Body Modifications, Attractiveness, and Culture

Running head: BODY MODIFICATIONS, ATTRACTIVENESS, AND CULTURE 1

Body Modifications, Attractiveness, and Culture

Erin M. Womack

California State University, Northridge

May 5, 2015

BODY MODIFICATIONS, ATTRACTIVENESS, AND CULTURE

Abstract

Previous research indicates that historically humans will modify

their bodies for various reasons, including cultural and

aesthetic. Participants of this study were male and female

undergraduate college students over the age of eighteen. Subjects

were asked to rate the attractiveness of thirty various

photographs of body modifications from different cultures. They

were then asked to fill out a questionnaire that inquired how

closely they identified with their culture. Results indicate that

identification with race does not influence whether or not body

modifications from their own ethnic background is attractive or

not. Therapists working with patients who have body dysmorphic

disorder may use this research when consulting patients, along

with plastic surgeons who have patients who are looking into body

modifications.

Keywords: body modification, attractiveness, culture, gender,

students

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Body Modifications, Attractiveness, and Culture

Throughout time, human beings have found different ways of

distinguishing themselves from one another. These unique

expressions of individuality, including clothing, jewelry and

even hairstyles, have evolved into forms of art that are

engrained into all of our cultures. A perfect example of this can

be seen in the variations, practice, and views of body

modifications among each culture. As Featherstone (1991) states,

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the term ‘body modification’ refers to a long list of practices

that include piercing, tattooing, branding, cutting, binding and

inserting implants to alter the appearance and form of the body.

Usually, these practices are permanent alterations that cannot be

undone. Some may even be processes beginning from childhood. In

some instances, body modifications are not considered body

modifications to begin with. For example, would a student who

wears glasses to correct her vision be considered someone with a

modification? Certainly before the advent of glasses, she would

have no choice but to live with non-perfect vision. The

advancement of civilizations has created new ways to enhance our

bodies both aesthetically and functionally.

Although body modifications may have the same face value in

each continent throughout the world, the modification’s meanings

and practices vary drastically from culture to culture. In

Europe, tattooing dates back from Neolithic times, at least six

or seven thousand years ago (Isaacs, 2012). Preserved human

remains found in the Alps showed that simple tattoos were used as

a form of acupuncture (Isaacs, 2012). Tattoos were often equated

to toughness and commitment in the eyes of a sailor, and often

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these same tattoos indicated glory, honor or at times a trade or

skill (Mallon & Russell, 1999).

Modern body modifications have evolved from symbols of

certain characteristics or traits into more aesthetically

pleasing forms of art. It has become a way to express

individuality and differentiate each other in a clear and visible

way. At the same time, each society has set up boundaries for

what body modifications considered “beautiful.” For example,

mainstream Western civilizations believe breast augmentations,

rhinoplasty, and pretty tattoos to be attractive (Koziel,

Kretschmer, & Pawlowski, 2010). Some individuals within this

culture have actually turned their back on this idea of

“perfect.” Body modifications are becoming more “extreme,” with

modifications such as removing parts of the ear or nose,

tattooing the entire body, shaving teeth into fangs, and even by

implanting steel into the tops of their heads (Rembold, 2014).

The main goal of this research paper is to establish a

connection between preference of body modification and culture.

Will those who strongly identify with their ancestor’s be more

likely to find their culture’s body modifications attractive than

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those who do not? Does having constant interactions with others

who have body modifications affect views of body modifications

negatively, positively, or not at all?

Methodology

Participants

The participants were 70 female and 39 male undergraduate

students from California State University, Northridge (CSUN) aged

eighteen and above. Each participant was found using CSUN’s Sona

Systems, which is an online portal system where students can

self-sign up to participate in experiments for class credit. The

participants received class credit for participating in this

experiment. Each student was either in rolled in Psychology 150

(Introduction to Psychology) or Psychology 250 (Psychological

Correlates Human Behavior). Both courses are undergraduate

Psychology classes.

