Combining Odontochronology, Tooth Wear Assessment, and Linear Enamel Hypoplasia (LEH) Recording to...

Combining Odontochronology, ToothWear Assessment, and Linear EnamelHypoplasia (LEH) Recording to AssessPig Domestication in Neolithic Henan,ChinaA. PIKE-TAY,a* X. MA,b Y. HOU,c F. LIANG,c M. LINd AND V. PETERSONa

a Department of Anthropology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USAb Henan Administration of Cultural Heritage, Zhengzhou, Chinac Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Zhengzhou, Chinad Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

ABSTRACT Mandibles of Sus scrofa (wild boar/pig) from ritual pits H160 and H208 of Longshangang, a Late YangshaoNeolithic site in Xichuan County, Henan, were analyzed for evidence of domestication. Three methods of den-tal analysis were applied: odontochronology, tooth wear assessment, and linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) re-cording, which provide age at death, season of kill, and season of birth data. We investigate whether: (i) theLEH height frequencies on the second molars of the mandibles correspond with the possibility of doublefarrowing and (2) double farrowing is supported by the season of and age at slaughter data. If so, these datasuggest a substantial degree of human management of suids at the site. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Chinese Neolithic; Yangshao; pig domestication; odontochronology; enamel hypoplasias; toothwear assessment

Introduction

The domesticated pig (Sus scrofa) has long been one ofthe most economically and culturally significantanimals in China (e.g. Yuan and Flad, 2002; Yuanet al., 2010). Apart from dogs, pigs were the earliestChinese domesticated animals. While recent geneticstudies of pigs suggest that multiple domesticationsmost likely took place across the Old World (Larsonet al., 2005), it is also possible that multiple domestica-tions of pig took place within China (Flad et al.,2006:188). Yuan and colleagues (Yuan, 2001; Yuanet al., 2010) conclude that the earliest evidence forpig domestication comes from the Xinglongwa Site,Chifeng, Inner Mongolia (8200–7000 BP); the CishanSite, Wu’an, Hebei Province (8000 BP); the Jiahu Site,Wuyang, Henan Province (8500 BP); and Kuahuqiao,Xiaoshan, in Zhejiang Province (8200–7000 BP).

In this study, a continuation of a project begun insummer of 2010 (Pike-Tay and Ma, 2011), we ana-lyzed the dentition of pig mandibles from ritual pitsH160 and H208 of Longshangang, a Neolithic site inXichuan County, Henan Province, for evidence ofdomestication. The mandibles of wild boar of knownage and date of death from Henan and Zhejiang prov-inces were also examined. Three methods of dental analy-sis were applied to the Susmandibles: odontochronology,tooth wear assessment, and linear enamel hypoplasia(LEH) recording. Resultant data regarding the suids’ ageat death, season of slaughter, and season of birth wereevaluated for evidence of human stock management.

Materials

The archaeological site and samples

The Longshangang site from which the pig mandibleswere excavated is located in the village of Huanglianshu,

* Correspondence to: Anne Pike-Tay, Department of Anthropology, VassarCollege, Campus Box 411, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, USA.e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 1 July 2013Revised 29 December 2013Accepted 10 January 2014

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. (2014)Published online in Wiley Online Library(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.2395

Xichuan County, Henan Province, on the tableland eastof the Naoyu River (geographic coordinates 111.5°E and33.1°N) (see Figs. S1a,b; S2). Xichuan County is locatedin southwestern Henan Province, adjacent to southernShaanxi and Northwestern Hubei. The northwesternarea of the county is mountainous, with hills extendingto the southeast and lowland valleys in the central andsouthernmost parts. The site is still undergoingexcavation and analysis. Our study sample is from the5000-m2 area excavated between May 2008 andOctober 2009. Longshangang’s cultural levels span atime range of several thousand years including the Ming,Qing, Song, Han, and Western Zhou Dynasties, theWangwan Three Cultures, Shijiahe Culture, QujialinCulture, and the late Yangshao Culture. The majorityof the cultural and faunal remains come from theNeolithic levels, particularly the late Yanghshao(approximately 5500–5000 BP) (Lin, 2011:12–13). Wildsows in Henan normally produce one litter of young peryear during the spring, while double farrowing occurswith domestication (Luo, 2010). Evidence has so far pro-vided an unclear story of the origin of pig domesticationin this region of China (Ma, 2005).A total of 15 286 fragments of faunal remains from

