f n i n i n g c h r y s o m e l i d s , however , c o n t i n u e t o b e v e r y a c t i v e mos t o f t h e y e a r and have g r e a t l y e x t e n d e d t h e i r r a n g e on Maui and Hawai i . To d a t e t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e o f p a r a s i t i s m of t h e s e i n s e c t s , b u t minor p r e d a t i o n by an unde te rmined o rgan i sm h a s o c c u r r e d i n some l o c a l i t i e s ( p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , C D ) .

I n 1970 a P e r u v i a n t i n g i d , L e p t o b y r s a d e c o r a Drake , was r e l e a s e d a t Keokea and U l u p a l a k u a , Maui, and a t Kokee, K a u a i , and by 1972 was f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d on b o t h i s l a n d s . I t was s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s e d on Hawaii where i t h a s become e s t a b l i s h e d . I t s s p r e a d , however , i s v e r y s l o w and i t s e v a l u a t i o n is p e n d i n g .

I t h a s been 79 y e a r s s i n c e t h e f i r s t l a n t a n a i n s e c t s were i n t r o d u c e d , a n d , a l t h o u g h i t h a s n o t been an e a s y t a s k t o e s t a b l i s h i n s e c t s t h a t a r e c l i m a t i c a l l y s u i t e d t o t h e wide e c o l o g i c a l r a n g e o f L. c a m a r a , c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s h a s been made. The r e c e n t i n t r o q u c t i o n s have complemented t h e e a r l i e r o n e s and t h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r s t r e s s ,:rn t h i s v e r b e n a c e o u s weed. I n d r o u g h t p r o n e a r e a s l a n t a n a i n t h e p a s t h a s g e n e r a l l y managed t o r e c o v e r b u t w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f d r o u g h t and l a t e r i n s e c t i n t r o d u c t i o n s , c o n s i d e r a b l e d i e b a c k and o f t e n d e a t h o f t h e p l a n t s r e s u l t e d , a s was o b s e r v e d on West Moloka i , Maui and i n some l o c a t i o n s on Hawai i . The p o t e n t i a l f o r g r e a t e r b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h i s weed p e r h a p s c o u l d be enhanced by a c a r e f u l s t u d y o f p h y t o p a t h o g e n s which , u n t i l r e c e n t l y , had not. been g i v e n much a t t e n t i o n ( 6 2 ) .

PREVIOUS E X O T I C PLANT CONTROL EFFORTS I N H A W A I I A N NPS AREAS

The p r e s e n c e o f n o n n a t i v e p l a n t s i n H A V 3 and i n H a l e a k a l a N a t i o n a l P a r k ( B A L E ) , on t h e i s l a n d of Maui, i s w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d t o be among t h e most f a r - r e a c h i n g and c h a l l e n g i n g o f a l l r e s o u r c e s management p rob lems . P a s t e x o t i c p l a n t c o n t r o l p rograms i n HAVO have c o n c e n t r a t e d m a i n l y on f i r e t r e e and have i n v o l v e d m e c h a n i c a l removal o f young p l a n t s and s p r a y i n g t h e lower stems o f o l d e r t r e e s w i t h h e r b i c i d e s o l u t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h a 4 p e r c e n t s o l u t i o n o f s i l v e x i n d i e s e l o i l .

S e v e r a l y e a r s o f i n t e n s i v e , o f t e n f u l l - t i m e , e f f o r t by HAVO r e s o u r c e s management f i e l d c r e w s , a i d e d by Youth C o n s e r v a t i o n Corps p e r s o n n e l i n t h e summers, have b e e n d e v o t e d t o t h e c o n t r o l o f t h i s e x o t i c s p e c i e s . La rge sums o f money and t h o u s a n d s o f man-hours were expended i n t h i s p rogram, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f more t h a n 78 ,000 f i r e t r e e s . ~ o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s e f f o r t , f i r e t r e e p o p u l a t i o n s a r e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d o u t s i d e of HAVO and have s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e d i n t h e p a r k t o t h e p o i n t a t which p r e s e n t m e c h a n i c a l o r c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s no l o n g e r a p p e a r f e a s i b l e , e x c e p t p e r h a p s i n l o c a l i z e d work u n i t s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o f i r e t r e e , m e c h a n i c a l removal of o t h e r woody s h r u b s o r m a l l t r e e s , s u c h a s C h r i s t m a s b e r r y , s i l k oak - - f G r e v i l l e a - ---- r o b u s t a A. ~ u n n . ) , koa -hao le (Leucaena l e u c o c e p h a l a (Lam. ) d e W i t ) , g l o r y - b u s h ( T i b o u c h i n a u r v i l l e a n a ( D C . ) Cogn. ) , f u c h s i a ( F u c h s i a m a g e l l a n i c a Lam. ) , o l i v e ( ~ i n o c i e r a 1 i g u s t r i n a S w . ) , w i l d b l a c k b e r r y and r a s p b e r r y (Rubus s p p . ) , and s e v e r a i s p e c i e s o f h e r b a c e o u s p l a n t s , h a s b e e n a e m p t e d on a more l i m i t e d s c a l e . I s o l a t e d s t a n d s o f koa -hao le i n r emote a r e a s have a l s o been s p r a y e d w i t h h e r b i c i d e f rom a h e l i c o p t e r w i t h p a r t i a l ( o r t e m p o r a r y ) s u c c e s s i n which p o p u l a t i o n r e d u c t i o n was a c h i e v e d , a l t h o u g h some o l d e r t r e e s e v e n t u a l l y r e s p r o u t e d f o l l o w i n g t r e a t m e n t and new s e e d l i n g s c o n t i n u e d t o a p p e a r .

He rbaceous p l a n t s s u c h a s g i n g e r (Hedychium s p p . ) have b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y t r e a t e d l o c a l l y w i t h h e r b i c i d e , n o t a b l y Tordon l O K , a s o l i d f o r m u l a t i o n a p p l i e d t o t h e s o i l s u r f a c e above t h e r o o t zone. I n r e c e n t y e a r s e f f o r t s have been c o n c e n t r a t e d on c o n t r o l o r e l i m i n a t i o n o f f o u n t a i n g r a s s ( P e n n i s e t u m se taceurn ( F o r s k . ) Chiov . ) from a r i d , r emote r e g i o n s o f HAVO by s p r a y i n g c lumps w i t h h e r b i c i d e , o r u p r o o t i n g young p l a n t s . Whi le a d e g r e e o f t empora ry s u c c e s s h a s been o b t a i n e d , i t a p p e a r s t h a t i n some a r e a s t h e r a t e o f new i n v a s i o n i n t o p a r k l a n d s and r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h i s g r a s s i n f o r m e r l y t r e a t e d a r e a s may i n d i c a t e t h e i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f s u c h c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s on an i n d e f i n i t e b a s i s .

C o n t r o l o f o t h e r a q q r e s s i v e e x o t i c g r a s s e s , s u c h a s bushy - - b e a r d g r a s s ( Andropogon f i o m e r a t u s --- ( w a i t . ) BSP. ) and broomsedge which a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a b u n d a n t i n f i r e - d i s t u r b e d a r e a s where t h e y t h e m s e l v e s c r e a t e ma jo r f i r e h a z a r d s a s w e l l a s compet ing w i t h n a t i v e s p e c i e s (166), h a s n o t been a t t e m p t e d d u e t o l a c k o f p r a c t i c a l c o n t r o l methods . I n s u c h g r a s s l a n d s h e r b i c i d a l

s p r a y i n g o r b r o a d c a s t i n g and m e c h a n i c a l removal have o f t e n been c o n s i d e r e d t o o e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y d i s r u p t i v e t o b e u s e f u l methods. However, a c t u a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s u c h a p p r o a c h e s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s .

A l i m i t e d a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made t o l o c a t e and u p r o o t v i n e s o f banana poka where i t h a s become e s t a b l i s h e d i n d e n s e r a i n f o r e s t l o c a l i t i e s ; however , t h e d i s t u r b a n c e c a u s e d by t h i s a c t i v i t y i n t h e s e f r a g i l e a r e a s was c o n s i d e r e d e x c e s s i v e . Banana poka i s w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d a s i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r a i n f o r e s t , and i n some a r e a s i t fo rms a d e n s e mat o f f o l i a g e l y i n g upon and s h a d i n g o u t a l l o t h e r p l a n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t i v e t r e e s . L o c a t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n o f e a c h banana poka p l a n t would b e an i m p r a c t i c a l , l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h r e q u i r i n g c o n t i n u o u s s u r v e i l l a n c e . Even i f t h i s were p o s s i b l e , i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t banana poka c o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d i n d e f i n i t e l y . S i n c e v i n e s o f t h i s s p e c i e s become c l o s e l y i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h t h e f o r e s t canopy , s p r a y i n g w i t h h e r b i c i d e would l i k e w i s e n o t b e p r a c t i c a l due t o t h e e x t e n s i v e damage t o n a t i v e p l a n t s which would u n d o u b t e d l y r e s u l t .

G o r s e , which o c c u r s a s a n a g g r e s s i v e s p e c i e s i n HALE, h a s been s u b j e c t e d t o s y s t e m a t i c p o i s o n i n g f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s w i t h k e r o s e n e . T r e a t m e n t o f young p l a n t s i s a t t e m p t e d b e f o r e t h e f l o w e r i n g s t a g e i s r e a c h e d , t h u s p r e v e n t i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n of t h i s weed; however , t h e s e e d s u p p l y a l r e a d y i n t h e s o i l is l a r g e and c o n s t a n t s u r v e i l l a n c e o f i n f e s t e d a r e a s i s n e c e s s a r y . Young p i n e t r e e s a r i s i n g from t h o s e p l a n t e d i n HALE i n fo rmer y e a r s a r e chopped down and m e c h a n i c a l l y removed.

The f e a s i b i l i t y o f h e r b i c i d a l c o n t r o l o f s t r a w b e r r y guava , which grows e x t e n s i v e l y i n e x c l u s i v e t h i c k e t s and c o n s t i t u t e s a s e r i o u s problem i n t h e l ower K ipahu lu V a l l e y r e g i o n o f HALE, was r e c e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t e d ( 6 1 ) . Dense s t r a w b e r r y guava s t a n d s a l s o o c c u r i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f HAVO and i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s o f t h i s s p e c i e s , many o f which a r e young s a p l i n g s , c u r r e n t l y o c c u r w i t h i n t h e p a r k . I n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t c o n t r o l o f s t r a w b e r r y guava t h r o u g h h e r b i c i d a l o r m e c h a n i c a l removal a p p r o a c h e s would r e q u i r e a much g r e a t e r e f f o r t t h a n t h e p a r k would be c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g under c u r r e n t s t a f f i n g and f u n d i n g l e v e l s .

CONSIDERATIONS FOR BIOCONTROL I N H A W A I I A N WPS AREAS

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e major i n t e r a c t i n g f a c t o r s which a g g r a v a t e t h e problem o r c o m p l i c a t e c o n t r o l e f f o r t s s h o u l d p r e f a c e any d i s c u s s i o n on c o n t r o l o f H a w a i i ' s e x o t i c p l a n t s . The o b v i o u s u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e o f e x o t i c p l a n t i n v a s i o n i s t h e d i r e c t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e s p e c i e s i n t o Hawaii by modern ( s i n c e 1 7 7 8 ) human a c t i v i t y . Dur ing t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f Hawaii by American, European , and Asian s e t t l e r s , p l a n t s and a n i m a l s from t h e s e r e g i o n s were f r e e l y i n t r o d u c e d . U n t i l r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y , l i t t l e s e r i o u s r e g a r d was g i v e n t o t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f some o f t h e s e i n t r o d u c t i o n s , which had become f a r more a g g r e s s i v e i n t h e i r new h a b i t a t , due l a r g e l y t o t h e a b s e n c e of t h e i r n a t u r a l enemies . Al though t h e s t a t e now e n f o r c e s i m p o r t a t i o n p o l i c i e s e n a c t e d t o a d d r e s s t h i s p rob lem, u n a u t h o r i z e d e x o t i c s p e c i e s a r e undoub ted ly s t i l l a r r i v i n g and becoming e s t a b l i s h e d i n Hawai i .

An i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y r e s u l t o f e x o t i c i n t r o d u c t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e d i s p e r s a l o f e x o t i c p l a n t s by e x o t i c a n i m a l s . Mammals s u c h a s f e r a l g o a t s and p i g s ( t h e European w i l d b o a r ) q u i c k l y became a d a p t e d t o Hawaiian h a b i t a t s and i n c r e a s e d p r o l i f i c a l l y , a l s o i n t h e a b s e n c e o f n a t u r a l enemies . The s u c c u l e n t f r u i t s o f banana poka and s t r a w b e r r y guava f o r example , a r e f a v o r i t e f o o d s o f f e r a l p i g s . The s e e d s p a s s unharmed t h r o u g h t h e d i g e s t i v e t r a c t s o f t h e s e a n i m a l s and become w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d a s t h e a n i m a l s t r a v e l a b o u t ( 4 5 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o s e e d d i s p e r s a l , r o o t i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f p i g s t h o r o u g h l y d i s t u r b l a r g e t r a c t s o f n a t i v e p l a n t h a b i t a t , o f t e n i n r emote a r e a s o f r a i n f o r e s t s . T h i s d i s t u r b a n c e e n a b l e s and e n c o u r a g e s t h e i n v a s i o n o f e x o t i c p l a n t s which may n o t o t h e r w i s e b e c a p a b l e o f becoming e s t a b l i s h e d i n these a r e a s . Thus , e f f e c t i v e e x o t i c mammal c o n t r o l a p p e a r s t o b e a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o n t r o l o f some o f t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t e x o t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s .

L i k e w i s e , i n t r o d u c e d b i r d s , i n c l u d i n g t h e J a p a n e s e w h i t e - e y e and t h e common mynah, a r e s u s p e c t e d t o a i d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e s p r e a d o f e x o t i c p l a n t s , s u c h a s f i r e t r e e , which p r o d u c e s e e d s i n s u c c u l e n t b e r r i e s . The e x t e n s i v e , u n i f o r m d i s p e r s a l o f f i r e t r e e t h r o u g h o u t much o f t h e remote r e g i o n o f HAVO i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c o u n t f o r i n t h e a b s e n c e o f s u c h a d i s p e r s a l mechanism. S t u d i e s a r e c u r r e n t l y underway t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f e e d i n g a c t i v i t i e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s o f n o n n a t i v e b i r d s t o p a s s e x o t i c p l a n t s e e d s t h r o u g h t h e d i g e s t i v e t r a c t ( n a t i v e b i r d s a p p e a r l e s s l i k e l y t o b e major d i s p e r s i n g a g e n t s o f e x o t i c p l a n t s ) . Knowledge o f s u c h d i s p e r s a l mechanisms may f u r n i s h s u p p l e m e n t a r y a v e n u e s which must b e employed i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h d i r e c t measu res f o r e x o t i c p l a n t c o n t r o l p rograms t o b e s u c c e s s f u l .

B i o c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s f o r e x o t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s s u c h a s t h o s e l i s t e d above which c a n n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h c u r r e n t mechan ica l o r h e r b i c i d a l means may b e c o n s i d e r e d . The u s e o f p l a n t p a t h o g e n s o r p r e d a c e o u s i n s e c t s a s b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s , w h i l e u s u a l l y n o t c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e t a r g e t p l a n t s p e c i e s , may e f f e c t i v e l y s t r e s s t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t l o s e s i t s

a g g r e s s i v e n e s s and becomes manageable . Once e s t a b l i s h e d , b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s may d i s t r i b u t e t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r a n g e o f t h e h o s t s p e c i e s , r e d u c i n g o r e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e e f f o r t r e q u i r e d f o r h e r b i c i d a l t r e a t m e n t o r mechan ica l removal . E f f e c t i v e b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s may b e e x p e c t e d t o become a permanent p a r t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , e x e r t i n g t h e i r i n f l u e n c e i n d e f i n i t e l y .