Design

To examine the effects of culture toward the attractiveness

of body modifications, a multivariate analyses of covariance

(MANCOVA) was performed. The independent variable, race

(culture), had five different levels: Caucasian, African

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American, Hispanic, Asian, and Mixed Race. The dependent

variables were the thirty ratings of body modifications from one

(not attractive) to six (extremely attractive). The covariate,

attitudes toward culture, had four levels that answered the

question “How strongly do you identify with your culture?” The

levels were not at all, somewhat, very, and extremely.

Materials

Each participant received a paper questionnaire (see

Appendix C) with inquiries about the respondents age, ethnicity,

gender, background information, and preferences toward body

modifications. A quantitative survey (see Appendix B) allowed

participants to rate how attractive they viewed a variety of body

modifications on a six level scale from “not attractive” to

“extremely attractive”. Stimuli provided to evoke perceptions of

attractiveness were thirty photographs of body modifications that

originated from different cultures within the United States,

Africa, India, and Japan (see Appendix A).

Procedure

Participants self-assigned to one of five timeslots. All

participants revived the same conditions, making this a between-

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subjects design. The study was conducted in a large classroom

with windows that covered one side, though the blinds were drawn

to block out light. There were a total of twelve rectangular

tables in the room, with two participants to each table. There

were three rows with four tables per row facing toward a sixty-

inch screen. The images were screened through the use of a

projector that was positioned above the participants.

When entering the classroom, each participant was instructed

to sit anywhere they would like. There was a pencil and a piece

of paper lying face down on the table in front of each chair.

Participants were asked not to turn over the piece of paper

(quantitative survey) in front of them. When everyone was seated,

participants were asked to read the consent form (see Appendix E)

that was projected onto the screen. They were then told to turn

over their paper and were asked to rate the images that were

about to be displayed from one to six. They were given notice

that the images would go by very quickly. Each image was

displayed for five seconds before moving on to the next one.

After all of the images were projected, the researchers gave each

participant a questionnaire. Each participant had ten minutes to

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complete the questionnaire. After the questionnaire was

completed, the researchers debriefed the participants.

Participants were also sent a debrief (see Appendix D) via Sona

Systems, and were given class credit that night.

Results

This study was examined using multivariate analyses of

covariance (MANCOVA). MANCOVA was conducted to determine whether

there was a significant difference in body modification

attractiveness ratings based on culture, while using the

covariate of the degree to which people identify with their own

culture. Identification with one’s own culture did not influence

ratings of modifications from their own culture, F(4,104)=1.10,

p>.05. Race did significantly affect attractiveness ratings,

F(104)=1.33, p<.05. Pairwise comparisons are illustrated here.

All insignificant data will no longer be discussed. In terms of

ratings on American Veneers, Mixed versus Caucasian (p=.001),

African American (p=.003), Asian (p=.004), and Hispanic (p=0)

were all significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis can be

rejected for these. These results were also seen in American Nose

Studs (Hispanic vs. Mixed, p=.047), Thai Neck Rings (African

9


American vs. Asian, p=.044), Asian Breast Implants (Caucasian vs.

Asian, p=.012), and Caucasian American Braces (Caucasian vs.

Mixed Race, p=.045). All other significant results can be found

in Table 1.

Discussion

The improvement of physical attractiveness through body

modifications, such as tattooing and scarification, is evident in

a wide range of cultures and has recently become very prominent

in Westernized societies (Wohlrab, Fink, & Brewer, 2009). There

were no significant results between culture, ratings of

attractiveness toward body modifications from said culture, and

ratings of identification with said background. Our hypothesis

was that there is a connection between perceived attractiveness

of body modifications and culture.

