Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Fruit Juice ... - MDPI

Citation: Pinto, T.; Vilela, A.; Cosme,

F. Chemical and Sensory

Characteristics of Fruit Juice and

Fruit Fermented Beverages and Their

Consumer Acceptance. Beverages

2022, 8, 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/

beverages8020033

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Received: 11 April 2022

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beverages

Review

Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Fruit Juice and FruitFermented Beverages and Their Consumer AcceptanceTeresa Pinto 1 , Alice Vilela 2 and Fernanda Cosme 2,*

1 CITAB, Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences,Inov4Agro, Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production,Department of Biology and Environment, School of Life Sciences and Environment, University ofTrás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; [email protected]

2 Chemistry Research Centre-Vila Real (CQ-VR), Department of Biology and Environment,School of Life Sciences and Environment, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro,Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; [email protected]

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Recent social, economic, and technological evolutions have impacted consumption habits.The new consumer is more rational, more connected and demanding with products, more concernedwith the management of the family budget, with the health, origin, and sustainability of food. Thefood industry over the last few years has shown remarkable technological and scientific evolution,with an impact on the development and innovation of new products using non-thermal processing.Non-thermal processing technologies involve methods by which fruit juices receive microbiologicalinactivation and enzymatic denaturation with or without the direct application of low heat, therebylessening the adverse effects on the nutritional, bioactive, and flavor compounds of the treated fruitjuices, extending their shelf-life. The recognition of the nutritional and protective values of fruitjuices and fermented fruit beverages is evident and is attributed to the presence of different bioactivecompounds, protecting against chronic and metabolic diseases. Fermentation maintains the fruit'ssafety, nutrition, and shelf life and the development of new products. This review aims to summarizethe chemical and sensory characteristics of fruit juices and fermented fruit drinks, the fermentationprocess, its benefits, and its effects.

Keywords: fruit; processing; fruit juice; fermentation; fruit juice fermented beverage

1. Introduction

The current trend in the food industry is to develop new products that present qualityand food safety characteristics, responding to the needs and preferences of consumers.When adopting a more sustainable lifestyle, consumers are increasingly demanding, givingpreference to natural, healthier, innovative, and tastier products with nutraceutical andsustainable characteristics and with a minimum amount of chemical preservatives and/orprocessing technologies [1,2]. As such, the sustainable development of the functionalfood market is increasingly evident, in which fruit juices and fermented fruit beveragesbegin to occupy a prominent place [3]. According to Corbo et al. [4], in 2008, the foodindustry presented an expected growth of between 2–3%, with the functional food marketpresenting an expectation of approximately 10%. This fact could be explained partiallyby the growing number of lactose-intolerant consumers, dairy allergies, the preferencefor products with low cholesterol content, and the growing trend of vegetarianism, whichleads consumers to avoid the consumption of dairy drinks [5–7]. Also, the tendencyof consumers to avoid highly sugary products is not insignificant in the valorization offunctional food and beverages [8]. Several studies have been carried out highlighting thebeneficial health effects of integrating fruit into the human diet as a supply of dietary nutri-ents and bioactive compounds, including dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols,

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flavonoids, monoterpenes, and bioactive peptides [8–11]. Thus, the intake of fruit has anotable effect on the prevention of signs of aging, cardiovascular diseases, cataracts [12],and strokes [13], presenting anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and neuroprotec-tive properties [11,14,15]. In addition, fruit juices are considered alternative food products,being developed as probiotic substrates in recent years as an alternative to dairy products.Because they are well accepted by consumers and have a high nutritional value withpositive health effects, fruit juices are ideal vehicles for probiotics [16,17].

Considering the extremely perishable nature of the fruits, finding new technologiesfor conservation and processing has become a focus for innovation in the food industry.Processing fruit to obtain juices or nectars is a means to transform perishable productsinto storable and marketable products, adding economic value to the fruit, avoiding waste,and minimizing losses that may occur during the marketing of the fresh product [18].Fermentation is one of the oldest food processing technologies. As early as the Pale-olithic and Neolithic eras, foods such as bread and wine were consumed [3]. Without theneed for highly developed technologies, fermentation occurs spontaneously and naturallythrough the action of microorganisms present in or added to the substrates. Probioticsare non-pathogenic live microorganisms, and their selection is extremely important inthe fruit fermentation process due to the biochemical changes they promote in the initialproduct [10]. Fermentation consists of the action of microorganisms on the raw materialin a biotransformation process in which carbohydrates are transformed into organic acidsor alcohols [19,20]. There are numerous fermentation techniques and microorganismsused in this process [21]. However, while there is diversification, four main fermentationprocesses can be considered: acetic, alkaline, alcoholic, and lactic fermentation [22]. Themicroorganisms involved in fermentation can be bacteria, yeasts, and molds [10]. Some-times the microbial species involved in fermentation are not known and may even belongto multiple species. In fermented fruit beverages, the microorganisms used are mainlylactic acid bacteria (LAB), such as Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillusrhamnosus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostoccitreum, Leuconostoc fallax, Leuconostoc kimchi, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Pediococcus acidilactici,Weissella confusa, Weissella cibaria, but also yeast, and acetic acid bacteria [8,10,13].

Thus, changes in the nutritional value, sensory characteristics, and microbial safetyof the product are a consequence of the fermentation process. This is a technology that,according to several authors [3,10,23], has great advantages due to the improvement offood taste, food safety, and shelf life, with an increase in its nutritional properties bythe production of interesting active principles. This review highlights the chemical andsensory characteristics of fruit juices and fermented fruit drinks, the fermentation process,its benefits, and its effects. The acceptance of fermented beverages by consumers will alsobe considered.

2. Fruit Juices2.1. The Chemical Composition of Fruit

It is recognized that fruit consumption constitutes a large contribution of macronutri-ents, micronutrients, phytochemicals, and structural carbohydrates [15,24,25] (Figure 1),resulting in health benefits. According to dietary guidelines, fruit intake decreases excessiveoxidative stress, preventing chronic and metabolic diseases while also acting on energyintake [26].

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Figure 1. Fruit composition.

Indeed, fruits are recognized as fundamental sources of vitamins, minerals, dietary

fiber, and antioxidants. Their nutritional value and sensory characteristics depend on spe-

cies, variety, cultivation (conventional or biological), soil, climatic conditions, storage,

transport, and shelf life. Currently, there is a tendency to combine different fruits to in-

crease both the flavor and the contribution of nutritional qualities [27,28].

Fruits are important sources of vitamins and minerals, mainly vitamin C and the B

complex, and precursors of vitamin A, as well as providing antioxidants [10,28].

Minerals are essential in human health as they affect the development of bones and

teeth, in addition to being related to electrolyte and water balance, metabolic catalysts,

oxygen binding, and hormonal functions [29]. Fruits can contain significant amounts of

important minerals such as: potassium, particularly bananas, blackcurrants, and blackber-

ries; magnesium, of which the highest content is recorded in blackberries; and iron, where

the strawberry stands out. However, they are low in sodium and selenium. It is also ob-

served that berries as a whole are an important source of minerals, of which the main

minerals found are phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron (Table 1).

