ANDMUHAMMADISHISMESSENGER

STUDIESINRELIGION

CharlesH.Long,EditorTheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill

EditorialBoard

GilesB.GunnTheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHillVanA.HarveyStanfordUniversityWendyDonigerO’FlahertyTheUniversityofChicagoNinianSmartUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbaraandtheUniversityofLancaster

ANDMUHAMMADISHISMESSENGER

THEVENERATIONOFTHEPROPHETINISLAMICPIETY

THEUNIVERSITYOFNORTHCAROLINAPRESSCHAPELHILL ANDLONDON

ANNEMARIESCHIMMEL

©1985TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPressAllrightsreserved

ThepaperinthisbookmeetstheguidelinesforpermanenceanddurabilityoftheCommitteeonProductionGuidelinesforBookLongevityoftheCouncilonLibraryResources.

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData

Schimmel,Annemarie.AndMuhammadishismessenger.(Studiesinreligion)Translationof:undMuhammadistseinProphet.Bibliography:p.Includesindexes.1.Islamicpoetry—Historyandcriticism.2.Muhammad,d.632,inliterature.3.Muhammad,d.632—Cult.I.Title.II.Series:Studiesinreligion(ChapelHill,N.C.)PJ827.S33131985809.1’935184-17374ISBN-13:978-0-8078-1639-4ISBN-10:0-8078-1639-6ISBN-13:978-0-8078-4128-0(pbk.)ISBN-10:0-8078-4128-5(pbk.)

DesignedbyNaomiP.Slifkin

TheoriginalGermaneditionofUndMuhammadIstSeinProphetbyAnnemarieSchimmelwaspublishedin1981byEugenDiederichsVerlag,Dusseldorf/Köln.

Thecalligraphicmotifattheopeningofeachchapter,whichreads“MuhammadistheMessengerofGod,”isamodernrendition,byWasmaaChorbachi,fromamanuscript(40.164.2a)intheMetropolitanMuseum,NewYork.

paper1009080706109876

BeIinfidelortruebeliever—Godaloneknows,whatIam!ButIknow:IamtheProphet’sservant,WhoMedina’sruleris.

SirKishanPrasadShadHinduPrimeMinisterofHyderabadState

CONTENTS

Illustrations

Preface

Introduction

1.BiographicalandHagiographicalNotes

2.MuhammadtheBeautifulModel

TheShamā’ilandDala’ilLiterature

TheProphet’sPhysicalBeauty

TheProphet’sSpiritualBeauty

3.Muhammad’sUniquePosition

4.LegendsandMiracles

5.MuhammadtheIntercessor,andtheBlessingsuponHim

6.TheNamesoftheProphet

7.TheLightofMuhammadandtheMysticalTradition

8.TheCelebrationoftheProphet’sBirthday

9.TheProphet’sNightJourneyandAscension

10.PoetryinHonoroftheProphet

TheArabicTradition

ThePoets’LongingforMedina

NaʽtiyyaPoetryinthePersianateandPopularTradition

11.The“MuhammadanPath”andtheNewInterpretationoftheProphet’sLife

12.TheProphetMuhammadinMuhammadIqbal’sWork

Appendix:TheNobleNamesoftheProphet

Abbreviations

Notes

Bibliography

IndexofKoranicQuotations

IndexofPropheticTraditions

IndexofProperNames

IndexofTechnicalTermsandConcepts

ILLUSTRATIONS

KoranSura33:45,calligraphybytheOttomansultanMahmudII,ca.183015

TheḥilyaoftheProphet,innastaʽlīqscriptbytheTurkishcaligrapherYesarizadeMustafaIzzat,183037

TheḥilyaoftheProphet,intraditionalTurkishnakshcalligraphybyAhmetKâmilEfendi,forhisgraduationascalligrapher,188238

ThesandaloftheProphet,fromtheDhakhīraoftheSharqawa41

TwofoldMuhammad,Turkey,eighteenthcentury57

“MuhammadistheMessengerofGod,”Turkishwallpainting,nineteenthcentury69

Theso-calledSealofProphethood,asgivenintheJawāhiral-auliyā92

“MayGodblesstheunletteredProphet,”tughrācalligraphy95

“MuhammadistheMessengerofGod—mayGodblesshimandgivehimpeace!”bytheTurkishcalligrapherNasihEfendi,185297

The“MuhammadanRose,”containingtheNinety-nineNamesoftheProphetandtheNinety-nineNamesofGod111

DecorativemotifsusingtheProphet’sname:Muhammad,contemporarylinearmotifs;twofoldMuhammadincontemporaryKufi;fourfoldMuhammad,tileworkpattern119

DecorativemotifsusingtheProphet’sname:eightfoldMuhammad;eightfoldMuhammadwitheightfoldʽAli;“MuhammadistheMessengerofGod,”intughrāstyle120

PoeminpraiseoftheProphet,“thelightwhoseshadowthethingsare,”byFakhruddinIraqi,EasternIran,ca.1500136

Buraq,paintedonthebackofaPakistanitankertruck173

EndofamanuscriptofBusiri’sBurda,byAibekibnAbdallahas-Saifi,Egypt,1346182

Pagefromanenlargement(takhmīs)ofBusiri’sBurda,Egypt,fifteenthcentury184

UrduverseofSirKishanPrasadShad,inhonorofMuhammad,the“PrinceofMedina”193

PREFACE

ThisbookisthefruitofaninterestinthefigureoftheProphetofIslamthathasdeveloped over more than four decades. I was first introduced to and deeplymoved by the concept of the “mystical Muhammad” when I was a teenager,busying myself with the study of Arabic under the guidance of Dr. HansEllenberg.Duringthoseformativeyears,thebooksofSyedAmeerAli,TheLifeandTeachingsofMuhammad,orTheSpiritofIslam,andTorAndrae’smasterfulstudyDiepersonMuhammadsinlehreundglaubeseinergemeindewereamongmy favorites, and Andrae’s book remains a source of inspiration to this day.During my student days at Berlin University I enjoyed reading SuleymanChelebi’sMevlûd-isherif,asimple, touchingpoemthat tellsof themiraclesatMuhammad’sbirthinimagesverysimilartopopularChristianChristmascarols,but little did I know then that Iwould attendmanymevlût in the five years Ispent inTurkeyasprofessorofComparativeReligion in theIslamicfacultyoftheologyinAnkara.Inthatperiod,IlearnedmuchaboutthepopularvenerationoftheProphetamongTurkishMuslims.AdeepeninginterestinthepoeticalandmysticalliteratureoftheIndo-PakistanisubcontinentthenledmetorealizehowmuchloveoftheProphethadcoloredtheworkofMuhammadIqbal, thepoet-philosopherofthiscentury.ThestudyofSindhifolkliteratureaddednewfacetsto the picture. My fascination with the development of the veneration of theProphetanditsreflectioninliterature,especiallypoetry,resultedinanumberofarticles pertaining to prophetology as perceived by Iqbal, reflected in Sindhipoetry, and theoreticized by a reformist Muslim mystic like Mir Dard ineighteenth-century Delhi, and other topics. The material thus collected andcombined with that culled from other sources formed the basis of one of thelectures I delivered in 1980 to the American Council of Learned Societies(publishedaschapter5ofmybookAsThroughaVeil).MyGermanpublisher,UlfDiederichs,thenencouragedmetoenlargethatchapterintoabookaboutthevenerationoftheProphet,whichappearedin1981.Itisthisbookthatisofferedheretoanglophonereaders,butinaformthathasoutgrownthespacelimitsoftheGermanedition.Wehavealsoomittedtheillustrationsfromthateditionhere,foralthoughtheybelongtothemedievalIslamictradition,modernMuslimstendto be offended by representations of the Prophet other than the verbaldescription.Manypeoplehavehadtheirshareinthegrowthofthisbook:qawwālsinIndia

and Pakistan who sang the praise of the Prophet in unforgettable tunes;theologians who sometimes objected to the “mystical” interpretation of theperson of the Messenger of God; old women in the villages of Turkey andPakistan, whose whole life was permeated by a deep, trusting love of theBeloved ofGod; and students both in the Islamic countries and in theUnitedStates,whoaskedquestionsandtriedtolearnmoreaboutaphenomenonthatissolittleknownintheWest.Inparticular,IhavetothankmyfriendsandcolleaguesProfessorsWilliamA.

GrahamofHarvardandPeterJ.AwnofColumbiaUniversity.Dr.Grahamreadthewholemanuscript andmade some valuable suggestions, especially for theclassicalperiodandhadīth;Dr.AwngenerouslyhelpedresolveeditingproblemswiththePressduringmyabsenceinEuropeandAsia.MyresearchassistantAliS.Asanilocatedmanybibliographicalitems.ThecopyeditorforTheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,LauraOaks, skillfullypolishedamanuscript thatwaswritten and typed in part at Harvard, in part at Bonn, and gently removedinconsistencies.Mygratitudeisduetoallofthem.Cambridge,MassachusettsSpring1984

ANDMUHAMMADISHISMESSENGER

INTRODUCTION

A manuscript copy of the Koran, written probably in the twelfth century ineasternIraninarathersimple,lateKufichand,hasonenotablepeculiarity:thewhole of Sura 112, the profession of God’s Unity, is written in unusuallyinterlaced, powerful letters, and on another page, thewordsMuḥammad rasūlAllāh, “Muhammad is the messenger of God,” are likewise distinguished bytheir eye-catching calligraphic form from the rest of the page.1 The unknownscribehasexpressed,inatangibleway,thecentralpositionoftheProphetinthereligionofIslam.Indeed,thepassagehehaschosentocelebratecomprisesthesecondhalfof theMuslimprofessionof faith,Lāilāha illāAllāh,MuḥammadrasūlAllāh,“ThereisnodeitysaveGod,[and]MuhammadisthemessengerofGod.”Bythispositionintheprofessionoffaith,MuhammaddefinesthebordersofIslamasareligion.InanarticleonIbn“Arabi’sprophetology,ArthurJefferywrote:“Manyyears

ago…thelateShaikhMustafaal-Maraghiremarkedonavisittohisfriend,theAnglican bishop in Egypt, that the commonest cause of offence, generallyunwitting offence, given by Christians toMuslims, arose from their completefailure to understand the very high regard allMuslims have for the person oftheir Prophet.”2 This comment from the Egyptian theologian hits the markprecisely.MisunderstandingoftheroleoftheProphethasbeen,andstillis,oneofthegreatestobstaclestoChristians’appreciationoftheMusliminterpretationofIslamichistoryandculture.For,morethananyotherhistoricalfigure,itwasMuhammadwho aroused fear, aversion, and hatred in themedieval Christianworld.WhenDanteinhisDivineComedyseeshimcondemnedtoeternalpaininthedeepestabyssofHell,heexpressesthefeelingsofinnumerableChristiansofhis era who could not understand how after the rise of Christianity anotherreligioncouldappearintheworld,areligionthat—evenworse!—wasactiveinthisworld,andpoliticallysosuccessfulthatitsmembersoccupiedlargepartsoftheformerlyChristianMediterraneanareas.This is not the place to discuss in detail the deformation of the image of

Muhammadas found inmedieval andeven rathermodernEuropean literature.ThereisscarcelyanynegativejudgmentthattheWesternworldhasnotpassedupon this man who had set in motion one of the most successful religiousmovementsonearth;and thestudyofhis imageasreflected inhistory,drama,poetry,andlastbutnotleastscholarshipwouldrequireavoluminousworkofits

own.3In our day the new self-consciousness of theMuslims has come as a great

surpriseintheWest,whereIslamhasbeensolongregardedasmoribund.Thisnewself-consciousness,however,hasforcedtheWesttoreconsidersomeofthebasicreligiousandsocialideasofIslaminordertoreachabetterunderstandingof the values that have been and still are central for the Muslims. This mayjustify our attempt to depict how pious Muslims have seen the ProphetMuhammad through the centuries, even though their picture was not alwayshistoricallycorrect.Certainlyitreflectshisenormousinfluenceovertheirlives,and the non-Muslim reader will perhaps understand from the witness oftheologiansandpoets,ofArabs,Persians,andTurks,ofMuslimsinIndiaandinAfrica,howdeep theMuslims’ love forhim,howwarm their trust inhimare,howwidelyhehasbeenveneratedandcalleduponthroughouttheages,andhowhe has been surrounded with the most glorious epithets. He will find thatMuhammad indeed constitutes the exemplar and model for every Muslimbeliever,whoiscalledtoimitatehiminall,evenseeminglyinsignificant,actionsand habits, and he will likely be amazed by the way in which the mysticsdevelopedthedoctrineofMuhammad’sprimordiallightandaccordedtohim,inhis position as The Perfect Man, an almost cosmic status and function. ForMuhammad, the last in the long chain of prophets beginning with Adam thefather of mankind, is the one who brought the final revelation thatcomprehendedallearlierrevelationsandatthesametimerecapitulatedthemintheirpristinepurity.Wilfred Cantwell Smith is right when he states that “Muslims will allow

attacks onAllah; there are atheists and atheistic publications, and rationalisticsocieties;buttodisparageMuhammadwillprovokefromeventhemost‘liberal’sectionsofthecommunityafanaticismofblazingvehemence.”4Indeed,wheninlate1978inPakistantheprincipleofNiẓām-iMuṣṭafa theOrderoftheChosenOne(thatis,theProphet),wasintroducedasaguidelineforallactionsandsomevoices critical of this notion were heard, the leading daily newspaper of thecountrypublishedinresponseanannouncementnearlyhalfapagelongbyoneMohammadIsmailfromtheKarachiarea,withthetitle“Afantasticfallacy.”5Inthis piece, the writer attacked those who wanted to define the status of theProphet before entering a discussion about the principles taught by him. Thecentralparagraphsread:

WhocanmeasureanddefinethegreatnessoftheHolyProphet?Wewillnotbesurprisedifsuchinsolentpersons,fortheirownulteriormotives,goevenastepfurther and start saying that the status of Almighty Allah should also be

determined before speaking about Islam in Pakistan, presupposing that crores[500,000s]ofMuslimsofPakistanareignorantofGodandtheHolyProphet.ItisanacknowledgedandundisputedfactthatthestatusoftheHolyProphet

comes next toGod,who alone knows the glory ofHis ProphetwhichHe hasbestowedonhim.IthasbeenverywellexpressedbythefamouspoetandsaintShaikh Saadi:Baad Az Khuda Buzurg Tuee qissaMukhtasar, “In short, afterGodyouarethegreatest.”

In Europe, where Muhammad has at times been understood as an idol-worshiper or transformed intoMahound, the Spirit of Darkness, his historicalbiographywasstudiedfromtheeighteenthcenturyonward,andalthoughhewasgenerally depicted as a kind of Antichrist or a Christian heretic and arch-schismatic,healsoappearedtosomephilosophersoftheEnlightenmentperiodasrepresentativeofarationalreligion,onedevoidofspeculationsaboutTrinityand Redemption and, even more importantly, a religion without a powerfulclergy.6FromthenineteenthcenturyonwardWesternscholarsbegantostudytheclassical Arabic sources, which henceforward slowly became available inEurope.However,evenduringthatperiodbiographiesoftheProphetwereoftenmarredbyprejudicesandinnowaydidjusticetotheroleoftheProphetasseenbypiousMuslims.It isunderstandable that theMuslimsreactedwithhorror tothe European image of their beloved Prophet, with which they becameacquainted, particularly in India, through British educational institutions andmissionary schools. Smallwonder that they asMuslims loathed thisChristianattitude,which contrasted somarkedlywith the veneration theywerewont toshowtoJesus,thelastprophetbeforeMuhammad,andtohismothertheVirgin.7ThisencounterwithsuchadistortedimageoftheProphetisoneofthereasonsfortheaversionofatleasttheIndianMuslimstotheBritish.Itwas as a consequence of this confrontation that theMuslims, reacting to

workslikeWilliamMuir’sLifeofMohamet,begantostudythehistoricalroleofthe Prophet.8 For in the course of the centuries his historical personality hadalmostdisappearedbehindacolorfulveilof legendsandmyths; thebare factswerecommonlyelaboratedinenthusiasticdetail,andwererarelyifatallseenintheir historical perspective. The new interest in the study of the life ofMuhammad,whichrunsalmostparallel,inMuslimIndia,withtheemergenceofinterest in theLeben-Jesu-Forschung (the quest for thehistorical Jesus) in theProtestantWest,resultedinanumberofserious,butalsonumeroussuperficial,purelyapologeticwritings.SyedAmeerAli’sLifeandTeachingsofMuhammad,orTheSpiritofIslam,publishedin1897,showedthedirectioninwhichmodernIslamicbiographiesofMuhammadweretodevelopinthefollowingdecades.

