Cloning and Genetic Modification (GM/GMO's)

ONE ACTION. ONE MILLION CONSEQUENCES. Coming Soon

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I. SUB-EXHIBIT

INFORMATION ABOUT CELLS AND GENETICS

At a microscopic level, we are all composed of

cells. Look at yourself in a mirror -- what you see is

about 10 trillion cells divided into about 200 different

types. Our muscles are made of muscle cells, our livers

of liver cells, and there are even very specialized types

of cells that make the enamel for our teeth or the clear

lenses in our eyes!

If you want to understand how your body

works, you need to understand cells. Everything

from reproduction to infections to repairing a broken

bone happens down at the cellular level. If you want to understand new frontiers

like biotechnology and genetic engineering, you need to understand cells as well.

A. CELLS

The cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living

organism. Cells are the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and are often

called the "building blocks of life".

The word cell comes from the Latin cella, meaning "small room". It was coined by

Robert Hooke in his book Micrographia (1665), in which he compared the cork cells he saw

through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in.

The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. The cell theory, first developed in

1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are

composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that vital functions

of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information

necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next

generation of cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.

Cells consist of protoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many

biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular

(consisting of a single cell; including most bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and

animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species,

humans contain about 100 trillion (1014) cells. Most plant and animal cells are between 1

and 100 micrometres and therefore are visible only under the microscope.

http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/cellular-microscopic/human-reproduction.htm

http://news.discovery.com/biotechnology/


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There are two types of cells, eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotes,

which do not. Prokaryotic cells are usually single-celled organisms, while eukaryotic cells

can be either single-celled or part of multicellular organisms.

Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth. They are simpler and smaller

than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus.

Prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a

prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the

cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid.

Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These

cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a

thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as

compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound

compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among

these is a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic

cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus."

Figure 1.0 Structure of a plant cell. Figure 1.1 Structure of an animal cell.


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For a layman, the primary difference between plants and animals is that the former

remains fixed, while the latter has the ability to move themselves from one place to

another. But, there is more to this that differentiates a plant from an animal, in terms of

their cell anatomical structure and parts. Listed below are some of the distinguishing

features between a plant cell and an animal cell.

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell wall: Absent Present (formed of

cellulose)

Shape: Round (irregular

shape)

Rectangular (fixed

shape)

Vacuole: One or more small

vacuoles (much smaller

than plant cells).

One, large central

vacuole taking up

90% of cell volume.

Centrioles: Present in all animal

cells

Only present in lower

plant forms.

Chloroplast: Animal cells don't have

chloroplasts

Plant cells have

chloroplasts because

they make their own

food

Cytoplasm: Present Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum

(Smooth and Rough):

Present Present

Ribosomes: Present Present


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Animal Cell Plant Cell

Mitochondria: Present Present

Plastids: Absent Present

Golgi Apparatus: Present Present

Plasma Membrane: only cell membrane cell wall and a cell

membrane

Microtubules/Microfilaments: Present Present

Flagella: May be found in some

cells

May be found in some

cells

Lysosomes: Lysosomes occur in

cytoplasm.

Lysosomes usually not

evident.

Nucleus: Present Present

Cilia: Present It is very rare

B. INSIDE THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information

processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it

stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which

include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell

division).


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Only the cells of advanced

organisms, known as eukaryotes,

have a nucleus. Generally there is only

one nucleus per cell, but there are

exceptions, such as the cells of slime

molds and the Siphonales group of

algae. Simpler one-celled organisms

(prokaryotes), like the bacteria and

cyanobacteria, don't have a nucleus.

In these organisms, all of the cell's

information and administrative

functions are dispersed throughout

the cytoplasm.

The spherical nucleus typically occupies about 10 percent of a eukaryotic cell's

volume, making it one of the cell's most prominent features. A double-layered membrane,

the nuclear envelope, separates the contents of the nucleus from the cellular cytoplasm.

The envelope is riddled with holes called nuclear pores that allow specific types and sizes

of molecules to pass back and forth between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It is also

attached to a network of tubules and sacs, called the endoplasmic reticulum, where protein

synthesis occurs, and is usually studded with ribosomes.

The semifluid matrix found inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm. Within the

nucleoplasm, most of the nuclear material consists of chromatin, the less condensed form

of the cell's DNA that organizes to form chromosomes during mitosis or cell division. The

nucleus also contains one or more nucleoli, organelles that synthesize protein-producing

macromolecular assemblies called ribosomes, and a variety of other smaller components,

such as Cajal bodies, GEMS (Gemini of coiled bodies), and interchromatin granule clusters.

Chromatin and Chromosomes - Packed inside the nucleus of every human cell is

nearly 6 feet of DNA, which is divided into 46 individual molecules, one for each

chromosome and each about 1.5 inches long. Packing all this material into a microscopic

cell nucleus is an extraordinary feat of packaging. For DNA to function, it can't be crammed

into the nucleus like a ball of string. Instead, it is combined with proteins and organized

into a precise, compact structure, a dense string-like fiber called chromatin.

The Nucleolus - The nucleolus is a membrane-less organelle within the nucleus that

manufactures ribosomes, the cell's protein-producing structures. Through the microscope,

the nucleolus looks like a large dark spot within the nucleus. A nucleus may contain up to

four nucleoli, but within each species the number of nucleoli is fixed. After a cell divides, a

nucleolus is formed when chromosomes are brought together into nucleolar organizing


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regions. During cell division, the nucleolus disappears. Some studies suggest that the

nucleolus may be involved with cellular aging and, therefore, may affect the senescence of

an organism.

The Nuclear Envelope - The nuclear envelope is a double-layered membrane that

encloses the contents of the nucleus during most of the cell's lifecycle. The space between

the layers is called the perinuclear space and appears to connect with the rough

endoplasmic reticulum. The envelope is perforated with tiny holes called nuclear pores.

These pores regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm,

permitting some to pass through the membrane, but not others. The inner surface has a

protein lining called the nuclear lamina, which binds to chromatin and other nuclear

components. During mitosis, or cell division, the nuclear envelope disintegrates, but

reforms as the two cells complete their formation and the chromatin begins to unravel and

disperse.

Nuclear Pores - The nuclear envelope is perforated with holes called nuclear pores.

These pores regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm,

permitting some to pass through the membrane, but not others. Building blocks for

building DNA and RNA are allowed into the nucleus as well as molecules that provide the

energy for constructing genetic material.

C. DNA

DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the genetic code

of organisms. This includes animals, plants, protists, archaea and bacteria.

DNA is in each cell in the organism and tells cells what

proteins to make. A cell's proteins determine its function. DNA

is inherited by children from their parents. This is why

children share traits with their parents, such as skin, hair and

eye color. The DNA in a person is a combination of the DNA

from each of their parents.

DNA was first isolated (extracted from cells) by Swiss

physician Friedrich Miescher in 1869, when he was working

on bacteria from the pus in surgical bandages. The molecule

was found in the nucleus of the cells and so he called it nuclein.

DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952, when

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase

experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2

bacteriophage.


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In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the

first correct double-helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature. Their double-helix,

molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X-ray diffraction image "Photo 51",

taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952.

How Watson and Crick got Franklin's results has been much debated. Crick, Watson

and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their work on DNA.

DNA is found inside a special area of the cell called the nucleus. Because the cell is

very small, and because organisms have many DNA molecules per cell, each DNA molecule

must be tightly packaged. This packaged form of the DNA is called a chromosome.

During DNA replication, DNA unwinds so it can be copied. At other times in the cell

cycle, DNA also unwinds so that its instructions can be used to make proteins and for other

biological processes. But during cell division, DNA is in its compact chromosome form to

enable transfer to new cells.

DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building blocks

are made of three parts: a phosphate group, a sugar group and one of four types of nitrogen

bases. To form a strand of DNA, nucleotides are linked into chains, with the phosphate and

sugar groups alternating.

The four types of nitrogen bases found in nucleotides are: adenine (A), , thymine

(T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order, or sequence, of these bases determines what

biological instructions are contained in a strand of DNA. For example, the sequence

ATCGTT might instruct for blue eyes, while ATCGCT might instruct for brown.

Each DNA sequence that contains instructions to make a protein is known as a gene.

The size of a gene may vary greatly, ranging from about 1,000 bases to 1 million bases in

humans.

The complete DNA instruction book, or genome, for a human contains about 3

billion bases and about 20,000 genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes.


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D. HEREDITY

Heredity is the transmission of genetic

characteristics from ancestor to descendant through

the genes. As a subject, it is tied closely to genetics,

the area of biological study concerned with

hereditary traits. The study of heritable traits helps

scientists discern which are dominant and therefore

are likely to be passed on from one parent to the next

generation. On the other hand, a recessive trait will be

passed on only if both parents possess it. Among the

possible heritable traits are genetic disorders, but

study in this area is ongoing, and may yield many

surprises.

The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed

to the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on

pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and

was rediscovered in 1901. It was initially assumed the Mendelian

inheritance only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such

as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants—and the idea of additive

effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until R. A. Fisher's

(1918) paper, "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian

Inheritance" Mendel's overall contribution gave scientists a useful overview that traits

were inheritable. As of today, his pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the

study of Mendelian Traits. These traits can be traced on a single locus.

In humans, eye color is an example of an

inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit

the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents.

Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the

complete set of genes within an organism's genome is

called its genotype.

The complete set of observable traits of the

structure and behavior of an organism is called its

phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of

its genotype with the environment. As a result, many

aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited.

For example, suntanned skin comes from the

interaction between a person's phenotype and


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sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan

more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: a striking example is people

with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.

Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a

molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long polymer that incorporates four

types of bases, which are interchangeable. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA

molecule specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters

spelling out a passage of text. Before a cell divides through Mitosis, the DNA is copied, so

that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA

molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a gene; different genes have

different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed

structures called chromosomes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a

chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between

individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can

change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the

new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the

organism.

However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in

some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes

within and among organisms. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions

in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that

may underlay some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalization.

Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that

cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed

as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes.

Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific

infancy, however, this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the

scope of heritability and evolutionary biology in general. DNA methylation marking

chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene

silencing by RNA interference, and the three

dimensional conformation of proteins (such as

prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance

systems have been discovered at the organismic

level. Heritability may also occur at even larger

scales. For example, ecological inheritance

through the process of niche construction is

defined by the regular and repeated activities of

organisms in their environment. This generates a


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legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into the selection regime of subsequent

generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by

the ecological actions of ancestors. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not

under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits, group

heritability, and symbiogenesis. These examples of heritability that operate above the gene

are covered broadly under the title of multilevel or hierarchical selection, which has been a

subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science.

II. Main Exhibit

A. Cloning and GMOs Seen in the Media

For Cloning:

Popular sci-fi movies that feature cloning include Jurassic Park, The Island and the like.

Jurassic Park

Cloning can be done using a single drop of blood which contains billions strands of

DNA (the building blocks of life). DNA strand is a blue print of building a living thing. A full

DNA strand contains 3 billion genetic codes.

Cloning was accomplished by extracting the DNA of dinosaurs from mosquitoes that

had been preserved inside fossilized amber. Amber is fossilized tree resin. However, the

strands of DNA were incomplete, so DNA from frogs was used fill in the gaps to produce

dinosaur eggs. The dinosaurs all were cloned genetically as females in order to prevent

breeding. But because they have the genetic coding of frog DNA - West African

bullfrogs which can change their gender in a single-sex environment, in which the cloned

dinosaurs were able to do as well.

These huge advancements in scientific technology have enabled a mogul to create an

island full of living dinosaurs for a park that was built with genetically engineered

dinosaurs.

The Island

Dr. Merrick runs the Merrick Institute, a bio-engineering facility where the Agnates

are grown. An Agnate is a clone of a regular person; grown directly into adulthood,

matching the biological age of the client; its DNA completely identical to the client's. Dr.

Merrick falsely claims that the Agnates are kept in a vegetative state, never achieving

consciousness, and never thinking or feeling, in full compliance with eugenics laws of 2015.

An Agnate is meant as a source of replacement body parts for an ailing client; each Agnate

being a perfect DNA match for its client, there is never worry about rejection of body parts,


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nor a need to wait for available organs, during which time the client could die. Female

Agnates can also serve as surrogate wombs for a female client who cannot carry a baby to

term, herself (Lima One Alpha). He stresses his false claim that Agnates do not achieve

sentience, and are products; not human, as humans think of themselves as human.

Matanglawin

Matanglawin featured cloning. Cloning was explained as a way of science where the

act of copying an organism with the exact traits, appearance and behavior using genetics.

Cloning can be done using somatic cell nuclear transfer. Each organism consists of cells and

in each cell contains the nucleus which has the genes of any species. It is like an

identification card that holds information like the color of eyes, hair, height and any other

personal qualities. The nucleus can be acquire and transferred to an egg cell. It is possible

to produce an offspring which have the exact quality of the nucleus used. Cloning can be

done to animal whose have great features like cows. Matanglawin also explained the movie

Jurassic Park. The show also exampled a cloned cat called “CC” and the possible cloning of a

best preserved mammoth named “Yuka”. They also exampled cloning projects in the

Philippines like ripening of mangoes and papaya by genetic engineering and increasing

population of endangered species of trees. Matanglawin discussed brief informations about

human cloning.

For GMOs:

Experts in GMOs discussed videos in Youtube.

That says 90% crops and many other products that came from US are genetically modified

foods. These include fast food chains like Mcdo, Pizza Hut and the like.

For Cloning and GMOs:

Bato Balani

Bato Balani is a science magazine that has been helping the Filipino youth for over

25 years by sharing relevant and significant information in the field of science and

technology. They have made articles about cloning and GMOs.


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B. Brief History

1973 in Honolulu, Hawaii, Herbert Boyer (left) and Stanley Cohen (right) combined their

efforts in biotechnology to invent a method of cloning genetically engineered molecules in

foreign cells. It is a technique of DNA cloning, which allowed genes to be transplanted

between different biological species. (Using Boyer's methodology, they were able to

successfully introduce foreign DNA into bacterial plasma, and using Cohen's methodology,

they were able to subsequently insert this modified plasmid into bacteria. Because bacteria

divide very rapidly, their work allowed the genetic "manufacturing" of engineered drugs

and hormones, leading to the multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry.) Identification of

the Ti plasmid in a bacteria (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) used for genetically engineering

plants; it is used as a vector to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells. They created the

first genetically modified DNA organism.

Efficient DNA sequencing methods invented by Allan Maxam (no picture) and Walter

Gilbert (1) (1976)and by Frederick Sanger(2) (1977, developed chain termination DNA

sequencing allowing scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule) and his

colleagues dramatically facilitated analysis of cloned DNA, and, together with the invention

of the PCR by Kary Mullis (3)(1983, invented the ‘polymerase chain reaction’ which is a

technique enabling scientists to reproduce bits of DNA faster than ever before),

information that DNA sequencing yielded about the structure and function of cloned genes

led to the birth of the field of genomics.


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1996 The birth of the first cloned animal, Dolly the sheep, was announced. She was cloned

by Ian Wilmut(upper), Keith Campbell(lower) and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of

the University of Edinburgh, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics

near Edinburgh in Scotland, the United Kingdom.