Without the ability to synthesize vitamins, these minerals are essential for the proper

functioning of the human body due to their antioxidant potential [30]. Ascorbic acid, or

vitamin C, exists mainly in red fruits, such as strawberries, cherries, red raspberries, black

raspberries, blackberries, cranberries, and blueberries, with a higher incidence in black

currants, oranges, and papayas, which also register considerable levels of vitamin C. Vit-

amin A is not found abundantly in fruits, with a few exceptions, such as mangos, papayas,

melons, and even watermelons. Vitamin B6 (riboflavin) is not present in large amounts in

fruits, but appears in appreciable amounts in blueberries, cherries, strawberries, cranber-

ries, and plums (Table 1).

Figure 1. Fruit composition.

Indeed, fruits are recognized as fundamental sources of vitamins, minerals, dietaryfiber, and antioxidants. Their nutritional value and sensory characteristics depend onspecies, variety, cultivation (conventional or biological), soil, climatic conditions, storage,transport, and shelf life. Currently, there is a tendency to combine different fruits to increaseboth the flavor and the contribution of nutritional qualities [27,28].

Fruits are important sources of vitamins and minerals, mainly vitamin C and the Bcomplex, and precursors of vitamin A, as well as providing antioxidants [10,28].

Minerals are essential in human health as they affect the development of bones andteeth, in addition to being related to electrolyte and water balance, metabolic catalysts,oxygen binding, and hormonal functions [29]. Fruits can contain significant amounts of im-portant minerals such as: potassium, particularly bananas, blackcurrants, and blackberries;magnesium, of which the highest content is recorded in blackberries; and iron, where thestrawberry stands out. However, they are low in sodium and selenium. It is also observedthat berries as a whole are an important source of minerals, of which the main mineralsfound are phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron (Table 1).

Without the ability to synthesize vitamins, these minerals are essential for the properfunctioning of the human body due to their antioxidant potential [30]. Ascorbic acid,or vitamin C, exists mainly in red fruits, such as strawberries, cherries, red raspberries,black raspberries, blackberries, cranberries, and blueberries, with a higher incidence inblack currants, oranges, and papayas, which also register considerable levels of vitamin C.Vitamin A is not found abundantly in fruits, with a few exceptions, such as mangos,papayas, melons, and even watermelons. Vitamin B6 (riboflavin) is not present in largeamounts in fruits, but appears in appreciable amounts in blueberries, cherries, strawberries,cranberries, and plums (Table 1).

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Table 1. Mineral and vitamin composition of different fresh fruits.

Fruits Minerals (mg/100 g of Fresh Weight) Vitamins References

Ca P K Mg Na Fe Se Cu Mn Zn C A B6 B2

Apple 6 11 107 5 1 120 a 0 30 a 40 a 40 a 4.6 3 a - - [31]

Apricot 13 23 259 10 1 390 a 0.1 a 80 a 80 a 200 a 10 96 a - - [31]

Banana 5 22 358 27 1 260 a 1 a 80 a 270 a 150 a 8.7 3 a - - [31]

Blackberry 6–29 2–29 d 77–349 6–44.8 2–4 d 0.28–1.28 - 0.02–0.04 d 1.2–2.6 d 0.07–0.44 34–52 - - - [15,28,31,32]

Blackcurrant 35–45 d 35–40 d 300–320 d 15–18 d 1.7–2.5 d 1.3–2.5 d - 0.15–0.20 d 0.35–0.52 d 0.25–0.31 d 122.4–193.2 - - - [28,33]

Blueberry 15–35 d 8.6 56–80 d 4.9 0.11–0.22 d 1.24 - 0.02–0.04 d - 0.13 10–100 - 1999 c 216 c [15,28,31,32]

Cherry 13 12.2–15 90.9–173 11–12.2 0 1.16 0 60 a - 0.69 10–62.4 3 a 790 c 247 c [15,31,32]

Clementine 30 21 177 10 1 140 a 10 a 40 a 20 a 60 a 48.8 - - - [31]

Cranberry 15–30 d 1–4 d 24–30 d 3–7 d 4–6 d 0.16–0.4 d 0.13–0.2 d 0.3–0.10 d 0.02–0.04 d 10 b - 606 c 69 c [15,28]

Fig 35 14 14 17 1 370 a 0.2 a 70 a 130 a 150 a 2 7 a - - [31]

Grapes 10 20 191 7 2 360 a 0.1 a 130 a 70 a 70 a 3.2 3 a - - [31]

Litchis 5 31 171 10 1 310 a 0.6 a 150 a 60 a 70 71.5 0 - - [31]

Mango 11 14 168 10 1 160 a 0.6 a 110 a 60 a 90 a 36.4 54 a 0.1–0.16 0.02–0.1 [31]

Melon 9 15 267 12 16 210 a 0.4 a 40 a - 180 a 36.7 169 a - - [31]

Orange 41 14 181 10 0 100 a 0.5 a 40 a 30 a 70 a 53.2 11 a - - [31]

Papaya 20 10 182 21 8 250 a 0.6 a 40 a 40 a 80 a 60.9 47 a - - [31]

Peach 6 20 190 9 0 250 a 0.1 a 70 a 60 a 170 a 6.6 16 a - - [31]

Pear 9 12 116 7 1 180 a 0.1 a 80 a 50 a 100 a 4.3 1 a - - [31]

Pineaplle 13 8 109 12 1 290 a 0.1 a 110 a 930 a 120 a 47.8 3 a - - [31]

Plum 6 16 157 7 0 170 a 0 60 a 50 a 100 a 9.5 17 a - - [31]

Raspberry 1.14 5.7 71.8 15.9 0.5–1 d 1.06 - - 1.5–2.0 d .37 5–92.2 - - - [15,28,31,32]

Strawberry 2.2–16 6.6–24 51.2–153 13–15.9 1 410 0.4 50 390 140 5–90 1 1744 c 93 c [15,31,32]

Watermelon 7 11 112 10 1 240 0.4 40 40 100 8.1 28 - - [31]

Units: a µg/100 g fresh weight (FW); b mg/100 g dry weight; c µg/100 g of fresh weight; d mg/100 g edible portion.

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The benefits of a diet rich in dietary fiber have long been known [34,35], namely inphysiological responses to satiety, gastrointestinal tract physiology [35], lower risk of col-orectal cancer, lower total and LDL cholesterol, and cardiovascular disease [36]. The termdietary fiber consists of polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, gums, mucilages)and lignin [27,34,37]. The fiber content in the fruit ranges from 1 to 3.17 g/100 g FW, withpears and figs showing the highest amounts, 3.1 and 2.9 g/100 g FW, respectively [31]. Thered fruits were recorded to possess lower fiber contents, where the cranberries present thehighest fiber content (35.7 mg/100 g FW), followed by the raspberries (5.8–6.5 mg/100 g FW)and the blackberries (4.5–5.3 7 mg/100 g FW) [27,31,32].