late Yangshao, Qujialing, and Shijiahe neolithiccultures (ranging chronologically earliest to latest)were excavated from the 5000-m2 area. The lateYangshao stratum yielded a number of identified spec-imens (NISP) count of 9520, along with 11 house foun-dations and 36 ash pits. Eleven mammalian specieshave been identified thus far (Lin, 2011: Tables 1 and2, pp. 16–17). Six of the ash pits (H121, H160,H165, H205, H206, and H208) in the west of theexcavation area stood apart from the other 30: 4434pig bone fragments (60.9% of all the Sus remains exca-vated), 89 fragments of middle-sized animal remains,and 60 unidentified fragments were found in these sixlate Yangshao pits. With the exception of a completepig skeleton encountered in H206, nearly all the Susremains in the other five pits were mandibles, withfew maxillary fragments (Ibid).The sample for the present study consists of the pig

mandibles from pits H160 (Sus NISP = 1998) and

H208 (Sus NISP= 848). In addition to being the onlyskeletal element present in these pits, the mandibleswere systematically arranged in rows in pit H208,while the more fragmented mandibles of H160 exhibitburning. Lin’s actualistic experiments support aninterpretation of defleshed mandibles having beendeposited in this pit (2011:65–74). Our sample fromH160 was comprised of teeth from seven completemandibles, 94 hemi-mandible fragments (c. 47 left/right pairs), and 82 single-sided fragments. The H208sample consists of teeth and dental series from 45complete mandibles, 32 hemi-mandible fragments(16 left/right pairs), and 59 single-sided fragments.

The control samples

The modern reference collection of the completemandibles of 48 wild boar (15 males, 17 females, and16 juveniles of unknown sex) of established age andknown season of death are from the Wangwushanmountains near the Longshangang site (for sampledetails, see Pike-Tay and Ma, 2011). The wild boarsin this collection were hunted by the Department ofForestry of the Henan Government during a 1-monthperiod from middle December 2005 to middle January2006. An additional modern sample of 39 wild boarmandibles (16 males, 19 females, and 4 juveniles ofunknown sex) from the Quzhou mountain area ofZhejiang Province in southeastern subtropical zone isemployed in the current study. The local government’sforestry rangers hunted these wild suids from October16 through November 17, 2008. We identified four agegroups within these two regional reference samples onthe basis of tooth eruption and wear (following Grant(1982) and Bull and Payne (1982)): ca. 8 months, ca.20months, ca. 32months, and ca. 44months. Werecognize that variability in wild boar size and shape existsacross space and through time. Therefore, while wecannot be sure that modern wild boar are the same asthose from the Neolithic, for the purposes ofodontochronology, the correspondence of LEH withdouble farrowing, and overall tooth size similarities con-sidered here, we feel justified in referring to these recent

Table 1. Expected age at winter death according to season of farrow with corresponding MWS range

Farrowing season H208 MWS range H160 MWS range Combined range

First winter spring (10–11 mos) MWS 7–10 MWS 8–10 MWS 7–10autumn (5–6 mos) MWS 4–5 MWS 4–7 MWS 4–7

Second winter spring (22–23 mos) MWS 17–32 MWS 22–27 MWS 17–32autumn (17–18 mos) MWS 14–15 MWS 15–21 MWS 14–21

Third winter spring (34–35 mos) MWS 36–43 MWS 35 MWS 35–43autumn (29–30 mos) MWS 35 MWS 32 MWS 32–35

A. Pike-Tay et al.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. (2014)

wild boar in this exploration of the plausibility of combin-ing the methods and techniques of analysis outlined here.

