Classification of Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons in Victoria, Australia

7th Australian Stream Management Conference - Full Paper

Classification of Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons in Victoria, Australia Sarah L McSweeney, 1 David M Kennedy, 1 and Ian D Rutherfurd 1

1. The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia

Key Points • There are a high number of ICOLLs along microtidal, wave-dominated coasts, when the fluvial regime is

seasonal or inter-annually variable. The coast of Victoria exemplifies this • There is considerable geomorphic diversity between estuaries, especially ICOLLs, therefore classification is an

essential step towards enabling informed management decisions. • There is at least one order of magnitude difference between mean closure frequency and duration in the three

types of ICOLL. This is driven by the interaction of contemporary processes and physical characteristics such as infilling and topographic setting.

• Prolonged closure has management concerns including flooding of land and infrastructure, and a decline in water quality. Understanding estuary processes and geomorphology may mitigate these effects and allow a prediction of the likely response to artificial openings.

Abstract A large proportion of estuaries present along microtidal, wave-dominated coastlines, both in Australia and globally, are Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons (ICOLLs). These estuaries are periodically closed by longshore drift along the coast and onshore wave driven sediment, and then reopened by high river discharges. Prolonged closure has important management implications such as flooding and decreased water quality. In both Victoria and NSW many hundreds of thousands of dollars are spent each year artificially opening these estuaries. The basic geomorphology of these estuaries is poorly understood. Fundamental questions include: what mix of processes lead to closure and opening; and does artificial opening make them more likely to close in the future? This study explores these questions, but begins with a classification of ICOLLs on the Victorian coast. A long-term objective is to develop a robust understanding of ICOLL morphodynamics and how they may respond to human intervention or environmental change. A critical aspect is the degree to which fluvial or marine processes affect entrance condition. To address this, the present study explores the influence of these processes by linking their effect to the frequency of entrance closures. As a result, a model of ICOLL geomorphology is created to classify and describe the dynamics of microtidal, wave-dominated estuaries. The position of ICOLLs within this is based on their geomorphic characteristics and the dominant processes controlling the entrance state. Local wave conditions, fluvial discharge and sediment transport characteristics, along with the inherited topography of the embayment, exert a major control on estuary type. This model has applications for coastal management, in particular understanding the estuary response to artificial opening to confirm whether it is physically and financially worthwhile. A further step is to test the national and global applicability of this model, with case studies exemplifying each type of ICOLL.

Keywords Estuary, ICOLL, artificial openings, microtidal estuaries, classification.

Introduction Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons (ICOLLs) are a form of estuary with an irregular entrance connection to the ocean. There are a high proportion of ICOLLs along microtidal, wave-dominated coasts, where the fluvial regime is seasonal or inter-annually variable. High wave energy results in the ongoing progradation of marine sediments, which when combined with low or irregular river flows, builds a berm across the estuary entrance. The result of these processes is the periodic separation of the estuary from the ocean. In order for a natural opening to occur, fluvial flow or basin water levels are required to reach a level sufficient to breach the berm. In Australia ICOLLs are common in the south-east, south-west and southern coasts due to the boundary conditions which facilitate their formation (Roy, 1984; Ryan et al. 2003; Haines, 2006). Prolonged closure has important management implications for surrounding settlements and the hinterland. For example, upstream flooding can both damage infrastructure and inundate property or farmland. A decrease in estuary water quality will have biological repercussions such as high pH

McSweeney, S.L., Kennedy, D. M. & Rutherfurd, I. D. (2014).Classification of Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons in Victoria, Australia, in Vietz, G; Rutherfurd, I.D, and Hughes, R. (editors), Proceedings of the 7th Australian Stream Management Conference. Townsville, Queensland, Pages 1-8. 1

https://members.asnevents.com.au/events/abstracts/view/10812?User=61675%23affiliation_25122



7ASM Full Paper

McSweeney et.al. – Classification of Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons

levels or anoxic conditions leading to fish deaths (Arundel, 2006; Schallenberg et al. 2010). To ameliorate these impacts, managers often artificially open ICOLLs to provide relief to landholders who experience the adverse effects of closure. This is a timely and expensive procedure.