F a c t o r s which c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f b i o c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s must b e c o n s i d e r e d c a r e f u l l y s i n c e t h e y may a l s o be r e g a r d e d a s n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s . Thus , b i o c o n t r o l o f t e n h a s t h e a s p e c t o f a "double-edged sword. I' B i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s may e f f e c t i v e l y d i s t r i b u t e t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l r a n g e and become p e r m a n e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d . P o l i t i c a l b a r r i e r s , s u c h a s t h o s e d e l i m i t i n g a NPS a r e a , a r e o f no consequence i n r e s t r i c t i n g t h e r a n g e o f s u c h a g e n t s . Whereas h e r b i c i d a l t r e a t m e n t o r m e c h a n i c a l removal p r a c t i c e s may b e c o n f i n e d t o s p e c i f i e d a r e a s , w i t h no e f f e c t on o t h e r r e g i o n s , a p a t h o g e n o r i n s e c t r e l e a s e d i n a NPS a r e a mus t b e e x p e c t e d t o s p r e a d f r e e l y t o a l l a r e a s where s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t i s found . The v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t s o f t h e community a t l a r g e must t h e r e f o r e be f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d , and b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s need t o b e t e s t e d s o t h a t any r e l e a s e d o r g a n i s m s w i l l n o t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t n a t i v e s p e c i e s , o r b e u n c o n t r o l l a b l e a g a i n s t e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t p l a n t s .

R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p r e c a u t i o n s t a k e n i n any b i o c o n t r o l program t o s c r e e n p o t e n t i a l a g e n t s f o r p a t h o g e n i c i t y o r f e e d i n g on n o n t a r g e t p l a n t s p r i o r t o r e l e a s e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y s t i l l e x i s t s t h a t s u c h a n a g e n t w i l l be r e l e a s e d which w i l l , i n f a c t , a t t a c k o n e o r more n a t i v e p l a n t s . T h i s i s d u e t o i n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s i n p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . P r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d i c t a t e t h a t n a t i v e p l a n t s s e l e c t e d f o r t e s t i n g be t h o s e mos t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e known h o s t s o f t h e c a n d i d a t e b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t o r t h o s e o f g r e a t e s t economic v a l u e . The mos t l i k e l y p o t e n t i a l h o s t s a r e t h e r e f o r e e v a l u a t e d ; however , s c r e e n i n g o f a l l n a t i v e o r e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t p l a n t s would n o t b e p o s s i b l e .

Space l i m i t a t i o n s i n e n c l o s e d g rowth f a c i l i t i e s f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t t e s t i n g t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s e e d l i n g s o r young p l a n t s and may e x c l u d e m a t u r e f o r m s , e s p e c i a l l y o f s h r u b s o r t r e e s , whose s e n s i t i v i t y t o a t t a c k by a b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t may c h a n g e w i t h a g e . S u b t l e e f f e c t s on t h e p h y s i o l o g y o f e i t h e r t h e t e s t p l a n t s o r t h e c o n t r o l o r g a n i s m s r e s u l t i n g from t h e f a i l u r e o f a r t i f i c i a l g rowth c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h a s l i g h t i n g and t e m p e r a t u r e , t o e x a c t l y d u p l i c a t e t h o s e o f t h e o u t s i d e e n v i r o n m e n t , may l e a 5 t o i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t e e d i n g o r p a t h o g e n i c i t y would n o t o c c u r i n n a t u r e when, i n f a c t , i t would.

The r e v e r s e s i t u a t i o n may a l s o be t r u e i n which t h e a r t i f i c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n f i n e m e n t may u n n a t u r a l l y f a v o r t h e c a n d i d a t e c o n t r o l o rgan i sm o r d i s f a v o r t h e h o s t and t h e r e b y i n d i c a t e v i r u l e n c e which would n o t o c c u r i n n a t u r e .

Personnel concerned w i t h c u l t u r e of p l a n t s i n greenhouses a r e commonly aware of p a r t i c u l a r d i s e a s e , i n s e c t , o r mi te problems which a r e s e r i o u s e i t h e r i n s i d e o r o u t s i d e of greenhouses bu t a r e no t s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e o p p o s i t e s i t u s t i o n . A s an i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e r u s t fungus Puccinias t rum e p i l o b i i O t t h . was f i r s t r epo r t ed by t h e s e n i o r au thor t o be p r e s e n t i n ~ a w a i i , where i t a t t a c k e d l e a v e s of Fuchsia b d a Hort . e x ~ i l m . , causing d e f o l i a t i o n ( 6 0 ) .

In an e f f o r t t o e v a l u a t e t h i s r u s t a s a p o s s i b l e b i o c o n t r o l agen t f o r F. maqe l l an i ca , a s p e c i e s which occu r s a s an e x o t i c i n HAVO, i t waa found t h a t p l a n t s of F. magel lanica grown from c u t t i n g s i n t h e HAVO greenhouse could be s u c c e s s f u l l y i n f e c t e d through a r t i f i c i a l i n o c u l a t i o n methods. However, i n o c u l a t i o n of p l a n t s of t h e same s p e c i e s i n a nearby o u t s i d e l o c a t i o n d i d no t r e s u l t i n i n f e c t i o n ( unpublished r e s u l t s , D G ) . Thus, a l though p re l imina ry s c r een ing i n an enc losed f a c i l i t y i s neces sa ry t o determine i n d i c a t i o n s of p a t h o g e n i c i t y o r f eed ing , i t does n o t p rov ide a b s o l u t e a s su rance of t h e h o s t l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e a g e n t s i n ques t i on .

Furthermore, s i n c e most organisms imported i n t o ~ a w a i i f o r b i o c o n t r o l purposes would themselves be e x o t i c , t h i s approach t o e x o t i c p l a n t c o n t r o l may pose t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i ncons i s t ency w i t h NPS p o l i c y of r e p l a c i n g one e x o t i c s p e c i e s by a n o t h e r , o r providing a second e x o t i c organism where on ly one was o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t . According t o t h e v iewpoin t of some i n v e s t i g a t o r s , " b i o l o g i c a l p o l l u t i o n " has r e s u l t e d from p a s t a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l p e s t s i n Hawaii through t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of numerous, l e s s h o s t s p e c i f i c i n s e c t s p e c i e s . Not on ly a r e t h e s e i n s e c t s cons idered t o have been i n e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g p a r t i c u l a r t a r g e t p e s t s , they have themselves become e s t a b l i s h e d a s permanent components of t he i s l a n d fauna ( 8 3 ) . In i t s b i o c o n t r o l programs, t h e H S D A i s no t a f f e c t e d by t h e dilemma of i n t r o d u c t i o n of e x o t i c organisms t o c o n t r o l e x o t i c p l a n t s t o t h e same e x t e n t a s i s t h e NPS due t o t h e d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s between t h e two o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The H S D A i s p r i n c i p a l l y o r i e n t e d toward improving c rop p roduc t ion , w i t h l e s s regard f o r t h e e x o t i c n a t u r e o f organisms in t roduced f o r t h i s purpose.

Because of t h e d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s between t h e NPS and v a r i o u s o t h e r i n t e r e s t s i n Hawaii concerning t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o r u n d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s p e c i e s , when t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of s u c c e s s f u l b i o c o n t r o l of a g iven e x o t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s i s cons ide red , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l p r i o r i t i e s and i n t e r a c t i o n s a s wel l a s t h e s t r i c t l y b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s of t h e problem must be taken i n t o account . I n g e n e r a l , t h e g r e a t e r t h e economic o r a e s t h e t i c va lue o f a p l a n t s p e c i e s , o r t h e more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i t is t o p l a n t s of such v a l u e , t h e more in format ion has been accumulated concerning t h e d i s e a s e s o r i n s e c t s t h a t a t t a c k them. An inve r se r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e r e f o r e e x i s t s between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l " a r s e n a l " of i n s e c t s and d i s e a s e s a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n b i o c o n t r o l programs from a s t r i c t l y s c i e n t i f i c s t a n d p o i n t and t h e a c t u a l f e a s i b i l i t y of t h e s e p r o s p e c t s a s viewed from a s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n .

Such pa thogen o r i n s e c t / h o s t r e l a t i o n s h i p s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been s t u d i e d from a s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e h o s t p l a n t r a t h e r t h a n from one o f c o n t r o l l i n g i t s s p r e a d . Thus , t h e p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p a t h o g e n s o r phy tophagous i n s e c t a c t i v i t i e s i n b i o c o n t r o l p rograms i s f r e q u e n t l y n o t r e p o r t e d a s s u c h i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e where emphas i s i s p l a c e d on c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i s e a s e o r i n s e c t i t s e l f f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e h o s t .

A s i n d i c a t e d above , c u r r e n t s t a t e l a w p r o v i d e s t h e H S D A w i t h a u t h o r i t y t o s e t and e n f o r c e a l l p l a n t o r a n i m a l q u a r a n t i n e r e g u l a t i o n s and t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e p r o c e s s whereby any l i v i n g n o n n a t i v e p l a n t , a n i m a l o r mic roo rgan i sm may b e impor t ed i n t o t h e s t a t e ( 7 4 , 7 6 ) . The p r e s e n t l y s t r u c t u r e d r e v i e w s y s t e m i n c l u d e s a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e s and subcommi t t ee s , compr i sed o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f v a r i o u s i m p o r t a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s , s u c h a s t h e Hawaii Sugar P l a n t e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , and t h o s e knowledgeable i n o t h e r a r e a s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n . These e x p e r t s and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r e r e q u e s t e d t o r e v i e w f o r m a l l y p r e p a r e d p r o p o s a l s f o r t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f a l l b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l , i n c l u d i n g p r o s p e c t i v e b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s . The HSDA t h e n o f f i c i a l l y a p p r o v e s o r d i s a p p r o v e s i m p o r t a t i o n i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s and p r o v i s i o n s s p e c i f i e d by t h e v a r i o u s r e v i e w p a n e l s . The r e v i e w p r o c e s s t y p i c a l l y r e q u i r e s s e v e r a l months , depend ing on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l r e v i e w e r s and t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i m p o r t a t i o n r e q u e s t .

SPECIFIC EXOTIC PLANTS FOR W H I C H BETTER CONTROL I S DESIRED I N H A W A I I VOLCANOES AND HALEAKALA NATIONAL PARKS

The HAVO R e s o u r c e s Management P l a n ( R M P ) c u r r e n t l y i n e f f e c t ( 1 9 8 1 u p d a t e ) l i s t s t h e e x o t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s which a r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d p o s s i b l e , o r would be i m p r a c t i c a l , t o c o n t r o l e n t i r e l y by m e c h a n i c a l o r c h e m i c a l methods now a v a i l a b l e . T h e s e , a s w e l l a s o t h e r s p e c i e s n o t i n t h i s c a t e g o r y on t h e RMP b u t which may a l s o be i n c l u d e d , and t h o s e o c c u r r i n g a s p rob lems i n HALE, a r e a s f o l l o w s :

A f r i c a n t u l i p ( w t h o d e a c a m p a n u l a t a - Beauv. )

Banana poka ( P a s s i f l o r a m o l l i s s i r n a ( H B K . ) B a i l e y ) --- Bearded b u n c h g r a s s (Andropogon g l o m e r a t u s ( W a l t . ) BSP. ) ----

Broomsedge (Andropoqon virginicus L. ) --

C h r i s t m a s b e r r y , B r a z i l i a n h o l l y , o r B r a z i l i a n p e p p e r t r e e S c h i n u s t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s R a d d i ) (--_- -

Common guava ( P s i d i u m z u a j a v a L. ) -- F i r e t r e e , f i r e b u s h , f a y a t r e e ( ~ y r i c a f a y a ~ i t . )

F o u n t a i n g r a s s ( P e n n i s e t u m se t aceum ( F o r s k . ) C h i o v . ) --- G i a n t bamboo (Dendroca lamus - g i g a n t e u s Munro)

n o t e : A l though t h i s i s t h o u g h t t o be t h e c o r r e c t s p e c i f i c e p i t h e t , i t c a n o n l y b e v e r i f i e d when t h e p l a n t s f l o w e r , which may o c c u r on a c y c l e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y L O O y e a r s .

G inge r (Hedychium spp . )

Glory-bush ( T i b o u c h i n a u r v i l l e a n a (DC) Cogn.)

Gorse ( U l e x e u r o p a e u s L . )

J a v a plum ( E u q e n i a cumin i ( L . ) Druce )

K i k u y u g r a s s ( P e n n i s e t u m - c l a n d e s t i n u m Hochs t . e x Ch iov . )

Koa-haole , h a o l e k o a , o r e ' k o a (Leucaena l e u c o c e p h a l a (Lam.) d e W i t ; synonym: L. q l a u c a (c) B e n t h . ) -

K o s t e r ' s c u r s e ( C l i d e m i a --- h i r t a ( L . ) D. Don)

Malabar melas tome (Melas toma m a l a b a t h r i c u m L . ) --

Meadow r i c e g r a s s ( M i c r o l a e n a s t i p o i d e s ( L a b i l l . ) R . Br . )

M o l a s s e s g r a s s ( M e l i n i s m i n u t i f l o r a Beauv.)

N a t a l r e d t o p g r a s s (Rhynchely t rum r e p e n s ( W i l l d . ) C . E . )

S h o e b u t t o n a r d i s i a ( A r d i s i a h u m i l i s V a h l ) - S t r a w b e r r y guava ( P s i d i u m c a t t l e i a n u m S a b i n e )

Wild b l a c k b e r r y (Rubus p e n e t r a n s B a i l e y )

Wild r a s p b e r r y (Rubus e l l i p t i c u s Sm.) -- Wild r a s p b e r r y (Rubus -- g l a u c u s B e n t h . )

O t h e r e x o t i c s p e c i e s s u c h a s l a n t a n a , Hamakua pamakani , and Maui pamakani a r e p e s t s i n Hawaiian NPS a r e a s b u t a r e n o t l i s t e d above s i n c e t h e b i o c o n t r o l p rograms d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r c o n d u c t e d by t h e HSDA and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii have a l r e a d y been implemented and a r e c o n s i d e r e d s u c c e s s f u l , o r a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y s o , by some i n v e s t i g a t o r s .

S i n c e t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h i s r e p o r t i s t o d i s c u s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s , l i m i t a t i o n s , and o t h e r a s p e c t s o f b i o c o n t r o l f rom a s c i e r i t i f i c p e r s p e c t i v e , p a t h o g e n s and phy tophagous i n s e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a b o v e - l i s t e d n o n n a t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s i n Hawaii f o r which i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a r e d i s c u s s e d below. However, a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s and o t h e r a n t i c i p a t e d s o c i o p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s d i c t a t e t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer o f t h e s e s p e c i e s may a c t u a l l y b e a c c e p t a b l e f o r b i o c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s i n a p r a c t i c a l s e n s e , a t l e a s t i n t h e f o r s e e a b l e f u t u r e . Thus , t h e p l a n t s l i s t e d above may b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s :

1. S p e c i e s which a r e u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s n o x i o u s i n Hawaii and f o r which b i o c o n t r o l would p r o b a b l y c r e a t e no s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s .

F i r e t r e e F o u n t a i n g r a s s Gorse K o s t e r ' s c u r s e M o l a s s e s g r a s s N a t a l r e d t o p g r a s s

2 . S p e c i e s which a r e u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s n o x i o u s , b u t a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o o t h e r s p e c i e s o f economic o r o t h e r i m p o r t a n c e ( i n c l u d i n g n a t i v e t a x a ) and t h e r e f o r e would r e q u i r e h i g h l y s p e c i f i c c o n t r o l a g e n t s .

Banana poka Bearded b u n c h g r a s s Br oomsedge Wild b l a c k b e r r y Wild r a s p b e r r y ( R . e l l i p t i c u s ) Wild r a s p b e r r y (R. - z a u c u s )

3 . S p e c i e s which a r e r e c o g n i z e d a s n o x i o u s i n l o c a l a r e a s b u t a r e c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t t o o t h e r i n t e r e s t s e l s e w h e r e i n Hawaii .

A f r i c a n t u l i p Bamboo Common guava Chr i s t rnas b e r r y Ginge r K i k u y u g r a s s Koa-haole S t r a w b e r r y guava

The s t a t u s o f o t h e r s p e c i e s i s u n c e r t a i n and n o t p o s s i b l e t o c l e a r l y c a t e g o r i z e .