Then in the following years, Transgenic animals such as mouse, pig, cattle, lamb and

transgenic plants such as tobacco, tomato, sunflower, corn, potato, soybeans were developed.

“However, although this has been retrospective, in reality, the accelerated scientific

journey that has resulted from the ability to clone DNA has only begun.”-Stanley N. Cohen

Note:

Genomics - a discipline in genetics that applies recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to

sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes.

Genomes - the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism.

Transgenic-containing a gene or genes transferred from another species.

C. Cloning and GMO: A Comparison

Cloning: Definition and Its Role

Cloning is the creation of an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another. This means

that every single bit of DNA is the same between the two. At its most basic level, Cloning is

reproduction without sex. “Sex” does not refer to the act of intercourse but to sexual

reproduction – the joining of genetic material from two parents into an embryo that may, if

development goes well, give rise to a new adult organism. In cloning, offspring are


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genetically identical to their single parent. Such offspring are the products of “asexual”

reproduction.

Cloning matters because it is on the verge of affecting daily life around the world and its

importance will only grow with time. Animal cloning will revolutionize food production in

the coming years and may, by turning animals into biological factories, revolutionize

pharmaceutical production as well. Moving from animals to humans, cloning technology

may, if some expectations prove true, radically alter medicine, leading the way to an era of

personalized transplant therapies. Finally, in the longer term, it opens the door to the

cloning (and potential genetic engineering) of humans, perhaps changing the very essence

of what it means to be a human being.

Cloning also matters because, given the field’s current trajectory, it is part of our shared

future. From the food supply to the medicine cabinet, cloning technology is poised to

change the way we live. But these changes are controversial. Each of us can and should

participate in the debates that will shape the role cloning plays in the future. Before you say

“yuck” to drinking milk from cloned cows or rush off to save your dog’s DNA in preparation

for eventual cloning, take the time to learn a bit about the science. Although cloning is fairly

simple, misinformation is prevalent. Understanding the science behind cloning will help

make these debates more meaningful and their outcomes more satisfactory for everyone.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term commonly used for crops that have

been genetically engineered (GE) or genetically modified (GM) to produce some desired

trait. Genetic modification altered the genes to render the plant resistant either insects or

herbicides. It involves the insertion into an animal of genes from another species or extra

genes from the same species. GM is different from traditional breeding, where the

organism's genes are manipulated indirectly; GM uses the techniques of molecular cloning

and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly.

The primary focus of the research on genetic modification involves locating genes that can

produce the desired results-such as those conferring insect resistance, reducing sensitivity

to herbicides, increasing the amount of desired nutrients, or preventing fruits from rotting

as quickly as usual. This difficult process is becoming easier with technologies that permit

rapid gene sequencing and with sophisticated computer programs that can match up

genetic patterns with their protein products.

Molecular biologists have discovered many enzymes which change the structure of DNA in

living organisms. Some of these enzymes can cut and join strands of DNA. Using such

enzymes, scientists learned to cut specific genes from DNA and to build customized DNA


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using these genes. They also learned about vectors, strands of DNA such as viruses, which

can infect a cell and insert themselves into its DNA.

With this knowledge, scientists started to build vectors which incorporated genes of their

choosing and used the new vectors to insert these genes into the DNA of living organisms.

Genetic engineers believe they can improve the foods we eat by doing this. For example,

tomatoes are sensitive to frost. This shortens their growing season. Fish, on the other hand,

survive in very cold water. Scientists identified a particular gene which enables a flounder

to resist cold and used the technology of genetic engineering to insert this 'anti-freeze' gene

into a tomato. This makes it possible to extend the growing season of the tomato.

D. Cloning and Genetic Modification: Mechanisms

Cloning

The most commonly used procedure is somatic cell

nuclear transfer (SCNT). This involves collecting a

cell from the animal that is to be cloned (the donor

cell) and removing an egg cell from another animal.

This cell is enucleated, i.e. its genetic material is

removed. The donor cell and the egg cell are then

fused by an electrical pulse from this a cloned

embryo is developed. This is implanted into a

surrogate mother.

In sheep and pigs, the transfer of the embryo into

the surrogate mother is performed by a surgical

procedure.

There are a couple of ways to do cloning: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell

nuclear transfer. How do these processes differ?

1. Artificial Embryo Twinning

Artificial embryo twinning is the relatively low-tech version of cloning. As the name

suggests, this technology mimics the natural process of creating identical twins.

Open large version

In nature, twins occur just after fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell. In rare cases,

when the resulting fertilized egg, called a zygote, tries to divide into a two-celled embryo,

the two cells separate. Each cell continues dividing on its own, ultimately developing into a


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separate individual within the mother. Since the two cells came from the same zygote, the

resulting individuals are genetically identical.

Figure 2. Two Ways of Cloning

Artificial embryo twinning uses the same approach, but it occurs in a Petri dish instead of

in the mother's body. This is accomplished by manually separating a very early embryo

into individual cells, and then allowing each cell to divide and develop on its own. The

resulting embryos are placed into a surrogate mother, where they are carried to term and

delivered. Again, since all the embryos came from the same zygote, they are genetically

identical.

2. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Somatic cell nuclear transfer, (SCNT) uses a different approach than artificial embryo

twinning, but it produces the same result: an exact clone, or genetic copy, of an individual.

This was the method used to create Dolly the Sheep.

What does SCNT mean? Let's take it apart:


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Somatic cell: A somatic cell is any cell in the body other than the two types of reproductive

cells, sperm and egg. These are also called germ cells. In mammals, every somatic cell has

two complete sets of chromosomes, whereas the germ cells only have one complete set.

Nuclear: The nucleus is like the cell's brain. It's an enclosed compartment that contains all

the information that cells need to form an organism. This information comes in the form of

DNA. It's the differences in our DNA that make each of us unique.

Transfer: Moving an object from one place to another.

To make Dolly, researchers isolated a somatic cell from an adult female sheep. Next, they

transferred the nucleus from that cell to an egg cell from which the nucleus had been

removed. After a couple of chemical tweaks, the egg cell, with its new nucleus, was

behaving just like a freshly fertilized zygote. It developed into an embryo, which was

implanted into a surrogate mother and carried to term.

The lamb, Dolly, was an exact genetic replica of the adult female sheep that donated the

somatic cell nucleus to the egg. She was the first-ever mammal to be cloned from an adult

somatic cell.

How does SCNT differ from the natural way of making an embryo?

Open large version

The fertilization of an egg by a sperm and the SCNT cloning method both result in the same

thing: a dividing ball of cells, called an embryo.


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Genetic Modification

Figure 3. How To Build A Better Plant. Scientific American, September 2013

The most common form of genetic engineering involves the insertion of new genetic

material at an unspecified location in the host genome. This is accomplished by isolating

and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a

DNA sequence containing the required genetic elements for expression, and then inserting

this construct into the host organism. Other forms of genetic engineering include gene

targeting and knocking out specific genes via engineered nucleases such as zinc finger

nucleases or engineered homing endonucleases.


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Figure 4. Steps of Genetic Modification

The gene for the desired trait or characteristics are identified, cut from its source and

multiplied. The gene is inserted in appropriate vector to form the gene construct. A vector

is like a vehicle or a carrier and has the necessary regulatory elements such as the

promoter and terminator which can make the gene work. The promoter will then tell when

and where the gene will be expressed and how many copies of the protein will be

produced. The terminator will command the end of expression or reading of the gene. A

selection gene marker is also usually in the gene construct. This will help in determining

which of the bombarded tissues have incorporated the gene construct in their DNA.