Limitations

Future research can build upon this study in at least four

ways. This study should be replicated with a larger and more

diverse sample size. In this study, there were a total of six

African American participants while there were fifty-nine

Hispanic participants. This extreme imbalance of races severely

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skewed results. Researchers may want to consider having least

twenty participants per race. Ideally, there would be fifty

participants or all races. Researchers also must add filler

questions on the questionnaires given to participants that

inquired about their demographics and body modification

preferences. The questionnaire in this study asked too many

questions about body modifications, which let the participant

know what the study was vaguely about. Additional studies must

also counterbalance the stimuli. This study only had one

variation of images displayed to participants. Participants’

attitudes may have been affected following American cultural body

modifications compared to others. Studies may also consider using

photographs of cultural body modifications that they have been

exposed to daily, rather than modifications they have never been

exposed to. Experiments can avoid having a ceiling effect such as

in this study.

Implications

This study can be implemented into society through two main

ways. Therapists who are working with patients who have body

dysmorphic disorder may use this research to help clients.

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Considering that most who have body image issues result to body

modifications to achieve what society says as perfect or achieve

their own ideals of perfect, research like this can help

therapists understand underlying motivations behind body

modifications. This may also lead to cultural awareness for body

modifications. At the same time, plastic surgeons can put these

results to use for patients who are considering culturally

“extreme” body modifications. They will be able to recognize

societal influences behind body modifications and help their

patient know the limitations of body modifications.

Conclusions

There were no significant results found in the means graph,

but the ratings reflected values and perceptions that are common

in America. A majority of the participants were born and raised

in America. The chart was skewed toward the left toward body

modifications that were foreign to the participants. As noted

before, low ratings were toward the left while high ratings were

toward the right of the graph. Ratings of body modifications that

were rated highly were all common in American culture (such as

breast augmentations of all cultures, veneers, and nose studs)

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while body modifications that were rated low all came from other

cultures (such as African scarification and lip gauges). The

findings show that preference toward body modifications depends

on the societal culture surrounding each person, rather than

cultural values exposed to at home.

References

Featherstone, M. (1999). Body modification: An introduction. Body

& Society, 5(2-3), 1-13.

Isaacs, D. (2012). Tattoos. Journal Of Paediatrics & Child Health, 48(12),

1051-1052.

doi:10.1111/jpc.12007

Koziel, S., Kretschmer, W., & Pawlowski, B. (2010). Tattoo and

piercing as signals of biological

quality. Evolution And Human Behavior, 31(3), 187-192.

doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.009

Mallon, W., & Russell, M. (1999). Clinical and forensic

significance of tattoos. Topics In

Emergency Medicine, 21(3), 21-29.

Rembold, S. S. (2014). 'Human Enhancement'? It's all About 'Body

Modification'! Why We

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Should Replace the Term 'Human Enhancement' with 'Body

Modification'. Nanoethics, 8(3), 307-315.

Wohlrab, S., Fink, B., Kappeler, P. M., & Brewer, G. (2009).

Perception of human body

modification. Personality And Individual Differences, 46(2), 202-206.

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.031

Figure Captions

Figure 1. Body modification mean ratings by race (culture).

Figure 2. Body modification mean ratings by race (culture).

14


Caucasian American Ve

neers

Caucasian American No

se Pi

ercing

Caucasian American To

ngue

Divisio

n

Indian N

ose Pie

rcing

Caucasian American Li

p Gua

ge

Caucasia

n Ameri

can 3D

Leg Tattoo

Indian Henna Hand Tat

too

Caucasian American No

se St

ud

Caucasian American Ea

r Gua

ge

Caucasian African Too

th Sh

arpenin

g

Caucasia

n Ameri

can Fem

ale to Male Transsexual

Japanese 3D Tattoo

Hispanic

Americ

an Brea

st Impants

Caucasia

n Ameri

can Bod

y Corset

African Lip Plate

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

White Black, African AmericanAsian HispanicMixed Race Total

15


American Veneers

American Tongue Division

American Lip Guage

Indian Henna Hand Tattoo

American Ear Guage

American Testosterone

Hispanic Breast Implants

African Lip Plate

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.004.072.071.262.67

1.152.191.852.701.191.522.562.222.633.423.333.382.112.152.003.043.191.891.443.223.852.221.851.811.111.70