Classification of estuaries is an important tool for coastal management as it enables clear identification of different estuary types and allows for the transfer knowledge between estuaries with similar characteristics (Mondon et al. 2003). Classification also provides a fundamental precursor to understanding how the natural processes of ICOLLs operate. Existing attempts at classifying wave-dominated, microtidal estuaries are tend to present more detailed explanations for the distribution, evolution and morphodynamics of permanently open estuary types as opposed to ICOLLs (Boyd et al. 1992; Cooper, 1990: 2001; Roy, 1984; Roy et al. 2001; Ryan et al. 2003; Murray et al. 2006; Harris and Heap, 2007; Haines, 2008). In a broader scale, ICOLLs fit into the range of estuary types as a subset of wave-dominated estuaries - often termed coastal lagoons (Roy, 1984; Boyd et al. 1992, Cooper, 2001; Roy et al. 2001). In this case, the dynamic nature of the entrance is often misrepresented, and no attempt been made to differentiate between the different types of ICOLLs which exist (Haines, 2008). Furthermore, there is not an adequate explanation for the distribution of ICOLLs and why some have contrasting entrance regimes. It is necessary to first understand how the main drivers of entrance condition operate and vary between different types of ICOLL in order to implement effective management strategies best suited to each type. Overall, classification provides a vital link between understanding the distribution and evolutionary pathways of ICOLLs, and understanding contemporary entrance morphodynamics.

Aside from the broad scale impacts of closure, the processes controlling the entrance dynamics of ICOLLs are not comprehensively understood. Process studies are limited by a lack of understanding, and are also constrained by application to permanently open types of estuary. The form and function of ICOLLs is an area of estuarine research which has, however, received increasing attention in recent years – possibly due to the realisation that entrance condition has strong repercussions for biota and management (Roy et al. 2001; Ryan et al. 2003; Stretch and Parkinson, 2006). Globally, studies are still limited to several key areas with work tending to be concentrated in South Africa (Cooper, 2001; Dye and Barros, 2005; Harris and Heap, 2007; Bate, 2007; Stretch and Parkinson, 2006, 2007; Parkinson, 2007; Bond et al. 2013), SE Australia (Haines, 2006; 2008; Morris and Turner, 2007; 2010), W Australia (Ranasinghe et al, 1998; Ranasinghe and Pattarachi, 2003) and South America (Vila-Concerjio et al. 2003). There are further studies of ICOLLs in New Zealand (Hapua: Todd, 1983; Kirk, 1991; Hart, 2007; 2009; Kirk and Lauder, 2000) and (Waituna: Kain, 2009; Schallenberg et al. 2010). Most process based studies focusing upon ICOLLs are limited in application to a single study site which may limit their relevance beyond areas with similar boundary conditions (Ranasinghe and Pattarachi, 2003 - Wilson Lake, WA; Haines, 2006 - Lake Avoca, NSW; Wheeler et al. 2009 – Snowy River; Bond et al. 2013 – Zinkwazi). The different roles that fluvial, tide and wave energy contribute to controlling entrance condition and how the relative proportion of these energies vary throughout different stages of the opening and closure sequence is a key issue. By identifying the main drivers of entrance condition, this will allow artificial openings to be undertaken when effective.

