Children with Technology: A Study on CSCL-based Approach at Two Semi-Urban Sites in

Sarawak

Farhanah Abdul Karim & Fitri Suraya Mohamad

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Rapid advancements of technology have enabled communities all over the world today to

collaborate as a group in various fields and areas of interest at literally a click of a button.

According to Larry Berger, executive director of Wireless Generation, technology especially

computer is becoming more social, adaptive, and customized (Cleaver, 2011). As a result,

technology lends itself naturally as a remarkable teaching and learning tool.

Technology can also provide a rich learning tool for children’s use (Schacht, 2012). It gives

children a sense of control, which is very powerful especially for a small person in a big world.

According to Svoen (2007), new media was not used more than one hour per day, and on

average, out of a total media use of about five hours. Media was also found to play an important

role in developing young people’s identity (in promoting self-expression and experimenting with

identity) and peer culture. Today, children grow up in an environment saturated by media and

form the first “digital generation”. Almost all of the children have experience with computers.

However, this trend developed individualized media lifestyles (Livingstone, 2002).

This paper describes a study on how children collaborate with each other using computer

supported collaborative learning approach (CSCL). The basis of instructional design approach

for the collaborative tasks was adapted from Kirschner’s (2002) Six Stage Model. Children

groups were observed analytically using a list of features of Cooperative Learning which was

developed by Kagan (1994). The children were also asked to identify their preferred learning

styles, to measure the congruence between their learning styles and the strategies they used to

collaborate with each other in the assigned tasks.

1.2 Background of Study

The number of young Internet users is becoming more prominent globally in recent years

(Calvert, Rideout, Woolard, Barr, & Strouse, 2005; Media & Rideout, 2011; Vandewater et al.,

2007, cited in Zaki, 2013). The potential of the use of information and communication

technologies (ICTs) as the source of information is encouraged, for the benefits in contributing to

the development of the ‘knowledge society’ and for promoting digital literacy for everyone,

including young children. Past studies have indicated that technology tools for communication,

collaboration, social networking and user-generated content have transformed user mainstream

culture. Young children, according to National Institute of Literacy (2008), need opportunities to

develop the early ‘technology handling’ skills associated with early digital literacy.

However, there is an argument that even amongst those with access to ICT, there are many who

are not fully benefiting in the information society because their skills only allow the users to

perform lower order tasks using ICT applications (Servon, L., 2002). The fact remains that the

capabilities to perform higher order tasks are more meaningful, and that technology would

provide “added-value” to the development of a knowledge-based society. A research done by

Lallana, E. in Drysdale, P. (2001) has shown evidence from the Philippines which indicates that

youngsters are using the Internet in cyber cafés in the country, mainly for gaming, instead of

using it as a medium to enrich personal knowledge.

Digital literacy plays an important role in learning for all children especially for those who were

born after the advent of widespread access to digital technology. There is evidence that many

young children acquire a range of skills, knowledge and understanding through their engagement

in digital technologies outside of school (Marsh et al., 2005). The term literacy used in the

everyday sense often refers to a set of skills associated with the ability to read and write.

However, a deeper examination into the concept shows that literacy extends beyond reading and

writing as usually perceived. Literacy implies “the ability to communicate meaning; from

speaker to listener or writer to reader; with all the participants actively engaged in meaning

construction” (Centre for Research and Innovation in Learning and Teaching, 2009). From a

broader perspective, literacy is deeply embedded in the social order and has powerful meaning

for all members of society.

According to Gillen and Barton (2010), two possible strategies to develop digital literacy are; to

support learning communities to work collaboratively in problem solving and the co-construction

of knowledge; and to work collaboratively in a multidisciplinary team to create useful, practical

tools. These two strategies directly indicate the fundamental principles of Computer-supported

Collaborative Learning (CSCL). According to Stahl (2005), collaborative learning is very much

grounded in the social theory of learning, and it has a large focus on the idea of meaning making

within a group of learners. In Social Learning theory, collaborative learning is regarded as

extending of a group’s knowing. It is constructed through social interactions, such as dialogue. It

is dynamic, on-going, evolving result of complex interactions, and primarily taking place within

communities of people (Stahl, 2004).

Much of the research on CSCL that has focused on the micro level of collaborative learning,

specifically on collaborative learning in single groups (Dillenburg, 1999). Supplementing these

approaches, Jones, Dirckinck-Holmfeld, & Lindström (2005) argued for more focused research

on the ‘meso-level’ of collaborative learning. The meso level focuses on how to design for

collaborative learning at the institutional level, in organisations, school settings, and in

networked learning environments, the basic conditions are that allow for collaborative learning

in these settings, and how the technology and infrastructure affords, and mediates the learning

taking place. One of the instructional designs mentioned was Kirschner’s Six-stage model.

Kirschner, (in Strijbos et al (2004)) proposed a six-stage model for a design framework based on

affordances. The model categorizes affordances as educational, social and technological in

nature.

CSCL is very much grounded in the Social Learning theory. The theory emphasizes the

importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others

(Bandura, 1977). The theory has a large focus on the idea of meaning making within a group of

learners. In comparison, in the social constructivist theory, “human dialogue, negotiation and

collaboration” is strongly emphasized (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998). While these online

collaborative learning opportunities have reached out to a large number of people, semi-urban

children also have yet to benefit from the full potential of technology for learning.

1.3 Problem statement

Rural area is often associated with social, academic and economic disadvantages. Although these

disadvantages happen among urban communities as well, the issues of disadvantages among

rural communities are often highlighted. The fact is, there are rural communities living in urban

and semi-urban areas that are still left behind in terms of educational achievement and

technological proficiency (Mohamed, M. Nor, Yusof, & Judi, 2012). Rural, low-income

students are more at risk of becoming high school dropouts than their city and suburban peers

(Brown, Frates, Rudge, & Tradewell, 2002). As such, it provides sufficient reason to address the

challenges facing rural students who live in low-income areas with minimum facilities. In terms

of academic performance, rural students do not score as well on assessments as other students,

and students attending rural schools do not perform as well as students who attend suburban

schools (Fusaro, 2007). In Malaysia specifically, despite many government-initiated effort and

programmes to overcome issues within rural communities, intrinsic challenges are not easily

addressed or eliminated. Although effort to eliminate poverty and inequality has been put into

action at various levels and timeframes, poverty remains relatively high, and centralized on the

traditional primary sector, particularly in rural areas as in Kelantan, Sabah and Sarawak.

In addition, the rural education level is also low (Buarque et al., 2006 as cited in Rashid, 2008).

Consequently, rural communities are more concerned with employment in the traditional sectors

only. Lower level of education and lack of skills causing the rural communities to have a

problem of lack of competitiveness in job sectors and difficulties to earn higher incomes

(Nhamo and Nhamo, 2006 ac cited in Rashid, 2008).

If educational achievement and digital gaps are to be closed in this country it is just as important

to address challenges in rural areas as other developed areas. In response to these challenges, one

promising strategy that should be considered is making the students become more exposed and

socially included. A comprehensive approach is by implementing technology and digital media

as a part of their learning experiences. A research done by Subrahmanyam and Greenfield (2008)

has shown that online communication tools are primarily used to reinforce existing relationships

both with friends and partners as well as getting more information about new entrants into their

offline world.