Banana poka.--The u s e o f l a r v a e o f one o r more s p e c i e s of h e l i c o n i d b u t t e r f l y f rom Sou th America h a s been d i s c u s s e d i n f o r m a l l y f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s i n banana poka c o n t r o l e f f o r t s , a l t h o u g h a n a c t i v e program h a s n e v e r been u n d e r t a k e n . A number of y e a r s a g o , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e was a l s o exchanged be tween t h e P a c i f i c Sou thwes t R e g i o n a l O f f i c e o f t h e U . S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e and D r . L. E . G i l b e r t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas a t ust tin, a n e x p e r t i n t h i s g r o u p o f i n s e c t s . D r . G i l b e r t and h i s a s s o c i a t e s ( 1 9 3 ) were ( a n d c o n t i n u e t o b e ) o p t i m i s t i c i n t h e i r o p i n i o n t h a t o n e o r more s p e c i e s o f t h e s e b u t t e r f l i e s c o u l d p r o v i d e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r o l o f banana poka i n Hawaiian f o r e s t s w i t h l i t t l e p r o b a b l e damage t o p a s s i o n f r u i t ( P . e d u l i s f . f l a v i c a r p a ~ e g e n e r ) . He, w i t h h i s s t u d e n t s and a s s o c i a t e s , e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e t o p u r s u e s u c h a s t u d y and s u b m i t t e d a p r o j e c t p r o p o s a l i n c l u d i n g a t e n t a t i v e b u d g e t f o r t h i s work.

I n t e r e s t i n t h i s p r o j e c t a p p e a r e d l a t e r t o have b e e n d ropped by t h e F o r e s t S e r v i c e , p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e l a c k o f s u f f i c i e n t s u p p o r t f u n d i n g . HSDA o f f i c i a l s ( p e r s o n a l communica t ion , D G ) a r e aware o f t h i s e f f o r t a s w e l l a s o f o t h e r i n s e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h P a s s i f l o r a s p p . They have e x p r e s s e d t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o s u p e r v i s e q u a r a n t i n e t e s t i n g and t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h i n t e r e s t e d f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s , t h e U . S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e and t h e NPS i n p a r t i c u l a r , i f f u n d i n g c o u l d be made a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e . Some f u n d s were p r o v i d e d t o t h e S t a t e ~ i v i s i o n o f Land and N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s (DLNR) by t h e 1981 l e g i s l a t u r e , and D r . R o b e r t Pember ton , a n e x p l o r a t o r y e n t o m o l o g i s t w i t h t h e U . S . Depar tment o f A g r i c u l t u r e , was c o n t r a c t e d t o s e a r c h f o r b e n e f i c i a l i n s e c t s i n P e r u and Colombia. The r e s u l t s o f h i s e x p e d i t i o n , c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g of 1982 , have n o t y e t been f u l l y e v a l u a t e d .

V a l e r o and V i a n a r e p o r t e d c h l o r o t i c s p o t t i n g o f P. m o l l i s s i m a c a u s e d by a s p e c i e s o f t h e c i c a d e l l i d i n s e c t Empoasca ( 1 8 9 ) . Few a p p a r e n t l y h i g h l y v i r u l e n t d i s e a s e s a r e known t o o c c u r on banana p s k a ; however , t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s e a s e s have been r e p o r t e d : A s t em and l e a f s p o t c a u s e d by C o l l e t o t r i c h u m - Q e o s p o r i o i d e s Penz . ( 1 8 5 ) , and C. p a s s i f l o r a e S t e v e n s & Young, which was o r i g i n a l l y r e p o r t e d f r o m - ~ a w a i i and c a u s e s a n t h r a c n o s e on l e a v e s and f r u i t ( 1 7 1 ) . C u r r e n t o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t

t h i s d i s e a s e i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e , however , i n a r e a s where i t h a s been found . O the r P a s s i f l o r a s p e c i e s , a s w e l l a s P. m o l l i s s i m a , a r e a t t a c k e d by t h e r u s t -- P u c c i n i a s c l e r i a e ( P a z s c h k e ) A r t h . T h i s r u s t r e p o r t e d l y r e q u i r e s a n a l t e r n a t e h o s t , however , a n u t - r u s h ( S c l e r i a s p p . ) t o c o m p l e t e i t s l i f e c y c l e ( 1 8 5 ) and would a p p e a r i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n n o t t o be p r a c t i c a l a s a b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s i n c e t h e r e p e a t i n g s t a g e o c c u r s on t h e a l t e r n a t e h o s t .

Numerous r e p o r t s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f d i s e a s e s and i n s e c t s o f t h e e d i b l e P a s s i f l o r a s p e c i e s ( 6 , 11, 20, 2 6 , 55 , 8 5 , 97 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 7 , 1 3 2 , 134 , 1 3 7 , 142 , 156 , 170 , 172 , 1 8 3 ) , o r o t h e r s p e c i e s ( 9 7 , 125 , 1 7 0 ) . These a r e l i s t e d b u t a r e n o t d i s c u s s e d i n d i v i d u a l l y h e r e , s i n c e t h e h o s t r a n g e s and e f f e c t s o n P . m o l l i s s i m a i t s e l f r ema in t o be a s c e r t a i n e d f o r mos t , i f n o t a l l , o f t h e s e o r g a n i s m s . However, p a r t i c u l a r m e n t i o n s h o u l d be made o f a r e c e n t r e p o r t by Hiam ( 7 9 ) which r e f e r s t o and i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p a s s i o n f r u i t b u t t e r f l i e s H e l i c o n i u s melpomene and H . e r a t o , which a r e m i i l e r i a n mimics and which a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y r e j e c t e d by b i r d s . Ment ion s h o u l d a l s o b e made o f a s e r i o u s v a s c u l a r w i l t d i s e a s e o f 2. e d u l i s r e p o r t e d from A u s t r a l i a and N e w Z e a l a n d , w i t h a n a s s o c i a t e d c o l l a r o r crown r o t , c a u s e d by Fusar ium oxysporum f . p a s s i f l o r a e Gordon apud P u r s s ( 7 , 6 5 , 110; 1 1 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 ) . Fusa r ium w i l t d i s e a s e s a r e w e l l known among r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h i s f i e l d t o b e h i g h l y v i r u l e n t a s w e l l a s u s u a l l y q u i t e h o s t s p e c i f i c . , 5 u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f P. m o l l i s s i m a t o t h i s d i s e a s e c a n n o t be p r e d i c t e d on t h e b a s i s oT r e p o r t s from o t h e r h o s t s p e c i e s and would r e q u i r e a c t u a l t e s t i n g .

A c i r c u l a r w r i t t e n f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n growing o r m a i n t a i n i n g p a s s i o n f r u i t i n Hawaii d e s c r i b e s a number o f p e s t s o f t h i s p l a n t and recommends c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s ( 1 1 9 ) . However, none o f t h e s e o c c u r r i n g l o c a l l y h a s y e t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e a b i l i t y t o a t t a c k and s i g n i f i c a n t l y l i m i t t h e g r o w t h o r s p r e a d of banana poka .

The a t t a c k o f - P . f o e t i d a L . by H a p l o s p o r e l l a +---- a s s i f l o r i d i a Pande and t h e v i r u s d i s e a s e o f t h i s s p e c i e s r e p o r t e by Pande ( 1 2 5 ) and Legga t and T e a k l e ( 9 7 ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s i n c e t h i s h o s t a l s o o c c u r s i n Hawaiian NPS a r e a s a s a n u n d e s i r a b l e e x o t i c p l a n t , a 1 though o f l e s s c u r r e n t i m p o r t a n c e a s a t h r e a t t o n a t i v e e c o s y s t e m s t h a n i s P. r n o l l i s s i m a .

F i r e t r e e , - - A f u n g u s d i s e a s e o f Myr ica f a y a was o b s e r v e d i n t h e 1950s by an e x p l o r a t o r y e n t o m o l o g i s t from Hawa i i , Mr. Fred B i a n c h i , d u r i n g an e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e n a t i v e h a b i t a t o f M . f a y a ( t h e A z o r e s , Made i r a , and t h e Canary I s l a n d s ) c o n d u c t e d to l o c a t e p o t e n t i a l b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s f o r t h i s p l a n t . The d i s e a s e appea red i n f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s t o b e c a u s i n g s e v e r e d i e b a c k among e n t i r e s t a n d s o f E i r e t r e e and was c o n s i d e r e d an i d e a l c a n d i d a t e b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t f o r f i r e t r e e i n Hawaii ( F . B i a n c h i , p e r s o n a l communica t ion , DG; 1 7 ) . The f u n g u s was l a t e r i d e n t i f i e d by p l a n t p a t h o l o g i s t s i n P o r t u g a l a s D o t h i o r e l l a b e r e n ~ e r i a n a S a c c . (N. F. S. Azevedo, p e r s o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , D G ; 9 , 148).- A t t e m p t s a t

t h a t t i m e t o i n t r o d u c e t h e f u n g u s i n t o Hawaii were n o t s u c c e s s f u l due t o i n d i c a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from t e s t i n g i n P o r t u g a l t h a t t h e f u n g u s would a l s o a t t a c k c e r t a i n e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t p l a n t s , a 1 though s u c h a t t a c k s on s i m i l a r p l a n t s under t h e n a t u r a 1 c o n d i t i o n s o f i t s n a t i v e h a b i t a t had n e v e r been o b s e r v e d by t h e l o c a l r e s i d e n t s , a s d e t e r m i n e d by Mr. B i a n c h i .

Krauss ( 9 4 ) summar i z e d a d e q u a t e l y t h e e a r l i e r r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t s by h i m s e l f and o t h e r e n t o m o l o g i s t s t o l o c a t e i n s e c t s i n t h e n a t i v e r e g i o n s o f f i r e t r e e , and a l s o t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o u t h e r n waxmyr t l e ( M e c e r i f e r a L . ) ( n a t i v e t o t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U . S . ) , which may have p r o v e n p r o m i s i n g a s b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s f o r M. f a y a and t o i n t r o d u c e them i n t o Hawaii . S o u t h e r n waxmyr t le i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o f i r e t r e e and a l s o o c c u r s as a n e x o t i c p l a n t i n Hawa i i , a l t h o u g h t h i s s p e c i e s a p p e a r s n o t t o be a g g r e s s i v e and d o e s n o t p o s e a t h r e a t t o n a t i v e e c o s y s t e m s . S e v e r a l s u c h c o l l e c t i o n s o f i n s e c t s r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s s p e c i e s were made b u t t h e s e c o u l d n o t b e p r o p a g a t e d s u c c e s s f u l P y o r t h e y o t h e r w i s e p roved i n e f f e c t u a l i n c o n t r o l l i n g f i r e t r e e i n Hawai i . K r a u s s ( 9 4 ) a l s o d i s c u s s e d p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i and o t h e r o r g a n i s m s r e p o r t e d on Myrica s p p . , b u t no a t t e m p t was made t o e v a l u a t e t h e s e a s p o t e n t i a l b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s i n Hawai i .

Rueh le ( 1 5 0 , 1 5 1 ) r e p o r t e d a n a l g a l l e a f s p o t on 5. f a y a i n F l o r i d a . T h i s d i s e a s e was p re sumab ly c a u s e d by t h e same, o r a s i m i l a r a l g a l s p e c i e s t o t h e one a l r e a d y o c c u r r i n g i n Hawa i i , where i t c a u s e s l e a f s p o t s on common g u a v a and o t h e r p l a n t s . No e f f e c t on f i r e t r e e i n Hawaii h a s been n o t e d , however , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h i s d i s e a s e may b e o f l i t t l e o r no i m p o r t a n c e on t h i s h o s t s p e c i e s l o c a l l y unde r normal e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s .

D i s e a s e s r e p o r t e d on o t h e r Myr ica s p e c i e s b u t which have n o t been t e s t e d f o r p a t h o g e n i c i t y on 3. f a y a i n c l u d e t h e r u s t s Symnosporangium myr ica tum Fromme ( 5 0 ) , - G . e l l i s i i ( B e r k . ) E l l . ( 5 3 ) , C r o n a r t i u m compton iae A r t h u r ( 1 6 9 ) , and o t h e r s t h a t form w i t c h e s ' brooms on t h e p r i m a r y h o s t s ( 4 8 , 4 9 ) . A wood-decaying f u n g u s , P t y c h o q a s t e r c u b e n s i s P a t . , h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d on l i v i n g s t e m s o f s o u t h e r n waxmyr t le ( 2 8 ) . O the r r e p o r t s i n c l u d e C y t o s p o r a umbrina (Bon . ) S ~ C . on Myrica s p e c i e s i n R u s s i a ( 6 7 ) , and Lophiostoma d e s m a z i e r i i S a c c . e t Speg. a s a new s p e c i e s on - M . f a y a i n P o r t u g a l ( 1 0 1 ) .

Broomsedge and b e a r d e d bunchgrass . - -Andropogon - s p p . , p a r t i c u l a r l y A. v i r g i n i c u s , is r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( 2 7 , 1 8 5 ) t o b e p a r a s i t i z e d , m a i n l y i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U . S. where i t i s n a t i v e , by s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f r u s t and smut f u n g i : P u c c i n i a a n d r o p o q o n i s Schw., P. e l l i s i a n a Thuem., and Urornyces a n d r o p o q o n i s T r a c y ( c a u s e l e a f r u s t s ) , So rospor ium e l l i s i i Wint. - - -- ( h e a d s m u t ) , S. e v e r h a r t i i E l l . & G a l l . ( s e e d s m u t ) , S p h a c e l o t h e c a seymour iana C l i n t . and S p h a c e l o t h e c a o c c i d e n t a l i s (Seym.) C l i n t . ( h e a d o r s e e d s m u t ) , and U s t i l a g o s t r i i f o r m i s ( W e s t . ) N i e s s l ( s t r i p e s m u t ) . The r u s t f u n g u s Uredo a n d r o p o g o n i s ~ q a y a n i Eboh h a s been r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d t o a t t a c k A . gayanu2 Kunth i n N i g e r i a ( 5 2 ) . The mos t common r u s t f u n g J s

a t t a c k i n g A. q a y a n u s and A. t e c t o r u m Schum. & Thorn. i n N i g e r i a is r e p o r t e d t o b e ~ u c z n i a g r o p h i l a H. Syd. ( 2 7 , 5 2 ) . I t s e f f e c t s on e i t h e r o f t h e two e x o t i c Andropogon s p e c i e s i n Hawaii r ema in t o b e a s c e r t a i n e d .

Both t h e r u s t and smut g r o u p s o f f u n g i i n c l u d e some o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t and d e s t r u c t i v e p l a n t p a t h o g e n s known. The r u s t s and most o f t h e smut s a r e o b l i g a t e p a r a s i t e s ; t h a t is , t h e y w i l l grow o n l y on l i v i n g h o s t p l a n t t i s s u e and c a n n o t b e c u l t u r e d on a r t i f i c i a l media . ~ l t h o u g h t h i s may b e r e g a r d e d a s a d i s a d v a n t a g e i n p rog rams where i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o c u l t u r e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f inoculum f o r w i d e s p r e a d d i s p e r s a l or mass i n o c u l a t i o n , b o t h g r o u p s o f f u n g i , b u t t h e r u s t s i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t e d f o r t h e i r na r row h o s t r a n g e s . The smut U . s t r i i f o r m i s i s known t o a t t a c k a number o f g r a s s s p e c i e s and t o b e q u i t e n o n s p e c i f i c i n i t s h o s t r a n g e , however .

Another f a c t o r t h a t mus t b e c o n s i d e r e d among h e t e r o e c i o u s r u s t f u n g i i s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a n a l t e r n a t e h o s t s p e c i e s f o r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e l i f e c y c l e . I t i s f o r t u n a t e t h a t i n mos t i n c i d e n c e s t h e u r e d i n i a l , o r r e p e a t i n g s t a g e , o c c u r s on t h e Andropuqon h o s t . I n r e g i o n s w i t h m i l d c l i m a t e s , s u c h a s Hawai i , t h i s s t a g e may p o t e n t i a l l y c a u s e r e p e a t e d i n f e c t i o n s i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e a l t e r n a t e h o s t . The l e a f s p o t f u n g u s S e p t o r i a a n d r o p o g o n i s J. J . Dav i s h a s a l s o been r e p o r t e d t o a t t a c k members o f t h e g e n u s Andropogon ( 1 8 5 ) .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e f u n g i , a w h i t e g r u b ( b e e t l e l a r v a ) h a s been o b s e r v e d f e e d i n g on t h e r o o t s o f A. -- b i c o r n i s L. i n Colombia and a p p e a r s t o c o n t r o l t h i s s p e c i e s i n T h a t r e g i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s g r a s s i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t h e problem t h a t i t o t h e r w i s e would b e ( J . M . S p a i n , p e r s o n a l communica t ion , DG; 1 6 8 ) . The g r u b h a s been t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d a s mos t l i k e l y b e l o n g i n g t o t h e f a m i l y S c a r a b a e i d a e , s u b f a m i l y M e l o l o n t h i n a e ; however , t h e s p e c i f i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s s t i l l p e n d i n g .

