Lakes are considered to be one of the most productive and

biologically rich inland surface water eco-system. They are

either natural or man-made. Several important urban

conglomerations have various natural and man-made lakes,

reservoirs, which objectively fulfill various demands of mankind.

The growing urbanization, scarcity of potable water and ever

increasing anthropogenic influences have been constantly exerting

pressure on surface water bodies.

The availability and quality of fresh water resources have

always remained an important consideration in taking decision

about any development project, and planners usually confine

themselves to the problems of meeting requirement of water and

its disposal after use. Until recently the water bodies were

thought to be the cheapest convenient refuse disposal systems.

This tendency has resulted in indiscriminate and excessive

loading of waste matter into the aquatic system beyond their

capacity of self purification. In recent times, the faulty

development policies and mismanagement of watershed areas have

resulted into unprecedented nutrient enrichment of water bodies

causing ‘cultural eutropication’, which is manifested in raised

tropic status, increased rate of sedimentation, loss of water

storage capacity, lowered retention period and deteriorated water

quality.

The Techniques of Water Management System in Medieval Malwa

Rajputana was one of the most important provinces of India in ancient times and its influence on Indian culture has been profound. Physically, culturally and politically we may call it the heart of India. It is the passage to the North India to Deccan. ‘Rajputana’ implies the plateau region which formed a political unit like ‘Magadha, ‘Kalinga and ‘Saurashtra’ (K.C. Jain, Malwa Through the Ages, From the Earliest time to 1305 A.D., Motilal, Banarsidas Publisher, Varanasi, p. 15.).

Malwa covered an area of about 47,760 Sq. kms and comprised of the present district of Dhar, Jhabua, Ratlam, Dewas, Indore, Ujjain, Mandsaur, Sehore, Raisen, Shajapur and Vidisha (S.D. Mishra, Natural Regionsof the Indian sub continent, Type script, p. 108.).

According to Abul Fazl in his Ain-I-Akbari, It is stated that, “Malwa is situated in the second climate. Its length from extreme point of Garha (Mandla) to Banswara is 764 km. Its breadth from Chanderi to Nandurbar is 718 km. To the east lies Bandhun (Rewa); to the North, Narwar; to the south Baglanah to the Gujrat and Ajmer There are mountains to the South. Abul Fazl says that, “Its principal rivers arethe Narmada, the Shipra, the Kali Sindh, the Betwa and the Godi. According to Abul Fazl,’ Godi is a tributary of the ‘Narmada’. At every two or 10 km clear and limpid streams are met on whose banks thewillow grows wild and the hyacinth and fragrant flowers of many hues, amid the abundant shade of trees. Lakes and green meads are frequent and stately Palaces and fair country homes breathe tales of fairyland.(Abul Fazl, Ain-I-Akbari Eng.Trans.) by H. Blochman, Low Price Publication, Delhi, Vol. II, p. 206.).

The rulers of Medieval Malwa and Rajasthan have took care of theirstates very well. Their ideals were based on the ritual policies andreligious scripts, such as ‘Vedas’, Puranas, Manusmriti, Sukra Niti,Artha Shastra etc. are special noticed.

In 11th century Samrangan Sutradhar of Raja Bhoj was the most valuableand authentic source of water technique in the Palaces and forts,construction methods of water resources, the architecture of waterbodies of Malwa. Raja Bhoj constructed so many water tanks, lakes andreservoirs in Dhar, Mandu and Bhojpur.

There must be many Tanks, Gardens, wells and bathing place in the city. Water has obtained from the wells & clouds for the irrigation. Many wells, tanks, Canals and reservoirs were dug in that period. KingMunz Parmar constructed Munz Sagar in Dhar and king Bhoj constructed ahuge tank near Chitor which is called Bhojsar (Dr. Bhagwatilal Rajpurohit, Bhojraj Malwa ka Parmar Raja Bhoj-I, Vishva Vidyalaya Prakashan, Varanasi, pp. 30-31.).

During the establishment of Muslim rule in India, many Historians havewritten the inscriptions in Persian and Arabic and Many ‘Tawarikh’ were written by them in Persian. There is a reference of water resources and water management of Malwa in the Rajasthan autobiographyof some Muslim ruler in India (Dr. K.S. Gupta and Dr. J.K. Ojha, Rajasthan kaRajnetic Avam Sanskritic Itihas, p. 31.). The Mughal Emperor Babur described the environment, rainfall, gardens, wells, rivers, canals, tanks, Arawali hills, ponds and irrigation, tools and techniques like Rahet, Chadas, Dhinkli etc (Babur, Baburnama (Translated by A.S. Beveridge) Low Price Publications,Delhi, 2006, pp. 484, 488, 515, 518.). Abul Fazl described in the third volume of A- In-I-Akbari about the Crops, the environment, natural beauty, sweet water productions, art and industry etc (Abul Fazl, Ain-I-Akbari (Trans.by A.H. Blochman Vol.III) Low Price Publications, Delhi, 2008, pp. 1, 10, 11.).

The Mughal Emperor Jahangir described beautifully in his autobiographyTujuk-I-Jahangiri about the water resources, wells, step wells, rivers, sarovars, kunds, springs, lakes, tanks, ponds and fountains. He writes about Malwa that, “Five big rivers flows in Malwa apart fromcanals, rivers and springs. These rivers are Chambal, Shipra, Kali-Sindh, Neera (Betwa), Narbada (Munshi Devi Prasad, Jahangir Nama, Editor Dr.Raghubir Singh, Publication Scheme, Jaipur, p. 164.).