To be able to make use of the opportunities offered by ICT based learning, individuals need

more than just basic literacy skills; they also need to be digitally literate (ICT, media and

information literacy). These digital skills need to be integrated more effectively into all

educational settings including lifelong learning. However, mere access to digital contents and

resources is insufficient to guarantee that youths will use those contents and resources in

productive and enriching ways. Digital Literacy has become a prerequisite for creativity,

innovation, and entrepreneurship. Without the presence of digital literacy, citizens can neither

participate fully in society nor acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to live in the 21st

century. Furthermore, as Malaysia faces globalisation, the “Digital Age” is considered vital.

The Internet allows the access to information from all over the world, which makes the students

more intelligent in selecting suitable material to solve given problems. Usually this kind of work

is done in groups or teams. This nature of learning introduces a new concept called collaborative

learning. Collaboration is crucial in the 21st century because of rising need for society to think

and work together on critical issues or concerns as well as the shift from individual to

community-based efforts. Collaboration in strong professional learning communities improves

the quality and equity of student learning, promoting discussions that are grounded in evidence

and analysis rather than opinion, and foster collective responsibility for student (Kasirun & Salim,

2004). Collaboration is a sophisticated skill that asks people who work together to look beyond

personal interests towards outcomes benefiting the whole. It is a great way to address complex

challenges, since it has the potential to tap common creativity and unleash true innovation and

earn authentic knowledge construction.

If learning really is a social process, then collaboration is required. The assistance that learners

require may be provided by experts such as teachers and by peers, who collectively have

expertise distributed among them. By collaborating, students can develop their potential for

learning. Specifically, rural and disadvantage students can learn to approach and solve new

problems so that they develop the capability to solve problems that do not exist at the moment of

learning.

Proponents of collaborative learning claim that the active exchange of ideas within small groups

not only increases interest among the participants but also promotes critical thinking. According

to Johnson and Johnson (1986), there is convincing evidence that cooperative teams achieve at

higher levels of thought and retain information longer than students who work individually. The

shared learning provides an opportunity for students to engage in discussion, take responsibility

for their own learning, and thus become critical thinkers (Gokhale, 1995).

While there have been numerous researches on online collaboration among different groups of

people, this research specifically focus on using collaborative learning theories among rural

children living in semi-urban areas in Malaysia. This paper concentrates on the participation of

127 students from two different semi-urban areas in online collaborative learning by adapting

television viewing.

1.4 Objective

1.4.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to investigate children’s learning using collaborative

technology.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are:

1. To discover the elements of positive interdependence, individual accountability, equal

participation and simultaneous interaction between the students in both participating sites.

2. To find how does the learning style preferences influence children’s collaboration.

3. To investigate the affordances and constraints exist that influenced children’s learning.

4. To discover the learner’s experience on the support provided in regards to their learning.

1.5 Research questions

This study concentrates on answering the following research questions in order to achieve the

objectives of the study. The questions that need to be answered are:

How does the element of positive interdependence affect children’s collaboration?

How does the element of individual accountability affect children’s collaboration?

How does the element of equal participation affect children’s collaboration?

How does the element of simultaneous interaction affect children’s collaboration?

How do the learning style preferences influence children’s collaboration?

What are the affordances that exist to support children’s learning?

What are the constraints that influenced children’s learning?

How does the learner’s experience on the support provided influence their learning?

1.6 Significance of Study

This study was conducted to investigate the appropriate approach to connect children in semi

rural areas with technology by using CSCL-based approach. This study could be an important

reference for future study in relation with this topic. This research is important for the Ministry

of Education (MOE) in order to get information about CSCL-based approach that can be applied

among semi-rural children as a supplementary in learning. From the result and discussion of this

study, the government or other individual or agencies could come out with the most effective

strategies and approaches for them to ensure that the implementation of technology in education

could benefit all communities and ethnic groups specifically in Malaysia.

The results obtained from both sites (Lubok Antu and Kg. Serasot) about children and

technology could help the government to see and evaluate the effectiveness of current

approaches used in order to implement CSCL-based approach in educational mainstream.

1.7 Definitions of terms

Definition of terms used in this study important to avoid from being interpreted in different ways.

1.7.1 Semi Urban Area

A semi-urban area is an area of a highly populated city but this area is not as developed as the

main part of the city or in other words, is a semi-developed city or a part of a major community

but lacking some major infrastructure and services as opposed to an urban area. It is also defined

as an area between consolidated urban and rural regions (UNICEF, 2012).

The areas in this study are regarded as semi-urban areas in terms of the facilities. However, the

community is still experienced disadvantages as the rural community in terms of technological

and information literacy.

1.7.2 Collaborative Learning

The definition of collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or

attempt to learn something together. According to Dooly (2008), collaboration entails the whole

process of learning. This study focused on computer supported collaborative learning in which

the students are responsible for one another’s learning as well as their own to reach the goal

using provided social network as a learning environment.

1.7.3 Social Learning Theory

According to Bandura (1986) social learning theory is about imitation or observational learning

acts as a mechanism mediated by a variety of cognitive and motivational processes that

determine the viewers will actually perform the modelled behaviour (Moeller, 1996).

1.7.4 Digital Divide

The term “digital divide” refers to the gap between people who have access to digital

technologies and those who do not; or the gap between those who use digital technologies and

those who do not (Hargittai, 2003). In other words, the term also refers to the gap between

individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio-economic levels with

regards to both opportunities to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) as

well as to the use of the technology for a wide variety of activities. According to Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), access to basic telecommunications

infrastructures is fundamental to any consideration of the issue, as it precedes and is more widely

available than access to and use of the Internet (OECD, 2001).

1.7.5 Digital Literacy

ICT literacy is defined as the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from

a wide range of sources, when it is presented by computers and known as ‘Digital Literacy’

(Casey and Bruce, 2010).

1.7 Summary

In summary, this chapter explains the current trends on the use of technologies and the

importance of using appropriate technology to support learning. Thus, this chapter focuses on the

need of connecting children with technology by applying the element of collaboration. The

definition or terms, significance of study is also discussed in this chapter.

The following chapter will discuss on past literatures of the study as well as underlying theories

that are related with this research.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a review of literature related to children’s use of electronic and social

media, the issues related on digital divide as well as theories and strategies of collaborative

learning used to facilitate learning. This chapter also discusses the theoretical framework of the

research and previous studies related to the theoretical framework.

2.2 Children’s use of Electronic and Social Media

A study conducted by Svoen (2007) was attempted to explore how children and young people

make use and respond to media in an environment where new media and the Internet are almost

everywhere, but changing constantly. The study was also aimed to investigate how digital

environment influenced the use of television for children and youth. A wide range of questions

were asked in this study intended to cover young people’s relationships to as well as broad use of

media. In the study, an online survey was conducted with 762 respondents and 15 individual

follow-up interviews among the participants. The findings has shown that the informants spent

about the same amount of time watching television and using the computer (without online, but

the use of Internet was considerably about three times higher. Despite the fact that television was

the most used medium in terms of time, none of the respondent claimed it as their favourite

medium. The boys preferred to use computer more than girls and the interview showed that they

go online to chat or watch movies. The study also found that as an audience the youngsters used

television in four ways: to watch their favourite shows, as a relaxing pastime, as home cinema,

and as a background medium. Another key finding in this study is that the informants were eager

media creators and sharers.