Al though t h e s c o p e o f t h i s r e p o r t i s b a s i c a l l y l i m i t e d t o c o n t r o l w i t h b i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s , i t may be i n f o r m a t i v e t o n o t e t h a t c u l t u r a l and c h e m i c a l methods o f broomsedge c o n t r o l ( 1 0 0 , 131 , 175 , 1 9 0 ) have a l s o r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n i n s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d p r i m a r i l y i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U. S. where i t o c c u p i e s o l d o r abandoned f i e l d s , o f t e n w i t h poor s o i l . R i c e ( 1 4 6 ) a l s o p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e t h a t a l l e l o p a t h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f broomsedge may be 6 ma jo r f a c t o r i n t h e a b i l i t y o f t h i s g r a s s t o m a i n t a i n a l m o s t p u r e s t a n d s i n o l d f i e l d s .

Guava, s t r a w b e r r y g u a v a , wa iawi , and J a v a plum.--Each o f t h e s e p l a n t s b e l o n g s t o t h e f a m i l y Myr t aceae , which a l s o i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l o t h e r e x o t i c p l a n t s i n Hawaii s u c h a s r o s e a p p l e ( E u g e n i a jambos L . ) , which i s a l s o a problem i n HALE'S Kipahu lu V a l l e y , pape r b a r k t r e e ( M e l a l e u c a l e u c a d e n d r a ( S t i c k m . ) L . ) , b r u s h box ( T r i s t a n i a c o n f e r t a R . B r . ) , and E u c l a y p t u s spp . t o name a few. Some o f t h e l a t t e r s p e c i e s a l s o o c c u r i n NPS a r e a s , a l t h o u g h t h e s e a r e n o t c u r r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d t o p r e s e n t n e a r l y a s s e v e r e a

problem a s d o common and s t r a w b e r r y guava . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e mos t common and c o n s p i c u o u s n a t i v e t r e e s p e c i e s i n f o r e s t s o f b o t h HALE and HAVO, o h i a - l e h u a ( ~ e t r o s i d e r o s c o l l i n a (J. R. & G . F o r e s t . ) Gray s u b s p . polymorpha (Gaud. ) Rock, a l s o b e l o n g s t o t h e f amf l y My r t a c e a e .

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , a s w e l l a s t h e f a c t t h a t e u c a l y p t u s i s an i m p o r t a n t r e f o r e s t a t i o n t r e e i n Hawaii and t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t e x i s t s i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a common g u a v a i n d u s t r y ( 196 ) , would a p p e a r t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t s f o r t h e problem m y r t a c e o u s s p e c i e s . The v a l u e and u s e f u l n e s s o f s t r a w b e r r y guava f r u i t h a s been promoted i n t h e p a s t by h o r t i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s ( 1 5 5 ) , and , a l t h o u g h t h i s t r e e i s n o t a c t u a l l y c u l t i v a t e d f o r i t s f r u i t i n Hawaii t o any major d e g r e e , i t s o c c u r r e n c e i n t h e w i l d is welcomed and encouraged by many l o c a l r e s i d e n t s . his s p e c i e s i s a l s o used f r e q u e n t l y f o r l a n d s c a p i n g . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t a s o n e o f t h e p o i n t s p r e s e n t e d i n f a v o r o f s t r a w b e r r y guava c u l t i v a t i o n , S c h r o e d e r and C o i t s t a t e d : "The re i s no r e c o r d o f a n y d i s e a s e a f f e c t i n g t h i s p l a n t " ( 1 5 5 ) .

As ide from t h e s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f g u a v a , s t r a w b e r r y g u a v a , and J a v a plum c o n t r o l w i t h b i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s , t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e : A p a r a s i t i c a l g a o f t h e g e n u s ~ h a l e u r o s , which commonly c a u s e s l e a f s p o t s i n ~ a w a i i on common guava and o t h e r p l a n t s ( p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , DG; 1 4 1 ) , h a s a l s o been r e p o r t e d on common and s t r a w b e r r y g u a v a , among many o t h e r s p e c i e s , i n F l o r i d a ( 1 0 5 , 1 0 6 , 1 5 1 ) . M a r l a t t and Campbel l ( 1 0 6 ) s t a t e d t h a t t h e d i s e a s e c o u l d s e v e r e l y d i m i n i s h p h o t o s y n t h e t i c l e a f s u r f a c e , and a p p a r e n t l y c o u l d c a u s e p r e m a t u r e d e f o l i a t i o n . I t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s d i s e a s e i n r e d u c i n g t h e v i g o r o f common g u a v a i n Hawaii have e v e r been measured o r c o n s i d e r e d i n a s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y .

Yen ( 2 0 2 ) r e p o r t e d a new d i s e a s e c a u s e d by C ladospor ium ~ s i d i i c o l u m Yen on common g u a v a . B o t r y o s p h a e r i a r i b i s v a r . c h r o m o g ~ , which c a u s e s t w i g d i e b a c k , was r e p o r t e d - on g u a v a , among many o t h e r h o s t s f rom Hawaii ( 1 8 5 ) . Leaf and f r u i t s p o t s o r a n t h r a c n o s e c a u s e d by C e r c o s p o r a p s i Rengel and C o l l e t o t r i c h u m g l o e o s p o r i o i d e s ( w h i c h a r e r e c o g n i z e d a s q u i t e n o n s p e c i f i c p a t h o g e n s ) have a l s o been r e p o r t e d from Hawaii ( 1 8 5 ) . C l i t o c y b e t a b e s c e n s (Scop . ex F r . ) B r e s . , a common r o o t r o t t i n g pa thogen o f many woody p l a n t s , h a s been r e p o r t e d on common guava i n F l o r i d a ( 1 8 5 ) . The r u s t P u c c i n i a i d W i n t . , whose u r e d i n i a l , o r r e p e a t i n g , s t a g e h a s been r e p o r t e d b o t h on s p e c i e s of ~ u q e n i a and Ps id ium i n P u e r t o R ico ( 1 8 5 ) , i s a d i s e a s e o f -- p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n .

Gupta and C h a t r a t h ( 6 6 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e m u t a b i l i t y o f t h e a n t h r a c n o s e f u n g u s C o l l e t o t r i c h u m g l o e o s p o r i o i d e s on g u a v a f r u i t s . T h i s o r g a n i s m was a l s o r e p o r t e d t o a t t a c k P a s s i f l o r a f r u i t , and i s f a m i l i a r t o p l a n t p a t h o l o g i s t s a s t h e a n t h r a c n o s e - c a u s i n g p a t h o g e n o f many s i m i l a r f l e s h y f r u i t s .

Ooka ( 1 2 3 ) and o t h e r a u t h o r s c i t e d by him h a v e r e p o r t e d f r u i t r o t s o f g u a v a i n ~ a w a i i c a u s e d bv v a r i o u s more o r l e s s n o n s p e c i f i c f u n g i - s u c h a s R h i z o p u s s t o l o n i f e r ( F r . ) L i n d . a n d Mucor h i e m a l i s Wehmer., a n d g u a v a f r u i t r o t s c a u s e d by o t h e r f u n g i h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d e l s e w h e r e ( 1 3 6 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 ) . T h e s e a r e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e t o be o f somewhat l e s s p o t e n t i a l v a l u e i n b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t s t h a n i s t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f m a r k e t a b l e f r u i t . However , t h e i r e f f e c t s may c o n c e i v a b l y r e d u c e s e e d p r o d u c t i o n o r v i a b i l i t y i n some i n s t a n c e s .

E n t o m o l o g i s t s i n E g y p t h a v e r e p o r t e d s e v e r a l s c a l e i n s e c t s w h i c h a t t a c k P s i d i u m g u a j a v a ( 5 4 ) . Of t h e were P u l v i n a r k p s i d i i Mask. a n d S a i s s e t i a f l o c c i f e r a W e s t w . and C o c c u s e l o n g a t u s S i g n t h i s p l a n t . Much o f t h e damaqe r e s u l t e d f r o m

s e t t h e m o s t s e r c o f f e a e W l k . . were a l s o f o u n

c o l o n i z a t i o n o f

i o u s

t h e - s o o t y e x u d a t e o f t h e s c a l e i n s e c t s by a b l a c k mold w h i c h i n h i b i t e d p l a n t r e s p i r a t i o n a n d p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p r o c e s s e s . E a c h o f t h e above-named i n s e c t s p e c i e s , a s well as many o t h e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g u a v a , a r e known t o be a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n H a w a i i and a r e c o n s i d e r e d p e s t s o f g u a v a ( J . W. B e a r d s l e y , 2 e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i s n ; D G ) . T h e i r e f f e c t s i n a c t u a l l y l i m i t i n g t h e s p r e a d Q £ g u a v a a r e a p p a r e n t l y m i n i m a l .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t P. p s i d i i was a l s o f o u n d t o a t t a c k S c h i n u s t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s in t h e same way t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r ( 5 4 ) . B e c k e r ( 1 3 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e c a t e r p i l l a r s o f two r e l a t e d l e p i d o p t e r o u s s p e c i e s f e e d o n t h e f o l i a g e o f common g u a v a i n B r a z i l . The p a p e r i n c l u d e d f i g u r e s i n d i c a t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e damage t o t h e l e a v e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e f e e d i n g o f a t l e a s t o n e o f t h e s e s p e c i e s .

F o u n t a i n g r a s s a n d kikuyugrass.--Literature o n p a t h o g e n i c i t y and p r e d a t i o n o f members o f t h e g e n u s P e n n i s e t u m i s v o l u m i n o u s s i n c e i t is a l a r g e g e n u s w i t h many h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m i c c r o p s a s p e a r l m i l l e t , P. t y p h o i d e s (Burm. f . ) S t a p f & C . E . Hubb. ( synonym: P. a m e r i c a n u m ( L . ) K . S c h u m ) , w h i c h i s w i d e l y c u l t i v a t e d i n ~ n d i a , Af r i c a , a n d t h r o u g h o u t o t h e r warmer r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d . A l t h o u g h a n a t t e m p t t o d o c u m e n t c o m p l e t e l y t h e d i s e a s e s and i n s e c t s a t t a c k i n g t h e s e c r o p s would b e i m p r a c t i c a l , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e l i s t o f r e f e r e n c e s may b e i n f o r . n a t i v e ( 3 , 1 9 , 4 3 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 6 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 7 , 1 2 8 , 1 4 5 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 9 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 7 ) . The p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t a t l e a s t som? i n s e c t s o r d i s e a s e s r e c o r d e d o n e c o n o m i c P e n n i s e t u m s p e c i e s u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n may a l s o a t t a c k 19. c l a n d e s t i n u m a n d / o r g. s e t a c e u m . A c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e a r e l i s t e d m e r e l y t o p o i n t o u t c o n j e c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r t h a n t o i m p l y m o r e t h a n i s p r e s e n t l y known a b o u t them. T e s t s o n t h e t a r g e t h o s t p l a n t s may o r may n o t y i e l d p r o m i s i n g r e s u l t s .

K i k u y u g r a s s , a s a p a s t u r e species o f some v a l u e , a n d a l s o as a n o c c a s i o n a l unwanted i n v a d e r o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a s a l s o r e c e i v e d some d i r e c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Wong ( 2 0 1 ) r e p o r t e d a y e l l o w s d i s e a s e o f t h i s g r a s s c a u s e d by a p h y c o m y c e t o u s f u n g u s whose s p e c i f i c i d e n t i t y was u n c e r t a i n . Muchovej ( 1 1 2 ) d e s c r i b e d

a new, r a t h e r s e v e r e l e a f s p o t d i s e a s e of P. c l a n d e s t i n u m caused -- D r e c h s l e r a c o l o r ( M i t r a . ) Subram. & J a i n (synonym: by ---

H e l m i n t h o s o r ium M i t r a . ) i n B r a z i l . ----- I n s e c t s a t t a c k i n g k i k u y u g r a s s i n c l u d e - F r o s a p i a d i s t a n t i i n C o s t a R i c a ( 5 6 ) and t h e common armyworm ( P s e u d a l e t i a c o n v e c t a W a l k . ) , a g e n e r a l g r a s s f e e d e r , i n A u s t r a l i a (57). A r c h i b a l d e t a l . ( 8 ) r e p o r t e d a b e e t l e , He te ronychus a r a t o r , i n k i k u y u g r a s s p a s t u r e s i n New Zealand of s u f f i c i e n t i m p o r t a n c e t h a t e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l i t were j u s t i f i e d . S e v e r a l i n s e c t s o f g e n e r a l h o s t r a n g e s s u c h a s g r a s s webworms, cutworms, and armyworms a r e a l r e a d y known t o be p r e s e n t i n Hawaii on k i k u y u g r a s s and a r e c o n s i d e r e d p e s t s by r a n c h e r s . An armyworm, P s e u d o l e G u n i p u n c t a ( H a w o r t h ) , was a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p e s t o f k i k u y u g r a s s i n Hawaii u n t i l i t was c o n t r o l l e d b i o l o g i c a l l y by A p a n t e l e s m i l i t a r i s (Wal sch . ) , which was i n t r o d u c e d from t h e U. S. ma in l and f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .

A s was n o t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n on Andropoqon, c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s have a l s o been t e s t e d i n s i t u a t i o n s where these g r a s s e s were c o n s i d e r e d u n d e s i r a b l e . S i m i l a r work w i t h k i k u y u g r a s s a p p e a r s t o be o f s u f f i c i e n t i m p o r t a n c e t h a t m e n t i o n of i t may a g a i n be u s e f u l . K i l a v u k a and Magambo ( 8 9 ) r e p o r t e d t e s t s w i t h t h e h e r b i c i d e s d a l a p o n and p a r a q u a t i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h i s s p e c i e s i n A f r i c a , where i t i s n a t i v e . Rowe and O'Connor ( 1 4 9 ) , working i n N e w Z e a l a n d , t e s t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y newly d e v e l o p e d e x p e r i m e n t a l h e r b i c i d e t e t r a p i o n i n t h e c o n t r o l o f s e v e r a l r h i z o m a t o u s g r a s s e s , i n c l u d i n g P. c l a n d e s t i n u m . I n HAVO, K a g e l e r and Gardner ( 8 7 ) d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e h e r b i c i d e Roundup ( g l y p h o s a t e ) showed p romise o f g i v i n g e f f e c t i v e k i k u y u g r a s s c o n t r o l w i t h o u t s e r i o u s l y damaging mos t o f t h e n a t i v e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h k i k u y u g r a s s s t a n d s .

B l a c k b e r r y , r a s p b e r r y , and o t h e r Rubus spec i e s . - -A g r e a t number o f p a t h o g e n s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d f o r t h i s l a r g e g r o u p of p l a n t s ( 5 1 , 1 8 5 ) due i n p a r t t o t h e i r economic v a l u e i n o t h e r r e g i o n s and t h e i r w i d e s p r e a d d i s t r i b u t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , most o f t h e s e p a t h o g e n s a r e known t o have r a t h e r g e n e r a l h o s t r a n g e s and w i l l a t t a c k many members o f t h e g e n u s Rubus a s w e l l a s t h o s e o f o t h e r g e n e r a . Examples a r e a v a i l a b l e I n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , however , o f a p p a r e n t l y s u c c e s s f u l c o n t r o l o f u n d e s i r a b l e Rubus s p e c i e s , s u c h a s t h e b ramble g. f r u t i c o s u s v a r . b e r g i i Ch. & Sch., which was p a r a s i t i z e d by t h e b ramble r u s t Kuehneolg u r e d i n i s ( l i n k ) A r t h . ( 1 9 2 ) . A l s o , R. c o n s t r i c t u s -- L e f . e t M . and R. u l m i f o l i u s S c h o t t . a r e a t t a c k e d by t h e r u s t Phraqmidium violaceurn ( S c h u l z ) Winter which h a s been o b s e r v e d t o b e an - e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l a g e n t o f t h e s e p l a n t s ( 7 3 ) . T h i s r u s t h a s been employed i n b l a c k b e r r y c o n t r o l p rog rams of C h i l e w i t h e n c o u r a g i n g r e s u l t s ( 7 3 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 ) .