The coast of Victoria provides an ideal study location for the field testing of a conceptual classification model. There is a high proportion of ICOLLs (85% of all estuaries) and considerable geomorphic diversity is displayed in terms of spatial scale, evolutionary progression, topographic setting and entrance condition (Barton and Sherwood, 2004). A key component includes explaining the distribution of different types of ICOLLs and the relationship between ICOLL type and the processes controlling entrance morphodynamics. Furthermore, existing studies need to be synthesised to develop models with wider application that facilitate a full quantification of the driving processes of entrance morphodynamics to the extent to which it can be used as a predictive model of ICOLL behaviour. This is an ultimate aim of this research

Classification of Wave-Dominated Microtidal Estuaries in Victoria

Methods A conceptual classification model of wave-dominated microtidal estuaries in Victoria has been created through a synthesis of literature, in combination with field data and observations. The model has been confirmed in applicability at all estuaries across the coast of Victoria. This was undertaken by an analysis of the variations in physical or geomorphic characteristics and the estuary entrance condition. Analysis of estuary entrance condition and physical characteristics was undertaken using both field observations and aerial photography (1948 - 2011) - with supplementary online historical imagery (Google Earth). Further catchment and bathymetric data is provided by coastal and catchment based


7ASM Full Paper


LiDAR to identify the most important geomorphic elements driving change in entrance condition. The classification was assigned by establishing a range of parameters which represent specifically each estuary type. These included measurements from the catchment (mean catchment slope, catchment area), estuary (entrance condition, water area, basin volume, mean berm height, channel width and depth, cross sectional area) and offshore bathymetry (mean shelf slope). Also considered were any major differences in rainfall (BOM) or river flow regime (data from Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Victoria online database). More intensive surveying of entrance and adjacent beach position was undertaken at a range of estuaries (22 sites to date). Study sites are located in both east and west Victoria to consider different coastal, topographic and sedimentary boundary conditions, and to include a distribution of ICOLL types which reflects that of the wider coast [Table 1: Figure 2: 3]. Regular repeat long profiles, berm measurements, and multiple channel cross sections were taken with a Sokkia total station and Trimble RTK GPS over a 2 year period (to date) to establish the characteristic geomorphology and entrance condition of each type of ICOLL. All surveys were calibrated to permanent site benchmarks which were established as static points by the RTK GPS. Surface sediment samples were taken at all sites at specific facies environments (swash zone, berm, lower channel, mid channel, deep channel, basin, flood tide delta, washover fans) and grain size distribution analysis was undertaken by a laser particle sizer. Automated cameras are installed at two case-study sites with multiple images taken every 2 hours over a 6 month period to identify the frequency, duration and modes of entrance openings at these sites. This also provides supplementary data for further process analysis.

Wave-Dominated Microtidal Estuaries in Victoria, Australia A large proportion of estuaries present in Victoria are ICOLLs [Figure 1: Table 2]. For example from an initial classification, 97 out of the 115 coastal waterways experienced an ongoing degree of separation from the ocean. Permanently open estuaries on wave-dominated, microtidal coasts include drowned river valleys and barrier estuaries (Roy, 1984; Roy et al. 2001). Drowned river valleys (DRV) are uncommon in Victoria due to the low coastal topography (Hodgkin and Hesp, 1998; Digby et al. 1999) and barrier estuaries, although present, mostly tend to maintain an open entrance only due to human intervention to natural the entrance morphodynamics (eg. Port Fairy, Portland, Lakes Entrance). Barrier estuaries are likely to otherwise revert back to an intermittent-type entrance functioning due to the high wave energy and low flow conditions, unless entrance topography is sufficiently deep to facilitate constant tidal action, or if fluvial energy is constant.

Figure 1: Proportion of estuaries in Victoria, Australia which are ICOLLs and the distribution of estuary types between E VIC and W VIC.

Different types of ICOLLs are defined on a basis of their typical entrance condition, geomorphic characteristics and the key processes responsible for driving change in entrance morphodynamics [Figure 2: Table 2]. The further differences between ICOLLs give rise to three categories which are recognised in this conceptual classification to be present on the


7ASM Full Paper


coast of Victoria: Type A – Beach Controlled, Type B – Channel Controlled and Type C - Tidal Creeks [summarised in Figure 2].

Figure 2: Conceptual classification of wave-dominated microtidal estuaries.

Table 2: Overview of different estuary types in Victoria. Entrance condition derived from Estuary Watch (Corangamite CMA) data and aerial photography. Entrance Closure Index (ECI) measures the proportion of time an entrance is closed (T closed/T total) after Haines (2006).