The gene construct is delivered to the plant cell by either of two methods. One is by coating

the gene on tungsten or gold particles and delivering these particles into plant tissues by

using a particle bombardment device. This device is attached to a gas tank containing

helium gas which forces the DNA-coated particles into the tissues with pressure. The other

method involves inserting the gene construct into Agrobacterium tumefaciens which is

then used to infect a plant and eventually transfer the gene construct and its othr genes to


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the plant genome. The Agrobacterium is common found in nature. If you find galls or

swellings on plants; most probably, this is due to the infection of the plant with

Agrobacterium.

The next step is to determine which among the plant cells have integrated the introduced

gene. The selection marker will do this. For example, if the selection marker is an antibiotic

resistance gene marker, cells which have this gene will be able to survive in a medium

containing such antibiotic. These cells are termed transformed or transgenic. Another type

of selection marker gene is the green fluorescent protein or GFP marker; cells that

integrate this in their DNA will produce this protein which gives off green fluorescence

when beamed under a UV light.

The transformed or transgenic plant tissues are allowed to grow and regenerate to

complete plants.

The breeder will now screen the resulting plants for the desired trait and evaluate as well

their agronomic or horticultural traits. The breeder will select lines which have the desired

traits and are stable. The molecular biologist/biochemist will determine the presence of the

inserted gene and other biochemical characteristics of the transgenic plants.

E. Products of Cloning and GMOs

Products of Cloning

Cloning Dolly the sheep

Dolly the sheep, as the first mammal to be cloned from an

adult cell, is by far the world's most famous clone. However,

cloning has existed in nature since the dawn of life.

From asexual bacteria to ‘virgin birth’ in aphids, clones are

all around us and are fundamentally no different to other

organisms. A clone has the same DNA sequence as its parent

and so they are genetically identical.

Several clones had been produced in the lab before Dolly,

including frogs, mice, and cows, which had all been cloned

from the DNA from embryos. Dolly was remarkable in being

the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. This was a

major scientific achievement as it demonstrated that the

DNA from adult cells, despite having specialized as one

particular type of cell, can be used to create an entire organism.

Dolly the cloned sheep

© The Roslin institute

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction

http://www.aphidsonworldsplants.info/Cloning_Experts_1.htm

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/460/mature-cells-can-be-reprogrammed-to-become-pl/


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How Dolly was cloned

Animal cloning from an adult cell is much more difficult than from an embryonic cell. So

when scientists working at the Roslin Institute in Scotland produced Dolly, the only lamb

born from 277 attempts, it was a major news story around the world.

To produce Dolly, scientists used an udder cell from a six-year-old Finn Dorset white sheep.

They had to find a way to 'reprogram' the udder cells - to keep them alive but stop them

growing – which they achieved by altering the growth medium (the ‘soup’ in which the

cells were kept alive). Then they injected the cell into an unfertilised egg cell which had had

its nucleus removed, and made the cells fuse by using electrical pulses. The unfertilised egg

cell came from a Scottish Blackface ewe. When the research team had managed to fuse the

nucleus from the adult white sheep cell with the egg cell from the black-faced sheep, they

needed to make sure that the resulting cell would develop into an embryo. They cultured it

for six or seven days to see if it divided and developed normally, before implanting it into a

surrogate mother, another Scottish Blackface ewe. Dolly had a white face.

From 277 cell fusions, 29 early embryos developed and were implanted into 13 surrogate

mothers. But only one pregnancy went to full term, and the 6.6 kg Finn Dorset lamb 6LLS

(alias Dolly) was born after 148 days.

What happened to Dolly?

Dolly lived a pampered existence at the Roslin Institute. She

mated and produced normal offspring in the normal way,

showing that such cloned animals can reproduce. Born on 5

July 1996, she was euthanized on 14 February 2003, aged

six and a half. Sheep can live to age 11 or 12, but Dolly

suffered from arthritis in a hind leg joint and from sheep

pulmonary adenomatosis, a virus-induced lung tumor that is

common among sheep which are raised indoors.

The DNA in the nucleus is wrapped up into chromosomes,

which shorten each time the cell replicates. This meant that

Dolly’s chromosomes were a little shorter than those of

other sheep her age and her early ageing may reflect that

she was raised from the nucleus of a 6-year old sheep. Dolly was also not entirely identical

to her genetic mother because the mitochondria, the power plants of the cell that are kept

outside the nucleus, were inherited from Dolly’s egg donor mother.

Dolly and her lamb, Bonnie

© The Roslin institute

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/21/bone-and-joint-disease/#osteoarthritis


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Why clone sheep?

Dolly the sheep was produced at the Roslin Institute as part of research into producing

medicines in the milk of farm animals. Researchers have managed to transfer human genes

that produce useful proteins into sheep and cows, so that they can produce, for instance,

the blood clotting agent factor IX to treat haemophilia or alpha-1-antitrypsin to treat cystic

fibrosis and other lung conditions. Inserting these genes into animals is a difficult and

laborious process; cloning allows researchers to only do this once and clone the resulting

transgenic animal to build up a breeding stock.

The development of cloning technology has led to new ways to produce medicines and is

improving our understanding of development and genetics.

Since Dolly

Since 1996, when Dolly was born, other sheep have been cloned from adult cells, as have

cats, rabbits, horses and donkeys, pigs, goats and cattle. In 2004 a mouse was cloned using

a nucleus from an olfactory neuron, showing that the donor nucleus can come from a tissue

of the body that does not normally divide.

Improvements in the technique have meant that the cloning of animals is becoming

cheaper and more reliable. This has created a market for commercial services offering to

clone pets or elite breeding livestock, but still with a $100,000 price-tag.

The advances made through cloning animals have led to a potential new therapy to prevent

mitochondrial diseases in humans being passed from mother to child. About 1 in 6000

people is born with faulty mitochondria, which can result in diseases like muscular

dystrophy. To prevent this, genetic material from the embryo is extracted and placed in an

egg cell donated by another woman, which contains functioning mitochondria. This is the

same process as used in cloning of embryonic cells of animals. Without this intervention,

the faulty mitochondria are certain to pass on to the next generation.

The treatment is currently not permitted for use in humans. However, the Human

Fertilisation & Embryology Authority in the UK has reported that there is general support

in the public for legalising the therapy and making it available to patients.

Why was Dolly Created?

The development of the cloning technology was an extension of Roslin Institute's interest in

the application of transgenic technology to farm animals.

Transgenic mice have been available since early 1980s produced by a very sophisticated

method of genetic modification through a technology using embryonic stem cells. Cells in

culture can be genetically modified in very precise ways: removing genes, substituting one

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/6/cystic-fibrosis/

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/6/cystic-fibrosis/

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/4/muscular-dystrophy/

http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical-advances/4/muscular-dystrophy/

http://www.hfea.gov.uk/docs/HFEA_Authority_meeting_March_2013_Papers_(complete).pdf

http://www.hfea.gov.uk/docs/HFEA_Authority_meeting_March_2013_Papers_(complete).pdf


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gene for another, introducing a single base pair change in the genetic code. In mice it was

possible to genetically modify these cells, introduce them into a mouse embryo and the

resulting mice that are born would be chimeric with some normal cells, some genetically

modified cells. At least some of the offspring of these chimeras would contain the very

precise genetic modification. Since embryonic stem cells had not been isolated from farm

animals, this method of genetic modification was not available. Cloning was therefore a

potential alternative way of achieving the same end.

Why was Roslin Institute interested in genetically modifying farm animals?

Since mid-1980s there has been a research interest in developing new uses for farm animals

and one of those research ideas being pursued since the early days was the idea of producing

human proteins in the milk of transgenic cattle or sheep.