At the moment there are available in Western languages a considerablenumberofbiographiesoftheProphetordiscussionsofhispivotalroleinIslamiclife and culture that have been written by Muslim authors and hence reflectdifferentapproachestohispersonalityintheMuslimcommunity.AnimportantintroductionisMuhammadHamidullah’sLePropheted’Islam,which,basedonhis lifelong penetrating studies into the original Arabic sources and his deeppersonalpiety,depicts the lifeof theProphetas itappears toadevoutMuslimwhohasreceivedhisacademictrainingmostlyinWesternuniversities.Similarly,EmelEsin’sbeautifulbookMeccatheBlessed,MedinahtheRadiantcontainsafine account of the Prophet’s biography and, more importantly, an excellentdescription of the feelings of a highly cultured modern Turkish lady at thethresholdof theRauda (mausoleum)of theProphet inMedina.MartinLings’sMuhammad, a life of the Prophet as depicted in the oldest sources, is anexcellentintroductiontothesubjectandverywellwritten.Theseareonlythreetypicalexamplesfromalargenumberofpublications.On the non-Muslim side, biographies of the Prophet Muhammad written

duringrecentyearsbyEuropeanscholarsarecertainlymuchmoreobjectivethantheworksofearliergenerationsandtryfurthertodojusticetohispersonality.W.Montgomery Watt’sMuhammad, Prophet and Statesman is perhaps the bestknown of these studies.We may also mention here as one of the latest, andcertainly most controversial, attempts the book by Gun-ther Lüling, DieWiederentdeckungdesProphetenMuhammad,inwhichMuhammadispresentedas theEngelsprophet (Angelic Prophet) who continued the unmitigated, puretradition of Semitic, that is, Judaeo-Christian religion as contrasted to thehellenized Christianity that (according to Luling’s claims) was prevalent inMecca. Adolf von Harnack’s remark, based on centuries-old deprecatoryChristianallegations,thatIslamwasessentiallyaChristianheresyisthusagainrevived,althoughnowwithamorefavorableattitudetowardtheProphet.Some years ago Maxime Rodinson, himself a biographer of the Prophet,

providedaveryusefulsurveyof thevariousapproaches to theProphetamongWesternstudentsofIslam.9Butofthesescholarsonlyonehastriedspecificallyto depict Muhammad’s role in Islamic piety. Even today Tor Andrae’s DiepersonMuhammads in lehre und glaube seinerGemeinde (1918) remains thestandard work in this area, unsuperseded by any other major study, thoughcomplementedbyrandomremarksinnumerousmodernworksonSufism.Itis,however,unfortunatelytoolittleknownevenamongIslamicists.ShortlybeforeAndrae’smasterly study appeared, theGerman scholarMaxHorten publishedhisDie religiöse Vorstellungswelt des Volkes im Islam which also has fallen

almost completely into oblivion; relying upon classical and contemporarysources,hegivesnumerouspoignantexamplesofthevenerationoftheProphetinpopularreligion.Almosthalfacenturylater,HermannStiegleckerdescribedtheroleofMuhammadintheologyand,toalesserextent,pietyinhisdogmatichandbookDieGlaubenslehrendesIslam(1964).AmongworksinEnglish,ConstanceE.Padwick’sMuslimDevotions (i960)

leadsthereaderintotheveryheartofMuslimpiety,namelythelifeofprayer,inwhichtheProphetMuhammadoccupiesatrulysublimeposition.ThisbookonMuslim religious life is equally knowledgeable and lovable and containsabundantmaterialaboutthevenerationoftheProphet,culledfromprayerbooksanddevotionalliteratureoftheentireIslamicworld.Itis,tomyfeeling,thebestintroductiontothetopic.GoodtranslationsofthemostcrucialclassicalArabicaccounts of Muhammad’s life and work are offered by Arthur Jeffery in hisReaderonIslam.However,noneoftheseauthorshasdevotedhimselftothestudyoftheareain

whichloveoftheProphetisexpressedmostbeautifullyandmosteloquently:thepoetry of the Islamic peoples.Not only is poetry in the classical languages ofArabic,Persian,andOttomanTurkishworthyofattentionhere,butevenmorethe popular verses in the various vernacular Islamic languages. These are thepoems through which children imbibe the love of the Prophet from earlychildhood,poemsthathavehelpedtoformandshapetheimageofthebelovedProphet,theintercessoronDoomsdayandluminousSealoftheProphets,inthehearts of theMuslimmasses. To this dayMuslim children like to write littlepoems, using traditional imagery, to express their love of and trust in theProphet.10TheirelderrelativesmayinterprettheProphet’swordsasthemessageof change and dynamism, of social justice, of democracy, or of intellectualprogress.ThedifferentfacetsoftheimageoftheProphetofferthehistorianofreligion

richmaterialforcomparativestudies,asJamesE.Roysterhasshowninacriticalarticle.11Parallelstothelivesoftheothermajorfoundersofreligioustraditionsare evident, and in the mystical veneration of the Prophet one can detectinfluences from or similarities to Christian or Hellenistic-Gnostic ideas. ThephenomenologistofreligionaswellasthepsychologistwilldiscoverthatIslamoffers highly interesting examples of loving devotion to the Prophet. All willagreethatthepersonalityofMuhammadisindeed,besidestheKoran,thecenteroftheMuslims’ life; theProphetis theonewhoforeverremainsthe“beautifulmodel”(Sura33:21)forthelifeofallthosewhoacknowledgeintheprofessionoffaiththatheistruly“themessengerofGod.”

ONE:BIOGRAPHICALANDHAGIOGRAPHICALNOTES

Muhammad’s life is known to us from different sources. The Koran containsallusions to events in his life and the life o£ the youngMuslim community.1Furthermore,hissayingsandreportsabouthisactionswerecarefullypreservedandcollectedtoform, in thecourseof thefirstcenturies,a largecompendium,showing how his community saw him. Another early source is the poems ofHassanibnThabit,whojoinedtheProphetinMedinaandsangoftheimportanteventsinthelifeoftheMuslimcommunity,praisingMuhammadandderogatinghisenemies.Alsoveryearlyare thevariousdescriptionsof theProphet’swarsandraids(maghāzī)andofthespreadofIslamintheArabianPeninsula.Allthisconstitutedrawmaterial forhissīra,hisbiography.Thesīra composedby IbnIshaq(d.ca.768)andtheneditedbyIbnHisham(d.ca.830)becamethebasisofall laterbiographies.2 Itgoeswithoutsaying thatnumerous legendscrystalizedaroundanucleusoffactualmaterial;butthecharismaofatruereligiousleadercanbebetter recognized fromsuch legends thanfromthedry factsofhis life,factsthatarealwayslikelytobeinterpretedbythebiographeraccordingtohispeculiarviewpoint.Muhammad’sbiographicaldateshavealwaysbeenconsideredthebest-known

amongthoseofallgreatreligiousfounders,buteveninearliestIslama“sacredbiography,”whichnonethelesscertainlykeptinmindthemajorexternaleventsofhislife,includingthedates,developedamongtheMuslimsandhasremainedintacttoourday.ItwaselaboratedinthevariousIslamiclanguagesandretoldinprose and verse, sometimes (as in Ottoman Turkey) even adorned withillustrations,3andaslateasafewyearsagoaTurkishpoetcomposedaseriesofsixty-three“pictures”fromtheProphet’slifeinsimpleverse.4“Thequestforthehistorical Muhammad” is, as the innumerable studies of his life show,5 aseemingly impossible undertaking, but without attempting to divestMuhammad’s biography of the luminous haze of legends, we can sketch hishistoricallifeapproximatelyinthefollowingway.MuhammadwasbornintheHashimbranchoftheclanQuraish,whichruled

atthebeginningoftheseventhcenturyoverMecca,agreatcenterofcommerceinArabia.HeisgenerallybelievedtohavebeenbornaboutA.D.570,or,asM.Hamidullah has computed, in June 569.6 According to Muslim tradition aforeign armywas besiegingMecca in the year of his birth; suddenly it turned

away (as told in theKoran,Sura 105).Thiswas later interpreted as amiraclepointing toMuhammad’s coming.7His father, called ʽAbdallah son of ʽAbdulMuttalib,diedbeforehisbirth;hismother,Amina,whenhewasaboutsixyearsold.8Likeotherboysamongthecity-Arabs,theinfantMuhammadwashandedovertoanurse,Halima.Itistoldthatsheownedalameolddonkey,whichhadgreat difficulty in reachingMecca from the countryside.Butwhen the animalhadtocarryMuhammadonthewayback,itsuddenlybecameswift-footedandfresh.Thiswasoneofthefirstsignsofthechild’sfuturegreatness.9The report that the youngboyoncegot lost (without harm) fromHalima is

takenbylatermysticalpoetsasanothermarvelouswitnesstohisfutureroleasleaderofmananddjinn.

Donotworry—heisnotlosttoyou!Itishe,inwhomthewholeworldwillbelost!10

Thustellsthepoetandmystic,JalaluddinRumi(d.1273),interpretingthevoicefrom the Unseen that consoled the worried woman. According to somebiographers,themiracleoftheOpeningoftheBreast(seechapter4)tookplaceduring this absence. And according to a late tradition, when Amina died shespokeafewversesinwhichsheforetoldherson’sdestiny:

YouaresenttomankindbytheMightyandKindLord…

Afterherdeath,thedjinnwereheardastheysangthrenodiesforthemotherofthelastProphet.11FromhisbirthMuhammadwasplacedundertheprotectionofhisgrandfather,

ʽAbdul Muttalib, who died, however, about two years after Muhammad’smother,Amina.The youngorphanwas then entrusted to his uncleAbuTalib,whoseson, ʽAli,was tobecomeoneof thefirst tobelieve inhismessage.Hisbeinganorphan,yatīm—aspointedout inSura93—was to inspiremany laterpoetstocomparehimtoayatīma,aunique(literally,“orphan”)pearl.LikemanyotherMeccans,Muhammadtoobecameengagedintrading.Asa

mereboy,“thegiftedorphan”issaidtohaveaccompaniedhisuncletoSyria.OnthewaytheymetthemonkBahira’,12whorecognizedthe“sealofprophethood”between the child’s shoulders and thus acclaimed him as the future prophetwhosearrivalhadbeenforetoldintheJohannineGospel:allthesignsmentionedin the ancient books fitted him.13 Muhammad was at that time about twelveyears old. His early profession gave trading an honored place in Islamic life;

even now a Sindhi children’s song from the beginning of our centuryadmonishes the boys to learn trade, “for the Prophet himself has occupiedhimselfwithit,andhasmadeitimportantwithallhisenergy.”14WhenMuhammad had reached the age of approximately twenty-five years,

thewomanforwhomhehadbeencarryingoutbusinessandwhowasimpressedbyhishonestyandsincerity(hewascalledal-Amīn, theFaithfulOne)marriedhim.Her namewasKhadija, and though shewas considerably senior to him,theirmarriageprovedveryhappy.Thecouplehadfourdaughters,andoneortwosons who died in infancy. A popular Ottomanmathnawī, a modern Egyptianstrophicpoem,andquiteafewotherfolkballadsinvariouslanguagesdescribethemarriageofKhadijawiththeProphet,15andshehasbeenhighlypraisedbybothSunnisandShiitesasanoblewoman:

Khadija,Khadija,greatandpure,Mother,dearertousthanourownmother…16

ShewasMuhammad’sgreatestsupportwhenhislifesuddenlychangedattheageofaboutfortyyears.Pensiveandsearchingforsomethinghigherandpurerthanthetraditionalreligiousforms,MuhammadsometimeswenttothecaveofHira in the hills near Mecca, and it was there that a first Divine revelationoverwhelmedhim—arevelationinwhichhewasorderedto“recite”(Sura96).Aperiodof“spiritualdryness”followedthefirstoverwhelmingexperiences,andpoets in later times have dramatically described “howMuhammad wanted tothrowhimselffromMountHira”17untilinspirationcameagainandherealized,fullofawe,thatitwasGodHimselfwhorevealedHimselftohim—thatoneanduniqueGod,whoorderedhimtocallhiscompatriotstoabsolutefaithinHim.TheProphetoftensufferedwhenexposedtotherevelations,andvariousofhis

symptomsarerecorded.Evenhiscamelbecamerestlessandkneltdownwhenarevelationcamewhile theProphetwasriding.TraditionquotesMuhammadontheexperience:“Revelationsometimescomeslikethesoundofabell;thatisthemostpainfulway.WhenitceasesIhaverememberedwhatwassaid.Sometimesitisanangelwhotalkstomelikeahuman,andIrememberwhathesays.”18The Meccans venerated a number of deities, many of whose statues and

pictureswereenshrinedintheircitysanctuary,theKa‘ba.LatelythetheoryhasbeenpropoundedthatthesepicturesmaywellhavebeenChristianicons,foritisreported that a picture of the Virgin and Christ was found among them.19 AstronginfluencefromHellenisticChristianityuponMeccanandwesternArabianideascannotbeexcludedhere; thepre-IslamicBedouinreligionmostprobablyreverednoimagesbutratherworshipedstones,trees,andotherobjects,andthe

ancientArabsseemtohavebeencontent,beyondthatcult,withamoregeneralbelief in an all-pervading Fate. The pilgrimages to the Kaʽba, which wereconnectedwithfairsandmeetings(asisusualinthecaseofpilgrimages)formedanimportantpartof theMeccaneconomicsystem.Otherwiseonedoesnotgetthe impression that theMeccans or the Bedouins led a very active or highlyspiritual religious life. The strong vein of fatalism, which is palpable in thepoemsofpre-IslamicArabia,isnotsurprisinginasocietywherethehardshipofdesertlifeinspiredthebestpoets.TherewerealsosomeJewishsettlementsintheArabianpeninsula;notallof

thembelongedtotheorthodoxJewishtradition,and“heretic”trendswerewellrepresented. The influence of Christianity was quite strong, for the areasadjacent to the peninsula (Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt) were largelyinhabitedbyChristiansofvariousconfessionalloyalties,sothattheArabscametoknow,moreorlessintimately,Monophysites,Nestorians,andotherChristiansectarians.ItseemsthatsomespiritualseekersamongtheArabswereinsearchof a purer andmore satisfying faith than that generally practiced. The Korancalls them ḥunafā (singular, ḥanīf) and Muhammad knew them throughKhadija’s relative Waraqa ibn Naufal. In the Koran the ḥunafā appear asrepresentatives of the pristine religion of Abraham before its bifurcation intodifferent religions such as Judaism and Christianity, and they may well havebeenmembersofoldJudaeo-Christiangroups.The revelations that descended upon Muhammad from about 610 onward

spokeprimarilyofGod theOne,Who isboth theCreatorof theworldand itsJudge. He will call mankind before His judgment unless they follow thecommandstolovetheirneighbors,todojustice,andtoacthonestly.Intheearly,shortsuras,asthechaptersoftheKoranlatercametobecalled,theterrorsoftheDay of Judgment are depicted in brief and powerful, rhyming sentences thatfolloweachotherlikesharplightningandroaringthunder.TheMeccansdidnotfind thismessageveryconvincing; inparticular, the ideaof theresurrectionofthe dead did not make much sense to them. But the revelations Muhammadrepeatedlyreceivedtocountersuchdoubtsarguedthateventheearth,seeminglydead in winter, could bring forth fresh greenery in the spring, and that themiracle of conception and birth is not less than that of the resurrection of theflesh.20TheleadingMeccanswere,however,noteasilywonoverevenbythis,andthetensionsbetweenthemandMuhammad’ssmallgroupoffollowersgrewworse from year to year.One group of these followers therefore emigrated toAbyssiniabecausetheChristianfaithaspracticedthereseemedtobeclosesttotheidealspreachedbytheProphet.(Theyreturnedlateratvarioustimes.)

Intheyear619MuhammadlosthisfaithfulwifeKhadija,whohadbeenhisstrongest support in times of affliction and near-despair. In the same year hisuncleAbuTalibalsodied,amanwhohadneverceasedprotectinghisnephewalthough not converted to the new religion—which was called Islām,“Surrender,” that is, the complete trust in and acknowledgment of the OneSupremeGod.Twoyearsafter thedeathofKhadijaandAbuTalib, ina timeof increasing

difficulties,adelegationfromthecityofYathrib,anoasisnorthofMecca,cametoperformthepilgrimage.TheyaskedMuhammadtojointhemandsolvesomeof the social and political problems thatwere caused by frictions between thedifferentgroupsofpeoplelivingintheircity.TheMuslims(thatis,“thosewhopractice Islam”), asMuhammad’s followers were called, migrated to Yathrib.Muhammadfollowedlast,alongwithhisfriendAbuBakr.Togetherthetwosetout fromMecca, but theMeccanswere keen to apprehend them.Legend tellshowtheysoughtshelterinacaveoverwhichaspiderspunitswebandpigeonshurriedlybuilttheirnests—sothattheMeccansintheirpursuitdidnotimaginethatanyonecouldbehidinginthatplace(cf.Sura9:40).ThePersianexpressionthat is used for Abu Bakr in this situation, yār-i ghār “friend of the cave,”denotestheclosestpossiblefriendshipbetweentwomen,21andaccordingtothetraditionoftheNaqshbandiyyaorder,itwasinthecavethattheProphettaughtAbuBakrthesecretsofsilentremembranceofGod,thedhikr-ikhafī.Muhammad reached Yathrib in September 622, and that year marks the

beginning of the Muslim era, which is calculated from the Hegira (hijra,“separation,leaving”)oftheProphet.ThecalendaropenswiththefirstmonthoftheArabiclunaryearinJune622,andproceedsinpurelunaryearsof354dayswithoutintercalation.ThecityofYathribsoonbecameknownasMadīnatan-nabī, theCityof the