Originally, the religious feeling inspired for the construction of theprocess of water resources, on the other hand the water resources havecompulsorily required in the State for drinking water, Agricultureirrigation and the economic development. Therefore in the medievalperiod, many rulers of Rajasthan constructed the numbers of waterresources in many places. They have took keen interest for thedevelopment of water resources in their areas. The rulers of thisregion have inspired their Jagirdars to construct the wells, stepwells, kup, tanks, reservoirs in their region for the economicdevelopment of the state.

In Medieval Rajputana the Muslim rulers have also made the wonderful efforts for the water management. The residue of extensive and scientific water resources like huge step wells, reservoirs, cistern etc. have existed in different places of Rajasthan. According to the Waqi’ at-e-Mushtaqui Nasir-Ud-din Khilji was constructed the Palaces, Hauz and Ahu-khana in different places of Rajasthan. In Kaliadah Palace of Ujjain, the beautiful Palace, water canal and fifty two reservoirs constructed with the excellent engineering and architect (Shaikh Rizqullah Mushtaqui, Waqi at-e Mushtaqui (Translate by Sayyad Athar Abbas Rijvi, Uttar Tammor Kaleen Bharat) Part II, p. 14.).

The Western Indian agriculture has always depended on various sourcesof water both natural and artificial for its irrigational requirementvia Rain, wells, river, tanks canals, step wells etc.

The construction of water works and the technological changesthat took place in the traditional irrigation system in Madhya Pradeshregion during the Malwa Parmar kings and sultanate hitherto neglected,need a scientific study. The relevant evidence available in thecontemporary Indian and Persian works through the construction ofwater works and the changes that irrigation technology and waterrefining technology underwent from time to time. In particular thesetting up of the Persian wheel on wells and the construction of largeartificial canals provide clues to the introduction of certainmechanical devices in the irrigation system employed during the periodunder review.

Dams, lakes, and water reservoirs were some of the important means ofirrigation in Malwa at 11th Century. The artificial lake at BhojpurCommissioned by King Bhoj in the middle of the 11th Century covered250 Sq.miles.

An important aspect of Indian agriculture is artificial irrigation to supplement the natural bounty of the mansoons. The principal means employed for this purpose was the construction of well, tanks and canals. In Malwa, wells must have provided the chief source of irrigation. Number of artificial devices were used to lift water from well. Pullys were employed over wells for this purpose. Another deviceworked on the lever principal. In the region of all Malwa there was the wooden arhet or ‘rahat (Rahat’-(A hindi equivalent of percian wheel) Babur refers to the Persian wheel being used in India as Charakh, Baburnama p.486.) called by the english the ‘Persian Wheel’ with the chain of pots

and pin drums gearing. This water lifting mechanism obtained much greater ability to lift water from greater depth when the pots were transferred from the spokes or rim to a rope chain or “Pot-Garland” (Malwa) (Irfan Habib, Technology in medieval India (650-1750 AD), Pub. Aligarh Historian Society, Tulika Books, New Delhi, 2008, p. 9.) The earliest allusion to this ‘Pot-Garland’ Occurs in ‘Yashodharman’s Mandsaur inscription found on two type stone pillars of victory set up by king Yashodharman of Unknown origin near Mandsaur. One of them is dated in Malwa year 589 (532-33AD). The dated on records the construction of a large well by one Daksha, whose brother Dharmadasa was the minister ofYashodharman.

On other techniques in which uses of heavy wood Pillar of tree, andclay make a ‘Kacha Bandha’ on river then growing the label of waterand make a temporary canal and uses water for irrigation. This type oftemporary canal called ‘Saran’.

In his general account of Mewar agriculture is artificial irrigationto supplement the natural bounty of the monsoons. In Mewar, wells and‘Deekli’ (local language) and ‘Bundha’ must have provided the chiefsource of irrigation.21 In Mewar wells must have provided the chiefsource of irrigation. Most of the wells were ‘Kachcha’ that is madewithout use of masonry. These necessarily had to be dug or dug of rashevery year. In Mewar out of a very large number of water tanksrecorded in all region and many ruins of ‘Wooden Rahat’ also found inthis region.

Some cultivated fields when watering is required women and menirrigate by drawing up water by other techniques like ‘Kutumba’ andodi (abat). These techniques were found in Malwa and Mewar. In Kutumbalong hollow tree like ‘Kajui’ and other any long nal tree one sideattached on height and second terminal attached in agriculture area orfort area, then water moving up to down.23 There are an allusion ofruined hallows, have found at many places in the lower portion ofAsirgarh fort in between the main wall and the second wall of thefortress.

In Malwa all techniques of Water Management have depended on Rainwater harvesting. The water of rain, rivers and streams hasconservated in wells, step wells, and tanks in most of the forts,temples and other areas of Malwa during medieval period. Theseconservated water has used for drinking and irrigation purpose. The

techniques of Kachcha Bandha, Kutumba and water courses have used forthis purpose.

In Malwa many examples of roof water harvesting finds in Mandu. Themonument of “Jahaj Mahal” and Rani Rupmati Mahal are the great exampleof Rain water harvesting. Asirgarh fort and ‘Khundi Bhandara’ ofBurhanpur, are also the great example of Rain water harvesting, asthey were neighboring area of Malwa.

In Rajasthan there are two main techniques of rain water harvestingstorage of rain water on surface for further use. Recharge to groundwater the storage of rain water on surface is a traditional techniqueand structures used were underground tanks, ponds, check, dams weirsetc.27

Example of water related architecture in Malwa include Lateral stepbuilt on the banks of rivers, reservoirs and dams or ghats, which forma characteristic feature at various pilgrimage sites and religiousenclosures, wells, royal pleasure pavilions fronting or situated onrivers and lakes and ornamental pools and water gardens attached toPalaces. Other type of water related architecture included deepstepped basins, village tanks and wells which served as communityareas for bathing, watering animals and meeting places etc.