On the other hand, there was a research by Endestad, Heim, Kaare, Torgersen & Brandtzæg on

“Media User Types among Young Children and Social Displacement”. The main objective of the

research was to gain better understanding on children’s media usage in regards to different types

of user and how these are associated with social displacement. The research was done by

characterizing children in terms of media user types in order to distinguish between significant

preferences and patterns of media usage, identifying some of the key variables explaining

various types of new media primarily in regard to how accessibility according to context of use

influences children’s patterns of media use as well as determining whether and to what extent

certain types of media use displace other social activities (the displacement hypothesis) such as

reading books, magazines and playing with others. The displacement hypothesis in its simplest

form posits a symmetrical, zero-sum relationship between activities. According to this

hypothesis, the more time spent with media, the less time children devote to other activities. A

sample of 1,117 Norwegian schoolchildren from the age of 7 to 12 years responded to a

questionnaire about their computer game-playing habits and their use of computers, the Internet,

mobile phones and television. In this study, the researchers found that younger children are

making different choices in regard to new media activities. They specialize in certain areas such

as gaming, making use of new media for learning and school or play. The results indicated four

specific user types reflecting children’s various uses of new media: a) Advanced Users, b)

Offline Gamers, c) Instrumental Users, and d) Low Users. Some indications of displacement

were found between TV, reading and drawing and between new media usage and participation in

organized sports activities. At the same time, clear indications support the “more is more”

hypothesis suggested by Meyerson (1968), which suggests that more active children engage in

more new activities. The more interested they are in spending time doing sports, the more time

they will devote to using media as well. The researchers also found that media active children

spent more time with friends than others did.

2.3 Issues on Digital Divide

The term “digital divide” refers to the gap between people who have access to digital

technologies and those who do not; or the gap between those who use digital technologies and

those who do not (Hargittai, 2003). In other words, the term also refers to the gap between

individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio-economic levels with

regards to both opportunities to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) as

well as to the use of the technology for a wide variety of activities. According to Organisation for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), access to basic telecommunications

infrastructures is fundamental to any consideration of the issue, as it precedes and is more widely

available than access to and use of the Internet (OECD, 2001). Consequently, the poor also needs

to get the same technologies already received by the rich but it does not mean when the

community is provided with digital devices and access, it will bridge the divide. According to

Smith (2010), even where the poor are provided access to digital technology, inappropriate

access could actually harm users. As a result, extending meaningless access to digital

technologies to the rural sector of emerging markets could actually widen the digital divide.

Most technology analysts agree that digital divide involves more than just access. Technological

literacy and skills to use the information needs to be considered as well as the content. Even

though the technology is provided, the users need to have the skills to use the technology for

maximum benefit. Parsons and Hick (2008) found in their study that digital divide still exists in

rural areas in Canada although technology has been provided; the phenomenon signals the fact

that digital divide also happens in developed nations as well. Previous research has shown that

only one-third of U.S educators felt confident with their skills to integrate technology into

teaching, even though the nation has started to provide technology in every classroom in schools

for many decades (Carvin, 2000). Carvin (2000) also asserts that individuals and communities

need a broad range of literacy skills in order to utilize information technology effectively and

require a relevant, high-quality diversity of information in order to become well informed,

publicly active citizens.

Differences in online skills, such as the ability to efficiently and effectively find information on

the Web, also represent another digital divide issue. Not all students who arrived at college and

universities are digitally literate (Hawkins & Oblinger, 2006). This is probably due to lack of

technological access or training prior to college. There are many high school graduates who

would be placed in workplaces where technology is not a main concern. For those with lower

levels of technology skills, more time is consumed to complete tasks and eventually some tasks

most likely would be abandoned. As Hargittai (2003) described, “If users often give up in

frustration and confusion, then merely having access does not mean that a digital divide has been

solved because a divide remains in their capacity to effectively use the Internet”.

Language is also one of the main concerns of digital divide. The contents of training manuals

and the materials that are available on the Internet are primarily in English, which is not

understood by many people, and in the case of the paper, it would be extremely challenging for

those living in rural areas that are not exposed to the use of English as a conversation or

knowledge building tool. According to a survey by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation

and Development (OECD, more than 94% of links to existing pages on the internet which are

hosted on secure servers (almost 2.9 million links) are written in English (OECD, 2001).

Digital divide is a very important issue because it reflects past and existing wealth divides. ICTs

are increasingly used in determining the ability of individuals and even nations to create future

wealth. Kang (2009) found that countries that have succeeded in establishing ICT hubs are able

to generate better income and drive supplier and consumer industries throughout the economy. In

addition, the global knowledge economy is transforming the demands of the labour market

throughout the world. Smith (2010) also has shown that there is a demand for citizens to have

more skills and knowledge in order to be able to function in their day-to-day lives (Smith, 2010).

Access to technology also creates extensive community engagement and involvement which

aims to improve long-term well-being, self esteem, social and economic inclusion in society, and

to promote equality and social justice that serves the common good. This is supported by

Warschauer (2003) who found that digital divide has exacerbated the existing levels of poverty

and disadvantage. In addition, due to digital divide, low-income persons are seen to fail to

achieve life-long learning goals that are assumed to enable man to enhance human capacity and

development in today’s competitive world.

2.4 CSCL Approach

A research by Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, (1991) indicate that collaborative learning requires

elements of positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction,

appropriate use of collaborative skills and group processing. Learners will have more

opportunities to interact with peers, present and defend ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question

other conceptual frameworks and be actively engaged in collaborative learning setting. Playing

with a computer can provide many learning opportunities for children and is just one of the many

ways for them to learn about the world around them. The best computer-based learning

experiences come from a truly worthwhile activity which allows children to be in control

(Williams, 2009). Meanwhile, research has shown that children learning through collaborative

approach would always motivate, encourage and remind inactive and confused group members

(Kasirun & Salim, 2004). It also develops problem-solving skills and would apply all strategies

to complete the tasks given.

A research was done by Nussbaum, Alvarez, McFarlane, Gomez, Claro and Radovic (2008) on

“Technology as small group face-to-face Collaborative Scaffolding”. The approach presented in

this study was a face-to-face CSCL that encourages small group participation. A collaborative

learning activity was proposed with three types of actors: the teacher as tutor and mediator, the

student as task performer and technology as the Collaborative Scaffolding. The scaffolding was

designed to encourage social interactions, facilitate joint problem solving and lead to richer

knowledge construction. It aims to provide the means to prompt cognitive and social interactions

between the participants involved, which might otherwise not occur. The proposed approach

introduced technology as a collaborative scaffold that guides and mediates the interactions

between students as they work through a structured sequence of information sharing and

knowledge construction. The sequence begins with individual participation, moving to small

group collaboration, and finishes with a whole class discussion with teacher as a mediator.

Findings from trials of the system in classrooms in the UK and Chile show that the model is

welcomed both by teachers and pupils, and met its objectives of ensuring greater interaction

between class members who did not normally work together, and involvement of all individuals

in discussion based activities.

On the other hand, a similar study on “Technology Appropriation in Face-to-Face Collaborative

Learning” by Overdijk and Diggelen (2006) was conducted to gain more insight in the way

student groups interact with educational technology by examining how students ‘appropriate’

this technology. The researchers claimed that the use and effects of a technological tool emerge

from the interaction between user and tool, based on a manual influence between them.

Technology appropriation; in this study implies a process of social construction in which the

actions and thoughts of the user are shaped by the technology, while the users’ actions shaped

the meaning and effects of the technology. The study followed LEAD’s research and

development strategy by formulating a descriptive conceptual model based on preliminary

theoretical and empirical findings that were obtained through a problem analysis. Technology

appropriation occurs when someone use technology in a goal directed activity while the

properties of the technology, and the acts required to accomplish the goal by means of the

technology, are uninformed. The study indicates that individual students make certain choices

during the process of appropriation. The study also revealed that students make different choices

both within and between groups. The choices made influenced the effect of the tool, and led to

differences in their discourse.