Estuary Type

Number in Victoria Total W E

Overall %

Mean ECI

Mean Opening Frequency (% T/year)

Mean Berm Height (m above MSL)

Mean Mouth Channel Width (m)

Mean water area (km2)

Mean catchment area (km2)

Mean Grain Size (Wentworth, 1922)

ICOLL Type A

45 21 24 38.1 0.53 53 2.04 114.2 1.4 320.8 Medium - Coarse sands (washover)

ICOLL Type B

12 8 4 10.1 0.7 70 1.62 210.8 >2 >400 Medium sands

ICOLL Type C

41 26 15 34.8 0.03 97 0.85 56.1 0.2 25 Medium sands

Barrier 12 8 4 10.2 0 100 - 220 - >850 Medium sands

Non-est. 8 2 6 6.9 1 0

DRV 0 0 0 0 0 100

TOTAL 118 65 53 100

Type A ICOLLs have a narrow to moderately wide entrance channel (150 - 300m), a uniform channel width in lower reaches, high sedimentary infilling, limited flood accommodation space. Type A ICOLLs have a mid-size and gradient catchment, and a high to moderate berm. Type B ICOLLs have a wide entrance channel (>200m), typically circular basin with a high water volume, limited infilling and ample flood accommodation space present. Type B ICOLLs have large (>400km2) and low gradient catchments, and high steep berms. Type C – Tidal Creeks resemble a creek which due to being open the majority of the time, is nearly always tidal at high tides. Type C ICOLLs have the smallest spatial scale, a narrow and shallow entrance, are confined by steep gradient topography. Type C ICOLLs have small (<30km2) catchments and no or a very low berm. In Victoria, Type C ICOLLs are distributed within the Otways, Wilson’s Promonotory and Cape Otway where the catchment gradient is steeper and limited lower river valley accommodation space is present. Data from case study sites in Victoria is presented in Table 3 where the classification model is applied.


7ASM Full Paper


Table 3: Entrance closure statistics for ICOLLs in Victoria. Data from Estuary Watch.

Site ECI % Total Time Open

Entrance State

Estuary Type

# Closures (days/year)

Closure Freq. (T/year)

Data Range (year)

Wye River 0.04 95.8 Open C 16 1 2

Wild Dog Creek 0.02 98 Open C 0 0 5

Angelsea 0.36 64 Open A 235.45 3.3 11

Gellibrand 0.20 80 Open A 251 5.43 7

Skenes Crk 0.58 42 Closed C 155.6 38 7

Spring Crk 0.08 92 Open A 58.8 1.3 6

Thompson 0.00 100 Open A 11.5 1 4

Kennett R 0.28 72 Open C 2 1 2

Apollo Bay 0.11 89 Open A 53.25 1 6

Erskine R 0.10 90 Open C 14.25 1 7

Hopkins R 0.20 80 Open A 67.5 1 4

St George R 0.05 95 Open C 12 1 4

Aireys Inlet 0.81 19 Closed A 212.43 3 7

Barwon R 0.1 90 Open A 0 0 7

Curdies Inlet 0.85 15.00 Closed B 60 1 1

Overall Mean 0.25 74.79 Open A 76.7 3.9 5.3

Implications for natural entrance condition The amount of flood accommodation space (volume of estuary available relative to water area) is a main control on the frequency and duration of entrance openings. In a flood or during elevated water levels, energy is more rapidly diverted through the entrance. An estuary with a larger volume requires a higher basin water level to be reached before breakout occurs. This is evident with more frequent entrance openings evident in Type C ICOLLs (Tidal Creeks) [Table 2: 3] due to the limited capacity of the estuary to absorb flood inputs. This also has implications for decreasing the frequency of natural openings in Type B ICOLLs, as the estuary can hold a higher volume of water before opening, although the duration of these openings appears to be prolonged. Accommodation space within the estuary is reduced over time as the basin progressively infills with sediment (Roy, 1984; Roy et al. 2001). Topography can, however, provide an equally important control on estuary size. For example, when the estuary exists in a steep, confined valley setting where there is minimal room for a wide estuary basin to exist initially. This has implications for opening which have not been examined. There is a positive relationship between catchment and estuary water area which means ICOLLs with a larger water area and volume, such as Type B ICOLLs, have larger-sized catchment areas (West et al. 1985; Ryan et al. 2002; Mondon et al. 2003; Haines, 2006).