Alongside this Since the Palaces and forts of the rulers and theirfeudatories incorporated water bodies to meet drinking water needs aswell as for aesthetic and weather conditioning purpose, elaboratesystem of transporting water within Palaces and forts and of fountainsand water channels that ran through chambers and gardens were devised.In the context of Malwa for example Baj Bahadur and Rani RupmatiMahal, Jahaj Mahal, Kalidah Mahal at Ujjain, Shahi Hammam at Mandu andBurhanpur, Asirgarh fort, Mahal Gulara and Ahukhana at Burhanpur, RewaKund of Mandu etc.

Thus the splendid water management system and techniques of medievalMarwar was based on the roof water harvesting for the collection andconservation of rain water in the Palaces and other places incontemporary times. Filter system techniques were used, for thepurification of water in many forts and building of medieval Marwar. Asign of ‘Light System’ has also been existent as a tool of watermanagement to reached the water on the height. The whole water

management system of Marwar was based on the conservation of watersystem which were based on the rainfall.

References1. K.C. Jain, Malwa Through the Ages, From the Earliest time to 1305 A.D. Publisher,Motilal, Banarsidas, Varanasi, p. 15.

2. S.D. Mishra, Natural Regions of the Indian sub continent , Type script, p. 108.

3. Abul Fazl, Ain-I-Akbari (Eng.Trans.) by H. Blochman, Low Price Publication,Delhi, Vol. II, p. 206.

7. Dr. Bhagwatilal Rajpurohit, Bhojraj Malwa ka Parmar Raja Bhoj-I, Vishva VidyalayaPrakashan, Varanasi, pp. 30-31.

8. Dr. K.S. Gupta and Dr. J.K. Ojha, Rajasthan ka Rajnetic Avam Sanskritic Itihas, p. 31.

9. Babur, Baburnama (Translated by A.S. Beveridge) Low Price Publications,Delhi, 2006, pp. 484, 488, 515, 518.

10. Abul Fazl, Ain-I-Akbari (Trans.by A.H. Blochman Vol.III) Low PricePublications, Delhi, 2008, pp. 1, 10, 11.

11. Munshi Devi Prasad, Jahangir Nama, Editor Dr. Raghubir Singh, PublicationScheme, Jaipur, p. 164.

13. Dr. Vinay Shrivastava, Irrigation works and other water works in Malwa 1100-1800 AD,Major Research Project Report (2011) UGC, New Delhi, (Under Publication), p.1.

14. Shaikh Rizqullah Mushtaqui, Waqi at-e Mushtaqui (Translate by Sayyad AtharAbbas Rijvi, Uttar Tammor Kaleen Bharat) Part II, p. 14.

15. Dr. Vinay Shrivastava, Op. Cit, p. 47.16. D.C. Ganguly, Parmar Rajvans ka Itihas, p. 181.

17. ‘Rahat’-(A hindi equivalent of percian wheel) Babur refers to the Persianwheel being used in India as ‘Charakh’, Baburnama p. 486.

18. Irfan Habib, Technology in medieval India (650-1750 AD), Pub. Aligarh HistorianSociety, Tulika Books, New Delhi, 2008, p. 9.

19. Vishnuvardhan, Mandsaur Gazetteer, p. 23.

27. I.H. Siddiqui - Journal of Economic and Social History of the orient, Vol.XXIX, Water works and irrigation system in India during pre Mughal Times.

Drinking water treatmentFiltralite is suitable for use in a lot of different potable water treatment processes, such as:

·         Biological treatment·         Physical filtration·         Pre-treatment for desalination

Filtralite’s large pore volumes and surface areas make it an ideal media for biological treatment of drinking water. Biofilm processes are excellent for treating raw water containing ammonia, manganese, iron etc. Tests have shown that Filtralite works perfectly in these kinds of processes. In conventional filtration processes Filtralite can be used in different ways.In dual media filters Filtralite can be used in combination with sand. Tests have shown that Filtralite operates as well as or better than traditional filter media in these types of filters. Filtralite can not only be used in traditional drinking water treatment, but also in treatment of saline water. In desalination plants one of the most important parts is the pre-treatment process. Filtralite is an excellent filter media for use in pre-treatment filters in desalination plants.

Vegetation of rajasthanvegetation which are found in rajasthan Mohita Verma

Best Answer - Chosen by VotersRajasthan's economy is primarily agricultural and pastoral. Wheatand barley are cultivated over large areas, as are pulses, sugarcane, and oilseeds. Cotton and tobacco are the state's cash crops. Rajasthan is among the largest producers of edible oils inIndia and the second largest producer of oilseeds. Rajasthan is also the biggest wool-producing state in India and the main opiumproducer and consumer. There are mainly two crop seasons. The

water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan.

The main industries are mineral based, agriculture based, and textiles. Rajasthan is the second largest producer of polyester fiber in India. The Bhilwara District produces more cloth than Bhiwandi, Maharashtra and the Bhilwara is the largest city in suiting production and export. Several prominent chemical and engineering companies are located in the town of Kota, in southern Rajasthan. Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built from the white marble which was mined from a town called Makrana. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar, copper mines at Khetri, Jhunjhunu and zinc mines at Dariba, Zawar mines at Zawarmala for zinc, Rampura Aghucha (opencast) near Bhilwara. Dimensional stone mining is also undertaken in Rajasthan. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used inmonuments, important buildings and residential buildings. This stone is termed as "chittar patthar".

Machcha or Matsya Main article: Matsya Kingdom

The country of the Matsya or Machcha tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of the Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in the Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha. KingSujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas, thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom.

Water Regulation in Rajasthan As further background for our work and trip in India, I attempted to understand the basics of how water was regulated in Rajasthan, both onthe community and legal level.