Methods

As the metric analysis leading to the initial hypothesisthat pigs from Longshangang are domesticated is de-tailed in a Chinese language Masters thesis by one ofus (Lin, 2011), we summarize the results below. Astooth wear is ongoing, the width of molar is mostunchangeable as opposed to its length, which leadsscholars to conclude that molar width is more reliablethan length for assessing the difference between wildand domestic pigs (Flannery, 1983; Kusatman, 1991).Furthermore, pig molar width has also been success-fully employed in recognizing pig domestication in

Chinese Neolithic samples (Ma, 2003; 2007). As thefirst molar (M1) yields more ambiguous results,researchers tend to apply more the reliable M2 andM3 data. For the present study, Lin compared thelength, mesial width, and distal width of the occlusalsurfaces of the three mandibular molars (Table S1)from pit H160 to the modern wild boar samples fromWangwushan, where the environment is similar to thatof the Longshangang Site (see Figures 1a,b; 2a,b; 3).As the figures reveal, two different patterns can be

seen in the metric comparisons between the Neolithicand modern wild pig samples. The first is shown inFigures 1-a and b, where it is difficult to distinguishNeolithic samples from modern ones. In contrast,relatively distinct differences are shown in the otherfigures (Figures 2-a, 2-b, and Figure 3). The secondpattern shows that the metric data of M2 and M3 from

Figure 1. a,b. Comparison of the length, mesial width, and distal width of the occlusal surfaces of the first mandibular molars of Wangwushan wildboar to the pigs of the Neolithic Yangshao Pit H160.

Figure 2. a,b. Comparison of the length, mesial width, and distal width of the occlusal surfaces of the second mandibular molars of Wangwushan wildboar to the pigs of the Neolithic Yangshao Pit H160.

Odontochronology, Tooth Wear, and LEH study of Neolithic Pigs in China


the Yangshao pit H160 are obviously smaller than thosefromWangwushan wild boar. Different patterns can alsobe recognized in the mesial and distal widths of the firstmolar M1, although this is not as clear as with M2 andM3. Overall, the molar dimension data from Yangshaopit H160 pigs are different from the Wangwushan wildboar. Lin attributes those dimensions that run into thewild boar range to individual body differences, or thefact that a small number of wild boars may indeed havebeen present in Yangshao pit H160. (If the latter is thecase, then some wild boar might still have been huntedand consumed by late Neolithic people). Lin concludedfrom the statistically significant differences between theM2 and M3 data that the remains from pit H160 werelikely those of early domesticates (2011:25–34).Using Lin’s (2011) conclusions as a starting point,

three methods are used in the present study to evaluatethis possibility of domesticated rather than wild pigs asrepresented by the mandibles from the H160 andH208 pits at Longshangang: mandibular eruption andwear stage assessment, LEHs, and odontochronology.

Mandibular eruption and wear stage assessment

The first and most basic technique, mandibular eruptionand wear stage assessment allowed for the assignment ofapproximate age based on the presence and stages oferuption and wear of pig and/or wild boar teeth in themandible (Bull and Payne, 1982; Grant, 1982; RolettandChiu, 1994;Ma, 2007). This method entails assigningeach molar and P4 per individual a wear stage. Each stagecorresponds to a number which when summed together

for all the teeth considered equals a mandibular wearstage (MWS). Due to the small number of complete man-dibles, the right side of complete mandibles and mandib-ular fragments with at least two observable molars wereexamined for pigs from pits H208 and H160.The sample from H160 furnished 40 hemi-mandibles

from a probable 20 individuals as well as a single hemi-mandible each from two different individuals thatcould be assigned to wear stages (per Grant, 1982).Pit H208 allowed for 52 wear assignments on the basisof seven hemi-mandible fragments and 45 nearlycomplete mandibles.

LEHs

The second method involved recording the presence ofLEH on the teeth, which may indicate a period of nu-tritional stress in the life of an animal. Pioneering workon suids has been done in this regard by Dobney andcolleagues (Dobney and Ervynck, 1998, 2000; Dobneyet al., 2004; Dobney et al., 2007). Their work has dem-onstrated that LEH occurrences on domesticated pigsfrom archaeological sites are neither rare nor random.Moreover their work provides a chronology of physio-logical stress events that explain why LEH is alwayspresent at same heights of molar crowns:

…birth and weaning are the direct causal agents oftwo discrete peaks in the height distribution ofLEH on the first permanent molar (M1), and aperiod of under nutrition encountered during the firstwinter of the animals’ life is thought to be the maincausal factor for the occurrence of the single distinctLEH peak noted on the M2. A broad peak on the M3is similarly interpreted, i.e. as reflecting the animals’second winter (Dobney et al., 2007: 59).