2.5 Sociocultural Views on Collaborative Technology

The Social Learning Theory proposed by Albert Bandura emphasizes the importance of

observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura

(1977) states:

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to

rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately,

most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing

others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions

this coded information serves as a guide for action."

-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977(p.22)

Bandura’s theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and

behaviours by watching other people (Cherry, n.d). This theory is also known as observational

learning. Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous influences of

reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, an environmental. Central to Social

Learning Theory is the identification of which types of models are more likely to be imitated.

There are four components processes of Social Learning Theory and these components lead to an

effective modelling. The first component is attention. In order to learn, learners need to be

paying attention. Anything that detracts learner’s attention is going to have a negative effect on

observational learning. Various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid

including distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Observer’s

characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect

attention. The second component is retention. The ability to store information is also an

important part of the learning process. Retention includes symbolic coding, mental images,

cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal. On the other hand, the third

component is retention. Once the learners have paid attention to the model and retained the

information, it is time to actually perform the behaviour that have been observed including

physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. The final component is motivation. In

order for observational learning to be successful, learners have to be motivated to imitate the

behaviour that has been modelled. Motivation includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional

behaviourism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced

model).

The socio-constructivist approaches to technology focus on the fact that technologies are socially

shaped, and that their use and effects are depending on human contingencies. This perspective

suggests that a technology gets its form and meaning based on the interaction and the technology

is not a stable artefact with fixed characteristics that are independent from practice (Overdijk &

Diggelen, 2006). Instead, students construct important characteristics of the tool when they really

work with it. It shows that technology is not necessarily used in accordance with the designers’

intentions.

2.6 Mind Mapping as Strategy to Promote Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is currently a highly valued educational outcome throughout the educational

spectrum, especially in relation to higher and professional education. Critical thinking is an

important skill in the 21st century learning. Education's overall goal is to produce students that

will be able to think critically and make one stands out from the crowd. A study done by Nirmala

& Shakuntala (2011) has shown that nursing education worldwide is also embracing the

construct critical thinking as a desirable educational outcome and realizes the importance of

eliciting the evidence of critical thinking in nurse's reasoning process. Recent trends in nursing

education have led the nursing educators to promote meaningful learning among the novice

nurses. The new nurse graduates have to think critically and solve problems in a variety of

clinical settings. Therefore the study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of concept

mapping in promotion of critical thinking skills among nurses. Concept mapping is a technique

developed by Joseph D Novak in 1970s for visualizing the relationships among different

concepts. The concept mapping is said to result in meaningful learning and has been utilized for

over 25 years as a valuable tool for meaningful learning in educational settings. In the study, the

concept map assists students to correlate client's diagnoses, symptoms, treatments, and

interventions and then problem solve in clinical decision-making. A type of quasi-experimental

study, pretest, post test and control group design was used in this study. The final year B.Sc.

nursing students from two different college of nursing were selected as experimental (n=40) and

control group (n=44). After a lecture, the students in the experimental group were divided into

eight small groups of five. The groups were given the first case study scenario from midwifery

and asked to make a concept map under the non-participatory observation of the researcher. The

group members were designated as moderator, recorder, reporter, time keeper and evaluator. The

role is exchanged every week to ensure the participation of each student. The findings has shown

that although there was a significant improvement in the critical thinking scores among the

experimental group, the overall scores of the experimental and the control group were found to

be very poor. The feedback from the students showed that they the standard and the language

used in the assessment tool was very high and they found it difficult to understand in the first

time and needed to read it again which was time consuming and tiring. There is a great need to

develop a standardized assessment tool to assess the critical thinking skills which will be suited

for the nursing community. Meanwhile, another study by Senita (2008) concluded that the

development of concept maps allows students to see how ideas are connected. It can be an

effective teaching–learning strategy that allows a student to develop the ability to organize and

group information in a meaningful way. In addition, concept mapping not only allows nursing

faculty to evaluate the student's understanding of the complex patient care needs and the

interrelationships that exist but also promotes critical thinking in the clinical setting.

Another study by Ralston and Cook (2007) titled “Collaboration, ICT, and Mind Mapping” was

aimed to explore the ways that visual material helps children establish shared meanings. The

study took place over six weeks in two English Primary schools with twelve 11 and 12 year olds.

Both schools introduced Kidspiration to help students plan a party. This mapping software had

been chosen by the teachers, from a number of mapping programmes available. The children first

used paper and pencil maps then used Kidspiration to create concept maps. Each class also used

Kidspiration to explore a Key Stage 2 History topic: 16th Century Explorers or similarities and

differences between two towns. At the beginning of the project, the researchers main concern

that time might be wasted due to the wide range of images provided in the software could

provide easily distraction to the pupils. However, the researchers then realize that it was a ‘useful’

activity. Creating a consensual map involved groups having the space in a supportive

environment and sufficient time to explore differences in image, colour and structure. One aspect

observed in this study was the quality of the discussion among the students. The conclusion was

that the use of multimodal-mapping software, such as Kidspiration, proved to be successful in

supporting the students' exploration and presentation of ideas, as the language generated showed.

The use of ICT provided a screen focus enabling pupils to organise their thoughts, make use of

colour and imagery to present information clearly and attractively and facilitate discussion. The

analysis of the maps showed that the students were working with a clear organising principle in

mind. On the other hand, a study by Riley (2007) was conducted to investigate the impact of

ICT-based multimodal mapping in developing effective learning dialogues. Assessment of

children's writing shows a deficiency in developing coherent ideas. More often than not, student

writing follows the prompts of the teacher and shows little individual extension outward. The

researcher investigated an intermediary tool between talk and writing to provide structure for

thought, revision, refinement and presentation. The study explores the use of Inspiration® and

other ICT tools and their use in the area of writing. Concept mapping provides a means by which

such compositional ideas are made explicit. It is recognized that ICT can produce discussion of

a type that has educational significance when children work in small groups at computers (Fisher,

1997:81; Wegerif, Littleton and Jones, 2005). Inspiration, an ICT-based multimodal mapping

software, was used to stimulate and develop learning dialogues that enhance thinking and

ideation that transfers into compositional expository writing.

The sample is a group of 22 students aged 10-11 years old within a large urban primary school in

the United Kingdom (UK). The students have a wide range of academic attainment and social

backgrounds. The intention was to use Inspiration -based concept mapping as normal routine in

whole class teaching and in group work, where the class is familiar with using laptops

individually and in small groups. Concept maps consist of "concepts" linked together by

descriptive words or links which show relationship. The more descriptive the link, the better

students can understand the concept. Data collected from transcribed discussions of groups while

concept mapping. Student maps were analysed for complexity based on the number of nodes and

links. The pre-test and post-test scores were compared, wherein students used concept mapping

in the post test. The number of propositions and concepts in writing and in the discussion

increased post-test. When comparing the examples of writing by the same groups it is noted how

the pattern of mapping has increased in concepts formed and links labelled. Further, the ideas are

more developed post-test. These findings suggest that Inspiration maps increase the incidence of

higher order thinking during the compositional process.