The World Bank has divvied India’s history of water management into three eras. First, there is the Pre- 1850 era marked by small scale citizen water management, rain fed agriculture, and only minimalstate involvement in water projects. Second, came the era between 1850and 1970 marked by heavy state involvement in water development and large declines in local water management and citizen involvement. Lastly, the World Bank described the era between 1970 and 2005 as the era of declining state involvement in water projects (due to decline in public funding of water management), and considerable citizen investments in tube wells (World Bank 2005). When the state entered the groundwater sphere in 1850, central organization replaced small scale and local water management practices. When the state then ceasedto play a large role in water development, a void was created where neither local nor central water management schemes existed. Since the time of State control over groundwater, the population (and thus the demand on water) has increased significantly and the responsibility ofmaking decisions about water resources has shifted from the shoulders of the central government to a diverse multitude of individuals makingdecisions entirely independently of one another.

For all practical purposes, there is no formal groundwater regulation in Rajasthan or the rest of India. As the New York Times wrote in a 2006 story on water scarcity in India, "Indian law has virtually no restrictions on who can pump groundwater, how much and for what purpose. Anyone, it seems, can — and does — extract water as long as it is under his or her patch of land. That could apply to homeowner, farmer or industry" (Sengupta 2006). The central Indian

government has no authority to regulate water resources in the country, all power to regulate water lies with the states (Sengupta 2006). Only three of the 28 states have enacted laws regulating use, extraction, or pollution of groundwater, and of those three, none haveimplemented or enforced the regulations (Birkenholtz 2006).

While the central Indian government does not have the authority to regulate water, they have begun to pass “model bills” on groundwater for the states to emulate. For example, in 2002 they passed the Model National Water Policy and in 2005 they passed the Model Bill to Regulate and Control the Development and Management of Groundwater (Birkenholtz 2005). Multi-lateral Institutions such as theWorld Bank and the Asian Development Bank have taken notice of the situation and offered funding attached to requirements for changes to water management (Birkenholtz 2006). For example, the World Bank in 2005 announced they would up their funding of water projects in India from $200 million annually to $900 million annually to incentivize change in India’s water management, specifically incentivizing that adoption of transferable water rights and the establishment of a regulating body for groundwater (World Bank 2005).

In response to mounting pressure and the World Bank’s incentives,Rajasthan’s legislative body passed the 2006 Groundwater Rational Use and Management Act (Central Ground Water Board). However, this act hasbeen under review by the Special Committee since that time, and has yet to be brought into force and is still considered to be in “Draft Form” (Central Groundwater Board) (Bhawan 2009). While the bill has not been enacted to date, the fact that it passed the legislative bodyof Rajasthan is a huge step towards groundwater management in the region. Furthermore, while the act itself may not yet bear the weight of authority, it still has laid the framework for progress in groundwater management in the region.

The World Bank has pointed to the lack of clear water rights as one of the biggest obstacles preventing strong water regulation in India (World Bank 2005). The lack of clear rights has fuelled water grabs between and within states in India. These “water grabs” have ledto over extraction of the precious resource, in many cases beyond what

is actually needed. Furthermore, this jockeying for control over waterhas developed into bloody conflict in many cases (World Bank 2005). The Water Ministry of India described the situation of water disputes in India as proliferation of small “civil wars” across the country between individuals and communities (Parsai 2005). While establishing water rights where none have historically existed is a daunting and politically and socially messy task, the World Bank has argued that itwould not only facilitate groundwater regulation, but would likely lead to conservation of the resource and a reduction in violence spurred by water disputes.

BibliographyBhawan, S., Marg, J.L.N. (2009). “Environmental Management Guidelines

of Action Plan of SWRPD for Water Sector in Rajasthan.” The Government of Rajasthan: State Water Resources Planning Department.

Birkenholtz, Trevor (2006). “The Politics of Groundwater Scarcity: Technology, Institutions, and Governance in Rajasthani Irrigation.” Ohio State University Dissertation.

Central Groundwater Board. (2010). "State Profile Rajasthan." http://cgwb.gov.in/gw_profiles/st_Rajasthan.htm. Accessed April 2, 2011

Central Ground Water Board. http://www.cgwb.gov.in/mandate.htm. Accessed April 4, 2011.

Parsai, Gargi (2005). “Water Ministry seeks World Bank funding for reforms.” The Hindu, January 14, 2005. http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/14/stories/2005011403871200.htm.

Rathore, M.S. (2005). “Groundwater Exploration and Augmentation efforts in Rajasthan.” Institute of Development Studies.

Sengupta, Somini (2006)). India Digs Deeper, but Wells are Drying Up. New York Times, September 30,2006. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/series/thirstygiant/index.html

History of RajasthanRajasthan, land of princes, comprised many small kingdoms ruled over by clans who warred constantly for supremacy and individually tried tostem the tide of the Islamic invasions. The clans were all Rajputs

According to the Hindu Mythology, the Rajputs of Rajasthan were the descendants of the Kshatriyas or warriors of Vedic India. The emergence of the Rajput warrior clans was in the 6th and 7th centuries. Rajputs ancestry can be divided into two: the "solar" or suryavanshi-those descended from Rama, the hero of the epic Ramayana, and the "lunar" or chandravanshi, who claimed descent from Krishana, the hero of the epic Mahabharata. Later a third clan was added, the agnikula or fire-born, said to have emerged from the flames of a sacrificial fire on Mt Abu.

It has been accepted that the Rajputs were divided into thirty-six races and twenty-one kingdoms. The Rajput clans gave rise to dynastieslike Sisodias of Mewar (Udaipur), the Kachwahas of Amber (Jaipur), theRathors of Marwar (Jodhpur & Bikaner), the Hadas of Jhalwawar, Kota & Bundi, the Bhattis of Jaisalmer, the Shekhawats of Shekhawati and the Chauhans of Ajmer.