Those experiments used a very simple technique for genetic modification called pro-

nuclear injection. This involved introducing the DNA construct, the human gene coding for

the protein of interest, into a recently fertilised egg and taking that early embryo to term. A

very small proportion of animals produced in this way carried the gene and a proportion of

this small proportion expressed the gene so that human protein was produced in the milk.

This was a very inefficient way of genetic modification. There was no control over where

gene was inserted or indeed how many genes were inserted and it was only possible to add

genes. As part of the developing interest in this area there was a need to improve the

efficiency of genetic modification, to control gene expression more reliably and ensure it

was expressed in particular tissues only.

Why was this research done at Roslin Institute?

People in the past have been motivated to try cloning as a means of replicating the very best

animals with respect to agricultural production. Can you copy the very best bulls? And that

was the motivation behind the work that Steen Willardsen had done in Texas in the 1980s.

In Roslin Institute's case the motivation, at least initially, to pursue nuclear transfer was a

very practical application in terms of developing a new way of genetically modifying

animals. You might expect this work to have been in mice, and there is a history of this

work being done in amphibians but it wasn't successful. Ultimately the interest in this area

of science waned, the lack of technical success re-enforced the view that differentiated cells

were not reprogrammable and it was only our particular interest in a rather narrow

practical field that maintained our commitment to the area. If the research community that

uses mice had taken an interest, there's probably hundreds of labs around the world that

could have cloned mice but there are only six or seven research institutes around the world

that have experience in embryo transfer, IVF technology, the sort of understanding of cattle

or sheep reproduction that was a basic requirement for Roslin's success.


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Why was Dolly Important?

The birth of Dolly overturned the assumption among scientists that the whole process of

differentiation was irreversible.

We all start life as a single cell, the fertilised egg. The cell divides and multiplies and by the

time we are born, there are maybe 200 different cell types, each containing the same DNA,

the same 30,000 or so genes, but each has differentiated into a particular role. That role is

determined by the proportion of active genes within the cell that determines whether the

cell is for example a liver cell or a nerve cell. A presumption among cell biologists was that

this was a one way process of progressive and permanent change. What Dolly

demonstrated was that it is possible to take a differentiated cell and essentially turn its

clock back; to reactivate all its silent genes and make the cell behave as though it was a

recently fertilised egg.

Dolly was also important because she captured the public imagination. A clone, a copy has

been a very discernible strand within science fiction. The idea that there might be and exact

copy of oneself somewhere around is a theme that has been pursued in science fiction and

the prospect that it might be possible to clone a human being excited a lot of speculation

and interest.

What is the longterm significance of Dolly?

At the moment that's difficult to say. The practical applications of cloning, of copying

livestock seem relatively limited. The likelihood is that the longer lasting benefit will be in

the change in perception about biology.

Our understanding now is that the cells in our bodies are a lot more plastic than we

previously thought and it may be that as we understand more about repair processes, for

various organs and tissues, we might find that this understanding informs research that is

able to augment the bodies normal repair mechanisms. It may well prove to be an

important factor in stem cell research and allow the derivation of stem cells from tissues

other than early human embryos. This would alleviate the reservations that many people

have about the use of human embryos for research or therapeutic purposes.

Noah the Gaur

A rare Asian Ox called a Gaur was successfully cloned Sioux Center Iowa in 2003. It

was successfully cloned and gestated in the womb of a cow named Bessie which is a

scientific first. The project was particularly interesting as it coupled cloning with that of

interspecies birth. The researchers hope that technique may be able to be used to shore up

animal population.


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The steps involved in this process are as follows:

1. Remove DNA from a unfertilized cow egg.

2. Insert full DNA strand from Gaur into the empty

egg.

3. Apply small electrical pulses to fuse.

4. Add chemicals to induce fertilisation events.

5. Place fertilized back inside cow’s uterus.

This process was repeated five times but only

Noah made it to the late stages of fetal

Development the other four were unfortunately

spontaneously aborted. After Ten months of hard

work by the scientists Noah the Gaur was born in Iowa. Unfortunately he died after 48

hours of life from Dysentry, "We don't think it had to do with the cloning, 'Dysentery affects

farm animals" Robert Lanza Vice president of scientific development at the center said.

A Family of Pigs: Millie, Alexis, Christa, Dotcom, and Carrel

Blacksburg, VA PPL Therapeutics Inc is pleased to announce that on 5th March 2000, five

piglets, all healthy, were born as a result of nuclear transfer (cloning) using adult cells. This

is the first time cloned pigs have been successfully produced from adult cells. DNA from

blood samples taken from the piglets was shown in independent tests to be identical to

DNA from the cells used to produce the piglets but clearly different from DNA taken from

the surrogate mother. The DNA tests were carried out by Celera-AgGEN on coded samples.

The cell samples had been provided to the testing company before the piglets were born.


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The successful cloning of these pigs is a major step in achieving PPL’s xenograft objectives.

It opens the door to making modified pigs whose organs and cells can be successfully

transplanted into humans; the only near term solution to solving the worldwide organ

shortage crisis. Pigs are the preferred species for xenotransplantation on scientific and

ethical grounds. Clinical trials could start in as little as four years and analysts believe the

market could be worth $6 billion for solid organs alone, with as much again possible from

cellular therapies, eg. transplantable cells that produce insulin for treatment of diabetes.

Nuclear transfer in pigs has proved to be more difficult than for other livestock, in part

because pig reproductive biology is inherently more intractable, and partly because pigs

need a minimum number of viable fetuses to maintain pregnancy, whereas sheep and cows,

for example, need only one.

The method used to produce the five female piglets, to be named Millie, Christa, Alexis,

Carrel and Dotcom, was different from that used to produce "Dolly" in that it used

additional inventive steps for which a patent application has been filed. The work was

carried out by PPL’s US staff in Blacksburg, Virginia, partly supported by an ATP Award

from the US Government’s National Institute of Standards and Technology. This award has

as its objective the production of a "knock-out" pig, i.e. a pig which has a specific gene

inactivated. The ability to clone pigs is the first essential step in achieving this objective.

The gene to be inactivated is alpha 1-3 gal transferase. This gene is responsible for adding

to pig cells a particular sugar group recognized by the human immune system as foreign

and which therefore triggers an immune response leading to hyperacute rejection in

humans of the transplanted organ. PPL has already achieved the required targeted gene

knock out in pig cells.

Tetra the Rhesus Monkey

Tetra is neither the first monkey clone, nor the first mammal to be cloned by

embryo splitting.


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Tetra was produced by a technique called "embryo splitting." Here's how it works:

An egg from a mother and sperm from a father are used to create a fertilized egg.

After the embryo grows into eight cells, researchers split it into four identical

embryos, each consisting of just two cells.

The four embryos are then implanted into surrogate mothers. Schatten said that in

effect, a single embryo becomes four embryos, all genetically identical.

Nonetheless, the birth of this animal does suggest a new and possibly easier and

cheaper method of cloning non-human primates. This accomplishment could prove to be a

boon to medical researchers and could be a step towards human cloning.

Tetra is the name given to the one monkey that survived of four identical embryos

that were implanted in four separate host mothers. Using a procedure similar to that used

in in vitro fertilization,.scientists at the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center began by

taking an egg from the mother monkey and sperm from the father monkey and then mixing

them together to create a fertilized egg. Once the embryo had grown into eight cells, the

scientists then divided the embryo into four identical embryos consisting of two cells each.

These four embryos were then implanted into four potential monkey mothers.

Tetra, from the Greek word for four, was the result. This is not the first time this

technique has been used to create mammalian twins. The same technique is already being

used in cattle. A physician also reported using the technique to clone human embryos as far

back as 1993. Nor it is the first time that monkeys have been cloned. Researchers from the

same Oregon research group rerpoted cloning a monkey in 1997 using the nuclear transfer

method. That method involves removing a set of chromosomes from each of the eight cells

in a primitive monkey embryo and then inserting into egg cells from which the original

DNA had been removed. These embryos were then implanted in the wombs of host

mothers using in vitro fertilization techniques.