Prophet, in short, Medina. Muhammad was called to find a solution for thecommunal tensions in this city, and he succeeded in drawing up a kind ofconstitutionthatgovernednotonlythedifferenttribeslivinginMedina,mostofwhomwere considered to be in the category of theanṣār, or “helpers” of theMuslims,butalsothosewhoaccompaniedhiminhisemigration,themuhājirūnfrom Mecca. Though fully implemented only for a brief span of time, thedocument remained a basis and model for later Muslim communaladministration.22InMarch624amajorconfrontationbetweenMuslimsandMeccansoccurred

at Badr, near Medina. Though the Muslims found themselves suddenlyconfrontedwithanarmymuchstronger than theyhadexpected, thevictory in

the ensuing battle was theirs. This victory at Badr was perhaps the mostimportant miracle for the young community, a miracle that helped them findtheiridentityandthathascontinuedtoberememberedastheeventthatchangedearlyIslamichistory.Accordingtotraditionitseemsthatahandfulofpebbles,which the Prophet cast symbolically against the Meccans, proved a decisivefactorinthevictory.TheKoranstatesconcerningthisevent:“Notyoucastwhenyou cast, but God cast” (Sura 8:17). This sentence became the foundation ofnumerousmysticalspeculationsabouttheProphet,whosehandwas,asitwere,God’shand.23Thus the very nameBadr became the cipher for the undeniableproofofMuhammad’sGod-givenroleasleaderofhiscommunity,andofGod’snever-failinghelpforHisservants.Oneyear later, in625,a similarencounter tookplacenearMountUhudbut

with considerably less success. Some of the bestMuslim fighterswere killed,includingtheProphet’suncleHamza,whosenameloomslargeinpopulartalesallover theEast.TheProphet’s footwas injured,andhe lost two teethduringthisbattle,afactthatinspiredlaterpoetstocomposeextremelyinvolvedversesaboutthe“pearls”thatturned“intorubies”(becausehiswhiteteethwerestainedwithredblood).24In 627, the Meccans tried to conquer Medina. According to tradition, the

Persian Muslim Salman al-Farisi suggested to the Medinans that they dig atrench for defense. The Meccans, not used to siege warfare, lifted the siegewithouthavingachievedtangiblesuccess.In the following year,Muhammad set out to perform the pilgrimage to the

Meccan precincts, which had become the center of his religious aspirationsshortly after theHegira. TheMuslims atMedina had originally prayed in thedirectionofJerusalem,thesanctuaryofthetwoearlierpropheticreligions,butin623or624theyhadbeeninstructed(Sura2:134–35)toturntowardtheKa‘baatMecca.FromthattimeonwardtheconquestofMeccaandtheKa’ba,thecentralsanctuaryoftheancientreligionofAbraham,saidtohavebeenbuiltbyhimandhis son Ishmael, began to form an important aspect ofMuhammad’s strategy.EventhoughtheMeccansdidnotpermithimtoenterhisnativecityonthisvisitin 628, he succeeded in concluding a treaty with them in which he wasacknowledgedasanequalnegotiant;itfurtherguaranteedthathemightperformthelesserpilgrimage,ʽumra,inthefollowingyear.During the years in Medina, Muhammad’s attitude toward the Jewish

community hardened. The Jews in Medina refused to acknowledge hisrevelations as the completion of the Torah, and it seems that some of thembelongedtothemunāfiqūn,thehypocrites,whoselukewarmattitudesometimes

endangeredtheyoungcommunity.Forvariousreasons,andatdifferentpointsintime,theJewishclansintheenvironmentsofMedinawereforcedtoleave;otherJewishgroupsinnorthwestArabiasurrenderedandagreedtopaytribute.25Theconquest of the Jewish stronghold Khaibar, in which ʽAli ibn Abi Talib, theProphet’s cousin and husband of his youngest daughter, Fatima, played a keyrole,formsarecurrentthemeinlaterreligiouspoetryandisoftenalludedtoinotherconnectionsaswell.

KoranSura33:45,calligraphybytheOttomansultanMahmudll,ca.1830

TheMeccansrealizedthatMuhammad’spowerhadincreasedimmensely,andwhenheconqueredhisnativecityin630,noresistancewasoffered.EvensomeofhismostbitteropponentsembracedIslamandweregenerouslyrewarded.TheKa‘bawas completely divested of all idols and icons and remained from thattimeonwardthecenteroftheMuslimcultus,withoutimageandeffigy.It is inthedirectionoftheKa‘bathatfaithfulMuslimsallovertheworldstillturnfivetimesaday inprayer, and it is theKa‘ba that theycircumambulateduring theḥajj, the great annual pilgrimage in the lastmonthof the lunar year, inwhicheverydevoutMuslimhopestoparticipate,ifonlyonceinalifetime.Muhammad did not stay long inMecca after conquering it. He returned to

Medina, where his family was living. After Khadija’s death he had marriedseveraltimes.AmonghiswivesonlyAisha,thedaughterofhisfriendAbuBakr,amerechildstillplayingwithherdolls,wasavirginwhenshewasmarriedtohim;hewasapparentlyparticularlyfondoftheyoungwoman.Otherwiveswerewidowsofsoldierswhohadbeenkilledinbattle,andone,Zainab,wastheex-wifeofhisadoptedsonZaid.ACopticslavegirlwhowasgiventotheProphetbore him a son who, however, died before he was two. Although the Koranrestrictsthenumberoflegalwivestofour,Muhammadhimselfwasgrantedtherighttoexceedthisnumber,andallusionstosomeofhismaritalproblemsandtotensionsamonghiswivesarefoundinsomelatersurasoftheKoran.Hiswives

were respectfully called “the mothers of the faithful” (Sura 33:6) and weresubject tosomespecialrestrictions;afterhisdeath,forexample, theywerenotallowedtoremarry(Sura33:53).TheDivine revelations toMuhammadcontinued throughouthis life.During

the first years of his career they dwelt mainly upon the horrors of the LastJudgmentandupontheomnipotenceoftheoneandsolelyadorableGodandHismarvelous work in creating and sustaining the world. In the middle period,duringthetimesofcrisesandpersecutions,theyoftenspokeofthesufferingandafflictionsthatwereshowereduponearlierprophetswho,likeMuhammad,didnotmeetwith anyunderstanding among their compatriots andwere triedharduntil God gave them victory over their enemies.26 These revelations certainlyhelpedMuhammadtocontinueonhischosenpathdespitethegrowinghostilityoftheMeccans.InMedina,Islambecameinstitutionalized,andthecontentsofthe Prophet’s later revelations, correspondingly, often concern civic problemsand treat politically and socially relevant questions such as emerged fromMuhammad’sactivityasleaderofapoliticalcommunity.Therevelationsinthisperiod showMuhammadas the “beautifulmodel” (uswaḥasana, Sura 33:21);thefaithfulareadmonishedtofollowhimandimitatehisexample,for“toobeyhimmeanstoobeyGod”(Sura4:80).ThecommunitywasalsoinformedthattheProphet was sent raḥmatan lil-ʽālamīn “as a Mercy for the worlds” (Sura21:107),27andthatGodandtheangelspronouncedtheblessingoverhim(Sura33:56).Western scholars have often asked what the sources of the Prophet’s

revelationsmighthavebeen,andwhencecametheapparentlydisjunctmaterialof theKoran. They havewonderedwhy theKoranmentions figures from theJudaeo-Christian tradition, like Moses and Jesus, Joseph, and David andSolomon, incontexts thatdifferconsiderablyfromthebiblicalstories,whereasthe great prophets of Israel are not mentioned at all. Avast body of literatureabout the Prophet’s “borrowing”—wittingly or unwittingly—from Christian(NestorianandMonophysitic)and/orJewishsourceshasbeenwrittenduringthelast 125 years, with different, and partly conflicting, conclusions.28 ManyscholarswouldagreewithJohannFück that in theend,“themeansof rationalsciencewillneversufficetounveilthesecretofthepersonalityofthisman,andwewillneverbeabletoestablish,byanalysis,whichErlebnissemovedhissouluntil he finally reached the certainty—after painful struggle—that God hadelectedhimtobeawarnerandmessenger.”29For the Muslims, the differences between the biblical and the Koranic

versionsofcertainstoriesarenothingbutfurtherproofthattheKoranisindeed

God’sword.TheProphetMuhammad,beingummī(awordgenerallyinterpretedin the Islamic tradition as “unlettered, illiterate”), could not read, and hencecouldnotknowthecontentsof thebiblicalstories:howcouldhehaveutilizedthem if they were not directly inspired? But contrary to the traditionalacceptance of Muhammad’s ignorance concerning the earlier sources, theGermanscholarGiintherLulingclaims that theProphetwaswellawareof theJudaeo-Christian tradition, which he then utilized ingeniously. Whatever theexplanationmaybe,thestoriesofearlierprophets,beginningwithAdam,serveintheKoranasparadigmsforthelifeofMuhammad,andhewasconfirmedinhis faith time and again by the thought that just as earlier nations had beendoomedtoperishbecausetheyrefusedtobelievetheirprophetsandpersecutedthem, so toowould theMeccans suffer the same fateunless theyaccepted themessageoftheLordasrevealedtoandpreachedbyMuhammad.In the year 632,Muhammad againmade the pilgrimage toMecca, and this

performance remained forever a binding example for the Muslims whoundertake theḥajj. Itwasduring this “farewellpilgrimage,”Muslim traditionsaffirm,thatthefinalrevelationcameuponhim,whichisnoteddowninSura5:5:“TodayIhaveperfectedyourreligionforyouandcompletedMyfavoruntoyou,andhavechosenforyouIslamasreligion.”30Afewweekslater,on8June632(A.H.II),31Muhammaddied,intheapartment

ofA’isha,whowasthenabouteighteenyearsoldandonwhoseauthorityagoodnumber of his sayings and stories about him are told.Muhammad couldwellapplytohimself,asFückwritesinaperceptivearticle,theKoranicwordofSura6:162: “Lo, as for me, my Lord has guided me unto a straight path, a rightreligion,thecommunityofAbraham,theupright,whowasnoidolater.Say:Lo,myworshipandmysacrificeandmylivingandmydyingareforGod,Lordoftheworlds.”32Even though some more rigorous theologians like Ibn Taimiyya in the

fourteenth century and theWahhabis in the late eighteenth and the nineteenthcenturiesraisedtheirvoicesinprotestagainstthevisitsofpilgrimstotheRauda(Garden),ashismausoleumiscalled,Muhammad’slastrestingplaceinMedinabecameacenterofpiousveneration.Bycustom,thepilgrimwhostandsinfrontoftheRaudawillsay,referringtotheendofMuhammad’sfarewellsermon:

IbearwitnessthatthouarttheApostleofGod.Thouhastconveyedthemessage.Thou hast fulfilled the trust. Thou hast counselled the community andenlightened the gloom, and shed glory on the darkness, and uttered words ofwisdom.33

Muhammaddidnotleaveanyrulesforhissuccession.Ofhisfourdaughters,Zainab,Ruqayya,UmmKulthum,andFatima,34onlyFatima,calledaz-Zahrā’“Luminous,” “the Radiant,” survived him. She was married to her father’scousinʽAli,anddiedsoonaftertheProphet.Thelegendaryfigureofthisailingwomanwas soonadornedwithmiracles, especially in theShia tradition:35herbirthwassurroundedbylight;shewasabsolutelypureandhadnomenstruation,andher sonswereborn throughher left thigh.Thusshewashonoredwith thetitle batūl, “virgin,” and later she assumed also the position of a true MaterDolorosaafterthedeathofheryoungersonHusain.ThatshewascalledaswellUmmabīhā,“herfather’smother,”gaverisetohigh-soaringspeculationsabouthercosmicroleinGod’sHeilsgeschichte.In the confusion that set in afterMuhammad’s death, his father-in-lawAbu

Bakr made the poignant remark to the Muslims who mourned him that “Ifsomeone has worshiped Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If someone hasworshipedGod,Heisaliveandneverdies.”36AbuBakr,calledas-Ṣiddīq,“themosttrustworthy,”waselectedthefirstcaliph(khalīfa,successor,substitute)ofthe Prophet.37 After his death in 634, another father-in-law of the Prophet,ʽUmar ibn al-Khattab, followed him. ʽUmar, called al-Fārūq, “he whodistinguishestruthfromfalsehood,”andsaidtohaveconvertedataratherearlystagewhenlisteningtotherecitationofapassagefromtheKoran,wasprobablythemostimposingpersonalityamongtheearlyMuslims.38Fromagrimenemyof the Prophet he turned into the fiercest andmost active fighter for the truefaith.Hisname is connected in literature andpietywith thevirtueof absolutejustice,whichsparednotevenmembersofhisown family,andhis role in theorganizationoftheIslamiccommunityandtheimplementationoflawandorderhas been compared, in theWest, to that ofSaintPaul inChristianity,39 but heappearsevenmoreboundtopuritanicapplicationoftheKoranicrevelation.TheShiiteshatehimintenselyforhissupposedlyharshtreatmentofFatimaafterherfather’sdeath.ʽUmarwasassassinatedbyaPersianslave in644,andamemberof theold

Meccan aristocracy, Uthman ibn Affan, became his successor, although notundisputed:toomanypiousMuslimsrememberedtheoppositionofhisfamilytotheProphet’smessageinearlierdays.XFthmanhadbeenmarried,successively,totwoofMuhammad’sdaughters,RuqayyaandUmmKulthum,andisthereforecalledDhū n-nūrain “the owner of the two lights” (hence the proper name“Othman, Turkish Osman, is usually combined with the epithet Nūruddīn,abbreviatedNuriorNur).UthmanibnAffaniscreditedwithhavingcommandedthe redaction of the Koran into the form known to the present day, which is

dividedin114suras,arrangedroughlyaccordingtodescendinglength.Thefirstsura,Al-Fātiḥa,“TheOpening,”isashortprayerthathasbeencompared,moreor less correctly, to the Lord’s Prayer.40 After the short confession of God’sabsoluteUnity,Sura112, followtwoshortsuras,Al-Muʽawwidhatān, inwhichmanistaughttotakerefugewithGodfromvariousevils.ʽUthman too was assassinated, in 656, and was succeeded by ʽAli ibn Abi

Talib,Muhammad’scousinandson-in-law,whowas,accordingtotheopinionofonefactionoftheMuslims,thelegitimatesuccessoroftheProphet.Thosewhoadheredtohimandclaimedthatheshouldhavebeenthefirstcaliphareknownas theshīʽat ʽAlī, “ʽAli’sparty,”orbriefly, theShia.41 ʽAli aswell ashiswifeFatima(seeabove),alongwiththeirtwosonsHasanandHusain,arethecentralfiguresofShiitepiety.Indeed,insomestrandsofShiaIslam,theyoccupyatrulymythicalplace, ʽAlibeing,onoccasion,evenmore important than theProphethimself.ʽAli,Fatima,andtheirsonstogetherwiththeProphetformthePanjtan,the Five People, or theahl al-kisā, the People of the Cloak, becauseMuslimtraditionaffirmsthatMuhammadoncetookthemunderhisrobeinordertoshowthathecaredfortheminaveryspecialway.Theyareusuallyalsoequatedwiththeahlal-bait, the People of theHouse, the closest family of the Prophet, asmentionedinSura33:33.The veneration of the family of the Prophet is important not only from the

religiousviewpoint(althoughShiapietyisonthewholemuchmorecolorfulandvariegated than the general “Sunni” orientation); it also developed into adecisivefactorinthepoliticalhistoryofIslam.TheShiapresentedfromtheverybeginningtheviewthatʽAlialonewasthelegitimatecaliph,andtheyrefusedtoacceptthefirstthreecaliphs,especiallyʽUthman,condemningtheminmoreorless outspoken words. The SunniteMuslims, however, alwaysmaintained theexcellenceofthekhulafā’ar-rāshidūn,“therightlyguidedcaliphs,”ortheFourFriends(chāryār),astheyarecalledinPersian,eventhoughtheymightallottoʽAliaspecialplaceintheirhearts.AccordingtotheShia,duringthelastyearofhis life, on18Dhu’l-hijja,Muhammadhad invested ʽAli as his successor at agathering at the pondGhadirKhum.When ʽAliwas assassinated in 661 by amember of a dissenting faction, the Kharijites, two extreme views about theProphet’s succession clashed. Against the legitimist Shia, the “democratic”Kharijitesdefendedtheideathatonlytheworthiestmemberofthecommunity,“even though he be an Abyssinian slave,” should lead the Muslims. But theextremist, puritan Kharijites were soon overcome by the majority of theMuslims,whowereproudofbeingahlas-sunnawaʽl-jamaa,“thosewhoadheretotheProphetictraditionandbelongtothecommunity,”thatis,theSunnis.Only

a scattering of small groups of Khariji Muslims—for instance, the Ibadis inNorthAfrica—areextanttoday.AfterʽAli’sdeaththeUmayyadhouse,descendantsoftheMeccanaristocracy

and hence unacceptable to more extreme Shiites, came to power and madeDamascustheircapital.Hasan,ʽAli’seldersonfromFatima,wasbribedbythefirstUmayyadcaliph,Muawiya,toabandonhisclaimanddiedsomewhatlater(according to Shiite tradition, from poison). His younger brother, Husain, thethird imām (literally, leader of the prayer; generally, religious leader of thecommunity)oftheShiaafterʽAliandHasan,triedoncemoretofightagainsttheUmayyadsafterMuawiya’sdeathinthefallof680.HeandhisfollowersmovedfromtheirheadquartersinKufa(Iraq)toKerbela,wherethemajoritywerekilledinbattleon10Muharram(10October)680.Thiseventisthevantagepointforaveryspecial sortofpiety typicalofShiacircles,akindof“passionpiety” thathasbeenexpressedsinceearlydays inheartrendingpoemsand touchingprosepieces and also developed in later times, particularly in Iran, into dramaticrepresentationsofthesufferingofImamHusainandhisfamily.AwholegenreofPersianandUrduliterature,themarthiya,ordirge,isdevotedtothetragicfateof the martyrs of Kerbela, which is conceived as the turning point of worldhistory.42WeepingforHusainopensthegatestoParadise,andFatima,likeMarythemotherofJesus,willintercedeforthosewhoshedtearsforherson.Numerous branches developed within the Shia in the course of time. The

Ithnāʽashariyya,orTwelvers,continuethelineofimamstothetwelfthone,whomysteriouslydisappearedin873andhassinceruledtheworldfromtheUnseen;this branch was made the state religion of Iran in 1501 and also has manyfollowers in India, particularly in the Lucknow and Hyderabad/Deccan areas.Anotherbranchstops the lineasearlyas thefifth imam,Zaid,sonof theonlysurvivingsonofHusainafterthebattleofKerbela.TheseZaidites,representingatheologicaltrendratherclosetothatoftheSunnites,ruledinYementill1964,andtheyalsohadsomesmallerkingdomsinmedievalIran.TheShiagroupsthatfollowtheseventhimam,Isma’il,areknownbydifferent

names;onebranchfounded theFatimidkingdominEgypt,whereafter1094asplit occurred that resulted in the present groups known as the Nizaris, orfollowersoftheAgaKhan,andtheBohoras.TheIsmailis,dreadedandmalignedas “Assassins” during the Middle Ages in Iran and the Near East, havedeveloped recently into a progressive modern community; their highlyinteresting, esoteric religious literature is slowly becomingknownand reflectstheir comprehensive system of philosophical thought as much as their poetictendencies,especiallyintheirIndianenvironment.