Some popular rulers have been listed and given below according to period:

Ancient Period, upto 1200 Century Rajput clans emerged and held their sway over different parts of Rajasthan from about 700 AD. Before that, Rajasthan was a part of several republics. It was a part of the Mauryan Empire. Other major republics that dominated this region include the Malavas, Arjunyas, Yaudhyas, Kushans, Saka Satraps, Guptas and Hunas.

The Rajput clans ascendancy in Indian history was during the period from the eighth to the twelfth century AD. The Pratihars ruled Rajasthan and most of northern India during 750-1000 AD. Between 1000-

1200 AD, Rajasthan witnessed the struggle for supremacy between Chalukyas, Parmars and Chauhans.

Bappa Rawal (713 - 753)

Bappa Rawal was one of the most powerful and famous rulers of the Mewar Dynasty. Although a surviving member of the Guhilot clan, PrinceKalbhoj (his actual name) did not continue the family name of seven generations when he came to the throne; instead, he established the Mewar Dynasty, naming it for the kingdom he had just taken.

Prithvi Raj Chauhan (1168 - 1192)

  Prithvi Raj Chauhan was the second last Hindu king to sit upon the throne of Delhi (the last Hindu king being Hemu). He succeeded to the throne in 1179 CE at the age of 11, and ruled from the twin capitals of Ajmer and Delhi. He controlled much of Rajasthan and Haryana, and unified the Rajputs against Muslim invasions.

Medieval Period, 1201 - 1750 Century Around 1200 AD a part of Rajasthan came under Muslim rulers. The principal centers of their powers were Nagaur and Ajmer. Ranthanbhor

was also under their suzerainty. At the beginning of the 13th century AD, the most prominent and powerful state of Rajasthan was Mewar.

Rana Kumbha (1419 - 1469)

His reign was one of expansion and consolidation. Kumbha was a remarkable ruler. He was a great general and defeated the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat. He built the forts at Kumbalgarh, Achalgarh, and Mandalgarh. He erected the Tower of Victory at Chittor and built innumerable temples. He was a scholar of Sanskrit and a fine musician.He wrote several commentaries on musical treatises. He was a tolerant ruler and during his reign the beautiful Jain temples at Ranakpur werebuilt.

Maharana Pratap (1540 - 1597)

Maharana Pratap belonged to the Sisodia clan of Suryavanshi Rajputs. The epitome of fiery Rajput pride and self-respect, Pratap has for centuries exemplified the qualities that Rajputs

Pratap, eldest of 25 brothers and 20 sisters, was born at Kumbhalgarh to Maharana Udai Singh II and Maharani Javanta Bai Songara (Chauhan). Maharana Pratap was born in Pali-Marwar. His birthplace is known as Juni Kacheri.

Maharana Udai Singh (1542 - 1572)

Maharana Udai Singh was a king of Mewar and the founder of the city ofUdaipur in the present day Rajasthan He was the 53rd ruler of the Mewar dynasty. He was the fourth and posthumous son of Maharana Sangram Singh and Rani Karmavati, a princess of Bundi.

Mirza Raja Jai Singh (1611 - 1667)

He was ruler of the kingdom of Amber (later called Jaipur). His fatherwas Maha Singh the Raja of Garha, and his mother was Damayanti, a princess of Mewar.

At the tender age of 10 Jai Singh I became the Raja of Amber and the head of the Kachwaha Rajputs. His military career spans the full reignof Shah Jahan and the first half of Aurangzeb's reign. Jai Singh's first step in his rise to greatness took place on the accession of Shah taking advantage of this change of sovereigns.

Rao Bika

Rao Bika was the founder of the city and principality of Bikaner. He was a son of Rao Jodha, founder of the city and principality of Jodhpur.

Rao Bika left Marwar (Jodhpur) to create his own kingdom. Rao Jodha supported Bika in his endeavors in return in return for which he made Bika promise never to try and take the throne of Mewar. Some valuable family heirlooms which would legitimize his right to found a kingdom were promised to Bika.

Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh (1688-1743)

During his time Amber proved too small for the growing power of the state. He built the new capital of Jaipur (1712) and being a great diplomat maintained equitable relations with the bigoted Emperor Aurangzeb.

Due to the policy of appeasement, the matrimonial alliances and the solid military support offered by Amber-Jaipur to the Moghuls, this state escaped the sacking and constant warfare which disrupted other Rajput principalities. As a result, the state of Jaipur was the most advanced at the time of Indian independence (1947)

Jaipur as a matter of course became the capital of the newly formed state of Rajasthan. Its ruler, Sawai Man Singh II became Rajpramukh ofRajasthan. His wife, now Rajmata Gayatri Devi entered politics and is a member of parliament. Sawai Man Singh was a great polo player. His son and heir Bhavani Singh is an officer in the Indian Army and won the Mahavira Chakra for conspicuous bravery in the 1971 war with Pakistan thus maintaining the martial traditions of the Rajputs.

Modern Period, 1750 - 1947

  Rajasthan had never been united politically until its domination by Mughal Emperor - Akbar. Akbar created a unified province of Rajasthan.Mughal The political disintegration of Rajasthan was caused by the dismemberment of the Mughal Empire. The Marathas penetrated Rajasthan upon the decline of the Mughal Empire. In 1755 they occupied Ajmer. The beginning of the 19th Century was marked by the onslaught of the Pindaris.

Post Independence The erstwhile Rajputana comprised 19 princely states and two chiefships of Lava and Kushalgarh and a British administered territoryof Ajmer-Merwara. Rajasthan State was heterogeneous conglomeration of separate political entities with different administrative systems prevailing in different places.