T i l l y a r d ( 1 8 0 ) l i s t e d a number o f i n s e c t s known from o t h e r c o u n t r i e s which he s u g g e s t e d s h o u l d be s t u d i e d f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b i o c o n t r o l o f b l a c k b e r r y ( r e f e r r e d t o o n l y a s Rubus s p . ) i n New Zea land . The i n s e c t s were d i s c u s s e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a n t r e g i o n s a f f e c t e d , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e which a t t a c k e d t h e crown o r s tem by b o r i n g o r fo rming

g a l l s , t h o s e which a t t a c k e d t h e t w i g s , t h o s e which a t t a c k e d t h e l e a v e s and s h o o t s , and t h o s e which a t t a c k e d t h e f l o w e r s and f r u i t s . Of a l l i n s e c t s l i s t e d , t h e b u p r e s t i d b e e t l e C o r o e l u s r u b i L. was c o n s i d e r e d t h e mos t p r o m i s i n g p o t e n t i a l b i o c o n t r o l -- a g e n t f o r b l a c k b e r r y . T h i s b e e t l e was r e p o r t e d t o d e s t r o y up t o 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e new b l a c k b e r r y stems i n s o u t h e r n Europe i n c e r t a i n y e a r s ( 1 8 0 ) . A s a f u r t h e r a d v a n t a g e , C . r u b i was n o t o b s e r v e d t o a t t a c k r a s p b e r r y , o r any o t h e r members o f t h e Rosaceae e x c e p t o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e l o n g r u n n e r s o f p a r t i c u l a r r o s e v a r i e t i e s ( 1 8 8 ) .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e work o f T i l l y a r d , B r u z z e s e ( 2 1 ) h a s c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y summarized t h e l a r g e number o f i n s e c t and m i t e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h -- Rubus s p p . i n V i c t o r i a , A u s t r a l i a . B i o c o n t r o l o f Rubus h a s been r e s t r i c t e d i n t h i s a r e a by t h e l a c k o f h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y among t h e p a r a s i t e s . Nakao ( 1 1 3 ) r e p o r t e d f o u r i n s e c t s p e c i e s from t h e U. S . mainland which were i n t r o d u c e d t o Hawaii by Noel Krauss be tween 1963 and 1967 f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f R. p e n e t r a n s . Of t h e s e , t h r e e became e s t a b l i s h e d b u t have n o t - r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r o l .

C h r i s t m a s berry. - -A number of d i s e a s e s h a s been r e p o r t e d t o a t t a c k S. t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s ( 1 8 5 ) . However, a s i s t h e c a s e among t h e rnembGrs o f t h e g e n u s Rubus, mos t o f t h e p a t h o g e n s a r e known t o have wide and n o n s p e c i f i c h o s t r a n q e s . These i n c l u d e - - A r m i l l a r i a m e l l e a Vahl ex F r . , V e r t i c i l l i u m a lbo -a t rum Re inke & B e r t h . , Phymato t r ichum omnivorum ( S h e a r ) Dug., D i a p o r t h e s p . , and B o t r y o s p h a e r i a r i b i s (Tode ex F r . ) G r o s s . & Dug. The l y t t e r two p a t h o g e n s were r e p o r t e d from Hawa i i , where t h e i r e f f e c t s a r e n o t o b v i o u s a t p r e s e n t . S p h a e r o p s i s t u m e f a c i e n s Hedges, which c a u s e s g a l l s on stems, h a s r e c e n t l y been r e p o r t e d on S. t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u g , t h e l a t t e r a s a new h o s t i n F l o r i d a ( 1 0 7 i , a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e v i r u l e n c e o f t h i s f u n g u s d i d n o t a p p e a r s u f f i c i e n t t o be e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g B r a z i l i a n p e p p e r t r e e ( C h r i s t m a s b e r r y ) i n t h a t l o c a l i t y .

A newly r e p o r t e d l e a f s p o t d i s e a s e o f S. t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s h a s a l s o been r e p o r t e d from Egypt (158); Recen t r e p o r t s o f p r e d a t i o n and p a r a s i t i s m o f s p e c i e s r e l a t e d t o S. t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s i n c l u d e a new homopterous i n s e c t which i s a p e s t . o f S . t e b e r n a n t h i f o l i u s ( S . t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s ? ) i n P a k i s t a n (1) and t h e f u n g i q t E c h o q a s t B r c u b e n s i s and Xan thochrous r i c k i i P a t . on 5. m o l l e L. i n Morocco (103). A s m e n t i o n e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t s i n Hawa i i , K r a u s s ( 9 3 ) d e s c r i b e d p a s t e f f o r t s by t h e H S D A t o i n t r < ~ d u c e i n s e c t s f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f C h r i s t m a s b e r r y i n Hawaii . H e d i s c u s s e d t h r e e p r e d a t o r y i n s e c t s p e c i e s t h a t had a l r e a d y been i n t r o d u c e d , none o f which h a s a p p a r e n t l y s i n c e p r o v e n s i g n i f i c a n t i n c o n t r o l o f t h i s p l a n t . He a l s o r e c o r d e d a r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e l i s t o f a d d i t i o n a l i n s e c t s , r e p r e s e n t i n g s e v e r a l o r d e r s , mos t o f which had been o b s e r v e d on C h r i s t m a s b e r r y i n B r a z i l . A t t h e time K r a u s s ' r e p o r t was p u b l i s h e d , t h e s e had n o t y e t ( a n d p re sum2b ly have n o t a t p r e s e n t ) been f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r e d f o r b i o c o n t r o l p u r p o s e s i n Hawai i . B e e k e e p e r s i n Hawaii c o n s i d e r C h r i s t m a s

b e r r y a h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e s o u r c e o f n e c t a r f o r honey p r o d u c t i o n and would p re sumab ly oppose any f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s a t b i o c o n t r o l .

Gorse . - -This woody l eguminous s p e c i e s w i t h s h a r p , t h i s t l e - l i k e s p i n e s was i n t r o d u c e d t o new Zea land from England e a r l y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y where i t was p l a n t e d i n h e d g e s t o c o n t a i n 1 i v e s t o c k . I t h a s s i n c e e s c a p e d from i t s o r i g i n a l p l a n t i n g s i t e s t o become a ma jo r n o x i o u s weed problem i n t h a t c o u n t r y . Thus , much a t t e n t i o n h a s been d e v o t e d t o t h e c o n t r o l o f t h i s p l a n t t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f h e r b i c i d e s , b u r n i n g , m e c h a n i c a l r emova l , and b i o c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h e s i n N e w Zea land . L i t e r a t u r e on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f g o r s e c o n t r o l a s w e l l a s r e f e r e n c e s t o i t s b i o l o g y and e c o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h n a t i v e p l a n t s , h a s been r e c e n t l y summarized by MacCarter and Gaynor ( 1 0 2 ) .

A s e e d w e e v i l (Apion u l i c i s F o r s t . ) , which had been r e p o r t e d by T i l l y a r d i n 1927 ( 1 8 0 ) t o s u c c e s s f u l l y r e d u c e t h e numbers o f v i a b l e g o r s e s e e d i n England and which was r e g a r d e d a s a s i g n i f i c a n t p o t e n t i a l b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t i n N e w Z e a l a n d , was l a t e r i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h a t c o u n t r y f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . T h i s i n s e c t was r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d ( 1 0 2 ) , among e i g h t o t h e r i n s e c t s , t o b e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d on g o r s e i n N e w Zea land . N o t w i t h s t a n d n g t h i s , however , A. u l i c i s d o e s n o t now a p p e a r t o be c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s p r e a d of g o r s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Only t h e c o t t o n y c u s h i o n s c a l e ( I c e r y a p u r c h a s i Mask.) and t h e lemon t r e e b o r e r (Oemonia - -- h i r t a ( F . ) ) have been o b s e r v e d t o c a u s e s i g n i f i c a n t damage t o g o r s e i n New Zealand ( 1 0 2 ) . O the r i n s e c t s , s u c h a s t h e stem b o r i n g w e e v i l .Apion s c u t e l l a r e K i r b y and a l e a f f e e d i n g moth ( A q o n o p t e r i x u l i c e t e l l a ( S t n t . ) a r e p r e s e n t l y b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d f o r p o s s i b l e i n t r o d u c t i ~ n t o N e w Zea land a s b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s . A s n o t e d i n T a b l e 1, b o t h Apion -- u l i c i s and A. s c u t e l l a r e have a l r e a d y been i n t r o d u c e d i n t o Hawa i i , t h e former- to c o n t r o l q o r s e , where i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d b u t i s . l e s s t h a n comple t e l ; e f f e c t i v e . A. s c u t e l l a r e was i n t r o d u c e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o c o n t r o l g o r s e b u t d i d n o t become e s t a b l i s h e d on t h i s l a n t i n Hawai i .

Bamboo.--Cummins ( 2 7 ) d e s c r i b e d a number o f r u s t f u n g i which p a r a s i t i z e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s o f bamboo b e l o n g i n g t o t h e g e n e r a Bambusa and Dendroca lamus , s e v e r a l of which may b e p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e s f o r b i o c o n t r o l . Those l i s t e d f rom h o s t s o f t h e l a t t e r genus a r e D a s t u r e l l a d i v i n a ( S y d . ) Mundk. & Khes. and Uredo d e n d r o c a l a m i P e t c h from D. - s t r i c t u s Ness i n Ceylon and from g. l a t i f l o r u s Munro i n Ch ina . U . d i t i s s i m a Cumm. i s r e p o r t e d from - D. 1 a t i f l T r u s i n t h e p h i l i p p T n e s and Taiwan. - - -

Baradze ( l o ) , whose work was r e p o r t e d e n t i r e l y i n R u s s i a n and was t h e r e f o r e n o t r ev i ewed f o r t h i s r e p o r t p e r s o n a l l y , d i s c u s s e d t h e f u n g u s Coniospor ium bambusae S a c c . a s t h e c a u s a l a g e n t o f a w i l t d i s e a s e o f bamboo s h o o t s , p r e sumab ly i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . The bamboo mosa ic v i r u s , r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d from Taiwan t o a t t a c k members o f t h e g e n e r a ---- Bambusa and Dendrocalamus was d i s c u s s e d by Lin e t a l . ( 9 9 ) . However, among - I

t h e many bamboo s p e c i e s t e s t e d f o r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o bamboo

m o s a i c , g. q i q a n t e u s was among t h o s e which was r e p o r t e d t o b e r e s i s t a n t .

Numerous i n s e c t s p e c i e s a r e r e c o r d e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( r e . Review o f App l i ed Entomology) t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a r i o u s t y p e s o f bamboo i n s e v e r a l t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s . S l a t e r ( l 6 5 ) , i n a r e c e n t r e v i e w p a p e r on t h e h o s t p l a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f c h i n c h b u g s d i s c u s s e d a number of t h e s e s p e c i e s on bamboos. The d e g r e e t o which e a c h o f t h e s e i s damaging t o i t s h o s t i s f r e q u e n t l y n o t r e v e a l e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e and must be i n d i v i d u a l l y a s c e r t a i n e d . Many i n s e c t s a r e c a p a b l e o f c o e x i s t e n c e w i t h t h e i r h o s t s under normal e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a minimum s f damage and a r e o n l y i n f r e q u e n t l y r e c o g n i z e d a s p e s t s f o l l o w i n g d i s r u p t i o n s o f n a t u r a l b a l a n c e s by r a r e c o i n c i d e n c e s o f e v e n t s .

An a p h i d , Oregma bambusae Buckton , r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e bamboo s a p - s u c k e r ( l 6 2 ) , is known t o - a t t a c k s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f bamboo i n I n d i a . Among i t s h o s t s i s D. q i q a n t e u s , t h e presumed s p e c i f i c i d e n t i t y o f t h e bamboo o c c u r r i n g i n d e n s e s t a n d s i n t h e K ipahu lu V a l l e y r e g i o n o f HALE. The e x t e n t t o which t h i s i n s e c t may i m p a c t g i a n t bamboo p o p u l a t i o n s i n I n d i a was n o t d i s c u s s e d by S i n g h and S i v a r a m a k r i s h n a n . The i n s e c t W e r o l e c a n i u m p s e u d o m i l i a r i s Green was r e c e n t l y c o l l e c t e d f o r t h e f i r s t time from bamboo l e a v e s i n Hawaii (Oahu) ( 1 8 6 ) , a l t h o u g h no d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s were n o t e d . S e v e r a l o t h e r s c a l e i n s ? c t s o f t h e g e n u s A s t e r o l e c a n i u m a r e a l s o known t o b e p r e s e n t on bamboo i n Hawai i , and many a d d i t i o n a l s p e c i e s t o o numerous t o l i s t o c c u r on bamboos i n ~ s i a . Most o f t h e s e i n s e c t s have a wide h o s t r a n g e s u c h t h a t t h e i r v a l u e a s b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s a p p e a r s n i l ( J . W . B e a r d s l e y , p e r s o n n e l communica t ion ; D G ) .

K o s t e r ' s c u r s e , Malabar me la s tome , and glory-bush.--Members o f t h e t r o p i c a l American f a m i l y Melas tomaceae , and K o s t e r ' s c u r s e i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e r e c o g n i z e d by t h e HSDA a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a t h r e a t n o t o n l y t o n a t i v e f o r e s t s b u t a s c o m p e t i t o r s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d a s w e l l . A t p r e s e n t , K o s t e r ' s c u r s e p re sumab ly d o e s n o t o c c u r on p a r k l a n d s ; however , t h e l o w e r , wet e l e v a t i o n s o f b o t h HAVO and HALE a p p e a r t o b e s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t f o r t h i s e x o t i c . S i n c e t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f t h i s p l a n t i s a l r e a d y e v i d e n t i n o t h e r r e g i o n s o f Hawa i i , t h e NPS i s commit ted t o i t s c o n t r o l . An a c t i v e b i o c o n t r o l program a g a i n s t t h i s n o x i o u s wee2 h a s been pu r sued by t h e s t a t e f o r some time ( 7 8 ) . I n A p r i l , 1 9 7 9 , an H S D A e x p l o r a t o r y e n t o m o l o g i s t d e p a r t e d on a n e x p e d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l C e n t r a l and Sou th American c o u n t r i e s t o s e a r c h f o r b i o c o n t r o l c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h i s , and a l s o f o r a n i n s e c t t h e s p i r a l i n g w h i t e f l y , a r e c e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d p e s t i n Hawaii . i n Hawai i . Dur ing t h i s p e r i o d , v a r i o u s l e p i d o p t e r o u s ( b u t t e r f l i e s and moths) and c o l e o p t e r o u s ( b e e t l e s ) spec imens were c o l l e c t e d and s h i p p e d t o Hawaii f o r p r o p a g a t i o n and t e s t i n g i n t h e HSDA q u a r a n t i n e f a c i l i t i e s . A few o f these were L i u s s p . ( B u p r e s t i d a e ) , an u n d e s c r i b e d s p e c i e s o f ------up P a n t o t e l o i d e s ( C u r c u l i o n i d a e ) , Mompha - ---.--- t r i t h a l a m a (Momphidae) , ~ r u e n t i a i n s c r LL.3 ( N o c t u i d a e ) , and ------ Antiblemma -- a c c l l i n a l i s ( N o c t u i d a e ) .