Butnot only theShia, theSunnites too (that is, the people of theProphetictradition, sunna, and the community, jamāʽa) deeply venerate the Prophet’sfamily;forasthegreatSunnimysticHallajsaid:“GodhasnotcreatedanythingthatisdearertohimthanMuhammadandhisfamily.”43ThedescendantsofʽAliand Fatima (called sayyid, plural sādāt, or sharīf, plural ashrāf, shurafā’),especiallythechildrenofHusain,stillenjoygreatprestige:howcouldasayyid‘sdaughtermarryanon-sayyid?!Manymysticsaresaid tobeofsayyidancestry,even though critical scholars feel that “this occurs too frequently to beindisputable.”44 Veneration was, and still is, shown to the descendants ofimpoverished sayyid families; a maidservant from such a family will not beallowedtodoanydirtyorlowlyworkinthehouse,asIwasrecentlytoldintheDeccan.ThefeelingunderlyingthevenerationofthesepeopleisthatsomeoftheProphet’sbaraka,hispowerofblessing,isstillaliveinhisdescendantsandthattheythereforedeserveatleastpartofthehonorowedtotheirancestor.While the important, often even politically important, role of the sayyid

families has continued to our day, other figures in the environment of theProphet have been transformed into symbols of certain spiritual attitudes oradopted as representatives of ideologies. Abu Lahab,Muhammad’s uncle andarchenemy,whoiscursedintheKoran(Sura111),hasbecome,alongwithhiswife,theexemplaroftheinfidelwhorefuseswithallhisstrengthtoaccepttheneworderandwhodoeseverything toblock theProphet’sway.He is thus thetypicalantagonistinthedramaofaprophet’slife.ThepoetRumi,whopunsonthemeaningofthenameAbūLahab,FatheroftheFlame,thinksthatitsbearerwasprobablytheonlypersonnevertobetouchedbytheflameofDivinelove:

Ihavenotseen,lackingThyfire,anyonebutAbuLahab!45

Among the positive symbolic figures is Bilal ibn Rabah, Muhammad’sAbyssinianmuezzin,whowassometimesaskedby theProphet,“Bilal, refreshus with the call to prayer!”46 For ritual prayer reminded the Prophet of hisheavenly journey when he could speak to God without a veil. Bilal was anEthiopian slave who had adopted Islam very early and was tortured on thataccountbyhisMeccanowneruntilAbuBakrboughtandfreedhim.Inpopulartradition he became the symbol of the black peoplewho embraced Islam andwere taken into the community without hesitation, since Islam knows nodifferentiationofraces.Sana’i,around1100,goessofarastosing,

Bilal’ssandalisbetterthantwohundredRustams—47

thatis,theblackslave,freedbyhisacceptanceintotheIslamiccommunity,isbyfar superior to even thegreatest heroof pre-IslamicPersian legendaryhistory.Bilal became the patron saint ofmanyBlackAfrican andAbyssinianMuslimgroupsandisoftencitedasamodelofpiety.48Hencehisnameisnowusednotinfrequentlyasapropernameforboys,especiallyinIndiaandPakistan,whereIqbal’stwopoemsonthepoorBilalwhowashonoredthroughIslamhavemadethis name very popular.49 Lately, the Black Muslims have adopted the term“Bilalian” for themselves; their journal is now calledBilalianNews, and onealsohearsofaBilalianCollegeandofBilalianjournalists.AbuDharr,aCompanionoftheProphet,wasnotedforhisattemptstoremind

thewealthyoftheKoranicinjunctiontogiveuptheirtreasuresandconcentrateon God and the Otherworld. He therefore has become a prototype of earlyascetic Sufism.50 Louis Massignon has called him, perhaps somewhat tooidealistically,“unsocialisteavantlalettre.”Of special importance is the role of Salman al-Farisi, often called in the

Persian tradition Salmān-i pāk, Salman the Pure.51 Western scholars havedevotedanumberofstudiestothisfolloweroftheProphet.52APersianbarberwhoembracedIslam,SalmanbecameinthelateresotericinterpretationofearlyIslamichistorythesymbolofthePersianswhohadbeenadoptedintoIslam,andthusamodelofallforeignerswhoentertheIslamicworldandbringwiththemtheir own knowledge and capacities, so that the Muslims may use them andenrichtheirlives.Salman,itwillberemembered,iscreditedwithinventingthetrenchthatsavedtheMedinansfromtheMeccansiege.Beingabarber,hehadtheprivilegeoftouchingtheProphet’shair;laterhebecamethepatronsaintofbarbers,andsometimesofothercraftsmen,andcanbeconsideredthefirstsaintofanartisans’guildinIslam.53FinallyonehastomentionUwaisal-Qarani,becausehisnameplaysarolein

themysticalbiographyof theProphet.Uwais livedinYemenandconvertedtoIslamwithoutevermeetingtheProphet.Muhammadreportedlysaidabouthim,“Verily I feel thenafas ar-raḥmān, the breath of theMerciful, coming tomefromYemen!”54InthemysticaltraditionUwaisisthemodelofthosewhoenterthemysticalpathwithoutbeinginitiatedbyalivingmaster:anuwaisī(Turkishveysi) mystic has no special teacher but is guided directly by God on themysticalpath,orhasbeeninitiatedbythemysteriousprophet-saintKhidr.Thereareofcoursemanymoreṣaḥāba(singular,ṣaḥābū)orCompanionsof

the Prophet, who are remembered as fighters, as traditionalists, as faithfulservants, or among al-ʽashara al-mubashshara, “the ten who were promisedParadise,”55buttheabovementionedfigureshaveremainedsomuchaliveinthe

tradition of the Islamic countries that even in our century anUrdu poet couldcomparehisheart,which is completelydevoted to theProphet, andhis lovingsoul,toBilalandUwais.

TWO:MUHAMMADTHEBEAUTIFULMODEL

Onemust alwayskeep inmind thatMuhammadnever claimed topossess anysuperhuman qualities. He was, and wanted to remain, “a servant to whomrevelationhascome”(Sura41:5),andwhenhewaschallengedbytheMeccanstoperformmiraclesheusedtosaythat theonlymiracle inhis lifewasthathehad received the Divine revelation in clear Arabic language, which wasproclaimed throughhimas the inimitableKoran.Heknew that hewas only amediator, andwhen his compatriots asked him to substantiate hismessage byperformingmiraclesitwasrevealedtohim:“Say:Ifmenanddjinnwouldunitetobringsomething like thisKoran, theycouldnotbring it,even if theywouldsupporteachother”(Sura17:90;cf.Sura6:37).AseloquentastheArabsmightbe,andasperfectas theirhighlyrefinedtraditionalpoetrymightbe,eventheywouldnotbeabletoproduceasinglesentencethatcouldbecomparedinformandcontenttotheKoran.This central position of the Koran in the Islamic Heilsgeschichte stands,

phenomenologically, parallel to thepositionofChrist inChristianity:Christ istheDivineWordIncarnate, theKoran is (touseHaniWolfson’sapt term) theDivine Word Inlibrate. It is therefore these two manifestations of the DivineWord that should be compared, for neither in theological nor inphenomenologicaltermscanMuhammadbelikenedtotheChristofChristianity—hence theMuslims’ aversion to the term “Muhammadans,”which seems tothemtoimplyafalseparalleltotheconceptof“Christians.”Muhammadī,asin“theMuhammadan Path,” is used in specific connections, usually by mysticswhotrytoemulatetheProphet’sexampleevenmorethanothers.Asamedievalmystic,Shams-iTabrizi,said:“Amu-hammadīishewhohasabrokenheart…,who has reached the heart, and can utter the Anāl-ḥaqq-i muhammadī, theMuhammadan‘IamtheTruth.’“1Muhammad knew, andwas repeatedly reminded by theKoranic revelation,

thathewasonlyahumanbeing,aman,whoseonlyprerogativewasthathewasgranteda revelatoryexperience.AsSura6:50admonisheshim:“Say: Idonotsay:‘WithmearethetreasuresofGod’andIdonotknowtheInvisible,andIdonotsaythatIamanangel—Ifollowonlythatwhichisrevealedtome.”HewasalsoremindedthatonlytheLordwasabletoguidemankind:“Youcannotguideon the rightpathwhomyouwant. It isGodwhoguides!” (Sura28:56).Whathadbeenrevealedtohimisthat“YourGodisOneGod”(Sura37:4),andthushe

wascalled topreach themessageofuncompromisingmonotheism,ofabsolutesurrendertotheOneGodwhoisCreator,Sustainer,andJudge.Muhammad felt that whatever happened to him was nothing but God’s

inexplicablegrace,whichhedidnotdeserveandwhichhadelectedhimas itsvessel. ForGod admonished him: “Verily ifWewantedWewould take awaywhat We have revealed to you, and then you would not find for yourself adefendant againstUs” (Sura 17:88).He knew that he could never have hopedthatsuchaKoranwouldbegiventohim“savebythemercyofyourLord”(Sura28:86).AndwhentheMeccansridiculedhim,askingpersistentlywhenthehourofJudgmentwouldarrive—anhourofwhosehorrorshehadbeenspeaking insuch terrifying words—he had to repeat again that he too was not informedabout its arrival, that he was nothing but “an evident warner” (Sura 29:49),awakeningtheheartsofthosewhoareinfearofthis“Hour”(Sura20:15,79:42,andothers).Yet there are some passages in the Koran that point to Muhammad’s

exceptionalrole.AsGod“taughtAdamthenames”(Sura2:30),thusHetaughtMuhammadtheKoran(Sura96:3).ForMuhammadwassent“asaMercyfortheworlds,” raḥmatan lil-ʽālamīn (Sura 21:107), and God and His angels utterblessingsoverhim(Sura33:56).He is“verilyofnoblenature”(Sura68:4). Inseveral places one finds the Divine command “Obey God and obey Hismessenger”orsimilarformulations.SuchKoranicsentencesformedthebasisofa veneration of Muhammad that soon far surpassed the respect normallyaccorded to a prophet, and even now the pious Muslim will never mentionanything belonging to or relating to the Prophet without adding the attributesharīf, “noble.” In the course of time, then, short Koranic remarks wereelaborated and spun out into long tales and wondrous legends, which slowlyilluminatedtheoutlinesofthehistoricalMuhammadwithanarrayofcolor.TheobedienceduetotheProphetseemstohaveplayedanimportant,perhaps

thecentralroleinthedevelopmentofIslamicpiety.2DoesnotSura3:29state:“Say:ifyouloveGod,followme,thenGodwillloveyouandforgiveyoursins.VerilyGodisforgiving,merciful”(cf.Sura33:30)?In the bipartite profession of faith, lā ilāha illā Allāh, Mulmmmadun

rasūlAllāh,“ThereisnodeitysaveGod,[and]MuhammadisthemessengerofGod,”thesecondhalf,whichdefinesIslamasadistinctivereligion,constitutes,asWilfredCantwellSmithrightlysays,“astatementaboutGod”inhisactivityintheworldratherthanabouttheProphet’sperson.3ForbysendingHisprophet,who proclaims His word, God reveals Himself to the world: the Prophet is,according toNathanSoderblom,“anaspectofGod’sactivity.”4Muhammad is

singledoutbyGod;he is truly theChosenone,al-Mustafāandfor this reasonhis sunna, his way of life, became the uniquely valid rule of conduct for theMuslims.AstheProphetsays:“Whofollowsme,belongstome,andwhodoesnotlovemysunna,doesnotbelongtome.”5ForMuhammadis indeed,as theKoranstates,anuswaḥasana,“abeautifulmodel”(Sura33:21).IntheunderstandingofclassicalIslamicreligioustheory,Muhammad’ssunna

consistsofhisactions(fi’l,hiswords(qaul), andhis silentapprovalofcertainfacts(taqrīr).Hiswell-attestedway of behavior—or at least theway thatwasconsidered well enough attested to be historically true—attained a normativevalueforsubsequentgenerationsfromatleastasearlyasthesecondcenturyofIslam.BecauseoftheimportanceoftheProphet’snobleexample,thescienceofḥadīthcamegraduallytooccupyacentralplaceinIslamicculture.Aḥadīth(narrative,tradition;specificallyaProphetictradition)isareportthat

containsaremarkaboutasayingoranactionoftheProphetasitistoldbyoneofhistrustworthyCompanionswhorelatedittosomeoneinthenextgeneration.Theṣaḥāba,Muhammad’sCompanions,arethusthemostimportantsourceforProphetictraditions.Aḥadīthmaytreataritualproblem;itcandiscussdetailsoffaith and doctrine, tell about the punishment in the next world, or simplydescribetheProphet’sbehaviorwhileeating,sleeping,orgivingadvice.Tothechainoftransmitters,theisnād,everygenerationaddednewmembers,untillonglinesoftraditionistsdeveloped,eachlinkconnectedwiththepreviousone,inawell-established relationship. In the third Islamic century (ninth centuryof theChristian era), during which the most important “canonical” collections ofḥadīthwere compiled, a typicalḥadīth looked like this:A said: I heardB saythat he had heard C telling that D told him that E stated: F said that Gtransmitted:IhaveheardfromAbuHurairathattheProphetdidthisorthat.One of themost important branches of scholarshipwas the examination of

traditions,because theycontained theexpositionof theProphet’sbehaviorandthus formed the source for all aspects of human behavior. However, thescrutinizationofḥadīthwasprimarilygearednottowardthetextofthetradition,but rather toward thereliabilityof thechainof traditionistsbywhomacertaintextwas transmitted.Careful studywasdevoted toascertainingwhichof themwasatrustworthyperson,whetherhecouldhavebeenintouchwiththepersonwhomhementionsashissource,orwastooyoungwhenthatpersondied,orhadnever visited the latter’s hometown. After all such formal criteria fortrustworthinesshadbeenmet,theḥadīthinquestionwasconsideredtobeṣaḥīḥ,“sound,immaculate.”Thebestandmostreliabletraditions,thenumberofwhichunderstandablyincreasedinthecourseoftimeinspiteofallscholarlyscrutiny,

give inacertainwayapictureof thedevelopmentof theologicalandpracticalproblems that the Muslim community faced during the first centuries of itshistory.Themosttrustworthyḥadīthwereputtogetherinthemiddleoftheninthcenturybyaseriesofscholars, inlargecollections,amongwhichtheworksofBukhari and Muslim are usually called aṣ-ṣaḥīḥān, “the two sound ones,”although four others (which four differs from list to list) are also regarded ashaving great authority. The ṣaḥīḥān are so highly esteemed inMuslim circlesthat Bukhari’s ṣaḥīḥ was often regarded as second in importance only to theKoran.FromtheseworkstheMuslimsobtainedthenecessaryinformationaboutthe customsof theProphet, about his outward appearance as about his ethicalideals.SometimesinlatercenturiesthewholeṣaḥīḥofBukhari,whichcontainssome seven thousand traditions, was read out during the month of Ramadan(thus inMamluk Egypt), and the khatm al-Bukhārī, the completion of such areading, was solemnly celebrated.6 Sometimes an individual scholar who hadcompleted the study of Bukhari would invite his friends to celebrate thisauspiciousevent.7On thebasisof the“sixbooks”ofgreatestauthority laterscholarscompiled

other, handier collections of ḥadīth, which generally left out the chain oftransmitters.Thesewerestudiedthroughout theIslamicworld,for theyformedthe pivot of theological studies in the colleges, madrasas, together with theKoran.AmongtheḥadīthcollectionsthatwerefavoritesinsomewhatlatertimeswemaymentionBaghawi’sMaṣābīhas-sunna(TheLampsoftheSunna),with4,719ḥadīth, and, following it, Tabrizi’sMishkāt al-masdbih (The Niche forLamps),calledinIndiaMishkāt-isharīf(TheNobleLamp).Itsverytitleimpliesan allusion to the Light verse of the Koran (Sura 24:35), which was ofteninterpreted as pointing to theProphet, throughwhom theDivine light radiatesintotheworld(seechapter7below).PersianandlaterUrdutranslationsoftheseworksbecamepopular inMuslimcircles andwereamong the firstbookseverprinted in India.8 In the sixteenth century ʽAli al-Muttaqi, a scholar fromBurhanpurincentralIndia,usedhislongsojourninMeccatoorganizethemostimportant andbest-attestedḥadīth inhisKanzal-ʽummāl (TheTreasureof theWorkers),abookthatgainedwidefamebecauseofitspracticalarrangement.Other pious scholars and poets extracted sets of ḥadīth concerning certain

problems,suchaspredestinationorthepeculiaritiesofthedaysoftheweek,orsayingsaboutfastingorpilgrimage;stillotherscollectedarba’īn,groupsoffortyḥadīththatusuallycomprisedtraditionsofwhichtheywereparticularlyfondorwhich they found most useful.9 Later, such arba’ln were often versified inPersian andTurkish, and themost famous of these collections,written by the

great Persian poet andmystical scholar Jami in the late fifteenth century, hasbeenpennedbythemastersofcalligraphyinexquisiteforms,10forsuchabookcarries the blessing of the Prophet’s word with it. Indeed, in later times,especially in the Turkish tradition, it became a general practice to inscribelevhas,singlepages,withProphetic traditions, inwhichthetwocursivestyles,thesmallnaskhandthelarger,impressivethuluth,wereveryelegantlycombinedtoforma“calligraphicicon.”Frequently, pious medieval scholars would set out on long journeys in the

hope of finding some new reliableḥadīth or in order to listen to a renownedscholarof traditions; indeed, to travel“insearchofknowledge” in theformofḥadīthwasessentialforagoodtraditionistinearlytimes.11Scholarswouldsitatthemaster’sfeet,foritwasnecessarytolearnone’sḥadīthfromamaster.Eventhoughsmallcollectionsoftraditionsalreadyexistedinwritingatanearlypointin history,12 the ideal remained to collect one’s ḥadīth from the mouth of ateacherwho, in turn, had acquiredhis knowledge fromanother authority, thusmaintaining the livingchainwhich ledback to theProphet.13 Incidentally,onefindsquiteanumberoffemaletraditionistsinthechainoftransmitters,thefirstonebeingMuhammad’syoungwifeA’isha.Oneoftheselearnedladies,KarimaofMecca(d.1069),wasabletoteachthewholeṢaḥīḥofBukhari inonlyfivedays!14Suchsessionsofḥadīthweredaysofgreatimportance.Forjustasthefaithful