There is at least one order of magnitude difference between mean closure frequency in the three types of ICOLL. Type C ICOLLs are open more often but close quickly on a tidal to daily scale. Entrance closures, however, only persist for short periods. Type B ICOLLs, in contrast, are closed most of the time on a monthly to yearly scale, but when opening occurs, the estuary remains open for months at a time. Type A ICOLLs occupy the mid spectrum in terms of both entrance opening duration and frequency. The duration of entrance openings are most variable between these sites and are linked to the underlying topography and setting of individual estuaries. During flooding, water levels will theoretically rise quickly in an ICOLL with little available flood accommodation space (Type A and C). Water levels will rise behind the barrier thereby increasing hydraulic head acting to breach the berm where the narrow channel focuses energy towards the entrance. Ultimately this means flood energy is diverted through the barrier whereas in a less infilled estuary (Type B) a higher water level may be reached before breakout occurs. This occurs as the larger estuary volume can contain any increase in water levels before it actively induces a natural breakout. It is, therefore, hypothesised that the general frequency of flood induced natural breakout events is not only dictated by catchment precipitation and fluvial inputs, but largely by basin topography and marine conditions.


7ASM Full Paper


Conclusion In conclusion, a comprehensive review of existing literature has exposed the need for an integrated model capable of identifying where ICOLLs fit within the range of wave-dominated microtidal estuaries. ICOLLs are the most widespread type of estuary in Victoria constituting approximately 90% of all estuaries present. Limited attempts have been undertaken to classify and describe the entrance processes of ICOLLs, with none attempted in Victoria. Across the coastline, ICOLLs exhibit considerable variety in terms of size, topographic setting, geomorphology and typical entrance condition. It is necessary to consider the differences in form between different types of ICOLLs, which have previously been recognised as a single type of estuary, in order to implement effective management strategies best suited to each type. This work presents a conceptual classification model where ICOLLs are separated into three sub types [Figure 2]. Field work to date confirms the application of the conceptual classification model to the estuaries of Victoria. The balance between the basin capacity, berm height and basin water levels are identified as the main controls on entrance morphodynamics [Figure 2]. Natural openings are initiated by the fluvial processes increasing the basin water level, but marine processes exhibit the main influence upon the duration of the opening. As flood accommodation space is limited when ICOLLs are in the final stages of infill, any increase in basin water levels has a more direct impact on entrance condition. This is made evident by a higher opening frequency in Type B ICOLLs as opposed to Type A.

Figure 2: Conceptual summary of processes and factors influencing entrance condition of ICOLLs.

It is also recognised that topography can also exert a main control on entrance regime as ICOLLs which form in narrow, confined valleys are limited in volume due to the topographic constraints, therefore fluvial energy is forced seaward resulting in more regular entrance openings. This is experienced in Type C ICOLLs. From field based observations, four main factors have been identified to control the entrance morphodynamics of ICOLLs: accommodation space and volume of the estuary – either as a function of infill, or the underlying topographic setting; channel and entrance dimensions; wave conditions (ie. onshore wave energy and sediment transport); hydraulic head and water level balance against berm as a result of episodic catchment flood events (ie. water level in respect to max capacity). Classifying estuaries provides an essential framework for recognising and defining different estuary types. This conceptual classification can provide an indication for managers and councils of the likely morphodynamic controls, natural entrance regimes, and the likely frequency and duration of entrance closures for each type of ICOLL. By isolating and quantifying the processes that have the most direct influence upon closure, and how this may vary between different types of ICOLL, this will enable effective decisions regarding artificial openings to be implemented at times which will be worthwhile. A future step is to establish what different modes of entrance closure and opening can be attributed to each different type of ICOLL in order to provide a predictive model of entrance morphodynamics with applications for management.