What is new about the creation of Tetra is that this is the first time researchers have

created a perfect genetic copy of a monkey by using the embryo splitting technique. Unlike

the earlier monkey clone, Tetra is the first to possess both identical nuclear and

cytoplasmic components. This offers researchers for the first time the opportunity to

produce a line of identical primates for medical research. This would allow them to test

new treatments for a variety of conditions such as AIDS, cancer and heart disease in a way

that is not currently possible.

The birth of Tetra suggests that scientists may have bridged the scientific gap

between genetically identical knockout mice and human patients. There are many potential

areas where this technology might advance biological research. In addition to providing


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researchers with more reliable test animals and controls, the discovery could also benefit

researchers looking at the role of the maternal environment in the characteristics of

offspring. It is also likely to be a boon to those studying embryology and stem cell

development.

Many questions remain to be answered. For example, researchers still need to

confirm that twins or 'multiples' created by this method are as health and long-lived as

normal monkeys. They also need to explore why the success rate has been so low. It is also

worth noting that, although laboratory tests did show that Tetra was identical to the

embryos that did not survive, this is one step short from producing two living identical

clones from separate mothers.

The research is ongoing. Four pregnancies, each with a viable fetus, have been

established from the last seven embryo transfers of identical twins.. One pregnancy is from

the transfer of a single embryo, the other three are singletons resulting from the transfer of

two unrelated embryos. If successful, these identical twins will be named Romulus and

Rhesus.

The research appeared in the Jan. 14, 2000 issue of Science.

Products of Genetic Modification

Genetically Engineered Cow Produces World's First Hypoallergenic Milk

The calf completely lacked a milk protein called betalactoglobulin. It also lacked a tail.

Cow genes could be modified to prevent the animals from producing proteins that

cause allergic reactions, according to a new study. Scientists in New Zealand engineered a

http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-10/genetically-engineered-cow-produces-worlds-first-hypoallergenic-milk


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dairy cow to lack the milk protein beta-lactoglobulin, while other milk proteins were

dramatically increased.

The team used RNA interference to inhibit the expression of certain genes that code

for the production of BLG, which causes allergic reactions in people and isn't found in

human milk. They tested it on mice first, and then engineered a cow egg cell's nucleus to

express the same micro RNAs that shut down BLG. This engineered ovum was fertilized

and implanted into a surrogate mother.

The team started with 57 embryos and ultimately got one healthy calf, but

unexpectedly, it was born with no tail. The researchers believe this mutation is unrelated to

the transgenic change, but they still need to figure out exactly what caused it.

Finally, the team gave the calf hormones to make it produce milk early, and they

found the milk contained no BLG. The work shows that RNA interference could be an

effective way to modify livestock to have desirable traits, the researchers say. Meanwhile,

the researchers are waiting until the calf gets a little older to study the mystery of its

missing tail. Their paper is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences.

ANDi, Genetically Modified Monkey

Oregon researchers have created the first genetically modified monkey. ANDi, a playful,

coffee-colored rhesus monkey born on October 2nd 2000, has been engineered to carry a

gene from another species. OSHU named the monkey ANDi because it stands for “inserted

DNA” spelled backward. ANDi was born with an extra glowing gene called Green

Fluorescent Protein (GFP). This GFP gene, which is naturally occurring in jellyfish, was

taken from a jellyfish and genetically added to ANDi’s DNA sequence through

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/09/25/1210057109



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Fluorescent_Protein

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Fluorescent_Protein

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish


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his chromosomes. OSHU used Rhesus monkeys because they share 95% of the same genes

as humans.

The work demonstrates that a foreign gene can be delivered and inserted into a primate

chromosome. The researchers anticipate that gene insertions in the monkey will lead to

primate models of human diseases—like Alzheimer's, diabetes, heart disease and obesity—

that will offer a more robust testing ground for new drugs, gene therapy and modified stem

cells.

To create ANDi, Chan and his colleagues injected 224 unfertilized rhesus eggs with a virus

carrying the green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene. The virus's job is to integrate the gene

into a random site on one of the chromosomes. Six hours later, each egg was artificially

fertilized by sperm injection. Roughly half of the fertilized eggs grew and divided, reaching

the four-cell stage. Forty were chosen and implanted into twenty surrogate mothers—two

per mother. Of these, three healthy males were born and two twin males were stillborn.

ANDi was the only live monkey carrying the GFP gene.

Cloning and GMO Advantages and Disadvantages

Medical Advantages of Cloning

Although there are many potential downsides, and many people feel uncertain

about whether or not this practice is morally right, the advantages of cloning are numerous.

Certain types of cloning may be used to create food sources with a higher nutritional value,

while others may be used to create types of medicine or treatments. One of the best-

known advantages of cloning is organ transplantation, which could potentially save the

lives of accident victims and of those waiting for an organ donation.

The medical advantages of cloning may begin with the actual nourishment of the

body. Not only can cloned cows and chickens produce more eggs and milk, but scientists

may also be able to genetically alter the nutritional value of these foods. Infants incapable

of breastfeeding may also benefit from certain types of animal cloning. For instance, a cow

whose genetic code is manipulated may produce milk that contains proteins similar to

those found in human breast milk.

Fertility is another one of the possible advantages of cloning. For those who are

sterile, this solution may provide hope where other options have failed. One of the most

common processes of reproductive cloning begins by injecting the genetic material of one

parent into an egg. Once this is done, the egg is stimulated by electricity or chemicals, and

then placed into the uterus. Although this process has been accomplished to some degree

in animals, further research is needed to see whether or not it will also work for humans.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomes

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-cloning.htm

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-reproductive-cloning.htm


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Besides nutrition and fertility, the advantages of cloning reach into treating and

possibly curing many medical issues. Organ transplantation is the best-known medical use

for cloning. Sometimes transplanted organs are harvested from animals, which are

regularly rejected by human recipients. Cloned animals, however, may bear human genes,

which may make rejection less common. Cloning may also be beneficial in replacing bone,

cartilage, and skin in burn and accident victims.

Other medical advantages of cloning consist of the creation of advanced medicine.

These medicines may be used for heart and bone marrow treatments, to control diabetes

and rheumatoid arthritis, and perhaps even to cure kidney conditions and Parkinson's

disease. In addition, cloning might also be able to cure certain types of cancer by replacing

mutated genes with healthy, normal ones. This process often consists of taking immune

cells from the patient's own body, duplicating them, and then placing them back into the

system.

Advantages

1. Potential benefits to modern medicine

Given the fact that the cells can be manipulated to mimic other types of cells, this can provide new ways to treat diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s.

Cloning also offers hope to persons needing organ transplants. People requiring organ transplants to survive an illness often wait years for a suitable donor. In many cases these patients die waiting, as there are long lists of people requiring organs. Theoretically, cloning could eliminate this by producing more animals that can act as suitable donors.

2. Helping infertile couples

Cloning offers couples dealing with fertility the chance to have a child of their own. Many infertile couples can’t be helped by the techniques currently available. In fact, although some states have already banned human cloning because of ethical issues, more couples struggling to have children are starting to consider the possibilities that cloning offer.

3. Reverse the aging process

Cloning is being touted as a future answer to reverse the effects of aging. The anti-aging market is a prime target because it is already a multibillion industry.

4. Protecting Endangered Species

Despite the best efforts of conservationists worldwide, some species are nearing extinction. The successful cloning of Dolly represents the first step in protecting endangered wildlife.