Glucose, sucrose, and fructose are the main sugars in the fruits, and although thereare significant variations in their amount, according to Septembre–Malaterre et al. [10],the number of sugars in the fruit can vary between 5 and 22% of fresh weight, with citrusfruits among those with the lowest percentage of sugars and bananas with the highest.Mikulic–Petkovsek et al. [38] determined that fructose and glucose are the main sugarspresent in red fruits; not detecting sucrose in blackberry and raspberry fruits.

Phenolic compounds are one of the major classes of secondary plant metabolites andare among the most abundant natural antioxidants in the diet. Fruit is one of the foodsrichest in polyphenols, contributing to about half of the total nutritional intake [39]. Theyare associated with the prevention of numerous pathologies associated with oxidativestress, acting as antioxidants, also exhibiting antibacterial, antitumor, antimalarial, andantiviral characteristics, among others [15,40]. The phenolic potential of fruits depends onmany factors, of which genetic attributes, maturity stage, and growing conditions are ofprimary importance [15,41].

About 8000 different plant phenolic structures are known [42], which are dividedinto major families such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and stilbenes [10,43]. In redfruits, most of the phenolics present belong fundamentally to two classes: phenolicacids and anthocyanins, although each species has its profile [15]. For example, blue-berries are rich in quercetin and caffeic acid (31.0–83.0 and 2.0–27.35 mg/kg fresh weight,respectively) [44–46], while lingonberries are rich in p-coumaric and ferulic acid (37.6–251.1and 16.2–221.7, respectively) [47,48].

Among the flavonoids, flavanols and proanthocyanidins are the most present in thehuman diet. In fruits, catechins are represented with high content in apricots and cher-ries [49,50]. Proanthocyanidins are particularly abundant in cranberries (418.8 mg/100 gfresh weight), blueberries (179.8–331.9 mg/100 g fresh weight), plums (215.9–256.6 mg/100 gfresh weight), apples (69.6–141 mg/100 g fresh weight), blackcurrants (147.8 mg/100 g freshweight), and strawberries (145 mg/100 g fresh weight) [51]. Anthocyanins are also abundantin fruits, found mainly in the fruit skin. Anthocyanin content is related to the increasingcolor intensity as the fruit ripens [52,53]. Grapes are the main dietary source of anthocyanins.The monomeric anthocyanins in grape skin extracts were mainly malvidin, particularly themalvidin-3-glucoside (1.40–7.09 mg/g of skin and 0.62–6.09 mg/g of skin, respectively) [54].

Lignans are found in relatively low concentrations in various fruits, having a positiveimpact on the prevention of heart disease, mamma cancer, and osteoporosis [55]. The highestcontent of lignan is observed in pears (15.56 mg/100 g food), apricots (11.57 mg/100 g food),grapefruits (7.44 mg/100 g food), peaches (6.83 mg/100 g food), and strawberries (6.2 mg/100 g food) [56].

Stilbenes are rarely present in human food. Trans-resveratrol can be found in grapeskins with well-known beneficial health effects [57,58], namely in the prevention of humancardiovascular diseases. The highest concentration of this phenolic compound was foundin grape skin, with a higher concentration in the red compared to the white varieties [59].

The chemical composition of the fruit affects the sensory characteristics of the juice. Ac-cording to Francis and Newton [60], aroma results from complex interactions of numerouschemical compounds. Essentially, the cultivar [61–63], agricultural practices (conventionalvs. organic) [64,65], post-harvest treatments, and the different techniques used to extendthe shelf life of fruit and fruit juices [66,67], lead to variations in their sensory characteristics.

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Several techniques can be used to preserve the shelf life of this type of product, includingthermal and non-thermal processing methods. However, their use should prevent the lossof the sensory properties of the juice or limited effectiveness of the treatment, since, in thesearch for the development of differentiating products, the mixed fruit juices are an optionresponding to the consumer demand for new flavors with added nutritional value, bettersensory characteristics, and more striking colors [68,69].

2.2. Juice Composition vs. Processing Technologies

The consumer demand for fruit juices is growing as they are a naturally rich sourceof bioactive compounds, however, their susceptibility to spoilage limits the shelf-life [70].For this reason, the food industry is constantly searching for new processing technologiesto extend the shelf life with a low impact on the fruit juice quality, as the consumers arenow more conscious of health and diet [71,72]. To extend the shelf life of fruit juices, themost commonly used preservation process is thermal processing (pasteurization and steril-ization). For example, apple juice is treated by HTST at 77 to 88 ◦C for 25 to 30 s [73] andorange juice by HTST at 90 to 95 ◦C for 15 to 30 s [74]. However, this process may promoteundesirable quality changes in the juice composition and the sensory and nutritional valuesof the fruit juice [75].

For example, Vegara et al. [76] evaluated the influence of pomegranate juice pas-teurized on anthocyanin stability and verified that the application of thermal treatments(65 and 90 ◦C for 30 or 5 s) diminished the percentage of anthocyanins in the polymericform but increased the monomeric anthocyanins. Also, Aguilar-Rosas et al. [77] studiedthe high-temperature short time (HTST) pasteurization process (90 ◦C; 30 s) of apple juiceand observed a decrease in the concentration of the total phenolic compounds (~32%),compared to the untreated juice.

Mena et al. [78] analyzed pomegranate juice before and after low-, mild- and high-temperature pasteurization (LTP, MTP, HTP, at 65, 80, and 95 ◦C, respectively, for periodsof 30 or 60 s, and observed that the total anthocyanin concentration was different amongthermally processed and untreated pomegranate juices, the lowest concentration beingdeterminate in the control (untreated pomegranate juices), while the highest concentrationof anthocyanins was found in the juice treated at 95 ◦C for 30 s.

Consequently, as consumers want fruit juices not only with extended shelf life butalso with enhanced quality characteristics, researchers are looking for innovative non-conventional technologies such as high-pressure (HP), ultrasound (US), pulsed electricfields (PEF), ultraviolet-C radiation (UV-C), low-pressure plasma (LPP) and Ohmic heating(OH) (Table 2) to achieve the consumer demand for fruit juice with an extended shelflife, better quality, and an improved nutritional profile [72]. Recent studies reporteda positive impact of non-thermal processing on juice quality [79,80]. Optimized non-thermal processing enhanced the content of the bioactive compounds in fruit juices andconsequently their beneficial health effects [72,81].