Muslim feels that when reading the Koran or listening to its recitation he islisteningtoGodHimself,healsofeelsthatoccupationwithProphetictraditionsbringshiminclosecontactwiththeProphet,sothat,asitwere,heseeshimandhearshisvoice.Forthisreasontheteachingofḥadīthwasunderstoodasagreatresponsibility,andtheteacherwouldprepareverycarefullyfortheoccasion.Hewouldundertakesuchteachingofḥadīthwithgreatawe,andonlyinastateofperfect ritual purity. It is told ofMalik ibnAnas (d. 795), the founder of theMalikite school of jurisprudence and one of the greatḥadīth transmitters, that“when he intended to sit down to recite ḥadīth, he performed the ablution,donnednewgarments,putonanew turban, tookhisplaceon theplatform, inawe,reverence,andgreatseriousness.Aslongasthelecturecontinued,incensewasconstantlyburned.Hisreverencetoḥadīthwassogreatthatithappenedinone session that a scorpion stunghim sixteen times, andhe did not showanysignofdisturbance.”15The Prophetic tradition can also be regarded as the first step in the

interpretation of the Koranic revelation, for it reflects what the earliestgenerations had retained from the Prophet, who was necessarily the prime

exegete of the revelations he brought. Certainly Muhammad must have beenhimselftheparadigmforhiscompanionsevenbeforeformalḥadīthdeveloped,asFazlurRahmanhaspointedout;“forwhatevernewmaterialwasthoughtoutorassimilatedwasgivenasaninterpretationoftheprinciplesoftheKoranandthesunna.”16Thus the living tradition continued and spiritually nourished theMuslimcommunity. In fact, it became so important that one could call it “thehighest normative instance,” as-sunna qāḍiyatun ʽalā l-Qur’an.17 A moderninterpreterofIslaminthemysticaltraditionputstheimportanceofthesunnainthefollowingwords:

It is inconceivable that these virtues [of the sunna] couldhavebeenpracticedthrough the centuries down to our time if the founder of Islam had notpersonifiedtheminthehighestdegree;itisalsoinconceivablethattheyshouldhavebeenborrowedfromelsewhere—andonecannotimaginefromwheresincetheirconditioningandtheirstylearespecificallyIslamic.ForMuslimsthemoralandspiritualworthof theProphet isnotanabstractionorasupposition; it isalived reality, and it is precisely this which proves its authenticityretrospectively.18

However, despite the deep veneration for the Prophet’s sunna, a number ofproblemsposedthemselvesduringthestudyofhadlth.Couldconflictingḥadīthreally stem in their entirety from the Prophet? Did not every political andtheologicalgroupinIslamcomeupwithrelevanttraditionsbywhichtheytriedtodefendtheirattitude?Weretheḥadīthcollectedinthesixcanonicalbooks,oratleastthosecontainedinMuslim’sandBukhari’swork,allabsolutelybindingfortheMuslim?Allthesequestionshavebeendiscussedforcenturies,andfromearlytimestherewerethosewhofavoredexclusiverelianceontheKoranasthesafestway.Thequestionoftheauthenticityhas,however,beenbroughtintheforeground

especiallyinmoderntimeswhentheconfrontationoftheMuslimswithWesternscience and technology, but also customs and habits, threatened their time-honoredwayof life.European scholarship since IgnazGoldziher is extremelycriticalof the traditions.Butsuchcriticism is rejectedbypiousMuslimsasanattempttoshakeifnotdestroytheveryfoundationsofIslam.S.H.Nasr,oneofthe leading Muslim thinkers of our day, educated at Harvard, writes in histhought-provoking book Ideals and Realities of Islam, in the chapter “TheProphetandPropheticTradition”:

Purporting tobe scientific and applying the famous—or rather shouldone say

theinfamous—historicalmethodwhichreducesallreligioustruthstohistoricalfacts,thecriticsofḥadīthhavecometotheconclusionthatthisliteratureisnotfrom the Prophet but was ‘forged’ by later generations.What lies behind thescientific fagade presented inmost of these attacks is theapriori assumptionthatIslamisnotaDivinerevelation.…WerethecriticsofḥadīthsimplytoadmitthattheProphetwasaprophet,therewouldbenoscientificallyvalidargumentwhatsoeveragainstthemainbodyofḥadīth.19

However, in themodernMuslimworld itselfwe findmostwidely differingattitudestowardḥadīth.Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,amongtheIndianMuslimstheveryorthodoxAhl-ihadithacceptedwithoutquestioningallthatiswrittenintheclassicalcollections,whileatthesametimethemodernists,ledbySirSayyidAhmadKhan,advocatedamoreselectivemethodintheuseofḥadīth: it should be binding in religious matters but not for details of socialbehaviororpoliticalandotherworldlyaffairs.AndyetoneshouldnotforgetthatSayyidAhmadhimselfinaratherearlywork,whichremainedthebasisforhislaterthinking,meditatedupontheProphet’sword“Omyson,theonewhohascherishedmysunnawithoutdoubthehascherishedmeandhewhocherishesmewillbewithmeinParadise”andexclaimed:

OMuslims,reflectalittle;evenifathousandsoulswouldsacrificethemselvesforthisword“withme,”itwouldstillbelittle!TobetogetherinParadisewiththeApostleofAllahissuchgladtidingsthatverilybothworldshavenovaluewhatsoever in comparison with that reality! What a good fortune the personenjoyswhoisgrantedtobewith theProphetMuhammad!Alas,wheredoyouerrwanderingaround?Whatevergraciousgiftthereis, it isinthesunnaof theProphet,byGod,innothingelse,innothingelse,innothingelse!20

But among the followers and collaborators of Sir Sayyid in later days,ḥadīthwere viewedmore critically, and one of his friends, Chiragh Ali, was almostmoreradical inhiscritiqueof the traditions thanGoldziher,whowroteshortlyafterhiminHungary.ChiraghAliexpressestheopinionthat“thevastfloodoftraditions soon formed a chaotic sea. Truth and error, fact and fable,mingledtogetherinanundistinguishableconfusion.”21The situation is not much different today: while one wing of orthodoxy in

Pakistanstrictlyclings to theProphetic traditions,GhulamParvez,amodernistthinker in the same country, rejectsḥadīth in toto and accepts only theKoran(whichheinterpretsinaveryidiosyncraticway)asthesolesourceofmoralandethical values.22 Again, Fazlur Rahman caused much discussion and bitter

antagonismwithhisinterpretationofthe“livingsunna”Tobesure,evenintheMiddle Ages the question had been posited (by the Asharite theologian al-Baqillani) whether complete submission to the model of the Prophet wasabsolutely necessary.Was it perhapsonlymeritorious, or evenwithout specialreligiousvalue?Thisdiscussionofcoursedealtnotwiththereligiouscontentsoftheḥadīthbutonlywithethicallyindifferentquestionssuchasmannersofeatingordressingandthelike.However, themajorityofMuslimspreferredtofollowthemottoofthefirstcaliph,AbuBakr,whosaid:“IdonotomitanythingofthethingstheMessengerofGodhasdone,forIamafraidthatifIshouldomitit,Icouldgo astray.”23This careful and loving imitationof theProphet’s examplewould be, for them, the true dīn-i muḥammadī, as particularly the Sufisemphasizedit.24Suchanapproachwasontheonehandthebasisforthelovingvenerationof

Muhammad,whoappearsoftenasakindofpaternalfigure(hehimselfisquotedas saying, “Verily I am likea father toyou”),25 a father or a deeply respectedelder in the family to whom one would turn in full trust because one wasabsolutelycertainthatheknewtherightanswertoallquestions,andthesolutionof all problems for thosewhobelonged to him.26But it could also lead to anabsolutely tradition-bound attitude, even in the minutest externals, as it isexpressed by the great medieval theologian al-Ghazzali, who devotes to theProphet the twentieth, that is, thecentral,chapterofhisIḥyāʽulūmad-dīnandclearlystates:

Know that the key to happiness is to follow the sunna and to imitate theMessengerofGodinallhiscomingandgoing,hismovementsandrest, inhiswayofeating,hisattitude,hissleepandhistalk.Idonotmeanthisinregardtoreligiousobservance,forthereisnoreasontoneglectthetraditionswhichwereconcernedwiththisaspect.Irathermeanalltheproblemsofcustomandusage,for only by following them unrestricted succession is possible. God has said:“Say:IfyouloveGod,followme,andGodwillloveyou”(Sura3:29),andHehas said: “What the messenger has brought—accept it, and what he hasprohibited—refrain from it!” (Sura 59:7). That means, you have to sit whileputtingontrousers,andtostandwhenwindingaturban,andtobeginwiththerightfootwhenputtingonshoes.…27

AndyetGhazzali,“thescholaramongtheinhabitantsoftheworld,”wasaccusedbymysticslikeMaulanaRumioflackingtruelove(asmanifestedinhisyoungerbrother Ahmad Ghazzali) and of not having found “the secret of theMuhammadanproximity”!28

The imitatioMuhammadi is,asArmandAbelhasstated,an imitationof theProphet’sactionsandactivity,whereastheimitatioChristiisrathertheimitationofChrist’ssuffering.ButitwasthroughthisimitationofMuhammad’sactionsastransmittedthroughtheḥadīth thatIslamiclifeassumedauniqueuniformityinsocial behavior, a fact that has always impressed visitors to all parts of theMuslim world. It is also visible, for instance, in the hagiography of Muslimsaints.29 For, as Frithjof Schuon says: “This ‘Muhammadan’ character of thevirtues… explains the relatively impersonal style of the saints; there are noother virtues than those ofMuhammad, so they can only be repeated in thosewho follow his example; it is through them that the Prophet lives in hiscommunity.”30 Even the introduction of a good sunna is, according to onehadlth,alaudableact,andthepersonwhointroducesitwillbegiventherewardof someone who acts accordingly, as he who introduces a bad sunna will beequally punished.31 The Muslim willing to devote himself completely to theimitationof thenūral-hudā, theLightofRightGuidance, that is, theProphet,mayexpresshisfeelingsinthisprayer:

We ask Thee for that for which Thy servant and messenger Muhammad hasaskedThee,we take refugewithThee from that fromwhichThy servant andmessengerhastakenrefugewithThee.32

THESHAMĀ’LLANDDALĀ’ILLITERATURE

Veneration of the Prophet and the interest in even the smallest details of hisbehavior andhispersonal lifegrew in the samemeasureas theMuslimsweredistanced from him in time. They wanted to know ever more about hispersonality,hislooks,andhiswordsinordertobesurethattheywerefollowinghimcorrectly.ThepopularpreachersenjoyeddepictingthefigureoftheProphetinwonderfulcolors,addingeventhemostinsignificantdetails(thus,thathehadonly seventeen white hairs in his beard).33 One sometimes sympathizes withmoresober theologianswhowerenot toohappywhenlistening to thesepious,well-meantexaggerations.Butitwasthisverygenreofliterature,thesetreatisescontainingqūtal-ʽāshiqīn,theNurtureoftheLovers,asMakhdumMuhammadHashim of Thatta called his collection of Prophetic traditions and legends inrhyme,thatremainedfavoritewithreadersandlisteners.34ThisQūtal-ʽāshiqīn,written in the Sindhi language in the early eighteenth century,was one of thefirst Sindhi books ever printed in Bombay (ca. 1868), and its narratives,developedoutofsimpleḥadīth,enchantedandupliftedthemassesandinspiredthefolkpoetstoelaboratetheminevermoreimaginativedetail.

Inearlydays,theforerunnerofsuchcollectionswasagenrecalleddalā’ilan-nubuwwa, “proofs of Prophethood,” complemented by that of the shamā’il,literaryexpositionsof theProphet’s loftyqualitiesandoutwardbeauty.Twoofthe earliest dalā’il and shamā’il works were composed by Abu Nu’aim al-Isfahani (d.1037),mysticandhistorian,andbyal-Baihaqi (d.1066).Botharemore or less biographies of the Prophet, studded with evidentiary miracles—those that happenedbefore and afterMuhammad’sbirth aswell asbefore andafterhiscall toprophethood,andthosethatpointedtohisexaltedstatusasthelast Prophet. Both sources speak of his noble genealogy and his qualities andindulge in telling many of the miracles through which men and animalsrecognized him as God’s special messenger. Such tales formed the bases forlegends and poems in which popular views about Muhammad were to bereflectedthroughoutthecenturies.35AlmosttwohundredyearsbeforeBaihaqi,thetraditionistAbuIsaat-Tirmidhi

(d.892)compiledthefirstbasicbookabouttheshamā’ilal-Muāṭafā, inwhichthe Prophet’s external form as well as hismoral superiority was described ingreatdetail.36Muhammadappearshereasthemodelofmoralperfection,anditisnotsurprisingthatTirmidhi’scollectionwasusedasasourcebythatmedievalauthorwhocomposedamostextensiveworkaboutthegreatnessoftheProphet,Qadi lyad.Hewas a sternMalikite theologian, noted enemyof theSufis, andmuch-fearedjudgeinCeutaandGranada.HisKitābash-shifā’fītāʽrīfḥuqūqal-Muṣṭafā,however,hasbeenusedbynonmysticsandmysticsalike.Infact,itisperhaps themostfrequentlyusedandcommented-uponhandbookinwhich theProphet’s life,hisqualities,andhismiraclesaredescribed ineverydetail.TheShifā’wassohighlyadmiredinmedievalIslamthatitsoonacquiredasanctityofitsownandwasevenusedasatalisman,37protectingthehouseofitsowner:“Ifitisfoundinahouse,thishousewillnotsufferanyharm,andaboatinwhichit is,willnotdrown [sic];whena sickperson reads itor it is recited forhim,Godwillrestorehishealth.”38Forsurelyabook that isexclusivelydevoted totheadmiringdescriptionofthenobleProphetpartakesoftheProphet’sbaraka.Itsveryname,Shifā’“cure,healing,”pointstoitshealingpower.FromQadi‘Iyad’sbookanevenmoreextensiveworkaboutthesamesubject

was derived, the Al-mawāhib al-laduniyya of Qastallani (d. 1517), and theliterature in this areagrew incessantly. Thus the last great collector ofdalā’il,shamā’il, and poems in honor of the Prophet, the indefatigable Yusuf an-Nabhani (early twentieth century), mentions in one place the twenty-fifth (!)volumeofashamā’ilworkthathehadusedforhiscompilation.39

THEPROPHET’SPHYSICALBEAUTY

Descriptionsof thephysicalbeautyof theProphetare foundscattered inearlytraditions.Among them, thestoryofUmmMatadcanserveasaproof for theProphet’simpressivepresence(seechapter4below).ForastheProphetwasthemost beautiful of mankind in character, so he was the most handsome in hislooks. The oldest descriptions in Tirmidhi’sKitāb shamā’il-Muṣṭafā (the onequotedhereisbyʽAli)showhimlikethis:

Muhammadwasmiddle-sized,didnothavelankorcrisphair,wasnotfat,hadawhite circular face,wideblack eyes, and longeyelashes.Whenhewalked, hewalked as though he went down a declivity. He had the “seal of prophecy”betweenhisshoulderblades.…Hewasbulky.Hisfaceshonelikethemooninthe night of full moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter thanconspicuoustall-ness.Hehadthick,curlyhair.Theplaitsofhishairwereparted.Hishairreachedbeyondthelobeofhisear.Hiscomplexionwasazhar[bright,luminous].Muhammad had a wide forehead and fine, long, arched eyebrowswhich did notmeet. Between his eyebrows therewas a veinwhich distendedwhen he was angry. The upper part of his nose was hooked; he was thick-bearded,hadsmoothcheeks,astrongmouth,andhisteethweresetapart.Hehadthinhair onhis chest.His neckwas like theneckof an ivory statue,with thepurityofsilver.Muhammadwasproportionate,stout,firm-gripped,evenofbellyandchest,broad-chestedandbroad-shouldered.40

A special mark of the Prophet was the “seal of prophethood,” whichdocumented his position as the final herald of theDivine revelation (seeSura33:40). The seal is described by all sources unanimously as a fleshyprotuberanceorkindofmolethesizeofapigeon’segg,ofblackishcolorwithsome yellow, which was located between his shoulders. It is said that theChristianmonkBahira’inSyriarecognizedyoungMuhammadbythisverymarkasthepromisedlastprophet,theParacleteoftheJohanninegospel.TheProphet’shandsaredescribedascoolandfragrant,“cooler thaniceand

softerthansilk,”andinalltraditionsthefragrancethatexudedfromhimisdulyemphasized. Some of the women close to him allegedly collected hisperspirationtouseasperfume.41Out of the belief in the Prophet’s lovely fragrance a delightful legend

developed:duringhisheavenlyjourney,whenhewasonhiswayintotheDivinepresence, somedropsofhis sweat fellon theground,and from them, the firstfragrantroseappeared.ThusthebelievercanstillexperiencetheProphet’sscent

fromthefragranceoftherose,asRumisingsinhisgreatpoeminhonoroftheblessedmysticalrose:

RootandbranchoftherosesisthelovelysweatofMustafa,

Andbyhispowertherose’screscentgrowsnowintoafullmoon.42

Pashto popular poetry, on the other hand, mentions that the rose’s petalsblushedfromshamewhentheradiantlybeautifulMessengerenteredthegarden,sothattheflower’scolorisderivedfromhisbeauty.43Inlatertimesnarrativesofthiskindhaveledtoextravagantstatementsthat,forinstance,theProphetwassopure and fragrant that flies did not sit on him, or that thanks to his pure,luminousnaturehedidnotcastashadow.AndA’ishawas told that“theearthswallowsuptheexcrementsoftheprophetssothattheyarenotseen.”44Muhammadbecomes thearchetypeofallhumanbeautybecause thenoblest

spiritual qualities are also manifested in him somatically. He is, as acontemporaryUrdupoetsays,

Beautyfromheadtotoe,Loveembodied.45

Similarly, a modern Arabic source mentions that the perfection of faithconsists in the conviction that “God has created Muhammad’s body in suchunsurpassablebeautyashadneitherbeforehimnorafterhimbeenseeninanyhumanbeing.IfthewholebeautyoftheProphetwereunveiledbeforeoureyes,theycouldnotbearitssplendor.”46PoetsinallIslamiclanguageshaveexpressedthis conviction, inventing ever new images to express the praise for thismarvelousbeauty.