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5. Improving food supply

Cloning could provide a means of cultivating plants that are stronger and more resistant to diseases, while producing more. The same could happen to livestock as well where diseases such as foot and mouth disease could be eradicated. Cloning could therefore effectively solve the world’s food problem and minimize or possible eradicate starvation.

Disadvantages of Cloning

Cloning is defined as using the cells of one living subject, plant or animal, to create

another duplicate subject. A cloned subject will be identical to its parent. Cloning has

become the center of a huge debate over the advantages and disadvantages of producing

clones, especially of animals and humans. While this technology could be useful for

laboratory studies and for creating desirable livestock, there are several disadvantages of

cloning that should be considered.

One of the biggest disadvantages of cloning is that the technology is still so

uncertain. Dolly the sheep, the first mammalian clone, was born in 1996. While she was

initially successful, she died young of a disease not normally seen in sheep of her age.

Scientists are still unsure of any genetic mutations that might occur when an animal is

cloned. Also, while Dolly was a successful clone, there were hundreds of failed clones

before she was made, including several dead fetuses. Other cloned animals have turned out

horribly deformed.

Losing gene diversity is another of the disadvantages of cloning. Gene diversity is

what keeps an entire species from being wiped out by a singular virus if none of them have

natural immunities. This is due to the lack of gene diversity. Gene mutations happen

naturally, and help to explain why some people naturally are taller, shorter, or more

athletic than others. Some people and animals naturally have a stronger immune system. If

gene diversity is lost due to excessive cloning, there are no mutations to allow some of the

cloned group to survive a newly introduced disease.

Another of the disadvantages of cloning is that there are a lot of ethical

considerations that would cause most people to protest. One of these ethical concerns is

that cloning is unnatural, and considered “playing God.” Another concern is the treatment

of clones. Clones would have the same needs as non-clones of their species. Humane

treatment guidelines would still apply.

There is always a risk of cloning technology being abused. One of the main

disadvantages of cloning is that the technology would have to be kept closely monitored.

For example, imagine what a corrupt dictator could do with cloning. There will always be

someone looking to use cloning for their own personal use, and many feel that the best way

to prevent this is to not pursue cloning at all.

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-cloning.htm

http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-livestock.htm

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-immune-system.htm


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There are many advantages to cloning, such as the chance of curing certain diseases

and being able to breed ideal stock for research and consumption. However, the

disadvantages of cloning are seen by many to far outweigh any benefits that might be seen.

Because of the risk taking involved in cloning, it is a technology that many experts say may

be better left alone, at least until it is better understood.

Disadvantages

1. The Element of Uncertainty

While the cloning of Dolly was seen as a success story, many embryos were destroyed before the desired result was achieved. The process started with 277 eggs, and Dolly was the single successful outcome. Regardless of success in other areas, the field of cloning still has a long way to go. Infertile couples for example, could go through the same heartache as they would if in vitro fertilization failed.

2. Inheriting diseases

Cloning creates a copy of the original. A human clone would therefore inherit the genetic traits of its predecessor. This includes genetic abnormalities and diseases. Dolly the sheep for example exhibited signs of what some suggested were premature aging, although this was firmly denied by her ‘developers’.

3. The Potential for Abuse

If human cloning became a reality what checks and balances would be put in place to

prevent abuse? Would scientists go overboard with the technology? If a couple has a clone

that they are not happy with, what would they do next? These are all questions that must

be raised in any discussion on cloning. Some have expressed the view that clones could be

grown in a farm-like fashion simply for harvesting organs or stem cells. The potential for

devaluing human life cannot be ignored.

Advantages of GMOs

The mapping of genetic material for GMO crops increased knowledge of genetic

alterations and introduced the ability to enhance genes in crops to make them more

advantageous for human consumption and production. For example, plants can be

engineered to be temperature resistant or produce higher yields. This provides greater

genetic diversity in different regions where climate limits productivity.

Another good reason to have GMO crops planted is to add nutritional value to crops

that lack necessary vitamins and nutrients. There are areas around the world that rely on

rice or corn crops, and other plant genes may be added to the crop to increase the


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nutritional value of that food. This will help malnourished populations receive more

nutrients from their diet. We have already made pesticide resistant plants so that farmers

can use the right kinds of pesticides to rid insects and not inhibit plant growth. This will

increase crop yield in two ways; there will be fewer insects and pests to eat the crops, and

they will grow without being bothered by pesticides.

Advantages

Crops

• Enhanced taste and quality

• Reduced maturation time

• Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance

• Improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides

• New products and growing techniques

Animals

• Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk

• Improved animal health and diagnostic methods

• Increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency

Environment

• "Friendly" bioherbicides and bioinsecticides

• Conservation of soil, water, and energy

• Bioprocessing for forestry products

• Better natural waste management

• More efficient processing

• Genes can also be manipulated in trees to absorb more CO2 and reduce the threat of

global warming.

Society

• Increased food security for growing populations


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Disadvantages of GMOs

The GMO process includes adding new genetic material into an organism's genome. In

agricultural ecology, similar to bacterial genetic engineering, this means introducing new

genes in the genome of crops like corn. Experimental plantings of GMO crops began in

Canada and the U.S. in the 1980’s. The first time it became large scale (commercial)

cultivation was in the mid 1990’s. Research on the effects of large scale cultivation of GM

crops sparked various concerns. These ideas are brought up in different research studies

conducted on ecosystems with GMO strains. GMO strains have the potential to change our

agriculture.

A plant with unwanted or residual effects that might remain in the soil for extended

period of time. European Union agricultural regulators were alerted by Morrissey’s

research that GM strains from GM crops remained in the soil for years after the crop was

removed. Data reported that despite the absence of the GM plant, the strain persisted for

up to six years.

Engineered plants can act as mediators to transfer genes to wild plants and then

create weeds. To keep these new weeds under control scientists invented new GMO weed

herbicides that were not necessary for non GMO weeds. These chemicals are toxic to

various amphibians and mammals, such as cows feeding on GMO crops. In vivo tests show

that the uptake of herbicides has toxic consequences on certain organisms.

There is opposition in the introduction of GM genes on genetic diversity. The GM genes

from crops can spread to organic farm crops and threaten crop diversity in agriculture. If

crop diversity decreases, this affects the entire ecosystem and impacts the population

dynamics of other organisms. The chance that one genetically modified crop strain could

pollinate an already existent “non-GM” crop is unlikely and unpredictable. There are many

conditions that must be met for cross pollination to occur. However, when a large scale

plantation releases a GM strain during pollination, this risk increases. The cross pollination

to non-GM plants could create a hybrid strain, which means there is a greater possibility of

ecological novelty, or new artificial strains being introduced into the environment that

could potentially reduce biodiversity through competition.

Disadvantages

Food regulatory authorities require that GM foods receive individual pre-market safety

assessments. Also, the principle of ‘substantial equivalence’ is used. This means that an

existing food is compared with its genetically modified counterpart to find any differences

between the existing food and the new product. The assessment investigates:

• Toxicity (using similar methods to those used for conventional foods).


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• Tendency to provoke any allergic reaction.

• Stability of the inserted gene.

• Whether there is any nutritional deficit or change in the GM food.

• Any other unintended effects of the gene insertion.