The present State of Rajasthan was formed after a long process of integration which began on March 17, 1948 and ended on November 1, 1956. Before integration it was called Rajputana; after integration itcame to be known as Rajasthan. At present there are 33 districts (including the new district of Pratapgarh) in the State.

The Thar Desert

This is a picture of the Thar Desert in the state of Rajasthan. The Thar (pronounced TAR) Desert is located in the northwest partof the Indian subcontinent and is approximately 500 miles long and 250 miles wide. It straddles the border between the present-day countries of India and Pakistan and is flanked by two river valleys, the Indus and the Sutlej. TheThar, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is mostly sand and is intensely hot in the sommer. It receives very little rain and the sparse plant life that exists on its plains includes scrubby forest and grasses. There is evidence of dried-up river channels near its borders.

In the 1990's, satellite pictures revealed an ancient, dried riverbed located in India's present-day Thar Desert. Geologists have identified this riverbed as the route of the ancient Sarasvati River. The Sarasvati lay east of the Indus River and generally followed the same course, originating in the Himalaya

Mountains and emptying into the Arabian Sea. Geologists believe that the Sarasvati River dried up around 1900 B.C.E. Over time, the once fertile area around the Sarasvati evolved into the dry, hot desert that exists today.

Early Indian agricultural settlements arose in the Indus-Sarasvati river region at least as far back as 6500 B.C.E. Like many other ancient peoples, the early Indians settled by rivers. They settled primarily on the banks of the Sarasvati River as well as along the banks of the Indus. These rivers provided the ancient Indians with plenty of water, and the land near the rivers was fertile and excellent for growing crops. The rivers also provided the Indians with a convenient way to travel and trade among themselves and with other civilizations. Archeologists have found artifacts from the Indus-Sarasvati civilization - such as carved seals - in Mesopotamia's Sumer. These discoveries have led scholars to believe that the early Indians traded with Mesopotamia, possibly by traveling in ships down the Indus and Sarasvati rivers to the Arabian Sea and then west to Sumer and other locations.

After the Sarasvati River dried up around 1900 B.C.E., the Indus-Sarasvati Indians moved to more habitable areas, such as the fertile banks of the Ganga river further east. Archeological evidence shows, however, that people settled by the Ganga River as far back as 5000 B.C.E.

Kiradu Someshvara Temple, BarmerKiradu Ancient Temples lie at a distance of 39km from Barmer city inHathma village.You find an inscription here dating back to 1161 CEindicating that the place was once called Kiratkoop and had once beenthe capital of the Panwara dynasty. The Panwaras owed their allegianceto the rulers of Gujarat at the time.

The Kiradu temples are a group of five temples and are grouped asancient temples, an important site from the archaeological point ofview. The largest and the most impressive amongst them is the

Someshvara Temple. Built in the 11th century, the Someshvara ancienttemple is said to be the best example of its kind today. Constructedin honour of Lord Shiva (the Destroyer in the holy trinity of Hindugods), it has a rather stumpy multi-turreted tower and beautifulsculptures dedicated to the god. The inner sanctum has a resplendentimage of the Lord. At its base, is a large reverse-curve lotus, whichhas a resemblance with the early Chola Temples of south India. Thisancient temple also depicts scenes from the Hindu epic Ramayana. Othernotable features are sculptures of apsaras (mythical dancing girlsfrom the abode of the Gods) and vyalas (a griffin-like mythical beastgenerally associated with the Buddha) which were rarely seen after1050 CE in temple architecture. All in all, although Barmer is a bitout of the way you’ll get your money’s worth when you visitSomeshvara.

Ancient Indian Cities

Ancient cities in India does possess its share of similarities and dissimilarities with the present Indian city scenario, and the more one dives into its depth, the more enamoured one becomes. The distinctive and individualistic mode of daily life, customs, cultures,celebrations, festivals, religious observances, caste system, sports activities, education, position of women, architecture, or any other possible facet can very much be studied in Indian ancient history. Indeed, it can also be comprehended that most of the contemporary Indian cultural refinement that any citizen witnesses today, has been heavily borrowed and inspired form these ancient Indian cities. This rather classic artistic amalgamation can be traced historically from the very foremost Indus-Sarasvati Civilization, the harbinger of ancientness into every later Indian city to evolve unto contemporaneity.

These ancient cities within India had in fact possessed some archetypal lineaments, which made them uniquely stand out in matters incorporating brick as the all-encompassing form of construction. The cities from ancient Indian times, also did possess well-planned streets, art of pottery, drainage ditches, bulky granaries and large bath sources for ritual cleansing. Constructed on a raised platform, most of the major buildings

were made from brick. There also existed some small, two-room structures to enormous houses with two-storied with courtyards.

The history of ancient cities and civilizations in India is of the ages or eras in the evolution of Indian history generally, commencing from pre-historic era to the colonial era of modern India. The ancient civilization of India is also known in historyas Indus-Sarasvati Civilization, the history of which can be traced back to the Bronze Age, beginning from 10,000 BC, which had disseminated and prospered in the north western part of Indian subcontinent. Indus-Sarasvati principally had covered the regions of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan present day Pakistan, especially the part of Sindh and Punjab and the now legendary cities of Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, which are located in present day India and the cities of Harappa, Ganweriwala and Mohenjodaro in present day Pakistan

Ancient Indian cities have been described to belong to that bunch, which had existed before the arrival of Islam into India, precisely prior to the 8th century. These ancient indigenous cities included the major as well as minor cities, towns, villages in the localities of concentrated human settlements of ancient India, as have been mentioned in the Epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana as well as the Puranas). The cities bearing their very ancient `Hinduness`, have superlatively depicted and mirrored the vast and diversified culture of the then India, muchof which remains in a legendary format with anonymity to present generation Indians.