T h i s p r o j e c t c o n t i n u e d and o c c a s i o n a l new s h i p m e n t s were r e c e i v e d u n t i l J u n e , 1981 , a t which t i m e a l l of t h e c a n d i d a t e b i o c o n t r o l i n s e c t s m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e HSDA i n s e c t a r y d i e d ( 7 8 ) and were n o t r e p l a c e d w i t h new s h i p m e n t s o f t h e same s p e c i e s . The HSDA m a i n t a i n s i t s i n t e r e s t i n t h i s p r o j e c t , however , and t h r o u g h a c o o p e r a t i v e ag reemen t w i t h t h e S t a t e F o r e s t r y ~ i v i s i o n , DLNR, s c r e e n i n g and s p e c i f i c i t y t es t s o f o t h e r c o n t r o l c a n d i d a t e s w i l l be c o n d u c t e d by e x p l o r a t o r y e n t o m o l o g i s t R o b e r t Burkhar t d u r i n g h i s 1 -year a s s i g n m e n t i n T r i n i d a d , West I n d i e s . He w i l l o p e r a t e o u t o f t h e C I B C s t a t i o n ( f r o m J u n e 1982 u n t i l J u n e 1 9 8 3 ) and w i l l s h i p t o Hawaii f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y t h o s e c a n d i d a t e s which show p romise i n c o n t r o l l i n g K o s t e r ' s c u r s e .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t i n 1957 ~ h i s t l e ( 1 7 8 ) p r e d i c t e d o p t i m i s t i c a l l y t h a t t h e t h r i p s L i o t h r i p s u r i c h i Karny ( T a b l e 1) would v e r y l i k e l y b e s u c c e s s f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g K o s t e r ' s c u r s e from becoming a r a n g e l a n d p e s t i n Hawaii . T h i s i n s e c t , which l i m i t s f l o w e r and f r u i t p r o d u c t i o n , w a s f i r s t impor t ed t o F i j i by t h e e n t o m o l o g i s t H. W . Simmonds where i t was r e p o r t e d t o have g i v e n e x c e l l e n t c o n t r o l o f K o s t e r ' s c u r s e . T h i s s u c c e s s l e d t o i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Hawaii f o r t h e same p u r p o s e . Al though i t h a s become e s t a b l i s h e d and d o e s c o n t r i b u t e t o c o n t r o l o f K o s t e r ' s c u r s e i n some r e g i o n s o f Hawa i i , i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s t h e r e h a s n o t a t t a i n e d t h e d e g r e e i n d i c a t e d i n F i j i . Wayne Gagne ( p e r s o n a l communica t ion , D G ) h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n a r e c e n t v i s i t t o F i j i ( l 9 8 1 ) , he o b s e r v e d K o s t e r ' s c u r s e t o b e q u i t e a b u n d a n t . The L e p i d o p t e r o u s i n s e c t B l e p h a r o m a s t i x e b u l e a l i s (Guenee) was a l s o i n t r o d u c e d f o r K o s t e r ' s c u r s e c o n t r o l i n 1970 ( T a b l e l ) , however , t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s d e f o l i a t o r have n o t been a d e q u a t e l y e v a l u a t e d t o d a t e . A s n o t e d above , f u r t h e r e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l t h i s n o x i o u s e x o t i c s p e c i e s i n Hawaii a r e d e s i r a b l e .

Very few d i s e a s e s o r d i s e a s e - l i k e c o n d i t i o n s o f C. h i r t a have been r e p o r t e d , and t h o s e t h a t have been were c a u s e d by members o f t h e u b i q u i t o u s nematode g e n e r a H e t e r o d e r a and Meloidoqyne, and by t h e b l a c k mildew I r e n e melastomacearum ( S p e g . ) T o r o ( 1 8 5 ) . None o f t h e s e d i s e a s e a g e n t s would l i k e l y P rove p r a c t i c a l i n a b i o c o n t r o l program f o r K o s t e r ' s c u r s e .

Other e x o t i c melas tomaceous s p e c i e s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n , o r n e a r , Hawaiian NPS a r e a s a r e g l o r y - b u s h ( T i b o u c h i n a u r v i l l e a n a ( D C . ) Cogn. synonym: x. s e m i d e c a n d r a ( S h r a n k & Mar t . ) C o g n . ) , I n d i a n rhododendron (Melas toma m a l a b a t h r i c u m L . , and p e a r l f l o w e r ( H e t e r o c e n t r o n s u b t r i p l i n e r v i u m ( L i n k & O t t o ) A . Br . Bouche) . Each o f t h e s e i s a s h r u b w i t h a t t r a c t i v e , showy f l o w e r s . G lo ry -bush p r e s e n t l y o c c u r s i n d e n s e t h i c k e t s i n Volcano V i l l a g e , which a d j o i n s t h e boundary o f HAVO, and a l t h o u g h t h i s s p e c i e s o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e p a r k i t s e l f o n l y a s i s o l a t e d p l a n t s , i t s a b i l i t y t o s p r e a d a g g r e s s i v e l y i s o b v i o u s . W i t h i t s l a r g e , b r i g h t p u r p l e f l o w e r s , g l o r y - b u s h i s f r e q u e n t l y r e g a r d e d by v i s t o r s t o HAVO a s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e " e x o t i c " ( i . e . u n u s u a l , n o v e l ) v e g e t a t i o n e x p e c t e d i n a t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t . One i n s e c t , S e l c a b r u n e l l a Hampson, which was p u r p o s e l y i n t r o d u c e d t o c o n t r o l I n d i a n rhododendron and g l o r y - b u s h , i s c u r r e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d on g l o r y - b u s h i n t h e Volcano a r e a .

M e c h a n i c a l r e m o v a l o f f l o w e r i n g s h r u b s s u c h a s g l o r y - b u s h a n d f u s c h i a , w h i c h had a c t u a l l y b e e n p l a n t e d i n HAVO a s a b e a u t i f i c a t i o n m e a s u r e i n f o r m e r y e a r s ( 4 4 ) , i s t h e p r e s e n t c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h . Such v i s i b l e e r a d i c a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g m e c h a n i c a l o r c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s may a l s o s e r v e a s a n i n t e r p r e t i v e a i d i n b r i n g i n g t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e NPS a n d i t s e x o t i c p l a n t c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f p a r k v i s i t o r s a n d t h e p u b l i c i n g e n e r a l .

G i n g e r . - - W h i t e g i n g e r (Hedych ium c o r o n a r i u m Koen ig i n R e t z . ) , <;ellow g i n g e r ( H . f l a v e s c e n s C a r e y i n R o s c o e ) , and k a h i l i g i n g e r (H. g a r d n e r i a n u m - ~ o s c o e ) , r e d g i n g e r ( A l p i n i a p u r p u r a t a ( V i e i l l . ) K . S c h u m . ) , a n d w i l d g i n g e r ( Z i n g i b e r z e r u m b e t - ( L . ) R o s c o e i n Sm. a l l o c c u r a s e x o t i c p l a n t s i n H a w a i i a n NPS a r e a s . W h i t e , y e l l o w , a n d k a h i l i g i n g e r s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e s i r a b l e i n n a t u r a l a r e a s s i n c e t h e y f o r m d e n s e , e x c l u s i v e s t a n d s w i t h e x t e n s i v e t u b e r o u s r o o t s t o c k s y s t e m s i n n a t i v e r a i n f o r e s t h a b i t a t s , w h e r e t h e y h a v e e s c a p e d f r o m c u l t i v a t i o n . V a r i o u s g i n g e r s p e c i e s a r e v a l u e d a s t h e s o u r c e o f c o m m e r c i a l g i n g e r ( i . e . c a r d a m o n , E l e t t a r i a cardamomum ( R o x b . ) Maton) o r f o r t h e i r e x c e e d i n g l y f r a g r a n t a n d / o r showy b l o s s o m s .

Many o f t h e d i s e a s e s o f g i n g e r were o r i g i n a l l y r e p o r t e d f r o m H a w a i i and i n c l u d e l e a f s p o t s , c a u s e d by C o n i o t h y r i u m z i n g i b e r - F. L . S t e v e n s & A t i e n z a ( 1 8 5 ) and by P h y l l o s t i c t a z i n g i b e r i s F . L. S t e v e n s & Ryan ( 1 7 1 ) , a r o o t r o t c a u s e d b y P y t h i u m b u t l e r i S u b r . ( 1 8 5 ) , a n d a r h i z o m e r o t c a u s e d by a s p e c i e s of -- F u s a r i u m ( 1 2 6 ) . T r u j i l l o ( 1 8 1 ) , w o r k i n g w i t h c o m m e r c i a l g i n g e r ( Z i n g i b e r o f f i c i n a l e R o s c o e ) i n H a w a i i , d i s c o v e r e d a new f o r m a s p e c i a l i s o f t h e w i l t p a t h o g e n F u s a r i u m oxysporum w h i c h h e d e s i g n a t e d - F. oxysporum f . z i n g i b e r i T r u j . a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s c a u s i n g a s e r i o u s y e l l o w s ( v a s c u l a r w i l t ) and r h i z o m e r o t o f t h i s s p e c i e s . S u b s e q u e n t i n o c u l a t i o n and h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y t e s t s o f t h i s p a t h o g e n , h o w e v e r , i n d i c a t e d t h a t w h i t e g i n g e r was n o t a f f e c t e d a s were v a r i e t i e s o f e d i b l e g i n g e r . S i v a n e s a n a n 3 G i b s o n ( 1 6 4 ) d e s c r i b e d a n i m p o r t a n t l e a f s p o t d i s e a s e o f t u r m e r i c (Curcumg d o r n e s t i c a V a l e t . ) , a member o f t h e g i n g e r f a m i l y Z i n g i b e r a c e a e i n I n d i a , ~ u r m a , and J a p a n . The d i s e a s e was c a u s e d by T a p h r i n a m a l c u l a n s B u t l e r , w h i c h , w i t h a s e c o n d d i s e a s e c a u s e 2 by C o l l e t o t r i c h u m c a p s i c i ( S y d . ) B u t l . & B i s b y , w e r e d e f i n e d a s t h e two i m p o r t a n t l e a f d i s e a s e s o f t h i s p l a n t i n t h e s e r e g i o n s .

Y i r i d b u g s o f t h e g e n u s R a g w e l e l l u s a r e known w h i c h f e e d o n g i n g e r s and r e l a t e d p l a n t s i n t h e N e w G u i n e a r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e i r h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y i s u n c e r t a i n . S m i t h ( 1 6 7 ) d i s c u s s e s o n e (FJ. h o r v a t h i P o p p i u s ) w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d a p e s t o f c a r d a m o n , a n 3 is a l s o f o u n d on members o f t h e Z i n g i b e r a ~ e a e , Musaceae ( b a n a n a s ) , and C o m e l i n a c e a e .

H a w a i i a n e n t o m o l o g i s t s a r e a w a r e o f a number o f i n s e c t s w h i c h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e c i e s o f g i n g e r i n N e w G u i n e a and p e r h a p s s i m i l a r l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e P a c i f i c (Wayne Gagne , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; D G ) . The p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s e i n s e c t s i n b i o c o n t r o l

programs a g a i n s t t he e x o t i c g inge r s p e c i e s i n Hawaii i s no t y e t known and remains t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d .

Koa-haole.--Leucaena --- l eucocepha la has been r epo r t ed t o be a t t acked by t h e l e a f s p o t t i n g fungus Exosporium leucaenae F. L . S tev . & Dalb. and by Bot ryosphaer ia r i b i s v a r . chromogena Shear , -- -- N. E . S tevens 5 M. S , Wilcox. T h i s s p e c i e s was r epo r t ed from Hawaii t o cause twig dieback on a wide v a r i e t y of h o s t s . I t s c u r r e n t e f f e c t on koa-haole i s n o t cons idered s i g n i f i c a n t . The r u s t Ravenel i a Long has been observed i n f e c t i n g another member of t h e genus Leucaena i n Texas ( 1 8 5 ) . ~ t s p a t h o g e n i c i t y o r v i r u l e n c e on &. l eucocepha la a p p a r e n t l y remains t o be t e s t e d . ----

A l e a f s p o t i n c i t e d by t h e fungus Camptomeris l eucaenae ( S t e v . & Dalb. ) Syd. ha s r e c e n t l y been r epo r t ed £)?om Colombia ( 9 8 ) , where i t has caused s e v e r e d e f o l i a t i o n of L . leucocephal-a t r e e s and was regarded a s a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t K i s h o s t s p e c i e s i n t h a t count ry . In combination wi th secondary organisms, a dieback of t h e s e t r e e s a l s o r e s u l t e d from i n f e c t i o n w i t h C. leucaenae. -- T h i s fungus t h e r e f o r e appea r s t o be of p o t e n t i a l value i n a b i o c o n t r o l program. A new wi l t - t ype d i s e a s e of L. leucocephala s e e d l i n g s and of o l d e r t r e e s caused by E'usarizm - s o l a n i ( E l l . & S. Mart . ) L . R. Jones b Grout has r e c e n t l y been repor ted from t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ( 1 4 0 ) .

A t l e a s t four d e s t r u c t i v e , a cc iden t a l l y - in t roduced i n s e c t s a r e p r e s e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d on koa-haole i n Hawaii. These i n c l u d e t h e koa-haole- looper ( Anacamptodes £ r a q i l a r i a (S ros sbeck ) ) , t h e black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus ( E i c h h o f f ) ) wi th i t s a s s o c i a t e d f u n g i , t h e koa-haole moth (Semio th i sa i n f u s a t a ( G u e n e e ) ) , and t h e koa-haole seed weevi l (Araecerus l e v i p e n n i s Jo rdan ) . The l e p i d o p t e r o u s i n s e c t s o f t e n cause complete d e f o l i a t i o n of koa-haole cover ing many squa re m i l e s of western Kauai and western Oahu ( p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , C D ) .

RESEARCH AND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CONCERNS

Of t h e p l a n t s d i s c u s s e d above , t h o s e o f l o w e s t economic o r a e s t h e t i c v a l u e i n Hawaii o r whose b i o c o n t r o l p rograms a r e o t h e r w i s e l i k e l y t o e n c o u n t e r t h e g r e a t e s t s u p p o r t may b e banana poka , g o r s e , and f i r e t r e e , which have l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d a s n o x i o u s s p e c i e s by t h e HSDA ( 7 7 ) . F i r e t r e e o c c u r r i n g on r a n c h l a n d c o n t i n u e s t o b e t h e o b j e c t o f an a c t i v e c o n t r o l program by t h e S t a t e o f Hawa i i , P l a n t P e s t C o n t r o l Branch , which i s p r e s e n t l y engaged i n c o n t r o l e f f o r t s o f t h i s s p e c i e s on r a n c h l a n d s and i n s t a t e f o r e s t r e s e r v e s . T r e e s a r e t r e a t e d w i t h h e r b i c i d e (Tordon 22K) o r a r e m e c h a n i c a l l y g rubbed o u t w i t h b u l l d o z e r s ( R o b e r t Kami, p e r s o n a l communica t ion , DG; 7 7 ) .

T h e Andropogon s p e c i e s , a s w e l l a s t h e o t h e r g r a s s e s l i s t e d e x c e p t k i k u y u g r a s s , a r e o f l i t t l e o r no economic v a l u e i n Hawaii and would meet min imal o p p o s i t i o n t o b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t s i f i t were n o t f o r t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p , a s g r a s s e s , t o s u g a r c a n e ( a c c h a r u m o f f i c i n a r u m L . ) , H a w a i i ' s most i m p o r t a n t c r o p . Andropogon, i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e same t r i b e a s s u g a r c a n e ( 8 0 ) a s w e l l a s t h e r a r e n a t i v e g r a s s Ishaemum byrone ( T r i n . ) H i t c h z . which o c c u r s i n HAVO. On t h e o t h e r hand , a h i g h d e g r e e o f h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y i s f r e q u e n t l y found among t h e p l a n t r u s t s , which c o m p r i s e many o f t h e p a t h o g e n s o f t h e s e g r a s s e s .

Banana poka l i k e w i s e h a s no economic v a l u e , and would e n c o u n t e r l i t t l e o p p o s i t i o n a s a c a n d i d a t e f o r b i o c o n t r o l e x c e p t f o r i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o P a s s i f l o r a e d u l i s S ims , t h e e d i b l e p a s s i o n f r u i t , which grows w i l d i n H a w a i i ' s l o w l a n d s and is w i d e l y v a l u e d by H a w a i i ' s p e o p l e . P a s s i o n f r u i t h a s been grown c o m m e r c i a l l y o n a l i m i t e d s c a l e , b u t i t s c u l t i v a t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t t o H a w a i i ' s o v e r a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l economy. Banana poka is a h i g h e l e v a t i o n s p e c i e s and i s n o t c l a s s i f i e d w i t h i n t h e same subgenus a s P. e d u l i s ( 9 0 , 1 0 8 ) . I t may t h e r e f o r e b e f e a s i b l e t o l o c a t e a b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t w i t h s u f f i c i e n t h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y t o s e l e c t i v e l y a t t a c k o n l y banana poka. A s men t ioned a b o v e , HSDA p e r s o n n e l ( p e r s o n a l communica t ion , DG) have e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d e s i r e t o u n d e r t a k e s u c h a n e f f o r t i f f u n d i n g i s made a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t i o n b y t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e .