For example, Linhares et al. [82] compared the composition, stability, and bioac-tive compounds of juices produced with different processing technologies, thermal tech-nologies such as high-temperature short time (HTST), ultrahigh temperature (UHT), andnon-thermal technologies such as high power ultrasound (US), UV-pulsed-light and low-pressure plasma (LPP). These authors showed that all the juices produced with non-thermalprocesses increased the sugar content (glucose and fructose), and the amino acid betaine,except for the juices produced by the combination of the ultrasound process followed bylow-pressure plasma (US.LPP). On the other hand, the juices produced by HTST and UHTshowed higher concentrations of fatty acids and phenolic compounds. Also, the effects ofultrasound treatments on the quality of grapefruit juice were studied by Aadil et al. [83],and it was observed that all grapefruit juice samples were sonicated for 30, 60, and 90min leading to an improvement in the total phenolic, flavonoids, and flavonol. Theseoutcomes suggested that this non-thermal processing technology might be well applied atan industrial scale for the processing of grapefruit juice. Also, UV-C technology has been

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demonstrated to obtain microbiologically safe fruit juices with a low negative impact onfinal product quality [84].

Another example of non-thermal technology is the application of high-pressure (HP)and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing on acid fruit juices. This technology iseffective in the inactivation of microorganisms (meeting the Food and Drug Administrationrequirement of a 5-log reduction) and denaturation of diverse enzymes [85], without loss ofvitamins, pigments, and compounds related to sensory characteristics [86]. High-pressure(HP) processing is preferred to thermal processes in terms of holding phenolic compounds.HP and HHP treatment at moderate temperature is described to have an insignificanteffect on the anthocyanin concentration of diverse red fruit juices, as well as the flavor,taste, and color changes being minimal [87]. However, these authors also showed thatthe bioactive content of red fruit reduced with the intensity of the treatment in terms ofprocessing time and pressure level. Varela-Santos et al. [88] evaluate the effect of HHPprocessing (350–550 MPa for 30, 90, and 150 s) on the concentration of anthocyanins,phenolic compounds, and color of pomegranate juice during 35 days of storage at 4 ◦C.These authors showed that HHP juice processing has a perceptible effect on the total colordifference (∆E) between untreated and treated samples, and the highest color differencewas observed at day 35 of storage for 550 MPa during the 90 s. These results showed clearlythat the color stability of pomegranate juice is dependent on the processing conditions.Orange juice showed an increase in flavanone after HPP processing (400 MPa, 40 ◦C,1 min), compared to the untreated juice [75]. Also, Sánchez-Moreno et al. [89] and Oms-Oliu et al. [90] observed in orange juice treated with HP (400 MPa/40 ◦C/1 min) anenhancement in the concentration of naringenin by 20% and the concentration of hesperetinby 40%, compared with the untreated orange juice and the preservation of the orange juicesensory characteristics.

In addition, pulsed electrical field (PEF) processing, which applies short bursts of highvoltage electricity for microorganism inactivation, has been successful in a variety of liquidproducts with relatively low viscosity and electrical conductivity such as orange juice andcranberry juice [91]. PEF has a high potential for microorganism inactivation and enzymedenaturation, extending the shelf life and preserving the nutritional, vitamin, aroma, andsensory characteristics due to the very short processing time and low processing temper-ature. Blueberry juice processed by HP (600 MPa/42 ◦C/5 min) and processed by PEF(36 kV/cm, 100 µs) stored refrigerated at 4 ◦C for 56 days, showed a 50% of ascorbic acidreduction in both unprocessed blueberry juices and in the PEF-treated juices at the end ofthe refrigeration time. However, HPP-treated blueberry juice better maintained the ascorbicacid content during the storage time with a reduction of 31%, and the anthocyanins in theblueberry juice treated with HP were also better preserved. Sánchez-Moreno et al. [89]considered that the PEF treatment did not modify flavanone content, but in general, thepasteurization process led to a diminished naringenin content (16.04%), with no modifi-cation in hesperetin. They also observed that even though the losses in total vitamin Cwere <9%, treatments with the higher temperatures (HPT) (90 ◦C/1 min), tend to show agreater reduction in the concentration of both forms of vitamin C. HP treatment (400 MPa/40 ◦C/1 min) led to an increase in carotenoid release (53.88%) and vitamin A value (38.74%).PEF treatment did not modify individual or total carotenoid content. Traditional thermaltreatments did not have any effect on the total carotenoid content or on the vitamin Avalue. In apple juice, the treatment with PEF decreased the concentration of total phenoliccompounds (~15%) compared to the untreated juice, however, this decrease was lower thanthat observed with thermal pasteurization, which decreased the phenolic compounds by32% [77]. In summary, according to Sánchez-Moreno et al. [89], HP and PEF technologieswere more effective than HPT treatment in preserving the bioactive compounds of orangejuice. Likewise, Agcam et al. [92] showed that the total phenolic concentration of orangejuice was enhanced after the PEF and thermal pasteurization treatments. Orange juice pro-cessed by PEF contained higher phenolic compound concentrations than those processedby the heat. The orange juice treated with PEF had more stable flavonoids and phenolic

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acids than those treated with thermal pasteurization. The PEF-treated samples had highersensory scores than the heat-treated samples. Therefore, these authors suggested thatthe application of PEF processing to orange juice seems to be a promising alternative tothermal pasteurization to obtain an extended shelf life and better preservation of phenoliccompounds and should be taken into consideration for industrial-scale production.

In recent times, cold plasma was considered suitable for use with fruit juices [93,94].Therefore, cold plasma is accepted as a potential, novel, non-thermal technology for thequality improvement of fruit juices, and numerous research works have studied the appli-cation of cold plasma in fruit juices [1,81,95–98]. The treatment is performed under mildertemperatures (< 70 ◦C), which contributes to the preservation of sensory characteristics andthe maintenance of bioactive compounds in fruit juices [99]. Bursac Kovacevic et al. [96],using a cold atmospheric gas-phase plasma in pomegranate juice, observed an increase inthe concentration of anthocyanin between 21% and 35% compared to the untreated juice,which confirms that the cold plasma has a positive impact on anthocyanin stability. Morerecently, de Castro et al. [81] studied the application of cold plasma excitation frequency(200, 420, 583, 698, and 960 Hz) in the juice physicochemical properties. These authorsconcluded that after the application of this non-thermal treatment the content of ascorbicacid was increased by increasing the plasma excitation frequency. According to theseauthors, cold plasma application could be an interesting method to enhance the nutritionalquality of fruit juices. It was also observed in diverse fruit juices, for example, strawberryjuice, blackcurrant juice, and raspberry juice, that anthocyanins are stable to HP treatments,such as the application of cold plasma excitation frequency [79,80].

Several research works have been conducted on different fruit juices using ohmicheating which is also known as electrical resistance heating, such as the inactivation ofmicroorganisms [100–102] and enzymes, for example, pectin methylesterase (EC.3.1.1.11)also called pectinesterase [103,104] and polyphenoloxidase, for minimizing enzymaticbrowning [105]. In orange juice treated with ohmic heating around 96% of the pectinmethylesterase activity was reduced as observed by Demirdöven et al. [103]. In fruitjuices, the use of ohmic heating to inactivate enzymes does not affect the juice flavor [106].Hashemi et al. [107] compared different ohmic heating treatments (150, 200, and 250 V;120 s; 99.4 ◦C) with the conventional heating process (90 ◦C; 15 min) for the inactivationof microorganisms in blended citrus juice (sweet lemon and orange). These researchersshowed that the inactivation rate of pathogenic bacteria using ohmic heating increased bythe increase of voltage from 150 to 250 V. Also, Darvishi et al. [108] studied the influenceof ohmic heating on the concentration of black mulberry juice in comparison to the tradi-tional heating treatment. Using ohmic heating the phenolic concentration of the juice was3–4.5 times greater than if using traditional heating treatment.