The India of the yesteryears is supremely revealed while sheddingsome light upon the ancient cities of India, thus gaining some knowledge. From archaeological and repeated historical accounts, it can be comprehended that there did exist an astounding number of these ancient cities, each bearing its distinctive quality to be praised to the top. And the most intriguing fact that can be mentioned here is that, the cities are still just the same in modern times, with the exception that their names have been changed, with much dash of contemporaneity. Modern Indian cities have verily grown and improved upon themselves, upon the ruins oftheir forefathers - the ancient cities in India. There, sadly

exists particular cities which do not exist today, just because of the fact that they could not stand the test of time and had toperish within oblivion.

Some of these ancient cities that existed in India, can be stated as under

Aror is located 8 km east of Rohri in present day Sindh, Pakistan. It had served as the ancient capital of Sindh and was once located on the banks of Indus River. The city was once the prime nucleus centre of commerce and trade. The main languages spoken by the people here in Aror are Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. The religions followed by the people of Aror are Hinduism, Islam and Sikhism.

Kannauj was one of the most beautiful ancient cities in India, that was ruled by different rulers. The city was described as, "acity which raised its head to the skies and which in strength andbeauty might boast of being unrivalled." Kanauj has incessantly served as a place of immense historical significance. The city had, much later, become a new district of the Uttar Pradesh Province on September 18, 1997.

Bairat is a much celebrated and momentous town in the northern Jaipur District of Rajasthan. It is located 52 km north of Jaipurand 66 km west of Alwar.

Kalibangan is a town situated in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. The town is precisely located upon the banks of Ghaggar River. This ancient city of India, Kalibangan has been since long considered, as the third important city amongst all the excavated Harappan sites, under the Indus-Sarasvati Valley Civilization. The word `Kalibangan` has been derived from two words - `Kala` and `bhangan`. Kali stands for black and bhangan implies bangle. The city had received its name from the innumerable pieces of terracotta bangles that were excavated here, to be preserved forever.

Sravasti is an exceedingly substantial Buddhist religious and research centre, located in the Gonda district of Uttar Pradesh. This ancient Indian city owns the supreme honour of sheltering Buddha for 24 rainy seasons in the Jetvana Gardens.

Sagala is believed to be the modern day Sialkot, located in northern Punjab, now falling in Pakistan. Sagala had once served as a great centre of trade and commerce, filled with business prospects.

Sitanagaram is a small and humble and ancient site located in theGuntur district of India.

Hansi is a town in the Hisar District of Haryana in India. The ancient Indian city of Hansi uniquely is known to possess 5 gatesto enter Delhi. They majestically incorporate the Delhi Gate at the East, Hisar gate at the West, Gosain gate at North-West, Barsi Gate at South and Umra gate in the south west direction. The most crucial trait of this town is that, the altitude increases gradually as one enters Delhi city from any of the gates.

Kumbhoj is the name of an ancient town located in the Kolhapur district of Maharashtra.

Kalpi is an ancient city of India, in Jalaun district of Uttar Pradesh. Kalpi rather seizes stronghold from its sisterly counterparts, due to being conceived as the birthplace of sage Ved Vyasa, who had splendidly authored Mahabharata. The city of Kalpi is also renowned for its art of paper making.

Bhinmal is a town in the Jalore district of Rajasthan. Bhinmal had once served as the capital of ancient Gujarat. The earlier name of Bhinmal was Bhillamala. Bhinmal was, in particular instances, also acknowledged as Srimal.

Tamralipta is the name of yet another decisive ancient city in India, situated on the Bay of Bengal, presently coming under WestBengal. Now the place is however identified as Tamluk. Tamluk derives its name from the Sanskrit word Tamra Lipta meaning "Fullof Copper".

Urayur is a city located in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. The wordUrayur in Tamil stands for "the residence".

Dwaraka, that very ancient and very regal ancient Indian city, issituated in the state of Gujarat. According to Hindu mythology, Dwarka was the dwelling place of Lord Krishna. The meaning of theword Dwarka implies a "door".

Ujjain is located on the banks of river Shipra in Madhya Pradesh.According to Hindu Mythology, Shipra had originated from the muchadmired churning of the oceans by the Gods and the Demons, with Vasuki, the serpent, serving as the rope.

Osian or Osiyan is an ancient city in India, that is approximately located at a distance of 65 km from Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The city houses a number of temples and is presently afamous tourist spot. Osian gathers admiration and attraction, dueto it being considered as an oasis amidst the desert of Rajasthan.

Bayana is a town in the Bharatpur district of Rajasthan. The ancient name of the city was Sripatha or Sriprashtha or Shantipura. The city is claimed to have been discovered rather accidentally by an asura named Banasur.

Chunar is located in the Mirzapur District of Uttar Pradesh state. Chunar is well-known and intimately in style for its pottery work, especially clay toys.

Some of the other equally legendary ancient cities in India, muchrespected for its excavation finds and historical wonders include- Sopara, Agroha, Kurukshetra, Paithan, Vallabhi, Kalinjar and Tirunelveli.

The ancient Indian cities and towns visited by Xuanzang during his travel to India between 630 AD to 637 AD

Udyana Ayodhya

Swat Valley

Kausambi

Buner Valley

Sravasti

Taxila

Kapilavastu

Kashmir

Lumbini

Chinabhukti (conceived as the modern day Firozpur)

Kusinagara

Jalandhar

Sarnath

Bairat

Varanasi

Mathura

Vaisali

Matipura

Pataliputra (Patna)

Sankasya

Bodh Gaya

Kanyakubja (Kannauj)

Nalanda

ReferencesBibliography

Gurkha, flying a swift and powerful vimana hurled a single projectile  Charged with all the power of the Universe.