Al though w i l d Rubus s p e c i e s a r e a l s o v a l u e d by i n d i v i d u a l r e s i d e n t s f o r t h e i r f r u i t , t h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s n o x i o u s weeds i n p a s t u r e and r a n g e l a n d by t h e HSDA ( 7 7 ) and would t h e r e f o r e b e c a n d i d a t e s f o r b i o c o n t r o l e f f o r t s ( a s t h e y have i n t h e p a s t ) . Two n a t i v e Rubus s p e c i e s o c c u r i n Hawa i i , R. m a c r a e i Gray and R . h a w a i i e n s i s Gray , which would r e q u i r e c a r e f u l t e s t i n g f o r h o s t s p e c i f i c i t y o f a l l p o t e n t i a l b i o c o n t r o l a g e n t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s a f e t y o f t h e s e n a t i v e s p e c i e s from e x c e s s i v e a t t a c k .

O the r p l a n t s l i s t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y g u a v a , which i s w i d e l y v a l u e d among H a w a i i ' s r e s i d e n t s f o r i t s f r u i t ( 1 9 6 ) , and k i k u y u g r a s s , a n i m p o r t a n t p a s t u r e g r a s s i n Hawaii ( 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 ) , t h e

s p e c i e s o f g i n g e r and o t h e r o r n a m e n t a l s would most l i k e l y be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l t h r o u g h b i o l o g i c a l means due t o p u b l i c o p p o s i t i o n o r c o n f l i c t s w i t h o t h e r i n t e r e s t s . A s ment ioned a b o v e , C h r i s t m a s b e r r y i s v a l u e d f o r honey p r o d u c t i o n by b e e k e e p e r s who would l i k e l y oppose a t t e m p t s a t w idesp read c o n t r o l (HSDA, p e r s o n a l communica t ion ; D G ) .

Koa-haole , which now grows i n d e n s e s t a n d s on v a s t a c r e a g e s o f d r y l o w l a n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e I s l a n d s , i s a p r e f e r r e d f o r a g e o f l i v e s t o c k and h a s been t h e s u b j e c t o f p r o p a g a t i o n and 1 anc b r e e d i n g programs i n Hawaii t o improve i t s q u a l i t y and u s e f u l n e s s / 2 , 1 8 , 1 7 7 , 1 8 8 ) . S i n c e i t h a s o b v i o u s l y exceeded i t s i n t e n d e d r a n g e i n many a r e a s and h a s s p r e a d a g g r e s s i v e l y , t h e r e l a t i v e v a l u e o f t h i s s p e c i e s i s u n c e r t a i n a t p r e s e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e g a r d i n g t h e d e g r e e o f s u p p o r t a b i o c o n t r o l program i n Hawaii would r e c e i v e .

Taking i n t o a c c o u n t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p o t e n t i a l p a t h o g e n s and i n s e c t s a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n from a s c i e n t i f i c s t a n d p o i n t and e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e i r s u c c e s s f rom a s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a p p r o a c h a s w e l l , t h e mos t e x p e d i e n t a c t i o n i n i n i t i a t i n g b i o c o n t r o l p r o j e c t s would be t o t e s t p o t e n t i a l a g e n t s w i t h h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y f o r s u c c e s s , and which have a l r e a d y been i d e n t i f i e d a g a i n s t p l a n t s which a r e r e c o g n i z e d by t h e s t a t e a s w e l l a s by t h e NPS t o b e n o x i o u s weeds. Such a program would be e x p e c t e d t o r e c e i v e wide p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e . Any s u c c e s s e s w i t h t h e s e p r o j e c t s would s e r v e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f a n NPS b i o c o n t r o l program. B i o c o n t r o l p r o j e c t s i n which e x p l o r a t o r y e x p e d i t i o n s must b e conduc ted and/or f o r which t h e t a r g e t s p e c i e s a r e l e s s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s u n d e s i r a b l e p l a n t s may b e s u g g e s t e d l a t e r , ba sed on such e a r l i e r s u c c e s s e s , b u t s h o u l d n o t b e a t t e m p t e d i n i t i a l l y .

I t w i l l be i m p o r t a n t t o m a i n t a i n f u l l f o r t h r i g h t n e s s and e d i b i l i t y t h r o u g h o u t e a c h o f t h e s e s t u d i e s , and t h e r e b y promote ~ e c o n f i d e n c e o f a l l conce rned p r i v a t e , s t a t e , and f e d e r a l e n c i e s . A l s o , o n c e b i s c o n t r o l a g e n t s a r e r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e

f i e l d , p r o v i s i o n s must b e made t o m o n i t o r and e v a l u a t e t h e i r l ong - t e rm a c t i v i t i e s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s . Such c a r e f u l f o l l o w u p e f f o r t s would s e r v e a s t h e b a s i s upon w h i c h t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e program i s e v a l u a t e d and f u r t h e r c o n d u c t e d .

REFERENCES

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1 6 4 . S i v a n e s a n , A . , a n d I . A. S. G i b s o n . 1 9 7 6 . T a p h r i n a m a l c u l a n g l e a f s p o t o f C u r c u m a , Hedych ium, Z i n g i b e r . C. M . I . D e s c r . P a t h o g . F u n g i a n d B a c t . 5 1 ( 5 0 7 ) . 2 pp.

1 6 5 . S l a t e r , J . A . 1 9 7 6 . Monoco t a n d c h i n c h b u g s : a s t u d y o f h o s t p l a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e l y g a e i d s u b f a m i l y B l i s s i n a e ( H e m i p t e r a : L y g a e i d a e ) . B i o t r o p i c a 8 : 1 4 3 - 1 6 5 .

1 6 6 . S m i t h , C . W . , T. P a r m a n , a n d K. Wampler . 1 9 7 9 . I m p a c t o f f i r e i n a H a w a i i a n s u b m o n t a n e s e a s o n a l f o r e s t . See. C o n f . o n S c i . R e s . i n t h e N a t . P a r k s , P r o c . N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e , W a s h i n g t o n , D. C. ( P u b . ; 1 9 8 0 ) . 1 0 : 3 1 3 - 324 .

1 6 7 . S m i t h , E . S. C. 1 9 7 7 . T h e ca rda rnon m i r i d ( ~ a g w e l e l l u s h o r v a t h i P o p p i u s ) ( H e t e r o p t e r a : M i r i d a e ) i n Papua N e w G u i n e a . PNG J . A g r . 28 :97-101 .

1 6 8 . S p a i n , J . M . 1 9 7 8 . P a s t u r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d managemen t i n t h e L l a n o s O r i e n t a l e s o f C o l o m b i a . I n : S a n c h e z , P. A . , a n d L. E. T e r g a s , E d s . ; P a s t u r e p r o d u c t i o n i n a c i d s o i l s o f t h e t r o p i c s . C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l . Sympos . a t CIAT, C a l i , C o l o m b i a , P r o c . 1 9 7 8 : 1 6 7 - 2 5 8 .

1 6 9 . S p a u P d i n g , P . , a n d J . R. H a n s b r o u g h . 1 9 3 2 . C r o n a r t i u m c o m p t o n i . a e , t h e s w e e t f e r n b l i s t e r r u s t o f p i t c h p i n e s . U . S. D e p t . o f A g r i c . C i r c . No. 217 . 2 1 p p .

1 7 0 . S t e g m a i e r , C. E . 1 9 7 3 . - D a s i o p s p a s s i f l o r i s ( D i p t e r a : L o n c h a e i d a e ) , a p e s t o f w i l d p a s s i o n f r u i t P a s s i f l o r a .--

p a l l i d a i n S o u t h F l o r i d a . F l a . E n t o m o l o g i s t 56 : 8-10 .

1 7 1 . S t e v e n s , F. L. 1 9 2 5 . H a w a i i a n f u n g i . erni ice P. B i s h o p Mus. B u l l . No. 1 9 . 1 8 9 p p .

1 7 2 . S t e y s k a l , G . C . 1 9 8 0 . Two-winged f l i e s o f t h e g e n u s D a s i o p s ( D i p t e r a : L o n c h a e i d a i ) a t t a c k i n g f l o w e r s o r f r u i t -- o f s p e c i e s o f P a s s i f l o r a ( p a s s i o n f r u i t , g r a n a d i l l a , c u r c u b a , e t c . ) ( D a s i o ~ c u r c u b a e , ~ a s i o p s ---- i n e d u l i s ) . P r o c . E n t o m o l . S o c . Wash. ( D . C . ) 8 2 : l a - 1 7 0 .

S t o n e , A. 1 9 4 7 . A new P r o c e c i d o c h a r e s - f r o m E u p a t o r i u m stems ( D i p t e r a : T e p h r i t i d a e ) . P r o c . H a w . E n t . S o c . 1 3 : 97-98.

S t r a a t m a n , R. 1 9 6 2 . N o t e s o n c e r t a i n L e p i d o p t e r a o v i p o s i t i o n o n p l a n t s w h i c h a r e t o x i c t o t h e i r l a r v a e . J. L e p i d o p t . S o e . 16 :99-103 .

S t r a c h a n , W. F . 1 9 7 6 . C h e m i c a l c o n t r o l o f b r o o m s e d g e ( A n d r o p o q o ~ v i r g i n i c u s L. ) i n p e r m a n e n t p a s t u r e s . Miss. S t a t e U n i v . D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l 3 6 ( 1 1 ) : 5 3 8 7 - B .

S w e z e y , 0 . H . 1 9 2 5 . R e c o r d s o f i n t r o d u c t i o n o f b e n e f i c i a l i n s e c t s i n t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . H a w a i i a n P l a n t . R e c . 29 :369-376.

T a k a h a s h i , M . , a n d J . C. R i p p e r t o n . 1 9 4 9 . Koa h a o l e ( L e u c a e n a g l a u c a ) . I ts e s t a b l i s h m e n t , c u l t u r e a n d u t i l i z a t i o n a s a f o r a g e c r o p . U n i v . H a w . A g r . Exp. S t a . B u l l . No. 1 0 0 . 56 p p .

T h i s t l e , A. 1 9 5 7 . The b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l o f n o x i o u s p l a n t s p e c i e s i n H a w a i i . W o r l d C r o p s 9 :447-449 .

T h i t e , A. N . , a n d P . D. C h a v a n . 1 9 7 7 . A new l e a f s p o t d i s e a s e o f P e n n i s e t u m s p e c i e s c a u s e d by H e l m i n t h o s p o r i u m r o s t r a t u m . M a h a r a s h t r a V i d n y a n M a n d i r P a t r i k a 1 2 : 6 3 - 6 5 .

T i l l y a r d , R. J . 1 9 2 7 . I n s e c t c o n t r o l o f n o x i o u s w e e d s . J o i n t s c h e m e i n i t i a t e d a g a i n s t b l a c k b e r r y a n d o t h e r s p e c i e s . N. Zeal. J. A g r i c . 34:84-90.

T r u j i l l o , E. E . 1 9 6 3 . F u s a r i u m y e l l o w s a n d r h i z o m e r o t o f common g i n g e r . P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 53: 1370-1371 .

T r u j i l l o , E. E . 1 9 7 6 ? . H o s t s p e c i f i c i t y t e s t w i t h C e r c o s p o r e l l a s p . A b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l c a n d i d a t e f o r A q e r a t i n a ( E u p a t o r i u m ) r e p a r i a ( R e g e l ) K . & R. Unpub. M a n u s c r i p t ; D e p t . P l a n t P a t h o l . , U n i v . o f H a w . 1 6 p p .

T u r n e r , G . J . 1 9 7 4 . P h y t o p h t h o r a w i l t a n d c r o w n r o t o f P a s s i f l o r a e d u l i s . T r a n s . B r i t . Y y c o l . S o c . 62 :59-63 .

U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s . 1 9 7 4 . F e d e r a l n o x i o u s weed a c t o f 1 9 7 4 . D e f i n i t i o n s . U . S. C o d e , C h a p t . 6 1 , S e c . 2 8 0 2 c . p p . 1 4 7 8 - 1 4 8 1 .

U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e . 1 9 6 0 . I n d e x o f p l a n t d i s e a s e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Agr . Handbk. No. 1 6 5 . 531 pp.

U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f ~ g r i c u l t u r e . 1 9 7 7 . C o o p e r a t i v e p l a n t p e s t r e p o r t . 2 ( 1 5 ) : 1 9 9 .

U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e . 1 9 8 1 . P a r t 360 .200 . D e s i g n a t i o n o f n o x i o u s w e e d s . F e d e r a l ~ e g i s t e r 4 6 ( 1 9 1 ) : 4 8 6 9 1 - 4 8 6 9 2 .

U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e s , a n d P h i l i p p i n e C o u n c i l f o r A g r i c u l t u r e a n d R e s o u r c e s R e s e a r c h . 1 9 7 7 . L e u c a e n a ( l e u c o c e p h a l a : ) p r o m i s i n g f o r a g e a n d t r e e c r o p f o r t h e t r o p i c s . N a t . Acad. S c i . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . - 1 5 7 p p .

V a l e r o , L. A. M . , a n d G . B. V i a n a . 1 9 7 0 . C h l o r o t i c s p o t t i n g o f c u r u b a ( P a s s i f l o r a m o l l i s s i m a ( H . B. K . ) B a i l e y ) c a u s e d b y Empoasca sp. i n N a r i n o . R e v i s t a d e C i e n c i a s A g r i c o l a s 2:5-16.

V a u g h t , H . C . , W . W. W i t t , a n d J . S. H e r r o n . 1 9 7 7 . B r o o m s e d g e c o n t r o l w i t h g l y p h o s a t e . ( A b s t r . ) P r o c . N o r t h C e n t r a l Weed C o n t . C o n f . , U n i v . K e n t u c k y , L e x i n g t o n . 32 : 59 .

Verma , S. K . 1 9 8 0 . F i e l d p e s t s o f p e a r l m i l l e t i n I n d i a . T r o p . P e s t Management 26:13-20.

W a g e r , V. A. 1 9 4 7 . Can r u s t k i l l t h e b r a m b l e ? F a r m i n g i.n S o u t h A f r i c a 22 :831-832 .

Waage, J . K . , J . T. S m i l e y , a n d L. E. G i l b e r t . 1 9 8 1 . The P a s s i f l o r g p r o b l e m i n Hawaii: p r o s p e c t s a n d p r o b l e m s o f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f o r e s t weed P. - m o l l i s s i m a ( P a s s i f l o r a c e a e ) w i t h h e 1 i c o n i i n z b u t t e r f l i e s , En tomophaga 26:275-284.

W h i t n e y , A. S. 1 9 7 4 . G r o w t h o f k i k u y u g r a s s ( P e n n i s e t u m --- --- c l a n d e s t i n u m ) u n d e r c l i p p i n g . 11. R e g r o w t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n r e l a t i o n t o n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n a n d c l ima te . A g r o n . J . 6 6 : 7 6 3 - 7 6 7 .

1 9 5 . W h i t n e y , A . S. 1976 . E f f e c t s o f g i b b e r e l l i c a c i d o n t h e c o o l s e a s o n r e g r o w t h o f two t r o p i c a l f o r a g e g r a s s e s . Agron. J . 68:365-370.

1 9 6 . W h i t t e n , H. 1981 . ~ s l e g u a v a i n d u s t r y p i c k i n g u p s t e a m . H o n o l u l u S t a r - B u l l e t i n , T h u r s d a y , A p r i l 30 . D-4.

1 9 7 . W i l l i a m s , R. J . , S. D. S i n g h , a n d M . N . Pawar . 1 9 8 1 . An improved f i e l d s c r e e n i n g t e c h n i q u e f o r downy mi ldew r e s i s t a n c e i n p e a r l m i l l e t . P l a n t D i s . 65:239-241.

1 9 8 . W i l s o n , F. 1 9 4 3 . The e n t o m o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l o f S t . J o h n ' s w o r t (Hypee icum p e r f o r a t u r n L . ) w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n s e c t e n e m i e s o f t h e weeds i n s o u t h e r n F r a n c e . B u l l . C o u n c i l S c o . I n d . Res. No. 1 6 9 .

1 9 9 . W i l s o n , F. 1 9 6 5 . B i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l and t h e g e n e t i c s o f c o l o n i z i n g s p e c i e s . R e p r i n t e d f r o m : The g e n e t i c s o f c o l o n i z i . n g s p e c i e s . Academic P r e s s , N e w York. pp. 307- 329 .

2 0 0 . W i l s o n , F. 1 9 7 0 . The n a t u r e a n d a d v a n t a g e s o f b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l . Advance S c i . 26:374-378.