3.502.001.17 2.831.17 3.171.833.001.171.671.33

1.333.333.333.673.831.502.001.833.50

2.831.331.00 3.173.671.831.672.601.001.17

3.463.001.77 3.081.85 2.382.38 2.501.922.082.772.15 3.233.46

2.923.541.692.922.38 3.462.231.461.75 3.003.232.152.382.69

1.772.00

3.682.271.66 2.691.58 2.811.98 2.571.281.502.602.70 3.303.43

3.033.701.98 2.31

1.95 3.492.771.661.59 3.333.702.722.081.83

1.201.73

1.672.001.67 2.672.33 3.672.00 3.331.001.672.332.67 3.003.67

5.335.331.67 2.673.00 4.002.671.001.33 4.33 4.67

3.331.671.671.331.33

3.692.281.54 2.741.50 2.651.99 2.641.32 1.59 2.532.44 3.12 3.433.193.661.94 2.332.04 3.392.811.661.53 3.28 3.712.502.031.96

1.241.71

White Black, African American AsianHispanic Mixed Race Total

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Table 1

Significant Datum

Modification CulturesP

valueAmerican Veneers Mixed vs. White 0.001

Mixed vs. AfricanAmerican 0.003

Mixed vs. Asian 0.004Mixed vs. Hispanic 0

African Ear GuageAsians vs. African

American 0.028Asians vs. Hispanics 0.018

African Ear Plate Asian vs. Hispanic 0.048

American Ear GuageCaucasian vs. African

American 0.025

African Lip Plate Asians vs. Caucasian 0.014Asians vs. African

American 0.023Asians vs. Hispanic 0

American Braces Caucasian vs. Mixed 0.045

17


Indian Nose PiercingAfrican American vs.

Asian 0.044Hispanic vs. Asian 0.049

American Nose Stud Hispanic vs. Mixed 0.047

American Arm Tattoo Caucasian vs. Mixed 0.039

Hispanic Arm Tattoo Hispanic vs. Asian 0.048

American Leg TattooCaucasian vs. African

American 0.023Asian vs. African

American 0.031Hispanics vs. African

American 0.04

AmericanScarification

African American vs.Hispanics 0.022

Indian Tattoo Asian vs. Caucasian 0.047

Thai Neck RingsAfrican Americans vs.

Asian 0.044

African ToothSharpening Mixed vs. White 0.05

Mixed vs. AfricanAmerican 0.032

Mixed vs. Hispanic 0.024

Female to MaleTranssexual

Caucasian vs. AfricanAmerican 0.003

Caucasian vs. Asian 0Caucasian vs.

Hispanics 0Caucasian vs. Mixed 0.024

Asian Breast Implants Caucasian vs. Asians 0.012

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Hispanic BreastImplants Asians vs. Caucasian 0.005