2.7 Theoretical Framework

The basis of this research was based on the Kirschner model which describes six stages in the

design of instructional methods that is suited for computer supported collaborative learning. The

model has a focus on the target learners and guides instructors to design instructional methods

based on the learners’ perspective. The six stages of the Kirschner model are; learner/ user

experience, support/affordances, constraints/ conventions, learner/user perceptions, learner/user

experience and finally learning. Based on the model, there were several things that are needed to

take into consideration before designing a project or series of activities for the students as what

was most important was allowing the students to learn, understand and make use of the

affordances and support themselves (Kirschner, 2002).

Kirschner, in his model explains the initial stage to determine what the learners actually do by

observing how the learners are actually interact and collaborate to solve problems, interact with

technology and so forth before designing and developing the learning environment. Next, based

on stage 1, what actually need to be supported or afforded need to be determined. There are three

affordances that have been addressed in designing the learning environment. The affordances are

technological, social and educational affordances. The thirds stage addressed on constraints

which consisting physical constraints, logical constraints and cultural constraint that play

important roles in collaborative environment. On the other hand, the fourth stage is to determine

how learners perceive and experience the supports provided. Research design must be carried out

as iterative, interacting processes. New products must be tried out with intended users at stages

in their development where physical and conceptual change can still be made. Meanwhile, stage

5 is to determine how the learner actually uses the supports provided. Similar to Stage 1, and

following up the more formative evaluations carried out in Stage 4 determine if the learner

actually does what is hoped or expected. Finally, Stage 6 is to determine what has been learned.

Learning is the goal of education. There are three standards to determine the success of any

interaction designs which are effectiveness, efficiency, and ability to satisfy the users; in the case

of CSCL environments, either the learners or educators. An increase in one or more of the

standards without a concomitant decrease of any of the others means success.

2.8 Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter focuses on underlying theories for the study and significant of past

studies with current study. According to the past literatures, there are many researches on

implementing ICT for rural children’s learning. However, there is a gap on literature about the

implementation of CSCL-based approach among children particularly in semi rural areas in

Malaysia. Therefore, this study is one of the researcher efforts to connect the semi rural children

with technology using appropriate tools and approaches. At the same time, this chapter also has

chosen a suitable model which is Kirschner Six Stages Model

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This research was conducted to investigate children’s learning using CSCL-based approach. It

involved a survey on learning styles preferences as well as structured observation. The

observation criteria were extracted from VAK Learning Style Preferences, Honey and

Mumford’s Learning Style as well as Kagan’s Elements of Cooperative Learning. The research

design includes the target population involved in the study as well as the sample chosen. In

addition, the research instrumentation will also be discussed and justified in this chapter.

Researcher will explain the reliability and validity of the research data and finally presenting the

data collection and data analysis procedures.

3.2 Research Design

The researcher used mixed method approach to conduct this research. The research method

chosen is the approach in which quantitative and qualitative studies were used. The design

followed Explanatory Sequential Design (known as a two-phased model; Creswell & Plano

Clark, 2011) consists of first collecting quantitative data followed by qualitative data to help

explain or elaborate on quantitative result. The advantages in using mix matched method are the

strength of the result that will provide a good result and reduce bias. At the same time this

method could help to examine a process or a problem from variety point of views.

In this study, a quantitative research design was intended to identify the learning style

preferences of all participants. Questionnaires were used for data collection in order to avoid bias

or errors. The major part of the research implies qualitative research which will be discussed

thoroughly in this chapter and the following chapter.

3.3 Research Population

Population is the group of interest to the researcher or known as a set of all possible data value

that could be observe. According to Castillo (2009), research population is generally a large

collection of individuals or objects that is main focus of a scientific query. In this research, the

population consists of the primary school children from the selected locations (Lubok Antu, Kg.

Serasot, Daro and Yan Kechil).

3.4 Sampling and sampling procedure

In qualitative inquiry, the intent is not to generalize to a population, but to develop an in-depth

exploration of a central phenomenon. Thus, to better understand this phenomenon, the researcher

purposely or intentionally selects individuals and sites.

The sample which is representing the targeted population chosen should meet the specification of

characteristics required for the study. In this study, the characteristics are the range of children’s

age between nine to fourteen and the mixture of male and female children.

According to Ross (2011), sampling is generally conducted in order to permit the detailed study

of part, rather than the whole of population. From all 127 participants, only 15 children; each

from kampong Serasot and Lubok Antu were chosen to be the participant in the collaborative

activities. The samples were selected in advance by the teachers from both locations respectively.

3.5 Research Instrumentation

3.5.1 Questionnaire

A set of questionnaire was used for quantitative method and distributed to all participants. The

questionnaire has three sections. Section A is technological competencies and preferences,

Section B is about social and learning preferences and Section C is about Learning Styles. Honey

and Mumford’s Learning Style Questionnaire has been used is this study.

Honey and Mumford's model, Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ), is directly derived from

Kolb's theory. Honey and Mumford (2000) gave people a questionnaire that probes general

behavioral tendencies. While basically the same as Kolb's model, there are a couple of

differences. First, the terms “reflector” was substitutes for divergers (reflective observation),

“theorist” for assimilators (abstract conceptualization), “pragmatist” for convergers (concrete

experience), and “activist” for accommodators (active experimentation). In addition, the new

labels have slightly different meanings (Honey & Mumford, 2000).

The questionnaire was distributed to all 127 participants just for information on the learning style

preferences of the participants.

3.5.2 Structured Learning Activities

Out of 127 participants, only 30 of them were chosen to participate in the learning activities. The

students were from Kg. Serasot and Lubok Antu. This learning was focusing on collaboration

between students for both offline and online. There were four sections for each activity namely

“television viewing”, “creating mind map”, “online learning network collaboration” and

“webcam activity”. All activities took place at the Pusat Internet 1 Malaysia (PI1M) in each

location. All students were given a profile form at the beginning to register as participants.

3.5.2.1 Television viewing

Each group of students from participating sites was provided with a schedule of television

programme on the same date and time. The PI1M managers were appointed as the middle person

in charge to gather the participants. The programmes chosen were from educational channels

with various topics which are related with the participants’ interest and school syllabus. For the

introductory activity, a documentary about Malaysian food was chosen and followed by, “Oh My

English”, and Malaysia through the Decades.

3.5.2.2 Creating Mind Map

While watching the television programme, every student was required to write down the

information from the programme. There are two types of mind map used; personal mind map and

class mind map. A brainstorming session was done before the students create the mind map.

Socratic questions were asked to promote critical thinking. The mind maps then were scanned

before uploaded to MyKliks learning network, an ICT application built for this project. The

students were also given an option to create a digital mind map using free Web 2.0 application

online. The purpose of creating a mind map was to ensure that the television viewing was more

focused and targeted. The mind map also was intended to be used as a preparation before

webcam session. A mind map template was given to all participants during the activity.

3.5.2.3 Online Learning Network Collaboration

Each student registered in this programme has been registered in a learning network provided.

This learning network serves as a platform for the students to upload the mind maps created after

viewing each television programme as well as sharing idea, opinion, and information with each

other. Here, the learning network is used as a collaborative tool which enables the students to

learn and teach each other online. The students form different locations were able to collaborate

online with other students from other locations in Malaysia who registered in this programme.