Table 2. Thermal and non-thermal processing technologies of fruit juices.

Juice Conditions Effect References

Pasteurization-Conventional heating

Orange juice

95 °C, 1 min Reduction of pectin methylesterase activities (88.3%) [103]

90 °C, 50 s Sensory quality was the limiting factor for the shelf life ofconventionally pasteurized juice, at 50 days [109]

90 °C, 30 s Significant loss of the content of total carotenoid pigment [110]

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Table 2. Cont.


Pulsed electric field (PEF)

Orange juice

35 kV/cm, 4 µs, 40 ◦C 8% loss of vitamin A, 1% loss of citric acidno change in Brix, pH, vitamin C, and viscosity [111]

40 kV/cm, 97 ms, 45 ◦C

PEF-processed juice retained more ascorbic acid, flavor,and color than thermally processed juice (90 ◦C/90 s)PEF-processed juice sensory evaluation of texture, flavor,and overall acceptability was ranked highest thanthermally processed juice

[112]

20 kV/cm, 25 µs

PEF treatments preserved the characteristic compoundsassociated with a fresh flavor (e.g., dl-limonene,β-myrcene, α-pinene, and valencene) more effectivelythan an intensive thermal treatment (121 ◦C/20 min)

[113]

Apple Juice35 kV/cm, 94 µs No change in natural color and Vitamin C [114]

35 kV/cm, 4 µs pH, total acidity, phenolic and volatile compounds wereless affected by PEF than by HTST treatment (90 ◦C /30 s) [77]

High-pressure processing (HHP)

Orange juice

600 MPa, 4 min at 40 ◦C High-pressure treatment led to lower degradation ofascorbic acid compared with pasteurization (80 ◦C/60 s) [115]

500 MPa, 5 min at 25 ◦C 2% loss of vitamin C, no change in Brix, pH, and color [111]

400 MPa, 1 min at 40 ◦C 5%-8% loss of vitamin C, no change in Brix, pH, and color [116]

600 MPa, 15 min 93.4% retention rate of anthocyanin(cyanidin-3-glucoside); 85% retention rate of ascorbic acid [117]

Lemon juice 450 MPa, 2, 5, or 10 min Slight effects of HPP on the compounds andphysicochemical properties [118]

Apple juice 400 MPa, 10 min High-pressure treated apple juice sensory quality washigher compared to pasteurization (80 ◦C, 20 min) [119]

Strawberry juice 200–500 MPa, 20 min, 20 ◦C

No major changes in strawberry juice aromatic volatileprofile composition after HP treatment. Changesappeared in the composition of aromatic compounds aftersterilization (120 ◦C, 20 min)

[120]

Ultra-sonication (US)

Orange juice

20 kHz, 1500 W, 10 min,32–38 ◦C No changes in pH, ◦Brix, and titratable acidity [121]

20 kHz, 1500 W, 8 min, 10 ◦C Changes in color and ascorbic acid concentration duringstorage [122]

Grapefruit juice 28 kHz, 30, 60, and 90 min,20 ◦C

Improvement in the ascorbic acid, total phenolics,flavonoids, and flavonols. No changes in the pH, acidity,and ◦Brix value. Differences in the color values withoverall quality improved

[83]

Cold plasma

Pomegranatejuice

5 min; 4 cm3; 0.75 dm3/minPasteurization and plasma treatment resulted in totalphenolic content increasing by 29.55% and 33.03%,respectively

[99]

3 min; 5 cm3; 0.75 dm3/minAnthocyanin content increased after cold plasmatreatment by between 21% and 35%Higher anthocyanin stability

[96]

Beverages 2022, 8, 33 10 of 22

Table 2. Cont.


Ultraviolet-C radiation (UV-C)

Orange juice

>230 J/L No changes in aroma and color11% loss of vitamin C [111]

12–48 kJ/LAscorbic acid losses increased with the UV-C applicationNo changes in total phenols and antioxidant capacity Nochanges in pH, total soluble solids, and titration acidity

[123]

Pomegranatejuice 12–62 J/mL

No changes in total phenol contentNo changes in pH, total soluble solids, and titrationacidity

[124]

Ohmic heating (OH)

Watermelon juice

90 ◦C/15–60 sNo changes in lycopeneHigh color stabilityDecrease in total phenolic compounds

[105]

95 ◦C/1, 3 and 5 min/voltagegradients of 10, 13.33, 16.66, 20

and 23.33 V/cm at 50 Hz

Voltage gradient and treatment time was statisticallysignificant with change in pH and total color difference [125]

3. Fruit Juice Fermented Beverage

The production of fermented beverages using fruits other than grapes, such as oranges,mangos, raspberries, pineapples, apples, pears, apricots, peaches, cherries, bananas, andpapayas increased in the last years. The explanations for this are the usage of fruit witha lower quality standard for natural eating, overproduction, and the development offermented beverages with flavors and aromas typical of the fruits utilized. Accordingto Lopez et al. [126], fruit wines are undiluted alcoholic beverages, produced with fruitsother than grapes, which are tastier, more nutritious, and lighter alcoholic drinks as theyretain the maximum amounts of the nutrients existing in the fruits. Fruit fermentedbeverages go through a period of fermentation and aging, and generally have an alcoholpercentage between 5% and 13%, and 2–3% of sugars [127]. Fruit fermented beveragesare characterized by peculiar aromatic notes, phenolic composition, antioxidants, alcoholcontent, and other parameters.

3.1. Alcoolic, Acetic and Lactic Fermentation3.1.1. Alcoholic Fermentation

Many fruits are consumed fresh, but it is not unusual that large quantities are wastedduring harvest, due to climate fluctuations and improper handling (inadequate storage,transport, and microbial infections). The food industry tries hard to extend the shelf lifeof fruits so that they can be consumed all over the world, year-round [128]. Therefore,the exploitation of ripe fruits or their juices in the production of fermented beverages isan attractive way of utilizing surplus and over-ripe fruits. Fermentation also helps toenhance the nutritional value of beverages, allowing: (i) the preservation through acidi-fication/alcohol production; (ii) the alteration of chemical nature and sensory propertiesof fruit; (iii) the improvement in the efficacy of some bioactive constituents; and (iv) theenhancement of nutritional value of foods and beverages [129,130].

Wine and cider, obtained from grape and apple juice fermentation, respectively, arewell-known drinks, mainly fermented by yeasts, and during the process alcohol, esters,aldehydes, terpenes, and acids are produced [131]. Besides wine and cider, many otherfermented fruit juices are made from fruits [132]. Today, an increasing number of otherfruits are available for the production of fermented fruit juices [129]. Table 3 lists someexamples of fermented fruit juices, indicating the first published works in which theywere mentioned.