Acknowledgments Thanks for Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Victoria for providing funding towards this project.


7ASM Full Paper


References Arundel H. (2006) EEMSS Background Report and User Manual: Estuary Entrance Management Decision Support System.

Deakin University, Warrnambool, 120 p. Barton, J and Sherwood, J. (2004) Estuary opening management in Western Victoria. An Information Analysis. Parks

Victoria Technical Series no. 15. Parks Victoria. Melbourne. Bate, G. (2007). “Estuary management.” In A review of information on temporarily open/closed estuaries in the warm

and cool temperate biogeographic regions of South Africa, with particular emphasis on the influence of river flow on these systems, eds. A. Whitfield and G. Bate, 192- 214. Pretoria: Water Research Commission Report No. 1581/1/07.

Bond, J., Green, A.N., Cooper, J.A.G. and Humphries, M.S., (2013). Seasonal and episodic variability in the morphodynamics of an ephemeral inlet, Zinkwazi Estuary, South Africa. In: Conley, D.C., Masselink, G., Russell, P.E. and O’Hare, T.J. (eds.), Proceedings 12th Int. Coastal Symposium, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, pp. 446-451.

Boyd, R., Dalrymple, R., Zaitlin, B. A., (1992). Classification of clastic coastal depositional environments. Sedimentary Geology 80, 139-150

Cooper, J.A.G., (1990). “Ephemeral stream mouth bars at flood breach river mouths: comparison with tidal deltas at barrier inlets.” Mar. Geol. 96, pp. 57-70.

Cooper, J.A.G., (2001). Geomorphological variability among microtidal estuaries from the wave-dominated South African coast. Geomorphology 40, 99p.

Digby, M.J., Saenger, P., Whelan, M.B., McConchie, D., Eyre, B., Holmes, N., and Bucher, D. (1998) A Physical Classification of Australian Estuaries. Report prepared for the Urban Water Research Association of Australia by the Centre for Coastal Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.

Dye, A., and F. Barros. (2005).” Spatial patterns in macrofauna assemblagesin intermittently open/closed coastal lakes in New SouthWales, Australia.”In Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 62: 57–371. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2005.02.029.

Haines PE (2006) “Physical and chemical behaviour and management of Intermittently Closed and Open Lakes and Lagoons in NSW.” PhD thesis, Griffith University.

Haines, P. E. (2008) ICOLL Management: Strategies for a sustainable future. BMT WBM Pty Ltd, Broadmeadow NSW. Harris, Peter T., and Heap, Andrew D. (2007). “Comment on "Is geomorphic zonation a useful predictor of patterns of

benthic infauna in intermittent estuaries in New South Wales, Australia?" by A. H. Dye 2006.” Estuaries and Coasts 29:455-464.

Hart DE. (2009). “Morphodynamics of non-estuarine rivermouth lagoons on high- energy coasts.” Journal of Coastal Research SI56, Vol 2 pp 1355-1359.

Hart, D, E. (2007). “River mouth lagoon dynamics on mixed sand and gravel barrier coasts.” Journal of Coastal Research, SI 50 (Proceedings of the 9th International Coastal Symposium), 927 – 931. Gold Coast, Australia, ISSN 0749.0208

Kain, CL. (2009) Past, Present and Future: Morphology and Dynamics of Rivermouth Lagoons in Westland, New Zealand. Canterbury University, New Zealand.

Kirk RM. (1991). “River-beach interaction on mixed sand and gravel coasts: a geomorphic model for water resource planning.” Journal of Applied Geography, Volume 11, Issue 4, pp 267-287.

Kirk, R.M, and Lauder, G. A. (2000) Significant coastal lagoon systems in the South Island, New Zealand Coastal processes and lagoon mouth closure. Department of Conservation.