3.5.2.4 Webcam Activity

Webcam Activity was designed to promote synchronous communication between students by

connecting the participating telecentres. Research has shown that webcam activities were able to

express positive attitudes toward others. This is due to the ability to hear sounds voices and

viewing the face expressions from other students using webcam and thus tend to connect with

each other as peers to share experiences regardless of distance and place. Based on the mind map

uploaded earlier, the students from a location were connected to the students from other locations

to discuss about the mind maps. This activity encouraged collaboration between students as well

as motivating and giving idea to each other in order to achieve understanding while learning

about a particular concept. This session also was considered as a presentation session based on

the mind maps created while watching television programme.

3.5.3 Structured Observation

Observation was conducted based on VAK Learning Style Preferences, Honey and Mumford

Learning Style and Kagan’s Elements of Cooperative Learning.

3.5.3.1 Critical Elements of Collaboration

Element Characteristic Yes No

Positive 1. Gains of individuals and teams positively

Interdependence correlate.

2. Help each other so that all learn.

3. Helping, encouragement, and tutoring blossom.

Individual

Accountability

1. All students are actively involved and

responsible for their own learning.

2. Each participant individually contributes a fair

share to a group effort.

Equal Participation

1. All students receive the same chances and

incentives to be involved in class.

Simultaneous

Interaction

1. All students are actively engaged at the same

time during the class

Source: http://jalt.org/pansig/PGL2/HTML/Nakagawa.htm

3.5.3.2 VAK Learning Style

Learning Style Characteristic Yes No

Visual 1. Look at all study materials.

2. Use charts, maps, filmstrips, notes and flashcards.

3. Practice visualizing or picturing words/concepts in

your head.

4. Write out everything for frequent and quick visual

review.

Auditory

1. May wish to use tapes.

2. Tape lectures to help you fill in the gaps in your notes.

3. But do listen and take notes, reviewing notes

frequently.

4. Sit in the lecture hall or classroom where you can hear

well.

5. After you have read something, summarize it and

recite it aloud.

Kinesthetic

1. Trace words as you are saying them.

2. Facts that must be learned should be written several

times.

3. Keep a supply of scratch paper for this purpose.

4. Taking and keeping lecture notes will be very

important.

5. Make study sheets.

Extracted from Brett Bixler’s Learning Style Inventory

(http://www.personal.psu.edu/bxb11/LSI/LSI.htm)

3.5.3.3 Honey and Mumford Learning Style

Learning

Style

Characteristic Yes No

Activist 1. People who learn by doing.

2. Need to get their hands dirty, to dive in with both feet first.

3. Have an open-minded approach to learning, fully involved

and without bias in new experiences.

Theorist 1. Like to understand the theory behind the actions.

2. Need models, concepts and facts in order to engage in the

learning process.

3. Prefer to analyse and synthesise, drawing new information

into a systematic and logical 'theory'.

Pragmatist 1. Need to be able to see how to put the learning into practice

in the real world.

2. Abstract concepts and games are of limited use unless they

can see a way to put the ideas into action in their lives.

3. Experimenters, trying out new ideas, theories and

techniques to see if they work.

Reflector 1. Learn by observing and thinking about what happened.

2. May avoid leaping in and prefer to watch from the

sidelines.

3. Prefer to stand back and view experiences from a number

of different perspectives, collecting data and taking the

time to work towards an appropriate conclusion.

Extracted from Honey, P. & Mumford, A. (1982) Manual of Learning Styles London: P Honey

http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/training/eresources/teaching/theories/honey-

mumford

3.6 Reliability and Validity

In order to assure the reliability and validity of the data collected, video recording and picture

taking method always take place throughout the data collecting process. Information taken from

both methods could help to support other data taken from observation and instruments’ outcome.

Other than that, researcher will construct a systemic set of activities planning to make sure the

data collected during the session will meet the research objective. For instance, if in case that the

participants cannot perform the activity, the observer should be ready with alternative activities

which lead to the same objective. This is the way how the researcher tried to validate the data

collected.

3.7 Ethics

Before this study was conducted, an official letter was given to the schools. Attached with the

letter is an informed consent form for the parents to fill in. The description of project was

developed before designing an informed consent form. The children only participate in this

research after the parents agreed and signed the informed consent form. A gatekeeper has been

identified to help in this research. A gatekeeper is an individual who has an official of unofficial

role at the site, provides entrance to a site, helps researchers locate people, and assists in the

identification of places to study (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). In this research, the

gatekeepers are the PI1M Managers as well as the teachers.

3.8 Data collection procedures

The questionnaire was distributed earlier before the activities conducted. The questionnaires

given were answered by the participants immediately. Each participant was given 10 – 15

minutes to complete the questionnaire.

On the other hand, for the activities the data collected from observation and the outcome (mind

maps).

3.8.1 Observation

This study used observation approach in order to gain more qualitative information to answer the

research questions. Observation is a way to gather information by watching behaviour, event and

characteristic occur in their natural setting (CDC, 2008). It is the process of gathering open-

ended, firsthand information by observing people and places at a research site.

3.9 Data analysis procedures

The data will be analysed using interpretive analysis and simple statistical method. All the

qualitative data collected will be analyse according to Kirschner six stages Model and

collaborative theories and strategies. For quantitative data, Microsoft Excel was used in order to

identify the learning style preferences.

Other than that, the data collected from structured learning activities and observation were

interpreted in order to get the information about connecting children with technology based on

CSCL approach.

3.10 Summary

This research used mixed method research design. The population was the primary school

children from the selected locations (Lubok Antu, Kg. Serasot, Daro and Yan Kechil).

Instrument used in this research is the survey questionnaire and structured learning activities.

Video recording and picture taking were done in order to measure the reliability and validity of

the research. Data was analyzed using interpretive analysis and simple statistical method.

4.0 Findings and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the results obtained from the research carried out to investigate the

children’s learning using technology. Indeed, this chapter will show the findings of the learning

style preferences as well as answering the research questions stated earlier.

4.2 Demographic Background

The participants in this research are local children from the selected locations. A total of 127

questionnaires were sent out for the learning style survey. The totals of participants that

responded in this research are 127 students. Only 30 children from two locations were selected to

participate in the learning activities. Therefore, 93 children are not included in the learning

activities.

4.3 Main Findings

The analysis for learning style preferences was referred from Honey and Mumford’s Learning

Style Survey analysis. Based on the questionnaire, it was found that 75 students preferred doing

and thinking which falls under analyzing category. A person in this category prefers the practical

application of ideas, solving problems, feedback, and decision-making (obvious links between

the task-on-hand and a problem). In addition, the person also prefers technical problems over

interpersonal issues and applies new learning to actual practice to see if it works. People in this

category like laboratories, field work, observations, and coaching too. On the other hand, 33 of

the students preferred Watching and Thinking which falls under the philosophy category. People

under this category prefers to pull a number of different observations and thoughts into an

integrated whole in a step-by-step manner (go from details to big-picture). This type of person

also prefers to reason logically and design models, theories, and projects. In addition, lectures,

analogies, systems, and case studies are more preferable- talking with experts is normally not

helpful.

Next, the analysis shows that ten of the participants preferred Watching and Feeling which falls

under the reflecting category. People who falls under this category prefers to learn from activities

that allows watching, thinking, and to review what has happened, such as brainstorming and

cooperative groups. Lectures may be helpful but only if expert explanations and analysis

provided. A person fall under this category also like innovative and imaginative approaches to

doing things, prefers to view situations from many perspectives and interested in people and

tends to be feeling-oriented. Finally, nine participants preferred Doing and Feeling which falls

under organizing category. These students are good at adapting to changing circumstances and

solve problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error manner, such as discovery learning and tend to be

at ease with people. The person also prefers the challenges of new experiences, involvement with

others, assimilation, and role-playing. Anything new, problem solving, and small group

discussions are their interests too.