Asians vs. AfricanAmerican 0.044

Asians vs. Hispanic 0.023

Appendix A

Photographic stimuli

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Caucasian American Veneers

Retrieved from

http://forums.thefashionspot.c

om/f50/hilary-duff-april-2004-

june-2009-a-11475-74.html

African Ear Guage

Retrieved from

http://baklol.com/baks/misc/Bo

dy-Modification-Implants-_260

Caucasian American Nose

Piercing

Retrieved from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N

ose_piercing

Caucasian American Neck Rings

Retrieved from

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/

20


2014/03/18/giraffe-

woman_n_4980322.html

Caucasian American Tongue

Division

Retrieved from

http://buttters.deviantart.com

/art/Tongue-split-405986631

Caucasian American Braces

Retrieved from

http://smilepoint.com.sg/brace

s/

Indian Nose Piercing

Retrieved from

http://www.gaylaxymag.com/arti

21


cles/lifestyle/fashion-trends-

facial-piercings/

Mexican American Dragon Arm

Tattoo

Retrieved from

http://imgkid.com/chinese-

dragon-tattoo-sleeve.shtml

Caucasian American Lip Gauge

Retrieved from

http://kwekudee-

tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.co

m/2013/02/karo-people-

ethiopias-indigenous-

tribe.html

22


Caucasian American Plastic

Surgery Retrieved from

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/fem

ail/article-2272066/Real-life-

Barbie-Ken-Valeria-Lukyanova-

Justin-Jedlica-meet-hate-

sight-other.html

Caucasian American 3D Leg

Tattoo

Retrieved from

http://www.bizarbin.com/3d-

tattoos/

Caucaisan American

Scarification

Retrieved from

https://zendevildiaries.wordpr

ess.com/category/scarification

-body-modification-portfolio/

page/20/

23


Indian Henna Hand Tattoo

Retrieved from

http://silknstone.com/About-

Henna.html

African American Male to

Female Transexual

Retrieved from

http://pagesix.com/2014/06/19/

oitnb-star-laverne-cox-

prefers-jewish-men/

Caucasian American Nose Stud

Retrieved from

https://www.etsy.com/listing/8

6319166/nose-ring-stud-

sterling-silver-2mm-ball?

ref=market

Caucasian American Breast

Implants

24


Retrieved from

http://www.bestcelebritypic.tk

/jenny-mccarthy-

2/1371494387_jenny-mccarthy-

zoom/

Caucasian American Ear Gauge

Retrieved from

http://wgecho.org/2011/02/28/p

iercings-grow-in-popularity/

Thai Neck Rings

Retrieved from

https://www.flickr.com/photos/

flower_bee/5622290753/

African Tooth Sharpening

Retrieved from

https://www.flickr.com/photos/

adritzz/122825011/

25


African American Breast

Implants

Retrieved from

http://forum.blackhairmedia.co

m/tamala-jones-regrets-her-

implants_topic201320.html

Caucasian American Female to

Male Transexual

Retrieved from

http://www.examiner.com/articl

e/exclusive-interview-with-

stand-up-comedian-ian-harvie-

playing-zanies-thru-sept-13

Caucaisan American Ear Guage

Retrieved from

http://lasdemoniacas.blogspot.

com/2010/04/body-

modification.html

26


Japanese 3D Leg Tattoo

Retrieved from

http://www.bizarbin.com/3d-

tattoos/

Asian American Breast Implants

Retrieved from

http://www.examiner.com/articl

e/is-tila-tequila-allergic-to-

alcohol

Hispanic American Breast

Implants

Retrieved from

http://ifreepress.com/entertai

nment/has-glee-star-naya-

rivera-been-fired

27


Hispanic American Arm Tattoo

Retrieved from

http://slodive.com/wp-

content/uploads/2012/05/hispan

ic-tattoo/sugar-skull-

tattoo.jpg

Caucasian American Body Corset

Retrieved from

http://www.artcrimearchive.org

/article?id=93002

African Ear Plate

Retrieved from

http://mybigblackgymbag.tumblr

.com/image/65337958213

28


African Lip Plate

Retrieved from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M

ursi_people

African Scarification

Retrieved from

http://kwekudee-

tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.co

m/2013/02/karo-people-

ethiopias-indigenous-

tribe.html

29


Appendix B

Body modification ratings form

Ratings

30

Not Attractive

Attractive

Extremely Attractive

1 2 3 4 5 6123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930


Appendix C

Quantitative questionnaire

Body Modifications and Attractiveness Questionnaire

Please check off your…1. Age

o 18-20

o 21-24

o 25-28

o 29-32

o 33 and above2. Are you body modified? (ex. piercings, tattoos, cosmetic

surgery, etc.)

o No

o Yes3. If yes, what have you done and what are your reasons for

doing so?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________________

4. Is someone you know personally body modified? If so, please specify.

o No

o Yes. _______________________________________________5. Would you consider being in a romantic relationship with

someone who has body modifications?

o No

o Yes6. How strongly do you identify with your culture?

o Not at all

o Somewhat

o Very

o Extremely7. Which best describes the number of tattoos you currently

have?