Beverages 2022, 8, 33 11 of 22

Table 3. Examples of some fermented fruit juices. The first published works in which they werementioned are also referenced.

Fruit Image Fruit Name References

Beverages 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

Table 3. Examples of some fermented fruit juices. The first published works in which they were

mentioned are also referenced.


Apricot

(Prunus Armeniaca L.)

A stone fruit. Due to the various advantages of apricot, the

development of apricot, non-alcoholic, fermented fruit juices

has good potential for commercialization [133,134]

Apple

(Malus domestica)

Due to the high fructose content in apple juice, the evaluation

and selection of a fructophilic yeast strain could be significant

to the apple fermented alcoholic fruit juice industry [135]

Banana

(Musa sapientum L),

Due to its high sugar content, banana is suitable for the

production of fermented banana juice called banana wine, an

alcoholic drink [136]

Clementines

(Citrus reticula Blanco) Clementine fermented alcoholic fruit juice [137]

Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)

Elderberry fermented fruit has a moderate ethanol

concentration, intense red coloration, and higher pH value

compared to most red wines

Jabuticaba

(Myrciaria jaboticaba)

The taste of the jabuticaba pulp was described as subacid to

sweet, similar to grapes [138]. Fermentation of jabuticaba

pulp produces an alcoholic fruit juice

Kiwi

(Actinidia deliciosa and Actinidia

chinensis)

Fermented alcoholic juice from kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberry,

Actinidia chinensis Planch) [139]

Lychee

(Litchi chinensis Sonn)

Lychee fermented juice (Chinese: lychee wine, lìzhījiǔ), is a

full-bodied Chinese dessert wine (alcoholic fruit juice) made

of 100% lychee fruit [140]

Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)

Pineapples contain a good sugar proportion which makes

them suitable for fermentation [141], giving a pleasant

alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)

Fermented juices from raspberries present specific acid and

sugar contents (pH 3.6 and 14.5 °Brix) that make them

suitable for fruit wine production [142,143], an alcoholic fruit

juice

The microorganism used to ferment the fruit juices and produce the fermented fruit

beverages is usually a strain of S. cerevisiae species [129] or S. cerevisiae var. bayanus. The

latter was used by Mena et al. [144] to produce a pomegranate juice fermented beverage.

Non-Saccharomyces yeasts, such as Hanseniaspora uvarum, Hanseniaspora opuntiae, Han-

seniaspora occidentalis, Pichia kudriavzevii, and Torulaspora delbrueckii have been selected as

candidates for an orange juice fermented beverage with higher volatile compounds con-

centration, odor active values, and sensory evaluation scores [145]. More recently, Kluyve-

romyces marxianus, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, and Pichia kluyveri, studied by Gschaedler et

al. [146] showed an increase in ethanol production in cider, when nutrients were added,

obtaining more than 80 g/L of ethanol and showing that these yeasts have potential in the

fermentation of apple juice. The use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in co-inoculation

(Torulaspora delbrueckii, Lachancea thermotolerans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on apple

Apricot(Prunus Armeniaca L.)

A stone fruit. Due to the various advantages of apricot, the development ofapricot, non-alcoholic, fermented fruit juices has good potential forcommercialization [133,134]





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Apple(Malus domestica)

Due to the high fructose content in apple juice, the evaluation and selection of afructophilic yeast strain could be significant to the apple fermented alcoholic fruitjuice industry [135]





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Banana(Musa sapientum L),

Due to its high sugar content, banana is suitable for the production of fermentedbanana juice called banana wine, an alcoholic drink [136]





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Clementines(Citrus reticula Blanco) Clementine fermented alcoholic fruit juice [137]





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Elderberry(Sambucus nigra L.)

Elderberry fermented fruit has a moderate ethanol concentration, intense redcoloration, and higher pH value compared to most red wines





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Jabuticaba(Myrciaria jaboticaba)

The taste of the jabuticaba pulp was described as subacid to sweet, similar tograpes [138]. Fermentation of jabuticaba pulp produces an alcoholic fruit juice





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Kiwi(Actinidia deliciosa andActinidia chinensis)

Fermented alcoholic juice from kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberry, Actinidia chinensisPlanch) [139]





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Lychee(Litchi chinensis Sonn)

Lychee fermented juice (Chinese: lychee wine, lìzhıjiu), is a full-bodied Chinesedessert wine (alcoholic fruit juice) made of 100% lychee fruit [140]





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Pineapple(Ananas comosus)

Pineapples contain a good sugar proportion which makes them suitable forfermentation [141], giving a pleasant alcoholic juice





Apricot





Apple

(Malus domestica)




Banana

(Musa sapientum L),




Clementines


Elderberry

(Sambucus nigra L.)




Jabuticaba





Kiwi


chinensis)



Lychee





Pineapple

(Ananas comosus)



alcoholic juice

Raspberry

(Rubus idaeus L.)




juice













Raspberry(Rubus idaeus L.)

Fermented juices from raspberries present specific acid and sugar contents(pH 3.6 and 14.5 ◦Brix) that make them suitable for fruit wineproduction [142,143], an alcoholic fruit juice

The microorganism used to ferment the fruit juices and produce the fermented fruitbeverages is usually a strain of S. cerevisiae species [129] or S. cerevisiae var. bayanus. Thelatter was used by Mena et al. [144] to produce a pomegranate juice fermented beverage.

Non-Saccharomyces yeasts, such as Hanseniaspora uvarum, Hanseniaspora opuntiae,Hanseniaspora occidentalis, Pichia kudriavzevii, and Torulaspora delbrueckii have been se-lected as candidates for an orange juice fermented beverage with higher volatile com-pounds concentration, odor active values, and sensory evaluation scores [145]. Morerecently, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, and Pichia kluyveri, studied byGschaedler et al. [146] showed an increase in ethanol production in cider, when nutrientswere added, obtaining more than 80 g/L of ethanol and showing that these yeasts havepotential in the fermentation of apple juice. The use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in co-inoculation (Torulaspora delbrueckii, Lachancea thermotolerans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) onapple mash fermentation was also studied for the production of Pálinka, a Hungarian fruitspirit [147]. According to the results obtained by Fejzullahu et al. [148], single and mixedcultures showed similar characteristics during mash fermentation and mixed culturesrevealed a significantly higher concentration of volatile compounds and pleasant sensoryattributes, compared to those exhibited by the pure culture of S. cerevisiae.

Beverages 2022, 8, 33 12 of 22

The presence of Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces yeast in fermented fruit juicesalso makes these drinks potential vehicles for probiotic microorganisms. S. boulardii,demonstrated above as able to ferment pomegranate juices [144], has the potential toinhibit pathogen growth [149]. S. boulardii can also degrade pathogen toxins, modulateintestinal microbiota, preserve normal intestinal physiology, and increase secretory IgA(sIgA) levels [150].