201. Wong, P. T . W. 1975 . Kikuyu y e l l o w s - - a d i s e a s e c a u s e d by a n u n d e s c r i b e d p h y c o m y c e t e . P l a n t is. R e p t r . 59:800- 801 .

202. Yen, J . M . 1 9 7 9 . S t u d i e s o f p a t h o g e n i c f u n g i o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a . 35. P a r a s i t i c f u n q i o f Honq Konq. I . ( C l a d o s p o r ium - p s i d i i c o l u m o n - P s i d i u m q u a j a v a ) . - B u l l . Sot. Mycol . d e F r a n c e 95:185-191.

TABLE 1. The s t a t u s of b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l of weeds i n Hawaii, 1981. (K=Kauai, O=Oahu, Mo=Holokai, M=Maui, H=Hawaii).

Weed Spec i e s S i t e of I n f e s t a t i o n I n s e c t o r Pathogen Spec i e s & Year

K O M o M H of F i r s t Re lease Remarks

1. Agera t ina ( = E u p a t o r i s ) - + + + adenophorum (Spreng . ) R. & R. [ Maui vamakani) Fam: cbmposi t a b

2 . Agera t ina (=Eupator ium) r i p a r i a (Rege l ) K . & R. (Hamakua pamakani)

3 . Clidemia h i r t a ( L . ) D. Don ( K o s t e r ' s c u r s e ) Fam: Melastomaceae

4 . Cyperus ro tundus L. ( n u t g r a s s ) Fam: Cyperaceae

5. Elephantopus m o l l i s H. B. K . ( e l e p h a n t ' s f o o t ) Fam: Compositae

Procec idochares u t il is Stone (Dip. : T e p h r i t i d a e ) 1945

Bidaema tophorus sp. (Lep. : P t e rophor idae ) 1973

Procec idochares a l a n i S t eyska l (Dip. : T e p h r i t i d a e ) 1974

Ce rcospo re l l a sp . ( p l a n t pathogen) 1975

L i o t h r i p s u r i c h i Karny (Thysanoptera : Th r ip idae ) 1953 -

Blepharomastix ebu l ea l i s (Guenee ) (Lep idop te r a : P y r a l i d a e ) 1970

Bac t ra venosoma ( Z e l l e r ) --- (Lep. : T o r t r i c i d a e ) 1925

Athesapeuta c y p e r i Marshal l (Col . : Cu rcu l ion idae ) 1925

Control complete a t Ulupalakua, Maui, s u b s t a n t i a l a t Puuwaawaa, Hawaii; p a r t i a l on Oahu.

S u b s t a n t i a l t o complete c o n t r o l , many l o c a l i t i e s on Hawaii.

S u b s t a n t i a l t o complete c o n t r o l , many l o c a t i o n s on Hawaii.

S u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l , many l o c a t i o n s on Hawaii.

Causes some damage t o p l a n t s on Oahu.

Recovered on Oahu i n October , 1974. Eva lua t ion pending.

I n e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l agen t , heavy p a r a s i t i s m a t t imes.

I n e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l agent .

T e t r a e u a r e s t a obscu r iven t r i s (Loew) P a r t i a l c o n t r o l on Kauai. (Dip . : T e p h r i t i d a e ) 1961

TABLE 1.--Continued.

Weed Spec i e s S i t e of I n f e s t a t i o n I n s e c t o r Pathogen Spec i e s & Year

K O M o M H of F i r s t Release Remarks

6 . Emex sp inosa Campd.

7 . Emex a u s t r a l i s S t e inh . (emex) Fam: Polygonaceae

8. Hypericum perforaturn L. (Klamath weed) Pam: Hypericaceae

9. Lantana camara L. ( l a n t a n a ) Fam: ~ e r b e n a c e a e

+ + + + Apion antiquum Gyl lenha l Cont ro l s u b s t a n t i a l on Maui, (Col . : Curcul i o n i d a e ) 1957 incomplete on Oahu and

Molokai. On Hawaii c o n t r o l var ing from complete (1200 m ) t o p a r t i a l (600 m ) ; no c o n t r o l below 150 m

Fpion violaceum - A. v i o l a c e u ~ and 5. n e o f a l l a x va r . ha r cyn i ae Hubenthal may be e s t a b l i s h e d but have (Col . : Curcul i o n i d a e ) 1962 n o t been recovered.

Other b iocon t ro l c a n d i d a t e s Apion n e o f a l l a x Warner s t ud i ed but no t in t roduced . (Co l . : Curcu l ion idae ) 1962

Z e u x i d i p l o s i s g i a r d i ( K i e f f e r ) S u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l on M t . (Dip . : Cecidomyiidae) 1965 H u a l a l a i , 2134 m e l e v a t i o n .

Chryso l ina quad r igemina (Su f f r i an ) P a r t i a l c o n t r o l , low (Col . : Chrysomelidae) 1965 popu la t i on .

Chryso l ina h y p e r i c i ( F o r s t e r ) P a r t i a l c o n t r o l ; spread t o (Co l . : Chrysomelidae) 1965 Volcano, Hawaii where i t is

e s t a b l i s h e d on Hypericum degener i Fosberg.

Aeren icops is championi Bates Not recovered; e s t ab l i shmen t (Col . : Ceranbycidae) 1902 doubt fu l .

Apion sp . Fa i l ed t o become e s t a b l i s h e d . (Col . : Cu rcu l ion idae ) 1902

Blepharomast ix a c u t a n g u l a l i s Fa i l ed t o become e s t a b l i s h e d . ( S n e l l e n ) (Lep. : P y r a l i d a e ) 1954

,Catabena e s u l a Druce (Lep. : Noctuidae) 1955

Diastema t i g r i s Guenee (Lep. : Noctuidae) 1954

Cremastobombycia l a n t a n e l l a Busck (Lep. : G r a c i l l a r i i d a e ) I902

E p i n o t i a l a n t a n a (Busck) (Lep. : T o r t r i c i d a e ) 1902

E u t r e t a xanthocha* Aldr ich m ~ r y p e t i d a e ) 1902

Evander xanthomelas Guerin (Col . : Cerambycidae) 1902

Hepia lus s p . (Lep.: Hep ia l i dae ) 1902

Hypena s t r i g a t a (F. ) (Lep. : ~ o c t u i d a e ) 1957

Lqptobyrsa decora Drake (Hemip. : Ting idae ) 1970

Octotoma undlachi S u f f r a i n (Col . : Chrysomel =-T dae ) 1953

Octotoma p l i c a t u l a ( F . ) (Col . : Chrysomelidae 1954

Seasona l , c ause s widespread d e f o l i a t i o n i n some a r e a s Heavily p a r a s i t i z e d by an Ichneumonid, Echthromorpha f u s c a t o r (Fab . ) .

Fa i l ed t o become e s t a b l i s h e d .

P re sen t on a l l i s l a n d s ; minor importance.

P r e s e n t on a l l i s l a n d s ; p a r t i a l c o n t r o l .

P r e s e n t on a l l i s l a n d s ; minor importance.

Fa i led t o become e s t a b l i s h e d .

Fa i led t o become e s t a b l i s h e d .

P r e s e n t on a l l i s l a n d s ; major Lepidopterous d e f o l i a t o r . Con t r i bu t e s p a r t i a l t o sub- s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l on Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai.

Spreading s lowly on Maui, Kauai and Hawaii; e v a l u a t i o n pending.

Fa i led t o propagate i n qua ran t i ne i n s e c t a r y .

Not recovered.

TABLE 1.--Continued.

S i t e of I n f e s t a t i o n I n s e c t o r Pathogen Spec i e s & Year Weed Spec i e s K O M o M H of F i r s t Re lease Remarks

- Octotoma s c a b r i p e n n i s Guerin (Co l . : Chrysomelidae) 1953

Ophiomyia l a n t a n a e F rogga t t (Dep. : Agromyzidae) 1902

Plag i o h a m n s p i n i p e n n i s Thompson (Col . : Cerambycidae) 1960

P l a t y p t i l i a p u s i l l i d a c t y l a ( W a l t e r )

Strymon bazoch i i qundlachianus "

( B a t e s ) (Lep. : Lycaenidae) 1902

Strymon echion (L . ) (Lep. : Lycaenidae) 1902

Synqamia haemor rho ida l i s Guenee (Lep. : P y r a l i d a e ) 19 5 6

Teleonemia s c rupu losa S t a l (Hem.: T ing idae ) 1902

Teleonemia vanduzeei Drake (Hem. : Ting idae ) 1952

Important l ea fminer i n some l o c a l i t i e s on Hawaii; com- plements o the r f o l i a r i n s e c t s .

Not e f f e c t i v e a s a c o n t r o l agent .

P a r t i a l c o n t r o l i n some r a i n f a l l a r e a s of 50-130 inches . Not adapted t o d r i e r a r e a s .

O f minor importance.

O f minor importance.

Of minor importance.

Well e s t a b l i s h e d ; c o n t r i b u t e s t o s t r e s s i n some l o c a l i t i e s .

Causes ex t ens ive d e f o l i a t i o n dur ing summer months.

Not recovered.

10. Melastoma malabathricum L. + - - - t (Malabar melastome, Ind i an rhododendron) Fam: Melastomaceae

11. Myrica f aya A i t . ( f i r e b u s h , f i r e t r e e )

12. Opuntia spp. ( p r i c k l y pear c a c t u s ) Fam: Cac taceae

Uropla ta q i r a r d J , P i c ( Col. : Chrysomel i d a e ) 1961

Bocchoris f a t u a l i s (Lede re r ) (Lep. : P y r a u s t i d a e ) 1958

Bocchoris a d i p a l i s Z e l l e r (Lep.: P y r a u s t i d a e )

Se l ca b r u n e l l a Hampson (Lep. : Nol idae)

S t r e p s i c r a t e s smi th i ana (Walsingham) (Lep.: O l e t h r e u t i d a e )

Dacty lopius ( C o c k e r e l l )

confusus -- (Horn. : Dac ty lop i idae )

C a c t o b l a s t i s cactorum (Berg) Lep. : Pyra l i d a e ) 1950

Important b lo t ch type l e a f miner which causes cons ide rab l e f o l i a r s t r e s s ; we l l adapted t o Hawaiian c o n d i t i o n s and complements o t h e r f o l i a r i n t r o d u c t i o n s .

Leaf r o l l i n g c a t e r p i l l a r s e s t a b l i s h e d on Kauai and Hawaii a t low popula t ion l e v e l s .

Leaf r o l l i n g c a t e r p i l l a r s e s t a b l i s h e d on Kauai and Hawaii a t low popula t ion l e v e l s .

C a t e r p i l l a r s feed i n flower buds, bore i n t o te rmina l s tems and cause f o l i a r damage and dieback. P a r t i a l c o n t r o l . Also e s t a b l i s h e d on Tibouchina u r v i l l e a n a i n Volcano a r ea .

Fa i l ed t o become e s t a b l i s h e d on M . faya; however, i t is - e s t a b l i s h e d on fi. C e r i f e r q L. i n Panaewa F o r e s t , Hawaii.

Other b i o c o n t r o l c and ida t e s inc lud ing a pathogen were s t ud i ed but f a i l e d hos t s p e c i E i c i t y t e s t s o r f a i l e d t o propagate i n qua ran t i ne i n s e c t a r y .

S u b s t a n t i a l t o complete c o n t r o l on Hawaii by ~ a c t y i o p i u s and C a c t o b l a s t i s .

S u b s t a n t i a l t o complete c o n t r o l on Hawaii toge ther with Dactylopius. (Wind borne t o a l l i s l a n d s ) .

TABLE 1. - -Cont inued.

S i t e o f I n f e s t a t i o n I n s e c t o r P a t h o g e n S p e c i e s 6 Year Weed S p e c i e s K O M o M H o f F i r s t R e l e a s e Remar k s

1 3 . P l u c e o d o r a t a ( L . ) C a s s + + - ' + + ( h a i r y f l e a b a n e , s o u r b u s h ) Fap.: Compos i t ae

1 4 . Rubus p e n e t r a n s B a i l e y + + + . I . ( p r i c k l y F l o r i d a b l a c k b e r r y ) Fam: Rosaceae

A r c h l a g o c h e i r u s f u n e s t u s (Thomson)

A c i n i a p i c t u r a t a (Snow) --- ( D i p . : T e p h r i t i d a e ) 1958

T r i c h o t a p h e a e n i q m a t i c a C l a r k e ( L e p . : G e l e c h i i d a e ) 1957

S c h r e c k e n s t e i n i a f e s t a l i e l l a (Hubner ) (Lep. : H e l i o n i d a e ) 1963

C r o e s i a zimmermani C l a r k e ( L e p . : T o r t r i c i d a e ) 1964

P r i o p h o r u s mor i o L e p e l e t i e r (Hym. : T e n t h r e d i n i d a e ) 1 9 6 8

Bembecia marg i n a t a H a r t is (Lep . : A e g e r i d a e ) 1963

D i s t r i b u t i o n v e r y l i m i t e d ; t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f some p l a n t s o b s e r v e d . Rep laced D a c t y l o p i u s and C a c t o b l a s t i s a t 853 m i n some s i t u a t i o n s .

I n e f f e c t i v e .

I n e f f e c t i v e .

T h i s l e a f s k e l e t o n i z e r i s i n c r e a s i n g l y a c t i v e a t Vo lcano , Hawai i and is p r e s e n t l y t h i r d i n i m p o r t a n c e . S e a s o n a i .

L e a f r o l l e r c a t e r p i l l a r s c a u s e f o l i a r damage and a r e wide- s p r e a d i n h o s t r a n g e . A c t i v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r and is p r e s e n t l y most i m p o r t a n t a g e n t .

T h i s s a w f l y i s g r a d u a l l y ex- t e n d i n g i t s r a n g e and a l t h o u g h i t c a u s e s much f o l i a r d a n a g e , i t a p p e a r s t o be s e a s o n a l and t h e r e f o r e r anked second i n i m p o r t a n c e . A l l t h r e e e s t a b l i s h e d i n s e c t s c a u s e some damage a t p r e s e n t on Hawai i .

F a i l e d t o become e s t a b l i s h e d .

15. Schinus t e r e b i n t h i f o l i u s Raddi + + + + ( B r a z i l i a n p e p p e r t r e e , B r a z i l i a n h o l l y , Chris tmas b e r r y , w i l e l a i k i ) Fam: Anacardiaceae

16. T r ibu lu s c i s t o i d e s L. (nohu) Fam: Zygophyllaceae

17. T r ibu lu s t e r r e s t r i s L. ( punc tu re v i n e ) Fam: Zygophyllaceae

18. europaeus L. ( s o r s e )

Chlamisus g ibbos? ( F . ) (Col . : Chrysomelldae)

Fa i l ed t o become e s t a b l i s h e d .

Bruchus a t r o n o t a t u s P i c -- --- O f t h e t h r e e l i s t e d agen t s (Col . : Bruchidae) 1960 f o r t h i s h o s t , on ly t h e f i r s t

two a r e wel l e s t a b l i s h e d but Episimus u t i l i s Zimmerman a r e g i v i n g only p a r t i a l . c o n t r o l (Lep. : T o r t r i c i d a e ) 1954 on Kauai, O a h u , and Hawaii.

Many b i o c o n t r o l c and ida t e s Crasimorpha i n f u s c a t a Hodges were s t u d i e d and t e s t e d bu t (Lep. : Ge l ech i idae ) 1961 were found nonspec i f i c .

Mic ro l a r i nus l y p r i f o r m i s - O f t h e two l i s t e d b iocon t ro l Wollaston agkn t s , M. l y p r i f o r m i s has (Col . : Curcu l ion idae ) 1963 been t he most e f f e c t i v e .

Micro la r inus l a r e y n i i Spread n a t u r a l l y t o Molokai and ( J a c q u e l i n do Val ) t o v a r i o u s i n f e s t a t i o n s 'on each (Col . : Curcul i on idae ) 1952 i s l a n d . Cont ro l has been

s u b s t a n t i a l t o complete.

Apion u l i c i s ( F o r s t e r ) Es t ab l i shed on Haui and Hawaii (Col . : Curcul i on idae ) 1952 but e x e r t s on ly p a r t i a l c o n t r o l .

Apion s c u t e l l a r e Kirby F a i l e d t o become e s t a b l i s h e d . (Col . : Curcul i on idae ) 1961