However, only 30 children were observed thoroughly to indicate their learning style preferences

based on VAK (Visual Audio Kinesthetic) and Honey and Mumford Learning Style preferences.

Most of the children from Kg. Serasot are visual learners since they preferred to look at the study

materials. While watching the television programme, this group of children just focuses on their

viewing. Only two children showed the characteristic of reflector based on Honey and Mumford

Learning Style. These children preferred to watch the other children’s responses before sharing

their point of views. Meanwhile, majority of the children from Lubok Antu were kinesthetic

learners as they were always preparing a pencil and a piece of paper to write down important

information throughout the activities. These children were also reflected as an activist based on

Honey and Mumford Learning Style as they learn by doing. The students were fully involved in

the activities. The observation also indicated three children are auditory learners. This group of

children chose to sit at the front where they can hear well and tend to summarize what they have

learned by reading aloud.

On the other hand, the whole activities are reviewed based on Kircshner Six Stages Design of

Instructional method. All six stages were addressed throughout the activities. The first stage is

learner’s experience. This is the initial stage to determine what the learners actually do by

observing how they actually interact, collaborate and interacts to solve problems before

designing and developing the learning environment. In this study, the researcher would be to find

out the level of ICT competence the students had as well as their own personal interests. Based

on the needs analysis, all children have experience in using computer. Therefore, several random

questions were asked, such as:

Which website or web search engine do you usually access?

Do you have own email and make use of it?

Are you familiar with social networking sites?

What you usually do when they go online?

Do you use the online tools for education purposes?

The findings of the needs analysis saw that most of the students used the internet to surf on

Youtube, Facebook and other search engines. Their interests were concentrated mostly on games

and videos. Only few of the older children used online tools for education purposes. The

feedback given by the children indicated what they could do and what they wanted to do, and

from this, it gives the idea of what type of activities would interest and motivate the children to

continue participating in the activities that will be designed for them.

Apart from that, the researcher also able to estimate the level of expertise of the students in terms

of computing skills and knowledge of online resources from the feedback given by the children

and researcher’s observations. From here, the researcher was able to decide on what

technological platforms could be exposed to them and ensure that the platforms would not be too

overwhelming for the children to use. The children were also very keen to collaborate with each

other especially when they were informed that the activities will allow them to connect with

other friends from other location.

Then, the children were given a preliminary activity before the structured activities conducted.

The children were divided into three groups and they were free to choose their own group

members. Once the groups were formed, the children were then assigned to a task. The first task

that they were asked to do was draw a map of a village. Since, the village is quite big, the

children have decided to divide the drawings into three parts. Each group will draw one part of

the village. From this session, it has been observed that the older students took on the roles of the

leaders and wanted to lead the group towards the direction that they were interested in.

There are three affordances that have been addressed in designing the learning environment. The

affordances are technological, social and educational affordances. In this study, the social

affordance refers to support that encourage the learners to engage in common task of discussion.

They children were from the same community who shared the same beliefs and interest. This

affordance will encourage the group members to depend upon each other for working with peers

of same interest. It also will motivate them to learn the same thing together. This affordance will

encourage the participants to actively engage with the group discussion. The educational

affordance provided in this study was the sample of mind maps as a guide for the children. On

the other hand, technological affordance given in this study was the online learning network to

spark the learners’ interest and motivation towards the use of technology as one of the platforms

of learning and knowledge sharing.

However, there are several constraints in this study which consists of physical constraints,

logical constraints and cultural constraints. Some of the computers in the PI1M were not working

properly and sometime, the PI1M experienced blackouts while activities were conducted. The

connection bandwidth in the PI1M also was very slow. These constraints have distracted the

children’s attention while they were using the learning network. Meanwhile, for logical

constraint, it has been identified that the children were not able to understand well in English.

Therefore, the learning materials have been prepared in Bahasa Malaysia. On the other hand, the

obvious cultural constraint which had been observed was language barrier. The children from

Kg. Serasot were majority Bidayuh while Lubok Antu’s children were majority Iban. It was a

huge challenge for the researcher to communicate and understand their conversation since most

of the times; the children communicate using their native languages.

The responses of the students were very positive as they were all very excited and willing to

cooperate with each other to complete their tasks. The students were also very interested in the

activities as it exposed them to new online tools, and most of the children were particularly

excited when they were registered for the online learning network. The feedback given addressed

Kirschner’s fourth stage of the model which is learner’s perception.

The fifth stage of the Kirschner model, learner experience, was also highlighted during the

activity as well as after. The children were all experimenting and using the support given to

them, both offline and online as they carried out their activities. The collaborative practices that

they displayed throughout the group activity also showed that they were capable of working

together in teams and collaborating in creating new knowledge and understanding of the tasks

given to them. Each participant has been observed and the response was taken into account.

During the television viewing, it can be observed that the students were talking to each other

about the television programme. For the first activity, the television programme was about local

food. The participants looked very excited and enjoyed the show. Some of them started to

analyze the main concepts delivered from the show. From observation, a few students were

discussing with each other. At the end of the viewing, the students started to brainstorm the ideas

behind the television show. The students paid more attention on things that are familiar and

catches their interest.

Then, the students were required to create a mind map. Since this was the first time for them to

create a mind map based on what had been watched, the students were taught on how to create a

mind map first. A brainstorming session was also conducted to get some ideas from the group.

The mind map created based on What, When, Where, Who, Why and How questions. In addition,

Socratic Questions were asked in order to promote critical thinking among the children. Below

are the examples of questions from the brainstorming session:

1. Why are you saying that?

2. What exactly does this mean?

3. How does this relate to what we have been talking about?

4. What do we already know about this?

5. Can you give me an example?

6. What else could we assume?

7. How did you choose those assumptions?

8. Please explain why/how ... ?

9. How can you verify or disprove that assumption?

10. What would happen if ... ?

11. Why is that happening?

12. How do you know this?

13. Show me ... ?

14. Can you give me an example of that?

15. What do you think causes ... ?

16. What is the nature of this?

17. Are these reasons good enough?

18. Would it stand up in court?

19. How might it be refuted?

20. How can I be sure of what you are saying?

A lot of conversation also happened while creating the mind map especially class mind map.

There were some children who participated actively to share their ideas. These children

volunteered to write the information on the white board and compete with each other. Other

children who initially observed their peers started to be motivated and participate as well. The

brainstorming session, in a way was a very effective method to make the children think critically

as some of them managed to relate the programme contents with real world situation. Some of

the finished products were very creative, and the outstanding ones were showed to others at the

end of the activity.

Next, the students were eager to participate on the learning network which has been created. The

students were able to upload their mind maps as well as viewing and commenting others’ mind

maps. The most creative and outstanding mind maps received good comments and in a way

make other students inspired and motivated to create better mind maps in future. The students

were also adding some ideas on their friends’ mind maps.

Finally is the webcam activity. The webcam activity was the most exciting session for the

students. The students looked very happy when they first saw the faces of friends from other

locations. During the activity, the students introduced themselves and showed their mind maps.

Some of the students were very shy at the beginning. It can be seen from their uncomfortable

face expressions and slow articulation while interacting but after a while, the students became

more comfortable and participating. This was clearly showed by their facial expressions.

Although the connection was not very good during the webcam activity which made the

interaction delayed and lagged sometimes, the students still wait patiently for the response from

their friends.