YourlightwasinJoseph’sbeauty,oLightofGod;IthealedJacob’sblindeyesothatitbecamewell,

sings theUrdu poetDagh at the end of the nineteenth century.47He takes upwiththesewordsafavoritetopicofearlierwriters:notonlyisthewisdomofallprophets contained in Muhammad but also their beauty. And while Yusuf(Joseph)isgenerallyacceptedastheparagonofhumanbeauty,aḥadīthmakesMuhammad say: “Yusuf was beautiful but I am more handsome (amlaḥ)”48Perhapsoneshouldalsoconsiderthefamousḥadīth“VerilyGodisbeautifulandloves beauty,”49 which has inspired so many artists, in connection with the

beauty of the Prophet, the beloved ofGod. It is natural that in a religion thatprohibits the representationof livingbeings,particularlyof saintlypersons,nopictureoftheProphetcouldbelegitimatelyproduced.(OneproofofthetotallywrongideasofmedievalChristiansisthat,confusingIslamwiththepaganismofantiquity, they spoke in their poetry and chansons de geste of “the goldenimages, or statues, ofMahomet.”50 To be sure,we find representations of theProphet in quite a number ofminiature paintings in the Turkish, Persian, andeven Indian traditions. In later times his face is usually veiled, although earlyfourteenth-centurypaintingsshowhimunveiledaswell,apracticethattodayisvehemently attacked as heresy byMuslim fundamentalists and even by largeparts of the intelligentsia.51But theMuslims found anotherway tomake himpresentbeforetheireyes:theso-calledḥilya.Tirmidhi, in the late ninth century, quotes a ḥadīth in which the Prophet

promises:“Forhimwhoseesmyḥilyaaftermydeathitisasifhehadseenmemyself, and he who sees it, longing for me, for him God will make Hellfireprohibited, and he will not be resurrected naked at Doomsday.” The ḥilya(literally,“ornament”)consistsofshortdescriptionsoftheProphet’sexternalandinternal qualities, drawn fromearlyArabic sources. It is told that theAbbasidcaliph Harun ar-Rashid bought such a description from a wandering dervish,rewardinghimlavishly; thefollowingnighthewashonoredbyavisionof theProphet, who promised him eternal blessings.52 According to other populartraditions, theProphethimselfadvisedhis“fourfriends,” thefirstfourcaliphs,beforehisdeathtorememberhisshamā’il-nāma,53thatis,thedescriptionofhislooks and qualities. One who stitches the ḥilya in his shroud will beaccompaniedonhis lastwayby a thousand angelswhowill recite the funeralprayerforhimandaskforgivenessonhisbehalfuntilDoomsday.54Out of the simple, sonorous Arabic descriptions of Muhammad’s qualities

more artistic forms developed. It seems that veneration of the ḥilya wasespeciallywidespread inOttomanTurkey.There the calligraphersdeveloped apeculiarstyleofwritingitduringthesixteenthcentury,whichwasperfectedbyHafiz Osman, the master calligrapher of the late seventeenth century. Theseḥilya.,oftenimitated,areround,andbeneaththecircularframethatcontainsthedescription of the Prophet, the line “Mercy for theworlds” iswritten in largeletters.55Eventoday,theḥilya isusuallyprintedaccordingtothemodelsetbyHafizOsmanandhisdisciples,and iskept inhomesasapictureof theVirginmight be in a Catholic home, to convey blessings upon the inhabitants. Toexecute aḥilya in fine calligraphywas considered awork of greatmerit: oneTurkish woman, widowed and childless, said she regarded the nine she had

completedduringherlifetimeasasubstituteforninechildren,hopingthattheywouldintercedeforheratDoomsday.56Poets also transformed the short, pithy Arabic sentences describing the

Prophetintolong-windedverse.57TheTurkishḥilya.byKhaqani,apoetofthelatesixteenthcentury,isespeciallyworthyofmention.Thepoettellsextensivelythe blessings contained in the hilya: not only will its owner be safe frompunishment in the Otherworld, but Satan will not enter his house; hisrecompense will be equal to themanumission of a slave and a pilgrimage toMecca, “and the citadel of his body will not be impaired and he will not beafflictedbymaladies.”58ThenthepoetingeniouslydescribestheProphetandhisbeauty.Hiswhitecomplexionisexplainedinimageslikethis:

ThehilyaoftheProphet,innastaʽlīqscriptbytheTurkishcalligrapherYesarizadeMustafaʽIzzat,1830

TheḥilyaoftheProphet,intraditionalTurkishnakshcalligraphybyAhmetKâmilEfendi,forhisgraduationascalligrapher,1882

Hewithaheartliketheoceanwasanincomparablepearl—Nowonderthat[hiscolor]wasinclinedtowardwhite!59

Hisharmoniouslyarchedeyebrowsservethewholeworldasqibla,directionofprayer,fortheyresembleabeautifullyarchedprayer-niche;butevenmore,theyremind the spectator of the secret ofqāba qausain, “two bows’ length” (Sura53:9),thatis,themysteryofMuhammad’sclosepresencebeforeGodduringhisheavenlyjourney.60Hisnose,again,was“asifitwerethebudofawhiterose.”KhaqanialsodevoteslongdescriptionstotheclothingoftheProphet,fornot

onlyhisfigureandhisfaceweretopicsforthetraditionistsandpoetsbutalsohis

garments, which the believer should strive to imitate. He preferred white orgreenclothing,butowned,accordingtoclassicaldescription,onlyonepieceofeach kind. Khaqani then extends his verse to the various colors in which theProphetappeared,eachofthemfittingforoneofhisaspects:

Inwhite,helookedlikeapearl,inred,likearose.

Indeed,forhim“whoisbeautifulliketherose”thePathanfolksingeriswillingtosacrificehislife.61Onthewhole,however, thecolorred is rarelyconnectedwiththeProphet.ItisinterestingtonotethatamodernEgyptiannarrativeballaddealswithan

incidentconcerningtheProphet’sshirt.Sincehehadnocashtohelpastarvingbeggar,Muhammadgavehimhisonly shirt,whichwas thenauctioneduntil aJewboughtitforanenormoussum;theJew’sblindnesswascuredbythisveryshirt and he, of course, embraced Islam. Themotif of Joseph’s fragrant shirt,whichhealedhisfather’sblindness, ishereapplied to theProphet.62ThesameideahasalsobeenexpressedinSindhipopularverse.63The precious relic of the khirqa-i sharyīf, or bur da, the noble coat of the

Prophet,64 is found in severalmosques, among them one inKhuldabad in thenorthernDeccan,andinthetreasuryoftheTopkapuSerayinIstanbul.Anotherkhirqa-i sharīf, preserved in Qandahar, Afghanistan, in a building that non-Muslimsmaynotevenapproach,inspiredMuhammadIqbalin1933tocomposeadeeplyfelt,mysticallytingedpoem(seep.243).65The Prophet wore a special kind of sandal, the two strings of which were

drawnbetweenthetoes.Thesesandals,naʽl,becamelikewiseanamuletfullofbaraka, particularly strong against the evil eye.66Were they notworthy of alladmirationandveneration,fortheProphethadtouchedtheDivineThronewiththemduringhisheavenlyjourney,sothattheybecame“thevertexofthecrownof the Throne”?67 Popular poetry in the various Islamic languages has oftenincluded mention of this aspect of the sandals. The fifteenth-century Persianmystical poet Jami, for example, writes that all heavenly beings rubbed “theforehead of their intention” onMuhammad’s “Throne-rubbing sandals.”68 Healso claims that the heavenly tree Tuba had rubbed its head at the Prophet’ssandalsandthusreachedhighesthonor,69andherepeatedlyexpressesthefeelingthat “the threadof the soul” is nothingbut the stringofMuhammad’s sandalsandthatthecheekofthelongingloverresemblesthefineTa’ifileatherofwhichthese sandalsweremade:do the lover’scheeksnothope tobe touchedby theProphet’sfeetandthustoobtaineveryconceivablebliss?70TherelicitselfwasfirstmentionedinthethirteenthcenturyinDamascus.But

pictures of these sandals were apparently quite common in the later MiddleAges,especiallyinthewesternIslamicworld,foraroundthemawholepoeticalgenre developed. The poets, many of them from North Africa and Spain,describedthesesandalsorexpressedtheirlongingforthem.ThusanAndalusianpoetess,SaʽdunaUmmSaʽdbint Isamal-Himyariyya (d.1242),beginsoneofherpoemswiththewords

IshallkisstheimageifIdonotfindAwaytokisstheProphet’ssandal.PerhapsthegoodfortuneofkissingitWillbegrantedtomeinParadiseinthemostradiantplace,AndIrubmyheartonitsothatperhapsTheburningthirstwhichragesinitmaybequenched.71

TheNorthAfricanhistorianal-Maqarri(d.1644)devotedavoluminousbooktothesubjectoftheProphet’ssandals;72itsmorethanfivehundredpagescontainnotonlyproseandpoeticaltextsbutalsodrawingsofthesandalsastheywereusedbypeopleasaprotectivetalisman,for“itprotectedone’shousefromfire,caravansfromhostileattacks,shipsfromdisasteratseaandpropertyfromloss.”Around the turn of the present century, Yusuf an-Nabhani, the collector ofeulogiesfortheProphet,sanginoneofhispoems:

VerilyIservetheimageofthesandalofMustafaSothatImayliveinbothworldsunderitsprotection.73

ThesandaloftheProphet,fromtheDhakhīraoftheSharqawa

(ReprintedbypermissionofDr.MohammedSijelmassi)

Popular songs in honor of the n’āal sharīfa, the “noble sandals,” havepersisteddowntothepresent,accordingtoanIraqifriendwhorememberssuchsongsfromherchildhoodinBaghdad.Inadditiontothesandals,anotherrelicthatbecamewidelyacceptedwasthe

impressionoftheProphet’sfoot.74Accordingtolegend,Muhammad’sfootleftatraceontherockinJerusalemwherehealightedduringhisnightjourneybeforeascending into theDivinePresence.TheDomeof theRockwasbuilt tohonorandprotectthesite,whichisgreatlyrevered.Atvarioustimesandplacesotherlarge stones have been found with an impression in them that came to be

regarded as the trace of the Prophet’s foot, and hence worthy of veneration.Whenvisitingsuchafootprintonetouchesthestoneandthenpassesone’shandover theupperpart of one’sbody, beginningwith thehead, inorder toobtainsomeofthestone’sbaraka.Thatthiscustomgoesbacktoaratherearlyperiodisshownbythefactthatintheyear1304,thereformisttheologianIbnTaimiyya,whotriedtoremovesuchastoneinDamascustostopthesuperstitiouspracticesconnectedwithit,wasdrivenawaybytheenragedmassesandevenaccusedofimpiety.75Onealsopouredwateroversuchqadamrasūlstones,whichwasthenusedforitsacquiredbaraka.FromtheMiddleAgesonwardsuchstoneswerebroughttoIndiabycredulous

pilgrims. One of the first known instances is connectedwith the name of thegreatSuhrawardi saintMakhdumJahaniyan fromUcch,whodeposited such aqadamrasūl inDelhi.76 Itmust have been this veryqadamsharīf, “the noblefootprint,” thatSultanFerozTughluqplacedonhis son’s tomb.As late as theearlynineteenth century“anannual fair [was]heldon the12thRabi’al-awwal(thatis,theProphet’sbirthday)”atthatsite;oneobserverca.1840reportedthat“thousands of malang faqīrs assemble and perform ecstasies in front of itsgate.”77 Soon a number of places between Narayanganj (Bangladesh), Gaur(WestBengal), andGujarat boasted of owning such a relic. (Shia sanctuaries,incidentally, sometimes preserve a footprint of ʽAli in stone, for instance atMaulalinearHyderabad/Deccan.)The veneration for the qadam rasūl was so deeply rooted that even the

MoghulemperorAkbarwaiteduponsuchastone thatoneofhisgrandeeshadbroughtbackfromhispilgrimagetoMeccain1589.Becausethishappenedaftertherulerhadpromulgatedthedīn-iilāhī,hiseclecticreligiousorder,thecriticalchroniclerBadaoninotestheeventwithgreatamazement:howwassuchrespectfortheProphet’sfootprintcompatiblewiththeruler’sotherwiseso“un-Islamic”attitude?78LateUrdupoets loved tosingof thegloryof theProphet’s footprint, for,as

theyfelt,

ThetraceofhisfoothastherankofMountSinai,79

thatis,itistheplacewheretheDivineLightbecomesvisible,andtherefore,

Mustafa’sfootprintistheplacewherethebearersoftheDivineThroneprostratethemselves.80

Evenmore than theqadam rasūl, hairs from the Prophet’s beard became a

mostvaluedrelic.Thebeautyofhisbeardwasalwaysemphasized,81andashairand beard are considered to be endowedwith special power, the oath “by theProphet’s beard” was considered extremely powerful. The Prophet is said tohavegivenhairstohisfaithfulfollowers,andunderstandably,thepiousstrovetoacquire at least some of them.Khalid ibn al-Walid, the victorious hero of thebattleofYarmuk,keptsomeoftheProphet’shairsinhisheadgearandclaimed,astraditionhasit,“Whosoeverdoesso,willbevictorious.”82Overthecenturies,a number of sacred places in Islamic countries have been fortunate enough topossess such a relic,83 which is usually preserved in a small precious vessel.Veneration remains strong even today: only recently the beautiful Hazrat-balMosqueinSrinagarwasbuilt intheplaceofanother,oldermosqueinordertogive “themostvenerablehair” (hażratbāl) aworthy abode.Non-Muslims arevery rarely allowed to see the relic; on one occasion the AlaettinMosque inKonya (Anatolia) did permit my mother and me to view the sacred hair,preservedinaveryfineglassbottle.Usuallyitiswellguarded,tobeexhibitedoncertainfestivedays;inRohri,Pakistan,forinstance,thejewel-studdedvesselis displayed once each year, inMarch. Sometimes onlymen, notwomen, areadmittedintothepresenceofsuchavaluablerelic,aswediscoveredintheAtharMahalinBijapur(Deccan)in1979and1980.Andthetheft—orallegedtheft—ofsuchahaircanstillcauseextensiverioting,aswasthecasesomeyearsagoinKashmir.BesidesthevenerationofrelicsconnectedwiththeProphet’sbodilypresence,

theMuslimscarefullystudiedthewayinwhichhecaredforhisbody,becauseinthisrespecttoo,hewastakenastheparadigmofbehavior.AccordingtoA’isha,he neverwoke upwithout using themiswāk, a piece of twig that serves as atoothbrush. Therefore themiswāk plays an important role inMuslim life—somuch so that an Indian mystical writer of the eighteenth century, NasirMuhammad Andalib, praised the use of the toothbrush as a special sign ofDivinegracebywhich theMuslimsaredistinguishedfromallotherpeoples.84WhethertheProphetusedantimonytoblackenhiseyesornot,whetherornothedaubed his hair and beard with henna85—all manner of details constitutedproblemswhoseappropriatesolutionwascritically important togenerationsofpiousMuslimswhohadneverseenhiminthefleshbutwantedtoremainfaithfultohissunnaevenintheexternals.And thereareother issuesaswell:most importantly, that theProphetbegan

everyworkwiththerighthand(ortherightfoot),andusedexclusivelytherighthandforeating.Thusthefirstthreefingersofthishandaretobeemployedwhenobtaining food; the left hand should be used only for the purification after

urinating and defecation. Even today a traditionalMuslimwould never touchfoodwiththelefthand;whendiningwithforkandknife(theuseofwhichwasviolentlydebatedinpiouscirclesinthelatenineteenthcentury),manyprefertotaketheforkintheright,theknifeinthelefthand.Even the food that the Prophet liked and disliked is carefully recorded.