3.1.2. Lactic Acid Fermentation

Lactic acid fermentation (LAB) has been one of the oldest techniques to extend theshelf life of perishable foods [13] and is a valuable substitute for the bio-preservation offruits and fruit juices. Single-fruit, blended smoothies, or fruit juices that can be fermentedby LAB are healthy alternatives to promote fruit consumption [151,152]. Moreover, thescientific interest in the strategy of lactic acid fermented juices and the study of theirprobiotic properties have increased in the last years [150].

Lactic acid fermented foods and drinks have been produced for thousands of years dueto their healthy features, and are well accepted by consumers [130]. Lactic acid fermentationleads to the synthesis of organic acids, carbon dioxide, ethanol, diacetyl, hydrogen peroxide,fatty acids, phenyl-lactic acid, and bacteriocins, all with antagonistic proprieties [153,154].

The fermented drinks may be obtained by “spontaneous” fermentation, by autochthonouslactic acid bacteria present in the raw material. The most usual strains are Enterococcus spp.,Fructobacillus spp., Lactobacillus spp., Leuconostoc spp., Pediococcus spp., and Weissella spp.under anaerobic conditions [150], and moderate temperature (25–35 ◦C). Controlled fermen-tation using Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus gasseri,and Lactobacillus acidophilus, are safer, easier to replicate, more reliable, and provide stan-dardization and constant quality of the final products [130,152,154]. Among the desirabletechnological traits, lactic acid bacteria starter cultures for fruit-based drinks should growrapidly, ferment diverse carbohydrate substrates, acidify the juice, even at low pH valuesand temperature, and should also tolerate and/or metabolize phenolic compounds [130].Additionally, LAB enhances nutrient bioavailability and guarantees complete fermentation.Most of the starter cultures can synthesize antimicrobial compounds foodborne pathogensand spoilage microorganisms [130]. Regarding sensory attributes, LAB is expected tosynthesize aroma and flavor compounds, or their precursors, such as acetic acid, esters,ketones, alcohols, and terpenes, producing fermented juices with pleasant flavors andwithout off-flavors. Also, LAB may increase the antioxidant activity of the matrix, and beable to produce or release bioactive compounds such as peptides, vitamins, amino acids,and phenolics [8,152,154,155].

Some examples of fruit juices fermented with LAB are red dragon fruit(Hylocereus polyrhizus) beverages where a total of 21 isolates of LAB were isolated andcharacterized. They belonged to the genus of Enterococcus, namely: Enterococcus faecalisor Enterococcus durans [156]; fermented noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) fruit juice, is consideredone of the health-promoting beverages, fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum SK15 [157];and blueberry juices fermented by lactic acid bacteria isolated from fruit environment.Lactobacillus plantarum LSJ-TY-HYB-T9 and LSJ-TY-HYB-T7, and Lactobacillus fermentumLSJ-TY-HYB-C22 and LSJ-TY-HYB-L16 were possible candidates to produce fermented fruitjuices, including blueberry juice [158]. Functional lactic acid bacteria can thus be used toproduce fruit juices with reduced sugar levels, which is expected to be beneficial for humanhealth [159].

3.1.3. Acetic Acid Fermentation

Acetic Acid Bacteria (AAB) are mostly known for their use in the production of vinegar,vitamin C, and cellulose [160]. AAB is responsible for the production of vinegar, includingfruit vinegar. The production of fruit vinegar is a way of making use of fruit by-products,frequently employed by the food industry since extra or second quality fruit can be usedwithout compromising the quality of the final product [161]. For producing vinegar, a

Beverages 2022, 8, 33 13 of 22

two-stage fermentation process is needed. The first stage is the conversion of sugars intoethanol by yeasts. Usually, this biological process is done by Saccharomyces species. Thesecond stage is the oxidation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter and Gluconobacterspecies). Nevertheless, the focus of this review is the fruit juices and not the vinegar, aculinary condiment. According to the literature, in juices or juice-like products, acetic acidfermentation is only found in kombucha.

Kombucha is a fermented beverage that sensorially resembles carbonated cider, pre-senting a sweet, and slightly sour flavor [162]. It is obtained from sweetened black orgreen tea, via a symbiotic relationship named SCOBY (symbiotic culture of bacteria andyeast, a consortium of acetic acid bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and osmophilic yeasts) [163].The SCOBY association, also known as “tea fungus”, in the form of a cellulosic biofilm,transforms the sugar and tea components into bioactive compounds with probiotic effects.The main bacteria in “tea fungus” are AAB, mainly species from the genera Acetobacter(Acetobacter aceti, Acetobacter pasteurianus, Acetobacter nitrogenifigens), Gluconacetobacter(Gluconacetobacter sp A4, Gluconacetobacter sacchari, Gluconacetobacter oxydans), andKomagataeibacter (Komagataeibacter xylinus, Komagataeibacter kombuchae) [164]. AAB is part ofthe relatively stable bacterial community in kombucha and is responsible for the oxidationof ethanol which leads to the production of acetic acid. Other secondary metabolites suchas gluconic acid (from glucose), glucuronic acid (from glucose; detoxifying properties),and D-saccharic acid-1,4-lactone (from glucose; radical-scavenging; some Gluconacetobacterspecies) are also produced [164]. The main yeasts found in kombucha are Saccharomyces sp.,Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis, Torulopsis sp., Pichia spp., Brettanomyces sp. [165], andZygosaccharomyces bailii [166]. Several lactic acid bacteria have also been isolated [165]. Afterfermentation, the kombucha chemicals include the following: sugars; tea polyphenols;organic acids; fiber; ethanol; amino acids; essential elements (Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn);several vitamins such as vitamin C, and B vitamins; carbon dioxide; antibiotic substances;and hydrolytic enzymes [167,168].

Recently, alternative raw materials have been suggested for the production of kom-bucha, for example, fruit or vegetable juices and cocktails, plant infusions, or milk [162]. Forfruit-based drinks, there is reference to Salak kombucha in the literature. Salak or “snakefruit” is a fruit growing in a palm from the Arecaceae family in Indonesia. Salak kombuchais obtained following 14 days of “tea fungus” fermentation of the salak juice [169]. Thesame procedure can be applied to other fruits, producing delicious colorful drinks.

4. Sensory Characteristics and Consumer Acceptance of Fruit Juice and FermentedFruit Beverages

The parameters that define the quality of a drink are positive attributes such asthe following: color and overall appearance; taste properties, including flavor, mouthpersistence, and aftertaste; olfactory properties, such as aroma, odor, orthonasal andretronasal; and tactile properties, such as mouth feel, body, and absence of contami-nants (odors and strange flavors). Among the negative attributes are discoloration, foam-ing, sedimentation, gas, unpleasant smell (particularly of ketone or vinegar), bitterness,and astringency.