LEH occurs in wild boar as well, but at a consistentlylow frequency (Ibid), as is the case with the controlsample of wild boar from Henan referred to in thisstudy (Luo, 2010).To see if the Chinese archaeological sample showed

the same patterns, the frequency of LEH within thearchaeological populations represented by the suids frompits H160 and H208 was evaluated by height frequencygraphs and by the index defined by Dobney et al. as:

index population Að Þ ¼ average ½F tooth x;cusp yð Þ population Að Þ=

F tooth x;cusp y½ � All populationsð ÞÞ

where F is the number of LEH lines observed divided bythe number of specimens observed calculated per

Figure 3. Comparison of the length and width of the occlusal surfacesof the third mandibular molars of Wangwushan wild boar to the pigs ofthe Neolithic Yangshao Pit H160.

A. Pike-Tay et al.


population, for each individual tooth cusp, when the num-ber of specimens is greater than zero (2007: 60–61). Theindex is a comparison of the relative frequency of LEH(averaged over all the tooth cusps) for all populationstogether. The standard deviation of the calculatedaverage describes variation between the teeth andcusps within a population (Ibid: 61).If the LEH frequencies align with the seasonal

pattern outlined by Dobney and colleagues, then itmay be possible to test for double farrowing as thetop of the second molar emerges first. An M2 of apiglet born in spring thus has greater time to de-velop compared to a piglet born in autumn (Dobneyet al., 2004; Vanpoucke et al., 2007). It is expected,therefore, that an LEH observed on the M2 of aspring-farrowed piglet would be lower than anLEH on the M2 of an autumn-farrowed piglet. Forthis reason, the height frequencies of cusp A ofthe M2 were analyzed.The sample for LEH study of Sus from pit H160

consisted of 21 right hemi-mandibles from differentindividuals. Pit H208’s LEH study was based on thewhole (conjoined) mandibles of 32 individuals andseven hemi-mandibular fragments. We did not usethe entire assemblage of H208’s 45 complete mandi-bles for LEH because 13 of these were too young(not even the first molar had erupted) to do LEHassessment on.

Odontochronology

The third technique, odontochronology, entailed themeasuring and recording of incremental growth struc-tures in the root cementum of the suids’ thin-sectioned(c.30 microns thick) teeth as viewed under polarizedlight microscopy at 100× or 250×. This method isbased on the fact that a yearly cycle is marked in themineralized tissues of the teeth of most high-latitudeand temperate zone mammals by one wide (growth)zone, temporally corresponding to the warmer seasons;in addition to one narrow annulus (slow growth) and/or a ‘line of arrested growth’, temporally correspondingto ‘winter’, and observable in the dental cementum and/or dentine (cf. Mina and Klevezal, 1970; Castanet,1981; Francillon-Vieillot et al., 1990; Lieberman, 1993a;1993b; Pike-Tay, 1995; Klevezal, 1996; Pike-Tay andMa, 2011). For full accounts of protocol and techniquesfor specimen preparation, thin sectioning, and datarecording for odontochronology, see e.g. Lieberman(1993a,1993b), Pike-Tay (1995), Burke (1995), andPike-Tay and Ma (2011). The effectiveness ofodontochronology for both season of death and

independent age at death determinations for Sus fromHenan has been demonstrated (Pike-Tay andMa, 2011).

Results

Odontochronology, season of death

The samples from H160 that underwentodontochronological study included the M1s from22 different pigs, 19 of which provided results. FromH208, the M1s of 19 different individuals wereprocessed and 16 provided results (Table S2). All ofthe pigs from pit H208 were culled from winter to earlyspring, with the most kills in early spring (Figure 4a). Themandibles from pit H160 provided indications of latefall/early winter, winter, and early spring with most killshaving occurred while the winter annulus was still in for-mation in the tooth root (Figure 4b).