Although the sources usually stress his modesty, his prolonged periods offasting,and,attimes,hisstarving,theystillagreethathelikedcertainfoodstuffsbetter than others, for instance the foreleg of lamb, milk, and dates. Sweets,particularlyhoney,wereamonghisfavorites.Suchdetailsweretakenoverinthedescriptive poetry written about him. Composed at the turn of the presentcentury, Nabhani’s Hamziyya, a biographical poem of many hundred verses,singsnotonlyof thespiritualgreatnessof theProphetandofhismiracles,butalsotellshow

HelikedallpermittedfoodAndheparticularlylovedḥalwā.Helikedcreamanddatesverymuch,andotherthingsThathelikedweremelonandsquash…86

Anas ibn Malik, who served the Prophet for many years and thus becameacquaintedwithhishabits,isreportedtohavesaid:“OnceIsawtheMessengerofGodfetchpiecesofsquash(kūsa) fromthekettle,andfromthatdayIhavealways loved squash.”87 A famous example of the tradition-bound attitude ofpiousMuslims isconnectedwithSayyidAhmadKhan,who in1850,whenhewas in his early thirties, discussed with Azurda, the Mufti of Delhi, thepermissibilityofeatingmangoesandendedtheconversationwiththeemphaticstatement:“ByGod,whoholdsmylifeinHishands!IfapersonrefrainsfromeatingmangoesforthesolemotivethattheProphetdidnoteatthem—theangelswillcometohisdeathbedtokisshisfeet.”88ToeatthisfavoritefruitofIndianMuslimswasthusforhimcertainly“doubtful”:itwas“bettertoleaveit.”SayyidAhmad,whowastobecomethereformerofIndianIslam,herefollowedexactlythe attitudemanifested by the greatmystic Bayezid Bistami a thousand yearsbefore him: according to legend, this saint did not eatmelons for sixty years,becausehedidnotknowhowtheProphetcutthatfruit.89While the favorite foods of the Prophet have been lovingly adopted by the

Muslims, they are not bound to follow his aversion to garlic and onion—although they should avoid consuming those vegetables before going to themosque.90 The Prophet disliked their smell and thought that the archangel

Gabriel might be offended by it when descending to bring him anotherrevelation.TheProphet’sattitudetowardmedicineshouldalsobementionedbriefly.He

said: “God did not send any illness unless he sends amedicine for it.”91 Thewater with which he hadwashed himself was often reused by the pious as amedicine because of its baraka—a custom well known in the history ofreligions.Likewise,andfor thesamereason,hissalivacouldserveforhealingpurposes,anditisoftentoldthathecuredʽAli’ssoreeyesbyputtingsomeofhissalivaonthem.92Itseemsthatheattributedspecial importance tocuppingandalso recommended the use of purgatives, for he apparently considered thestomachtobeanimportantsourceofmanyailments;fromhissketchyremarksin this field a special science developed, called at-tibb an-nabawī, “Propheticmedicine,”whichisstillpracticedeventodayinsomeplaces.Hisownsuccessin healing—of which some popular stories give examples—was part of thebaraka thataccompanies thesaintlypersonand thatenableshimsometimes toperformhealingmiraclesbymerelytouchingapersonorbreathinguponhim.93ManyMuslimshavealsoexperienced thatMuhammad’sapparition inadreamcured them, and it is believed that prayers “by the honor of theMessenger ofGod”willdefinitelyhelpanailingpersontogetwellsoon.Muhammad is often called ṭabīb, “physician,” for the prophets are, as

Ghazzalisays,“thephysiciansof thesoul,”whocanrecognize theailmentsofthe humanheart and can heal themby their teaching and preaching.Thus theProphet appears frequently—especially in poetry—as the ṭabīb and ḥabīb,physician and beloved friend, and it is under this twofold aspect that hiscommunitytrustsinhimandloveshim.AsMaulanaRumisingsinalovelylittleArabicpoem:

Hādhāḥabībī,hādhāṭabībī,hādhāadībī,hādhādawā’ī…Thisismyfriend,thisismyphysician,thisismytutor,thisismyremedy…,94

THEPROPHET’SSPIRITUALBEAUTY

Muhammad is considered, as we have already mentioned, the paragon ofphysical beauty. His face was, as later poets often claimed, “the Koran copy,muṣḥaf, of beauty,” and the dark “down” on his cheeks the “text of the sent-down revelation.”95 But this external beauty was but a mirror of his interiorbeauty, forGodhadcreatedhimperfect innatureandmoralqualities,khalqanwakhulqan.When ʽA’isha,his favoriteyoungwife,wasonceasked about his

character she simply stated: “His characterwas theKoran—he likedwhat theKoranliked,andgrewangrywhentheKoranwasangry.”96The Western reader, raised in a centuries-old tradition of aversion to

Muhammad,willprobablybesurprisedtolearnthatinallreportsthequalitythatis particularly emphasized in the Prophet is his humility and kindness. Qadi‘Iyad,oneofthebestrepresentativesofthereverentadmirationoftheProphetsotypicalofMuslimpiety,writes:

Godhaselevated thedignityofHisProphetandgrantedhimvirtues,beautifulqualities and special prerogatives. He has praised his high dignity sooverwhelminglythatneither tonguenorpenaresufficient[todescribehim].InHisbookHehasclearlyandopenlydemonstratedhishighrankandpraisedhimforhisqualitiesofcharacterandhisnoblehabits.HeasksHisservantstoattachthemselvestohimandtofollowhimobediently.ItisGod—greatisHisMajesty!—who grants honor and grace, who purifies and refines, He that lauds andpraisesandgrantsaperfectrecompense…Heplacesbeforeoureyeshisnoblenature, perfected and sublime in every respect. He grants him perfect virtue,praiseworthyqualities,noblehabitsandnumerouspreferences.Hesupportshismessagewithradiantmiracles,clearproofs,andapparentsigns.97

AllreportsspeakofMuhammad’sfriendly,kindlybutseriousattitudeandpointout that he did not often laugh. (One famous Prophetic tradition, frequentlyquoted by the early ascetics, says: “If you knewwhat I know youwould crymuchandlaughlittle.”)98However,heisalsosaidtohavehadamostwinningsmilethatneverfailedtoenchanthisfollowers,andGhazzalievenmentionshistendencytolaugh.99HissoftspokenhumorispalpablefromsomeearlyIslamicstories,suchasthefollowing:“Onedayalittleoldwomancametohimtoaskwhether old wretched women would also go to Paradise. ‘No,’ answered theProphet,‘therearenooldwomeninParadise!’Andthen,lookingathergrievedface, he continuedwith a smile: ‘Theywill all be transformed inParadise forthere, there is onlyoneyouthful age for all!’”100Andhis practicalwisdom indealingwith his companions is nicely revealed in his remark toAbuHuraira,whohadthehabitofvisitinghimtoooften:zurghabbantazdidḥubban,“Visitrarely,thenyou’llbelovedmore!”101ThesourcespraiseMuhammad’sconcernfor theweak,andhiskindliness is

alwayshighlighted:“Hedidnotbeataservant,noramaidservant,andnoneofhiswives,”saysthetradition.Tirmidhidescribeshimasfollows:“Hewaswellacquaintedwithsorrow,muchabsorbedinthought,hadlittlerest,wassilentforlongperiodsanddidnottalkwithoutcause.Hebeganandfinishedhistalkwith

the formula ‘In thenameofGod.’His talkwaspithy,neither too longnor tooshort, not coarse, but also not too playful or light.He honored each ofGod’ssigns of grace, even though it might be small, and never found blame inanything.”102Practicaladvicetohispeopleisnotlackingeither.WhenaBedouinaskedhim

whether,sincehetrustedinGodandHisprotection,hecouldlethiscamelroamloose, the Prophet answered briefly: I’qilhāwa tawakkal, “First tether it, andthentrustinGod.”103Theimportanceofactivityinthisworld,ascontrastedtoan unhealthy fatalism that leads in the long run to a lack of responsibility, isexpressedbestintheoft-repeatedḥadīth:“Thisworldistheseedbedforthenextworld”;104 every action upon which man embarks here will bring its fruits—goodorbad—inthenextworld,atthedayofResurrection.Furthermore,everyfaithfulMuslim should be reminded to appropriate the Prophet’s short prayer“OhLord,increasemyknowledge!”Thedevoutshouldlikewiseimitatehiswayof dealing with his contemporaries and behavior in society.Was he not evenblamed in theKoran(Sura80: i) for frowningwhenablindvisitor interruptedhim in an important conversation?105 This Divine blame led him to a well-balanced kindness toward everyone: “When someone camewith a request hewasnotsentoffbeforeithadbeengrantedorbeforehehadatleastreceivedafriendlyword. The Prophet’s friendliness and largesse encompassed everyone;hewaslikeafatherforhiscompanions.”106To illustrate such brief remarks, long and touching legends easily grew up

overthecenturies.AmongthemisonetoldbyRumiinhisMathnawī:Aninfidelvisited the Prophet and, as is the infidels’ custom, “atewith seven stomachs.”Afterstuffinghimselfovermuchhelaydownintheguestroom,wherehesoiledthelinen,andleavingtheroomdirty,slippedoutsecretlybeforedawn.However,hehadtoreturntoseekanamuletthathehadforgotteninhisroom,andfoundthe Prophet washing the sullied linen with his own hands. Of course heimmediatelybecameaMuslim,puttoshamebysuchhumilityandgenerosity.107Suchstoriescannothavebeeninventedwithoutanybasis;theymaygobacktoearlyhistoricalnuclei,havingbeenelaboratedinlatertimestomaketheidealsofMuslimascetic-mysticalcirclesconformwiththeexampleoftheProphet.Along these lines, Muhammad’s poverty and the destitute situation of his

familymembers form an essential theme of popular tradition. His bread, it issaid,wasmadefromunsiftedbarley,andsomereportsdescribehowheandhisfamily, especially his beloved daughter Fatima, suffered from hunger many anight.Infact,theProphetalwaysfastenedastoneonhisstomachtosuppressthefeeling of hunger,108 and the misery of Fatima has been told in heartrending

stories (mainly in theShiite tradition). It is even related that after theProphethadreturnedfromhismostsublimeexperience, theheavenly journey, thenextmorninghehadtoborrowsomebarleyfromanunsympatheticJewishmerchantin order to assuage his hunger. ʽUmar ibn al-Khattab, destined to becomeMuhammad’s second successor, once wept when looking at the Prophet’smiserablehousehold;uponbeingaskedthereasonforhistears,herepliedthathecould not bear the idea that Khosroes and Caesar, the rulers of Iran andByzantium,livedinluxurywhiletheProphetofGodwasnearstarvationinhispoverty. “They have thisworld, andwe the next one,” answered the Prophet,consolinghim.109HadnotGodofferedhim thekeysofall treasuresonearth?YethehadrefusedthembecausehewantedtostaywithhisLord,“Whofeedsmeandgivesmetodrink.”110DidnotGodwanttomakehimaking-prophetlikeDavid and Solomon, though he preferred to be a servant-prophet? “I eat as aslaveeats,andsitasaslavesits,forIamaslave[ofGod].”Hisprayer,whichbecame a favoritewithmystics and ascetics,was: “OhLord, keepme hungryonedayandsatiatedoneday.WhenIamhungryIpraytoyou,andwhenIamfullIsingyourpraise.”111AndthesufferingsinflicteduponhimbytheunfeelingMeccansresultedinhisremarkthat“thosemostafflictedaretheprophets,thenthesaints,andthentheothersaccordingtotheirposition.”112ItistoldthatsomeonecametotheProphetandsaid:“Iloveyou,OMessenger

ofGod!”Towhichhereplied:“Bereadyforpoverty!”113Henceloveofthepoorbecameasignof lovefor theProphet: tohonor thepoorand toassociatewiththemmeansnotonlytofollowhisexamplebut,inacertainsense,tohonorhimin them. The Prophet’s admonition concerning the treatment of slaves—“Letthemwearwhatyouwear,andletthemeatwhatyoueat”—wasquitepopularinlatercenturies,asseveralanecdotesprove.114In later timesMuhammad’s saying faqrī fakhrī, “My poverty ismy pride,”

became themottoof themystical seekers.115Povertywasnowunderstoodnotmerely as destitution but rather as a spiritual stage that consists in man’sknowledgeofhisownlowlinessandpovertybeforeGod,theOneWhoHasNoNeed(al-ghanī); for it is said in theKoran: “He is theRich, and you are thepoor!”(Sura35:16).ThustheProphetbecamethemodelforthenihilhabentes,omniapossedentesofIslam.Partofthismysticalconceptofpovertyisgratitude.Thewordsof Job,“TheLordhasgiven, theLordhas takenaway—praisedbethenameoftheLord!”expresstheMuslims’idealofacceptance.Itwasthiskindof gratitude that the Prophet practiced, and his saying “I cannot account thepraise due toThee”has been central tomystical reflectionupongratitude andpraiseofGod.116

Muhammad’slovingkindnessextendedoverallbeings.Hewasnotedforhisloveofchildren,andusedtogreettheminthestreetandplaywiththem.LaterfolkballadstellintouchingverseshowhistwograndsonsHasanandHusain—often simply called al-Hasanain, the Two Hasans—climbed on “Gran’ DadProphet’s” backwhile hewas performing his prayer,117 and hewas not at alldisturbedbythelivelyboys,whowere“theearringsoftheheavenlyThrone.”118For the Prophet had been informed byGabriel about their future sad fate: theangelhadbroughtagreenrobeforHasanandaredoneforHusaintoindicatethat the formerwoulddie frompoison,whereashisyoungerbrotherwouldbeslain in battle.119 The Prophet therefore had a special attachment to thesegrandchildren, and it is told that when one of his companions saw him kissHasan,andremarkedwithdisdain,“Ihavetenboysbuthaveneverkissedanyofthem,” theProphet thereupon replied: “Hewhodoesnot showmercywill notreceivemercy.”120Muhammad was also known for his love of animals. He once promised

Paradise to a sinful, evilwomanwhohad savedadog fromdeathby fetchingwaterforit.Buthehadaspeciallikingforcats.Didhenotcutthesleevefromhiscoatwhenhehadtogetupforprayerandyetdidnotwanttodisturbthecatthatwassleepingonthesleeve?Oneofhiscatsevengavebirthtokittensonhiscoat, and special blessings were extended to Abu Huraira’s cat, who killed asnakethat triedtocheat theProphetandstinghimdespite thekindnesshehadshown it.Becausehepetted thiscat’sback,catsnever fallon theirbacks;andbecausehis five fingers leftamarkonher forehead,everycathassomeblackstripesoverhereyes.121 (One is remindedof theblack lineson thepetalsofafragrantyellowflowerthatbloomsinspringneartheKhyberPass,calledbythePathanspaighāmbargul,“theProphet’sflower.”)122RememberingtheProphet’sfondnessforcats,oneḥadīthclaimsthat“loveofcatsispartoffaith.”123Suchtraditions have led to the formation ofmany charming legends in theMuslimworld, and the individual creatures thatwere promised Paradise (among themAbuHuraira’s cat) have even become part of German literature sinceGoetheintroduced them in hisWest-Östlicher Divan as Begünstigte Tiere, PreferredAnimals.OneaspectoftheProphet’slifehasalwayspuzzled,bothered,evenshocked,

non-Muslimstudentsof Islam:hisattitude towomen.At theendofhis lifehewasmarried to ninewives. Someone raised in theChristian tradition,with itsascetic ideal of the celibate Jesus and its stress onmonogamy,will of coursehavedifficultyacknowledgingthatatrueprophetcouldhavebeenmarried,nay,evenpolygamous. Indeed,oneof themost frequently reiteratedattacksagainst