The fruit juice thermal treatments lead to substantial modifications of the final productqualities. Although microbial and chemical safety is prevalent during fruit juice processing,the sensory attributes are also important. The attributes such as color or tactile propertiesare very important for both the first acceptance and regular purchasing of the products.Therefore, the sensory quality of fruit juices plays an important role in consumer satisfaction.Thermal treatments are the most commonly used in fruit juice processing, but they tend toinduce negative changes to the nutritional and sensory characteristics of the juices [170].The pasteurized samples were significantly less desirable in terms of odor, color, cloudiness,acidity, overall flavor, and overall likeness. Therefore, emerging non-thermal processes areapplied to maintain the quality, however, to reduce the color degradation and browning infruit juice, the optimization of the processing parameters is necessary. For example, HP

Beverages 2022, 8, 33 14 of 22

treatment is a non-thermal treatment that has been described to inactivate microorganismsthrough membrane disruption and it preserves nutritional value with a reduced effecton fruit juices quality and sensory characteristics as lower molecular weight compounds,such as volatile compounds, pigments, and some vitamins are not changed, since covalentbonds are not affected by pressure [171]. Also, Aguilar-Rosas et al. [77] showed that PEFprocessing (4 µs, 35 kV/cm, and 1200 pps) maintained the volatile compounds responsiblefor apple juice flavor and color more than heat treatment, with 7% and 8.4% reduction ofhexanal and hexyl acetate, respectively, unlike heat treatment which eliminated these com-pounds. Sensory analysis showed that the taste and flavor of fruit juices processed by PEFwere preferred to thermally processed juices. The researchers Khandpur and Gogate [172]evaluated the quality of ultrasound orange juice concerning taste, smell, and mouth sensa-tion and found that the ultrasound-treated juice was the most acceptable for consumersand was identical to the fresh unprocessed fruit juices. The positive effect of the ultrasoundtreatment is attributed to the removal of oxygen. After non-thermal treatments, juicesshowed the lowest variation in hedonic scores, if compared to the untreated juice [173].

Fermented fruit juices may have high acidity, making them unpleasant for consumers.Muhialdin et al. [174] added another approach that was followed by dragon fruit juices.Freeze-dried fruit juice (FDFJ) was added to fresh juice at different ratios, to reduce theacidity. A total of five samples at the mixture ratios 1:9, 2:8, 3:7, 4:6, and 0:10, were tastedby 65 random consumers (37 males and 18 females). The results showed a high preferenceamong the random consumers for the sample containing FDFJ and fresh juice at a ratioof 1:9. However, the mixing ratio of 1:9 did not show a significant difference from thefresh juice.

The suitability of a mixture of juices from jicama, winter melon, and carrot as a rawmedium to produce probiotic juice by strains of Lactobacillus plantarum andLactobacillus acidophilus, was studied by Do and Fan [175]. Besides other parameters,their sensory acceptability was also investigated. Three versions of the fermented vegetablejuice mixtures were served to judges. The judges indicated that they liked the color andtexture of juices in all formulations and acceptance of the probiotic vegetable juice mixtureswas in the range of five to eight on a nine-point hedonic scale. Moreover, the sensory qualitywas improved positively by sucrose addition or adding tropical fruit juices or multi-fruitjuice (10% v/v).

The applicability of different LAB. strains (Lactobacillus plantarum (WJ-LP), L. rhamnosus(WJ-LR), L. casei (WJ-LC), L. brevis (WJ-LB), and Pediococcus pentosaceus (WJ-PP)) wasevaluated recently in watermelon juice [176]. The sensory quality of fermented juices wasevaluated by tasters that rated the overall liking using a nine-point hedonic scale This scalewas also used to evaluate other sensory attributes such as appearance, aroma, sweetness,flavor, consistency, acidity, and color. Then, using the check-all-that-apply (CATA) testtasters checked all applicable sensory terms that described the sample from a list provided.At the end of the work, it was found that the lab strains significantly imprinted flavorcharacteristics which cause tasters to prefer L. brevis and P. pentosaceus fermented juices.These juices were the least penalized, had a higher purchasing power, and were associatedwith ‘watermelon flavor’, ‘natural taste’, ‘sweet’, and ‘watermelon color’ terms.

Due to their nutritional benefits, fermented beverages have become an influentialplayer in the beverage industry. Kasron et al. [177] identified consumer acceptance andwillingness to pay for fermented drinks in Malaysia. The field survey conducted showedthat 54% of respondents knew about functional foods and 55% of these were aware offunctional foods based on fruits. The survey also found that 30% of respondents hadtaken fermented drinks before. However, health issues are not the only reason whypeople consume fruit juices and their derivatives. Skapska et al. [178], when studying “thedevelopment and consumer acceptance of functional fruit-herbal beverages”, found thatthe main motivation for purchasing was their sensory acceptance, even if the consumerswere informed of their potential health benefits. In their study, Skapska et al. [178] alsoestablished that Aronia beverages were the most accepted and could find buyers when

Beverages 2022, 8, 33 15 of 22

introduced to the market. The other beverages (made with rugosa rose, acerola, seabuckthorn, or cranberry) were poorly or not accepted by the majority of the tasters, despiteinformation on the pro-health effects of the products. The beverages were rated slightlyhigher by women than men and by people aged 25–34. Fermented beverages using selectedlactic acid bacteria in the fermentation of various fruit juices, resulted in some cases in fruitbeverages with enhanced nutritional and sensorial characteristics.

In addition, consumer paired preference tests were performed by Cordelle et al. [179] toestablish the influence of gender and age on preferences for orange juice, and additionallyto determine the reproducibility of consumer-liking patterns over repeated evaluationwith 917 consumers. The outcomes of this research showed that neither gender nor agesignificantly affects consumer preferences for orange juice.

5. Final Remarks

Several studies have shown that fruit juices and fermented fruit beverages are commerciallypromising products. With great demand and acceptance by consumers, they are used not onlyas healthy drinks but also as therapeutic products, given their nutraceutical properties.

Moreover, due to the perishable nature of fruits, new technologies for conservationand processing are a demand in the food industry. Processing the fruits to obtain juices,nectars, or even fermented beverages is a valuable way to transform unpreserved productsinto storable products, adding economic value, avoiding waste, and minimizing losses thatmay occur during the marketing of the fresh products.

With consumer demand for new, healthy, and functional products produced sustain-ably, and the development of the technologies involved, it is expected that fermentedbeverages will position themselves in a prominent place in the functional food market.Nevertheless, it is important to consider the consumer sensory acceptability of this kind ofjuice as most of them, after fermentation, may gain some sensory attributes less pleasant tothe consumers, such as excessive acidity. However, the sensory characteristics of fermentedjuices are highly dependent on the microorganisms used in the fermentation processesalong with the selected processing techniques.

Author Contributions: T.P., A.V. and F.C. contribute equally to this work. All authors have read andagreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by National Funds FCT Portuguese Foundation for Science andTechnology-Portugal and COMPETE under the projects UIDB/00616/2020, UIDP/00616/2020, andUIDB/04033/2020.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Chemistry Research Centre-Vila Real(CQVR) and CITAB/Inov4Agro Center for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmentaland Biological Sciences/Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building, and Sustainability of Agri-FoodProduction for their financial support.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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