Results: MWS assessment

The frequency distributions of the MWSs provide aview of the relative age at death (Table 1; Figure 5 a,b, c). Multiple peak slaughter ages are evident in bothsamples, which seems to contradict the results fromthe odontochronology study. One possible explana-tion for this may have been the occurrence of doublefarrowing. If there was a spring and an autumn farrowand one season in particular such as late winter/earlyspring was the preferred season of slaughter (asevidenced by the cementum annuli analysis above), itwould be expected that a piglet born in spring andkilled in its first winter would be 10–11months old.Likewise, a piglet born in autumn would be5–6months old by late winter. Using this hypothesis,it is possible to determine which mandible wear stagescorrespond with which season of farrow.Table 1 describes the corresponding mandible

wear stages with age, while Figures 5a and b showthe frequency distribution with the season of deathdenoted above, following Vanpoucke et al. (2007).Between mandible wear stages 17 and 30 (coincidingwith a spring farrowed group if double farrowing oc-curred), pit H208 has only three individuals, an in-teresting absence that would indicate that humanswere waiting longer to kill pigs in their secondwinter. This gap is not evident at H160, and whencompared, more pigs were killed in their secondwinter at H160 than H208. If the age of the pig atslaughter held any meaning for the rituals conductedat these pits, then this may show that the pits wereused for different practices.



Results: LEH assessment

Using the method of recording LEH outlined by Dobneyand colleagues described above, three populations wereexamined: the northern wild boar control population fromHenan; the southern wild boar control population fromZhejiang province; and the archaeological populationtaken from pits H208 and H160. The archaeologicalsample was analyzed by pit and included in the indexseparately. The index was calculated using the formulafromDobney and Ervynck (1998). Tables 2a and 2b showtotal numbers of cusps examined and LEH recorded forthe archaeological and recent Sus teeth. The relativefrequency index (Figure 6) revealed that the archaeologi-cal population of suids from Longshangang had a higherfrequency of LEHs than the modern control populationof wild boar (see also Luo, 2010 wild boar results for theHenan control sample), indicating greater reliance onhumans. Moreover, the height distribution of LEHs onthe M2 from the Longshangang pigs exhibited multiplepeaks. In all cases, the sample sizes were small, limitingthe extent of any conclusions drawn. Nevertheless, someaspects stand out.

The archaeological population (pits H208 andH160) had a greater frequency of LEH, exhibitingmore depressions and pits than lines. Moreover, asmany of the first molars from pit H160 were very worn,existing LEH may have disappeared. The number ofmandibles from H160 was significantly smaller thanH208 and the modern control populations. TheH208 population had the highest frequency of overallLEH. Like those on the H160, most of the LEH onteeth from H208 consisted of pits and depressions inthe enamel (e.g. Fig. S3).Only two M1 were found to have more than one

LEH (both had two): the first was from the northernwild boar control population and the second from theH208 population. A single M2, from the southern wildboar control population, and one M3, from the H208population, contained two lines. The H160 populationhad no molars with multiple LEH. Most LEH werefound on the M2 (51 out of 106) followed by the M1(36 out of 106) and M3 (19 out of 106). This couldbe an artifact of the heavy wear on an M1 by the timean M3 has fully erupted. In other words, if an LEH wasvisible on M3, the M1 was usually too worn for LEH to

Figure 4. a Season of death of Sus from pit H208 as determined by dental cementum analysis. Data in Table S2. b Season of death of Sus from pitH160 as determined by dental cementum analysis. Data in Table S2. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

A. Pike-Tay et al.


be observed on a macroscopic level. All LEH on themodern control sample observed were slight lines ordepressions that were generally very high on the cusp.The low, overall frequency of LEH in both archaeo-

logical and modern samples may explain why thepattern of height frequency does not fit with that

observed for the Northern European suids by Dobneyand Ervynck (2000). Figure 7a, b, c, d, e, f, g depictsthe height frequency for each cusp of the three molars.Moreover, in an LEH study of Sus from 19 Chinesearchaeological sites ranging from early Neolithic to lateWarring States, Luo (2010) did not find the sameseasonal pattern as Dobney and Ervynck.The LEH height frequencies of the M2 were

examined here (Figure 7 c,d) for evidence of doublefarrowing. Multiple peaks on cusp A of M2 observedfor H160 archaeological sample are consistent withexpectations of double farrowing because peaks areobserved above and below the midline of the tooth.Three peaks in H160 were observed, with 52% of

Figure 5. (a) Frequency distribution of H208. (b) Mandible wear stagefrequency distribution H160. c Mandible wear stage frequency distribu-tion, combined samples. This figure is available in colour online atwileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