F. The Future of Cloning and GMO: Researches and Recommendations

Cloning and GMO: Researches

The study entitled “Production of a Calf from a Nuclear Transfer Embryo Using in Vitro

Matured Oocytes” written by Ushijima, H., et. al. was conducted to examine the possibility of

nuclear transplantation using the bovine oocytes matured in vitro. Sixteen-cell stage

embryos were assigned to donor cells. The follicular oocytes matured in vitro were used as

enucleated recipient oocytes. The enucleated oocytes were fused with a blastomere from

donor embryos by electrofusion. Most recipient oocytes fused with donor cells. The

reconstituted eggs developed to 2-cell stage when cultured on a layer of cumulus cells

(187, 58%). Out of the 325 reconstituted eggs, 35 (11%) developed into morulae and 9

(3%) into blastocysts stage respectively. Eighteen morula or blastocyst stage embryos

were transferred nonsurgically to 9 recipient cows into 1-3 embryos per recipient. Two

recipients were confirmed pregnant. One of recipients produced a live offspring resulting

from a fresh donor blastomere. The study showed that in vitro matured oocytes can be

used as recipient cytoplasm.

The study entitled “Successful Mouse Cloning of an Outbred Strain by Trichostatin A

Treatment after Somatic Nuclear Transfer” written by Kishigami, S. et. al. was conducted to

test the validity of trichostatin A (TSA) cloning technique in which the researchers tried to

clone the adult ICR mouse, an outbred strain, which has never been directly cloned before.

The researchers obtained both male and female cloned mice from cumulus and fibroblast

cells of adult ICR mice with4-5% percent success rates when TSA was used, which is

comparable to 5-7% of B6D2F1. Thus, the TSA treatment was the first cloning technique to

allow the researchers to successfully clone outbred mice, demonstrating that this technique

not only improves the success of cloning from hybrid strains, but also enables mouse

cloning from normally “uncloned” strains.

The study entitled “Cloned cows with short telomeres deliver healthy offspring with

normal-length telomeres” written by Miyashita, N. et. al. was conducted to investigate

longetivity and lifetime performance in cloned animals. The researchers produced cloned

cows with short telomeres using oviductal ephitelial cells as donor cells. At 5 years of age,

despite despite the prescence of short telomeres, all cloned cows deliver multiple healthy

offspring following artificial insemination with conventionally processed spermatozoa


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from noncloned bulls, and their milk production was comparable to that of donor cows.

Moreover, the study revealed that the offspring had normal-length telomeres in their

leukocytes and major organs. Thus, cloned animals have normal function germ lines, and

therefore germ line function can completely restore telomere lengths in clone gametes by

telomerase activity, resulting in healthy offspring with normal-length telomeres.

The study entitled “Application of Genetically Modified and Cloned Pigs in Translational

Research” written by Matsunari, H. et. al. reviews the current status and future prospects of

genetically modified and cloned pigs in translational research. It also highlights pig

especially designed as disease models, for xenotransplantation or to carry cell marker

genes. Finally, use of porcine somatic stem and progenitor cells in preclinical studies of cell

transplantation study therapy is also discussed.

The study entitled “Mouse Cloning Using a Drop of Peripheral Blood” written by

Kamimura, S. et. al. was conducted to determine whether peripheral blood cells freshly

collected from living mice could be used for SCNT. The researchers collected a drop of

peripheral blood (15–45 μl) from the tail of a donor. A nucleated cell (leukocyte)

suspension was prepared by lysing the red blood cells. Following SCNT using randomly

selected leukocyte nuclei, cloned offspring were born at a 2.8% birth rate. Fluorescence-

activated cell sorting revealed that granulocytes/monocytes and lymphocytes could be

roughly distinguished by their sizes, the former being significantly larger. The researchers

then cloned putative granulocytes/monocytes and lymphocytes separately, and obtained

2.1% and 1.7% birth rates, respectively (P > 0.05). Because the use of lymphocyte nuclei

inevitably results in the birth of offspring with DNA rearrangements, the researchers

applied granulocyte/monocyte cloning to two genetically modified strains and two

recombinant inbred strains. Normal-looking offspring were obtained from all four strains

tested. The present study clearly indicated that genetic copies of mice could be produced

using a drop of peripheral blood from living donors. This strategy will be applied to the

rescue of infertile founder animals or a “last-of-line” animal possessing invaluable genetic

resources.

Future of Cloning and GMO: Conclusion and Recommendations

Cloning is a break through technology that improves the variety and breed of plants

and animals. It is important because it is on the verge of affecting daily life around the

world and its importance will only grow with time. Animal cloning will revolutionize food

production in the coming years and may, by turning animals into biological factories,

revolutionize pharmaceutical production as well. Moving from animals to humans, cloning

technology may, if some expectations prove true, radically alter medicine, leading the way

to an era of personalized transplant therapies. Finally, in the longer term, it opens the door

to the cloning and potential genetic engineering of humans, perhaps changing the very


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essence of what it means to be a human being.

When Dolly was cloned in 1996, the research was primarily funded by a biotechnology

firm that aimed to revolutionize the way drugs are produced. The basic idea is to create,

through cloning, genetically modified sheep or cows that produce therapeutic compounds,

such as insulin or growth hormone, in their milk. Pharmaceutical companies could isolate

these valuable compounds from the milk for a fraction of the cost of traditional

manufacturing methods. The milk would not be intended for human consumption and

would probably be discarded after the therapeutics had been isolated. This technique,

known as “pharming,” offers potential economic benefits for drug companies and has taken

off since Dolly’s birth. Numerous cows have been bred to produce therapeutics in their milk

and some scientists are exploring the possibility of harvesting drugs from other body fluids,

including urine. Pharming raises a number of concerns, including the risk of drug-

producing animals accidentally entering the food supply. Although the risks may be remote,

even those of us unfazed by drinking milk from a cloned cow wouldn’t be pleased to find

out the milk was significantly enriched with a prescription medicine.

While cloned animals that produce therapeutic compounds already exist, the creation

of cloned human embryos to facilitate medical therapies remains in the future and raises

serious ethical questions. Many scientists are optimistic that cloning will, one day, regularly

be used to create stem cells genetically matched to specific patients. These cells could,

potentially, help treat a range of debilitating conditions, such as type 1 diabetes and

Parkinson’s disease. Because the cells would be genetically matched to the individual

patient, they might avoid the immune rejection problems that complicate transplant

therapies today. This potential therapeutic technique is controversial, however, because

deriving these patient-matched stem cells, using currently envisioned approaches, would

require the creation of a cloned human embryo. At five days of age, the stem cells would be

isolated from the embryo and the developmental process halted. Dramatic advances

toward this vision of regenerative medicine were reported by a group of researchers based

in South Korea, but in late 2005 the veracity of this work was called into question: today, it

is clear that most, if not all, these advances were fraudulent. Despite this set-back, many

scientists believe the vision remains promising and “therapeutic cloning” is being pursued

by scientists around the world.

Genetic modification has become a routine part of biotechnology, and it is being

increasingly relied upon. In certain areas, such as producing drugs and food-modifying

enzymes, the potential for serious problems to arise seems small, but when used in food

crops, there are some evident dangers from the fact that these crops become so widespread

in the world environment. The level of alarm felt by some people about risks from eating

these food crops is most likely exaggerated. However, as the technology develops further,

attention must be paid to possible rare adverse responses to foods, especially allergenic


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responses, before commercial production begins.

Cloning also matters because, given the field’s current trajectory, it is part of our

shared future. From the food supply to the medicine cabinet, cloning technology is poised

to change the way we live. But these changes are controversial. Each of us can and should

participate or conduct researchers that will shape the role cloning plays in the future.

Cloning, like so many other issues that have faced modern science, must be carefully

evaluated. There will always be detractors, those who feel that anyone involved in cloning

is playing God. And this may not be too far from the truth. However, any discussion on

cloning must be looked at in the context of its inherent value to mankind.

The choice is ours. We cannot ignore gene technology, nor should we condemn all of it.

The key is proper regulation.”

Either we control gene technology today, or gene technology will redesign us by

tomorrow.

Cloning and Genetic Modification (GM/GMO's)

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