4.4 Discussion

In this study, output-based evaluation was used to determined what the learners were actually

learnt. The output-based evaluation is the most suitable to be adapt in this study because the

activities conducted was design to make them produce output such as mind maps. The judgement

was basically based on the quality of the output. Based on learners’ production of artefacts and

their feedback, it shows that the instructional design is effective for them to learn about

appropriate use of technology to support learning. The brainstorming session has shown that

some of the children were able to analyze the issues critically. However, the language of

instruction was a big barrier. The children were facing some difficulties to understand the

contents of the programmes in English. They also become less attentive to the viewing.

There are critical elements of collaboration need to be considered in order to make collaboration

successful. One important aspect of ensuring that a group can successfully work together as a

team is the effective communication that the team members can have with one another. In this

research context, the children were consisting of a group of people who live in both same and

different community. Therefore, this is a big challenge for the children to collaborate. The

children might feel uncomfortable with one another and could hardly understand the way each

team member works.

Apart from that, an atmosphere whereby the team members felt that there is a joint responsibility

for learning, have learning ownership, meaning is negotiated and participation structures are

understood and ritualised play a very important role. From observation, some of the children

managed to show the criteria of joint responsibility while the rest are still very passive and tend

to become easy riders. Technology and other resource explorations should also be used to

facilitate idea generation and knowledge building within the community of learners.

On the other hand, in order to make collaboration happens effectively, the learning environment

must also be capable of building positive interdependence amongst the learners. Positive

interdependence happens when team members positively correlate with one another and are

committed not only towards individual gain but also collective gain. During the first scheduled

activities between both sites, the children from Lubok Antu did not turned up, therefore it is

clearly shown that the element of positive interdependence were not exist during that particular

time. Fortunately, the children attended the following activities session and showed positive

attitudes by motivating and encouraging all the other team members to participate in activities

and discussions especially while creating a class mind map so that the shared common goal

within the group is achieved (Kagan).

Positive interdependence can be applied in a CSCL environment when the technology to

facilitate cooperative interaction allows asynchronous and synchronous communication. This

allows learners to share knowledge, construct shared understanding and achieve deeper learning

outcomes through the interaction that members have with one another. In this research, the

asynchronous communication happened while communicating using the online learning network

while synchronous communication occurred during the webcam session.

On the other hand, the learning environment must also be capable of encouraging independent

and group accountability, whereby the members are all committed towards bringing value to the

group for the purpose of creating deeper understanding and learning amongst the group members

(Kagan). Only few children managed to show the element of individual accountability during

the activities. However, the rest of the children started to participate actively after observing

positive responses from other children. In this study, all children were given the opportunity to

participate equally in terms of task design and time given. The environment was also encouraged

simultaneous interaction especially during brainstorming session. All children were given the

same opportunity to listen and answer simultaneously.

Group processing is another important element as it allows the group members to reflect on the

work and interactions and allows them to focus on refining and improving efforts to achieve the

goals of the group (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). This can be encouraged through group

discussions reflecting their work together as a group and having constructive feedback regarding

what does and does not work for the group. This in turn gives them the opportunity to sort out

any issues at hand as well as strengthen the bond among the members of the collaborative group.

While the analysis obtained from the questionnaire showed majority of the children preferred

doing and thinking as learning style, it does not reflects most of the participants during the

activities. Most of the children showed interest from the activities that allow watching, thinking

and brainstorming which falls under watching and feeling category. These positive attitudes are

clearly expressed during the brainstorming session. Although the students faced some difficulties

in understanding the language of instruction, they managed to analyze the programme contents

and recall their prior knowledge on a particular issue.

Previous study by Nirmala & Shakuntala (2011) has shown that the use of mind mapping was

able to show a significant improvement in the critical thinking skills of nursing students. While

Davies (2010) stated the advantages of mind mapping include its ‘‘free-form’’ and unconstrained

structure. There are no limits on the ideas and links that can be made, and there is no necessity to

retain an ideal structure or format. Mind mapping thus promotes creative thinking, and

encourages ‘‘brainstorming’’. The main use of mind mapping is to create an association of ideas.

However, another use is for memory retention. The mind map also was intended to be used as a

preparation before webcam session. A mind map template was given to all participants during

the activity. The outcome of this research has shown that some children managed to analyze the

issue and link the ideas to the real experience.

4.5 Summary

The chapter discusses the overall results of this research. Results show that there were 30

participants out of 127 involved in the structured learning activity. Some of the participants were

able to show the critical elements of collaborative learning during the activities. The result also

has shown that the use of mind mapping can enhance critical thinking among learners.

4.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Introduction

This chapter represents the summary, conclusion and recommendation for future study for this

research.

5.2 Summary

Rapid advancements of technology have enabled communities all over the world today to

collaborate as a group in various fields and areas of interest at literally a click of a button. In

regards to this trend, online collaborative learning is considered as an effective learning method

which is increasingly popular. Interestingly, increased use of social technologies provides an

opportunity to replace passive entertainment with social interaction. In regards to this trend,

online collaborative learning is considered as an effective learning method which is increasingly

popular. Children take part in activities to the extent that they are able, observing and receiving

feedback from others with more expertise (the teacher or more advanced children).

The purpose of this research is to investigate children’s learning using technology through online

collaboration, to discover the critical elements of collaboration between the students in each both

participating sites by providing assistance, encouragement and motivation to each other as well

as to o find out how children build new knowledge through online collaboration and producing a

group of students who think creatively and critically in learning and analyzing things.

The researcher used mixed method approach to conduct this research. The research method

chosen is the approach in which quantitative and qualitative studies were used. The design

followed Explanatory Sequential Design (known as a two-phased model; Creswell & Plano

Clark, 2011) consists of first collecting quantitative data followed by qualitative data to help

explain or elaborate on quantitative result.

The data analysed using interpretive analysis and simple statistical method. For quantitative data,

Microsoft Excel was used in order to identify the learning style preferences. Other than that, the

data collected from structured learning activities and observation were interpreted in order to get

the information about connecting children with technology based on CSCL approach.

5.3 Limitations of the study

This research involves qualitative study whereby the result will probably become too subjective

and difficult to be evaluated. It is not easy for the researcher to conclude the results because the

data may be not perfectly acceptable.

Another limitation of this study is time constraint. A qualitative research requires the researcher

to analyse data for longer period compared to quantitative research. The time provided by the

institution is very limited.

5.4 Recommendation

There is a recommendation which can be taken to improve the research on connecting children

with CSCL based technology to support learning. Based on this research, the study involved

participants only in a small population which were the children from four locations (only two

locations involved in the learning activities). First of all, future research need to be well prepared

planned and arranged since this research is involving children from different locations. Similar

research can be done in future in other locations to find out whether the children give similar

responses and outcome as this particular research.

Research about connecting children with technology also can be investigated by looking on the

different collaborative activities and other tools. A study about the effectiveness of using

collaborative learning activities and tools also need to be better investigated.

5.4 Conclusion

Children’s learning through collaborative approach in technology-based environment has the

potential to make learning become more meaningful in particular for children living in rural

areas. It is important to emphasis on the contents that are able to make the collaboration more

effective. Collaborative learning has been widely known as a successful approach in hundreds of

studies. More research is now needed to examine the elements of collaborative learning among

children, such as how to improve the level of student interaction particularly in Malaysia context.

Researchers should focus on matching collaborative activities to types of tasks and determining

which are most suitable for different types of learners and content

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