An incandescent column of smoke and flame

As bright as the thousand suns

Rose in all its splendour...

a perpendicular explosion

with its billowing smoke clouds...

...the cloud of smoke

rising after its first explosion

formed into expanding round circles

like the opening of giant parasols... ..it was an unknown weapon,

An iron thunderbolt,

A gigantic messenger of death, Which reduced to ashes

The entire race of the Vrishnis and the Andhakas. ...The corpses were so burned

As to be unrecognizable.

The hair and nails fell out; Pottery broke without apparent cause, And the birds turned white. After a few hours

All foodstuffs were infected... ...to escape from this fire

The soldiers threw themselves in streams

To wash themselves and their equipment.

Ancient verses from the Mahabharata: (6500 B.C.?)

Ancient Indian Spacecraft

Ancient Indian Spacecraft And Aircraft Technology

By The Hindu Staff Reporter1-6-5

TIRUPATI --'India had a treasure trove of hitech warfare technologythat even the 'mighty West' does not possess. The Brahmastra andVimana used in the pre-Mahabharata period are nothing but the earlierversions of today's nuclear weapons and spacecraft.' It is this feeling that one would get after listening to a lecture on'High Technology in Ancient Sanskrit Literature' by Mr. C. S. R.Prabhu, senior scientist, NIC, Hyderabad, on Thursday as part of thethree- day Indo-Nepal Sanskrit Conference, currently underway at theRashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha here.

Mr. Prabhu, quoting extensively from ancient texts, stressed that thepre-Mahabharata period was an age of high technology, which wasignored in the Medieval period due to reasons not known.

He quoted from the texts of a great scholar, Subbaraya Sastry, who, ina state of yogic trance, is said to have orally dictated thespacecraft technology in a period somewhere between 1875 and 1919,which was recorded by his disciples. The text, a copy of which isstill in Nepal's Royal Library, contained technical details onassembling, fabricating and erecting a spacecraft, the metals, semi-conductors, advanced alloys used and other minute aeronauticalinformation. Though quite difficult to be believed on the face of it,the fact that this technology did not exist anywhere in the world -not even in America and Europe - in the mentioned period, makes ithard for one to disbelieve.

The technical information given in Sastry's texts was as minute,precise and clear, as if it were a 'Make your own spacecraft' or a'Spacecraft technology in 30 days' except for the Sanskrit languageused, which was very much archaic and obsolete, Mr. Prabhu said. On atip on making an alloy, the text said 'Krishnaseesam ChanjanikamVajrathundam samamsathaha' from which the real meaning of'Vajrathundam' (used in that context), could not be found in anycontemporary Sanskrit dictionary. ''After a great amount ofinteraction with ayurvedic specialists and Swamijis with intuitiveinterpretations, it turned out to be the cactus plant,'' he said.

To further strengthen his claim, he said there were wall paintings insome forts in Rajasthan depicting the use of rockets in Mughal warfareand even by Tipu Sultan of Mysore. Another interesting fact he gavewas that the spacecraft could become invisible on its own. The leadalloy (Thamogarbha loha) used in making the body of the spacecraftwould absorb light around it in a photo chemical reaction that wouldmake it disappear.

On testing the Krishna seesa metal mentioned in the formula in thelaboratory of Birla Institute of Science, Hyderabad, Mr. Prabhu foundthe metal absorbing 78 per cent of laser light, which means, any otherlight could be easily absorbed, giving ample proof that there existeda technology to make things invisible. Also the use of an alloy ofcopper, zinc and lead made the spacecraft's body resist corrosion by1000 times over that of the current levels. Using Ararakamra materialfor the axle and wheels had made it possible for taking 'U' turns andserpentine movements.

An astonishing fact is that the Ararakamra metal was an alloy ofcopper, zinc, lead and iron, the combination of which is impossible,

according to modern metallurgy. Technically, the ''Young's modulus''of this metal is said to be higher than that of steel, making itstronger. As the spacecraft had to be capable of resisting hightemperature, on re- entering our atmosphere from the outer space, itsbody was made with a metal called 'Raja Loha'. Its special feature wasthat apart from resisting heat, it converted light from lightningsinto energy. To crosscheck all these details, there were no furnacesavailable in Hyderabad to melt metals at a high temperature of 2500degrees celcius, Mr. Prabhu lamented.

Another hitch came into his research in the form of the 'energy' used.'Though the texts explained that the spacecraft was propelled by'Sourasakthi', modern solar technology does not generate so much powerto drag a rocket', he pointed out. Later he found out to hisbewilderment that it was a kind of 'nuclear power' that was used inthose days. 'The solar power, when coupled with gamma rays producednuclear energy that had the power to propel a rocket', Mr. Prabhuobserved.

He even spoke on 'Tripura Vimana' that was used to travel in space,water and on land, by using the metal 'Trinetra loha'. Mr. Prabhu saidhe had submitted the model and some more information on the 'supermetal' to the Indian Metal Society Conference and further claimed thatthe advisor to the government on scientific affairs Dr. A. P. J. AbdulKalam too had asked him to bring the design of the plane. A committee which was appointed by Indian Institute of Science toinvestigate into it, declared Sastry's texts as 'fraud', but Mr.Prabhu reasons that the descriptions mentioned in the ancient textswere perhaps too advanced to believe, making the committee to hastilycome to the conclusion. He wanted a national level effort to provethat the so called 'myths' were in fact, scientific formulae onadvanced technology. He said he had proposed a project called'Bharadwaja Institute of Vedic Science and Technology', the objectiveof which was to derive, decipher and reproduce advanced methodologiesand processes from Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts, for which hesought government's support. (www.rense.com).