Morris, B.D., Turner, I.L., (2007). Rapid infilling of an intermittently open-closed lagoon entrance following mechanical clearance. 18th Australasian Coastal and Ocean Engineering Conference, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 6.

Morris, B.D. and Turner, I.L., (2010). “Morphodynamics of intermittently open-closed coastal lagoon entrances: new insights and a conceptual model.” Marine Geology, 271, 55-66.

Mondon, J., Sherwood, J. and Chandler, F. (2003) Western Victorian estuaries classification project. Prepared for the Western Coastal Board, Victoria.

Murray, E, Radke, L, Brooke, B, Ryan, D, Murphy, R, Robb, M and Rissik, D. (2006) Australia’s near pristine estuaries: Current knowledge and management. Technical report no. 63. Co-operative research centre for coastal zone, estuary and waterway management. Brisbane.

Parkinson, M. (2007) The Breaching of Temporarily Open/Closed Estuaries. Masters thesis. University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

Ranasinghe, R., Pattiaratchi, C., Masselink, G., (1998). “Seasonal inlet closure: Governing processes.” Journal of Coastal Research, SI(26), 32-41.

Ranasinghe, R., and Pattiaratchi, C. (2003) “The seasonal closure of tidal inlets: Causes and effects.” In Coastal Engineering Journal, Vol. 45, No. 4 (2003) 601–627


7ASM Full Paper


Roy, P.S., (1984) “NSW Estuaries: Their Origin and Evolution.” In Thom, B.G. (Ed.). Coastal Geomorphology in Australia, Academic Press, Sydney. Roy (2001)

Roy, P. S., Williams, R. J., Jones, A. R., Yassini, R., Gibbs, P. J., Coates, B., West, R. J., Scanes, P. R., Hudson, J. P.,and Nichol, S., (2001). Structure and function of south-east Australian estuaries. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 53:351-384.

Ryan, D. A., Heap, A. D., Radke, L., and Heggie, D. T., (2003) “Conceptual models of Australia’s estuaries andcoastal waterways: applications for coastal resource management.” In Geoscience Australia, Record 2003/09, 136 p

Schallenberg, M., S.T. Larned, S. Hayward, and C. Arbuckle. (2010). Contrasting effects of managed opening regimes on water quality in two intermittently closed and open coastal lakes.” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86: 587–597. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2009.11.001.

Stretch, D., and M. Parkison. (2006). “The breaching of sand barriers at perched, temporary open/closed estuaries—a model study.” In Coastal Engineering Journal 48(1): 13–30. oi:10.1142/S0578563406001295.

Todd D. J. (1983) Effect of Low River Flows on Closure of the Opihi River Mouth. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis (Geog), University of Canterbury. 187 p.

Vila-Concejo, A., Ferreira, Ó., Matias, A., Dias, J.M.A., (2003). “The two first years of an inlet: Sedimentary Dynamics.” Continental Shelf Research, 23: 1425-1445.

Wentworth, C, K. (1922) “A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments.” In The Journal of Geology, Vol. 30, No. 5 (Jul. - Aug., 1922), pp. 377-392

West, R. J., Thorogood, C., Walford, T., Williams, R. J. (1985) An estuarine inventory for New South Wales, Australia” Fisheries Bulletin. 2 Department of Agriculture, New South Wales.

Wheeler, Peter J.; Nguyen, Thi T.; Peterson, Jim; Gordon-Brown, Lee. (2009) Australian Geographer. Vol. 40 Issue 1, p1-28. 28p. Whitfield, A., and G. Bate. (2007). A Review of Information on Temporarily Open/Closed Estuaries in the Warm and Cool Temperate Biogeographic Regions of South Africa, with Particular Emphasis on the Influence of River Flow on These Systems. Pretoria: Water Research Commission Report No. 1581/1/07.


Classification of Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons in Victoria, Australia

Documents

Transcript of Classification of Intermittently Closed and Open Coastal Lakes and Lagoons in Victoria, Australia