Table 2a. Total cusps examined

Cusp Northern control Southern control H208 H160 Total

M1a 40 40 41 19 140M1b 40 40 41 19 140M2a 30 40 19 18 107M2b 30 40 19 18 107M3a 9 18 12 4 43M3b 9 18 12 4 43M3c 9 18 12 4 43Total 167 214 156 86 623

Table 2b. Total LEH observed

Cusp Northern control Southern control H208 H160 Total

M1a 8 2 13 1 24M1b 3 2 7 0 12M2a 11 8 6 4 29M2b 4 8 6 4 22M3a 1 2 7 3 13M3b 0 1 4 0 5M3c 0 0 1 0 1Total 27 23 44 12 106

Figure 6. Index of LEH frequency. This figure is available in colour onlineat wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.



Figure 7. (a) Frequency distribution of LEH height on M1, cusp a. (b) Frequency distribution of LEH heights on M1, cusp b. (c) Frequency distributionof LEH height on M2, cusp a. (d) Frequency distribution of LEH height on M2, cusp b. (e) Frequency distribution of LEH heights on M3, cusp a. (f)Frequency distribution of LEH heights onM3, cusp b. (g) Frequency distribution of LEH heights onM3, cusp c. (h) Smoothed frequency distribution ofLEH height on M2, cusp a, using moving average (n = 1).

A. Pike-Tay et al.


LEH observed on M2 of H160 between 2.01 and2.50mm, while 25% were at 4.01–4.50mm andanother 25% at 6.01–6.50mm. The highest peak,at 6.01–6.50mm, is just above the mid-line of thecusp. For H208, however, the LEH were allgenerally located on the lower half of the cusp(highest frequencies at 2.01–2.50mm [33%] and5.01–5.50mm [33%], with a small peak at 4.01–4.50mm[16.67%]), and their nearness may be indicative ofthe same life event. In addition and contrary toexpectations, the both modern, wild groupsexhibited multiple peaks but with no discerniblepattern. When the frequency distributions aresmoothed with a moving average (n= 1), the resultsare similar (Figure 7h).While double farrowing may explain the unusual

pattern of LEH, the individual variation of toothdevelopment and overall low frequency of LEHmay also be the result of greater access to highernutrient food stuffs during the winter provided byhumans at Longshangang. In other words, whilethe results for LEH show that the archaeologicalsample was likely domesticated, alone the evidencefor double farrowing, although slightly in its favor,is ambiguous.

Discussion and conclusions

As noted above, in his initial study of the Sus mandiblesfrom the late Yangshao stratum of Longshangang, Lin(2011) suggested that the mandibles from the H160and H208 pits were those of domesticated pigs becausethe size differences of the M2 and M3 between thesamples from H160 and Wangwushan (modern wildboar) are statistically significant. The results of theapplication of the three methods discussed here lendsupport to this initial hypothesis.The season at death study indicates that the pigs

from both pits were slaughtered during winter intoearly spring. Interestingly, the MWS frequencydistribution, when analyzed for season of slaughter,corresponds to a preferred winter slaughter ifdouble farrowing was occurring (which happens asa result of domestication). While the appearanceof multiple peaks of the M2 LEH height distribu-tion may indicate double farrowing, the overalllow frequency of LEH prevents a robust conclusionin this regard. That said, the study of LEH may inand of itself correspond with pig domestication ifthe animals, which were the primary animal proteinsource of both economic and social value inNeolithic China, were provisioned during winter.

In sum, these multiple lines of evidence suggest asignificant degree of human management of theLongshangang pig population.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Henan Provincial Institute of CulturalRelics and Archaeology and Vassar College’s Under-graduate Research Summer Institute, Faculty ResearchFund, and Environmental Research Institute for generoussupport of this project. We also gratefully acknowledgethe laboratory assistance of Vassar College students KateCzechowski and Lily Yachen Sun. Finally, we extendthanks to our anonymous reviewers for their helpfuland insightful recommendations.

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Supporting information

Supporting information may be found in the onlineversion of this article at the publisher’s web site.

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Combining Odontochronology, Tooth Wear Assessment, and Linear Enamel Hypoplasia (LEH) Recording to...

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