o 0

o 1-4

o 5-10

o over 108. Sex

o Male

o Female9. Gender

o Masculine

o Feminine

o Other (Please Specify): _______________

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10. Are any of your current tattoos in visible places (ex. hands, face, neck, arms)?

o Yes

o No

o Sometimes, but can be covered

o Does not apply to me11. Where were you born?

o Please specify (city, state, country): ___________________

12. How many piercings or other body modifications (gauges,dermal anchors, ect) do you have?

o 0

o 1-4

o 5-10

o over 1013. Sona Number

o (Please Specify): __________________14. Are any of your body piercings or body modifications

visible (eyebrow, nose, lip) excluding ears?

o Yes

o No

o Sometimes, but I can temporarily remove them

o Does not apply to me15. Do you consider plastic surgery a body modification?

o No

o Yes16. Does the location of a tattoo make a difference on

whether you might find someone attractive? (ex. a tattoo on

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the small of the back vs. the arm)

o No

o Yes17. If the body modification is a painful process (such as

branding of the skin or cutting pieces of the skin off in order to create scars), would that be a factor of influencing your decision for receiving that modification?

o No

o Yes18. Where did you spend the majority of your childhood?

o Please specify (city, state, country): ___________________

19. How long did you reside there?

o ___________ years20. Are there any body modifications that you find to be

extreme? If so, which of the below.

o No

o Yes

o Tattooing

o Piercing

o Male circumcision

o Female circumcision

o Branding

o Cutting

o Gauges

o Plastic surgery

o Tongue splitting

o Amputations

o Corseting/waist training

o Elf ears

o Veneers

o Tooth sharpening

o Dental braces

o Tanning

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o Implants (eye,

subdermal, magnetic, ect.)

o Other (please specify): ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

21. What is your race?

o White

o Black, African American

o American Indian or Alaska Native

o Asian Indian

o Chinese

o Filipino

o Japanese

o Korean

o Vietnamese

o Native Hawaiian

o Samoan

o Another race (pleasespecify): ________________________________________________

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22. What do you believe is the main reason why people modify their body? (please choose one)

o Cultural/traditional reasons

o Aesthetic reasons (ex. the design is pretty)

o Peer pressure

o Musical subcultures (ex. ska, punk rock, metal)

o To enhance their appearance

o Other (please specify): ________________________________________________________________________________________

23. Are you of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?

o No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin

o Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano

o Yes, Puerto Rican

o Yes, Cuban

o Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish Origin (Please Specify): __________________

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Appendix D

Debrief

Body Modification, Attractiveness, and Culture

California State University, Northridge

DEBRIEFThis research was conducted to examine the effect of whether the

general population find others who are body modified attractive

or not, and to what degree. A major goal of this experiment is to

discover whether cultural awareness of any one’s own cultures

body modifications or their awareness of other cultures body

modifications influenced their opinions. Our third goal is to

determine whether males or females prefer body modification(s)

and to what extent before it passes into the extreme. Past

research suggests body modifications are becoming very popular

throughout many cultures. The improvement of physical

37


attractiveness through body modifications, such as tattooing and

scarification, is evident in a wide range of cultures and has

recently become very prominent in Westernized societies (Wohlrab,

Fink, & Brewer, 2009). The purpose of this research is to

investigate beyond the popularity of body modification(s) into

what other factors go into why people believe what is attractive

or not attractive. The present study controlled possible

confounds by showing participants pictures of body modifications

with moderate degrees of intensity from various cultures. We used

deception by not labeling each image with regards to which

culture it represented.

Thank you for participating in this experiment.

If you are interested in areas of this research, the following

source can be found in the library:

REFERENCE

Wohlrab, S., Fink, B., Kappeler, P. M., & Brewer, G. (2009).

Perception of human body

modification. Personality And Individual Differences, 46(2), 202-206.

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.031

38

BODY MODIFICATIONS, ATTRACTIVENESS, AND CULTURE 39


Appendix E

Consent Form

40

BODY MODIFICATIONS, ATTRACTIVENESS, AND CULTURE 41

Body Modifications, Attractiveness, and Culture

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