Muhammad from the early Middle Ages to this day has been the charge oflasciviousness and sexual vice. TheMuslim, on the other hand, feels that thecapacity of the Prophet to combine the worldly and the spiritual spheres is aspecial proof of his high rank. (The Koranic restriction of polygamy to fourwives,whomust be treatedwith absolutely equal justice according to specificscriptural orders, was in fact a great improvement on pre-Islamic customs.)Islamicapologeticsconstantlyemphasize thatMuhammadmarriedsomeofhiswives in lateryearswith the intentionofgivinganewhometo thewidowsoffightersforthefaith.Besides, thenumerouswivesandconcubinesofSolomonandDavid,thetwokingsofIsraelwhoappearintheKoranasprophetsandthusprecursors ofMuhammad, make the number ofMuhammad’s marriages afterKhadija’s death look quite modest. One often forgets that Muhammad wasmarried, for the better part of his life, only to one wife, Khadija, who wasconsiderablyseniortohim.Onlyinhislastthirteenyearsdidhecontractseveralothermarriages, and even so, as noted earlier,Khadija remained somuch hisidealafterherdeaththattheyoungAishaneverceasedbeingjealousofher.Muhammadsetanexampleforhiscommunityinhistreatmentofhiswives,

who were by no means always united in harmonious love. “To marry is mysunna”:thiswordwasrelatedfromhiminearlytimes,andthereforeIslamdoesnot cultivate the idealof celibacy. “There isnomonkery in Islam,”as anotherḥadīthhasit.Certainly,someasceticspreferredcelibacy,butevenamongthemone finds saintlypeoplewho thanks toavisionof theProphet in theirdreamswerefinallyanimatedtogetmarried—sufficeittomentionIbnKhafifofShiraz(d.982)andMaulanaRumi’sfather,thenotedtheologianBahauddinWalad(d.1231).124Some of themost important traditions concerningMuhammad’s private life

arereportedontheauthorityofAisha,whowasstillachildplayingwithdollswhen shebecamebetrothed toher father’s friend. It isAishawho stresses themodesty and bashfulness, ḥayā, of the Prophet, a quality that the believer isexpected to possess in large measure. A’isha is the authority of numerousḥadīth.125 Itwas shewhoheardMuhammad say, “Myeyes are asleepbutmyheartisawake,”126andthuslearnedthattheProphetwasspirituallyawakeevenduringthetimesthathesharedherbedandseemedtoslumber,becauseheneverlost the spiritual connectionwith his Lord.And sometimes hewould tenderlycallher:KallimīnīyāḤumairā,“Talktome,youlittlereddishgirl!”127Muhammadwashumanenoughtorecognizetheweakspotsinhumanbeings,

including women. In Goethe’s West-Östlicher Divan we find a poeticaltransformationoftheḥadīthaccordingtowhichGod“hascreatedwomanfroma

crookedrib;ifherhusbandwantstouseherlethimuseherascrookedbecauseifhetriestostraightenhershewillbreak,andherbreakingisdivorce.”128Thatdoesnotsoundliketheequalrightsofwomen’sliberation,inthemodernsense,butitwasagreatstepforwardfromasocialsysteminwhichnewborndaughtershadsometimesbeenburiedalivebecausetheparentswereafraidthattheywouldbeunabletofeedandrearthem.Naturally, Muslim exegetes have considered the problem of the Prophet’s

manymarriages.AlthoughtheyadmitthatingeneralwomenareabletodistractmenanddivertthemfromGodandfromtheirpreoccupationwithspiritualgoals,theyareconvincedthecaseisdifferentwiththeProphet:“HiswiveshaveneverdivertedhimfromGod,rather,itwasanincreaseinhispietythathekeptthemchaste and made them participate in his merits and his guidance. Althoughmarriage is, forothers,anaffairof thisworldherathersought theotherworldwithhismarriages.”129Thisstatement,byamedievaltheologian,isechoedbyawriterinthetwentiethcentury:“ThemultiplemarriagesoftheProphet,farfrompointing to his weakness towards ‘the flesh,’ symbolize his patriarchal natureandhisfunction,notasasaintwhowithdrawsfromtheworld,butasonewhosanctifiestheverylifeoftheworldbylivinginitandacceptingitwiththeaimofintegratingitintoahigherorderofreality.”130In this connection one should not forget the high veneration shown by the

Prophettomothers.Itistoldthat“whentheProphetwasinformedoncethatthemonk Juraij did not care for hismother,whowanted to see him,Muhammadsaid: ‘If Juraijwere a learned, knowingmonkhewouldhaveknown that it ispart of the service of God to answer one’s mother’s call.’ “131 Tradition alsoascribed to him the beautiful saying “Paradise lies beneath the feet of themothers.”132OnehastobewareofderivinglaterdevelopmentsinIslamicsocieties,suchas

purdahor theveilingofwomen, fromMuhammad’sownexample.Heorderedonly certain restrictions for his own wives, “the mothers of the faithful”; ingeneraltheKoranspeaksmerelyofarequireddecentcoveringforwomen,andtraditioncallsforthecoveringofthehead,nottheface.TheexampleofA’ishashows thatwomen inearly Islamicdaysparticipatedactively insocial lifeandcommunal affairs. In advanced age, long after theProphet’s death, she herselfevenwentoutintothebattlefield.Asmuch as the Islamic ascetics derogatedwomen as dangerous, deceptive,

andunintelligent creatures,133 they could not completely blacken the feminineimage, for the Koran repeatedly speaks of the pious and faithful men andwomen,al-mu’minūnwa’l-mu’mināt, and of theMuslimwomen, al-muslimāt,

whohave the same religiousdutiesasmenandwill receiveequal recompensefor their performance. The Prophet’s love for his wives and his daughters,especiallyFatima,itselfexcludedanycompletelynegativejudgment.Indeedoneof themost frequently repeated sayings ofMuhammad states: “Godhasmadedeartomefromyourworldwomenandfragrance,andthejoyofmyeyesisinprayer.”ThegreatmedievalmysticaltheologianIbnArabimadethissayingthecenterofanextendedmeditationdesignedtoevokesublimethoughtsaboutthemysteriesoftheProphetofIslam.134Astonishingasitsoundstoanon-Muslim,thisḥadīth allows us a glimpse into the twofold function of the Prophet,whoknew how to combine this world and the next and, if we follow the Islamicinterpretation,howtosanctifyboth.Another aspect of the Prophet’s biography that may appear repellent to

Westerntastesandiscorrespondinglydifficulttoassesscorrectlyishisblendingofreligionandpolitics,ofdīnwadaula.Thenormalpatternaccordingtowhichthe non-Muslim judges Muhammad, namely that he was “prophet andstatesman,” usually implies that while he began as a sincere religious seeker,after his migration to Medina he became an unscrupulous politician and thecunning leader of a fast-growing armed community. The Muslim,understandably, sees this development from a completely different angle: themessageofChrist,withitsemphasisonotherworldlinessandwithdrawal,seemsincomplete and, despite its admirable traits, defective; surely a successfulprophet should also use worldly means to propagate the message that Godentrusted to him. What seems to the non-Muslim a contradiction, that is,Muhammad’s role as prophet and statesman, is according to the Muslim’sconviction the very proof of Muhammad’s unique role as God’s messenger,evidencinghisgreatnessandthetruthofhismessage.HowcouldithappenthatGod,who sent him, should not grant him ultimate success and inspire him toguidehiscommunitywell?ThebattleofBadr,inwhich“notyoucastwhenyoucast,butGodcast”(Sura

8:17),hadgiventheMuslimswhohadmigratedtoMedinaforthefirsttimethefeelingthattheheavenlyhostswerewiththem,supportingthemintheirstruggle,andeventheskirmishesoflateryears,thefightsandnegotiationsthatledtothereconquestofMeccaafteracomparativelyshortspanoftime,wereinterpretedby them as signs of Divine succor. The irresistible spread of Islam over theArabianPeninsuladuring theProphet’s lifetimeand,evenmore, the incrediblyfastexpansionof Islamicrule in thefirstcenturyafterMuhammad’sdeath leftnoroomfordoubt:thisvictoriousreligionwasindeed the truereligion,andhewhohadpreacheditwasthetrueProphetofGod.Whobutsuchapersoncould

havebroughtthefinalandall-comprehensiverevelation?HewasclearlysentnotonlytotheArabsbutto“theRedandtheBlack,”thatis,toallpeoplesandraces.Even in early times the proof of the truth of Muhammad’s message was

derived from the success of Islam. This argument has been used even morepointedly in modern times. If a Western observer, brought up in the liberaltraditionofpost-Enlightenmentthought,claimsthatreligionandpolitics(inthewidest sense of theword) should be separated and that religion is a personal,interiorized, and exclusively private affair, a matter of the heart alone, thetraditional Muslim will explain to him that, rather, religion and state belongtogetherlikethetwosidesofacoin.IfMuhammad—asitwassaidatsomepointin Islamichistory—is theaxisaroundwhich theHeilsgeschichte of thehumanraceisrevolving, thenthepoliticalandsocialaspectsof life toobelongtothatprocess. Muhammad’s political acumen, his battle for social improvement inMeccaandevenmoreinMedina,his“constitution”ofMedina,whichispraisedtoday as a model of modern democratic institutions, and his activities in theeconomicsector—alltheseappealtothemodernMuslimasexamplesbywhichhetooshouldshapehislifeandthatofhiscommunity.ThereisnoroominIslamforthedualismofagoodspiritualrealmandanevilmaterialsphere:thisworldtoohasbeencreatedbyGod,andHehasmadeitsubservienttoman.Thatisonereason why orthodox Muslims have often turned against certain mysticalcurrents thathave reviled thisworld in favorof theotherworldandurged theabandonment of worldly activities for the hope of eternal beatitude: “ThespiritualityofIslamofwhichtheProphetistheprototypeisnottherejectionoftheworldbutthetranscendingofitthroughitsintegrationintoaCentreandtheestablishmentofaharmonyuponwhichthequestoftheAbsoluteisbased.”135The kingdom of God, whichMuhammad announced, was also of this world.Thereforethemysticwho,completelysubmergedinthevisionofGod,wantstostayforeverintherealmofspiritwithoutreturninghithertothematerialsphere,hasbeenfrequentlycontrastedinIslamicthoughtwiththeProphet,whoreturnedto thisworld after his ineffable dialoguewithGod, in order to ameliorate theworldandtoimplementthefruitsofhisinspirationforthebettermentofsociety.Partofthepictureisthejihād,theso-calledHolyWar,whichisinterpretedas

awar against infidelity for the sake of bringing near all-embracing peace, thePaxIslamica.

TheProphetembodiestoaneminentdegreethisperfectionofcombativevirtue.IfonethinksoftheBuddhaassittinginastateofcontemplationundertheBo-tree,theProphetcanbeimaginedasaridersittingonasteedwiththeswordofjusticeanddiscrimination inhishandandgallopingat full speed,yet ready to

cometoanimmediatehaltbeforethemountainofTruth.…Hisrestandreposewasintheheartoftheholywaritselfandherepresentsthisaspectofspiritualityinwhichpeacecomesnotinpassivitybutintrueactivity.PeacebelongstoonewhoisinwardlyatpeacewiththeWillofHeavenandoutwardlyatwarwiththeforcesofdisruptionanddisequilibrium.136

ItisinthisdeepersenseofjihādthattheProphetdeclared,inafamousḥadīth,that “the greatest jihād is that against the nafs, the base instincts,”137 thoseinstincts and evil qualities that should be subdued and transformed intosomethingpositive.Muhammadthusembodiesthequalitythathasbeentermed(byNathanSoderblom)the“PropheticNo,”thedistinctivefeatureofpropheticreligiosity,ascontrastedwiththeall-inclusive“mysticalNo.”138Differences in the interpretationof theProphet’s sociopoliticalactivitiescan

easilyariseamongtheMuslims.Thematerialatourdisposalismany-sidedandoftencontradictory,andtheveryhistoryofearlyIslamposesnumerousproblemsto the faithful as to how to implement the Prophet’s ideals. Herein lies onereasonforthedifficultiesthatmodernnationsfacewhentheyattempttocreateatruly “Islamic” state based on the teachings of the Koran and the Propheticsunna.OneshouldnotforgetthatsomeaspectsoftheProphet’spoliticalcareerhave

provided the Muslims with a special terminology. His Hegira, for example,becamethemodelofthehijraofpiousmenandwomenwholefttheircountriesin search of a home under Islamic rule. One such hijra occurred after theextensionofBritish rule in India, and thosewho left India forPakistan in thewakeofpartitionarecalled,liketheProphet’sCompanionswhosettledwithhimin Medina, the muhājirūn, a word that gives their emigration a distinctlyreligiousflavor.Inwarandpeace,athomeandintheworld,inthereligioussphereasinevery

phaseofworkingandacting,theProphetistheidealmodelofmoralperfection.Whatever he did remains exemplary for his followers. Thus his prayers havebecome formulas that the Muslims, hoping for Divine response, repeatconstantly.Koranic sentences ofwhich hewas particularly fond are also verydeartotheMuslims,whotrytousetheminthesamemannerasdidtheProphet.Forinstance,whengoingtobed,oneshouldrememberwhatA’ishatold:“When[the Prophet]went to bed hewould put his two hands together and reciteal-Ikhlāʽ (Sura 112) and themuʽawwidhatān (Suras 113–14), then blow into hishandsandpassthemoverasmuchofhisbodyashecouldreach,beginningwithhis head and face and the nearer parts.And this hewould do three times. Tocopyhiminthisisapproved.”139Thisḥadīthisonlyoneinstanceofmanymodel

prayerusagesoftheProphet.EverystandardworkofIslamicreligiouseducationcontainschapterswithnumeroususefulformulasandprayers, firstusedby theProphet,thatarestillverymuchaliveinthecommunityofthefaithful.In these prayers, the Messenger’s humility and trust in God is especially

evident. He always appears aware of his own need for forgiveness: “I askforgivenessfromGodseventy[sometimes,onehundred]timesaday.”140Eventhoughsuchanexpressionseemstocontradictthelong-standingdoctrineofhispropheticʽisma, that is,freedomfromsinsanddefects, it isusuallyinterpretedashiseffort,whateverhisownexcellence,toprovideanexampleforhissinfulcommunitysothattheymightprayinawarenessoftheirhumanweakness.Herehisroleasteacherofhisfollowerscomestothefore.Heis,afterall,quotedassaying:“Ihavecometoperfectthenoblehabits.”Theethicalnormsthatarehandeddownfromhimbreathethesamespiritas

thosetaughtbyallgreatreligiousleaders.Asked“Whatisvirtue?”heanswered:“Askyourheartforafatwā[legaldecision].Virtueiswhenthesoulfeelspeaceand the heart feels peace, and sin is what creates restlessness in the soul andrumblesinthebosom.”141Andwhenasked“WhatisthebestIslam?”hereplied:“ThebestIslamisthatyoufeedthehungryandspreadpeaceamongpeopleyouknowandthoseyoudonotknow.”The imitation of the noble actions and thoughts that Muhammad, the

“beautiful model,” had taught his community by his personal example wasmeant to form each and every Muslim, as it were, into a likeness of theMessenger. This is so that each, like him, should givewitness ofGod’s unitythrough his or her whole being and existence. Therefore, as it is said in theDalā’lal-khairāt, the piousMuslim should pray: “I askThee,O ourLord, toemployusinhis[Muhammad’s]usages,tocauseustodieinhiscommunity,tonumber us in his band, under his banner, and tomake us his companions, tosupplyusfromhisreservoir,togiveustodrinkfromhiscup,andtogiveustheboonofhislove.”142It is this ideal of the imitatioMuhammadi that has providedMuslims from

Morocco to Indonesiawithsuchauniformityofaction:whereveronemaybe,oneknowshowtobehavewhenenteringahouse,whichformulasofgreetingtoemploy, what to avoid in good company, how to eat, and how to travel. ForcenturiesMuslimchildrenhavebeenbroughtupintheseways,andonlyrecentlyhas this traditional world broken down under the onslaught of the moderntechnological culture. Awareness of the danger that now confronts Islamictradition has certainly contributed to the sudden growth of MuslimfundamentalismthatcameassuchasurprisetotheunpreparedWesternworld.

But onemust keep one thing inmind: it would be unthinkable that such atradition could have developed if Muhammad had not been blessed by anunusual charisma. As Johann FUck aptly says, “Still today we see in trueMuslimpietyareflectionofthatGotteserlebnis[experienceofthedivine]whichforced—1,300yearsago—MuhammadsonofAbdallahtocomeforwardandtopreach of God and the Last Judgment.”143 And we certainly agree with TorAndrae,who in 1917wrote in his study of the role of theProphet inMuslimdoctrineandpiety:“WehaveallreasontobelievethatMuhammadindeedknewtheartofwinningheartstoararedegree.”144

THREE:MUHAMMAD’SUNIQUEPOSITION

One important chapter in Islamic prophetology concerns the ʽiṣma of theProphet. This term means basically “protection or freedom (from moraldepravity)”andconnotesvirtuallyautomaticallynotonlyperfectmoralintegritybutevenimpeccability.For,asIslamteaches,GodprotectsHisprophetsfromsinanderrorlestHisDivinewordbepollutedbyanyexternalstainuponitshumanbearer.1Tounderstandtheconceptofʽiṣmacorrectlyonehastorecallthecharacterof

Islamic prophetology in general. The Koran states in Sura 10:48 that everypeoplehasbeensentamessenger;further,inSura14:8itissaidthatGoddidnotsend anymessengerwho did not speak the language of the peoplewhowereentrusted to him. The Muslim holds that God never left Himself without awitness in history, and beginningwith Adam, the firstman and first prophet,Divinemessengers have continued to instructmankind aboutGod’swill untilGodfinallyaddressedMuhammadasYāayyuhā’n-nabī,“Oyouprophet!”(Sura33:1), and destined him to be the khātam al-anbiyā, the Seal of the Prophets.However,thenabī,“prophet,”isnotchargedwithproclaiminganewlawintheworld; this is the duty of the rasūl, or “messenger”; andwhile the number ofanbiyaā’ (plural of nabī) is unknown, that of the legislator prophets can bedefinedmoreexactly.2Accordingtoawidespreadtradition,Muhammadhimselfmentioned 124,-000 prophets and 313 messengers.3 The Koran contains thenames of twenty-eight of them, but nothing has hindered the Muslim inacknowledgingaswellprophetswhoarenotmentionedbyname in theKoranbutmightperhapshaveappearedbeforeMuhammadinChinaorSouthAmericatoteachthepeopleofthatareathewaysofGodandHislaws.Amongthegreatmessengersfiveareusuallysingledouttoformthecategory

of the ūlū’l-ʽazm, “those with firm resolution” (Sura 46:34): Muhammad,Abraham (the fatherof the three“Abrahamic religions,” Judaism,Christianity,and Islam),Moses, Jesus, andNoah.Abrahamoccupies the highest rank afterMuhammad,andtheologianshavediscussedforsometimetheproblemwhetherMuhammad is a khalīl Allāh, a “close friend of God,” as the Koran definesAbraham,orwhetherhe is, as theSufis love toClaim, rather theḥabibAllāh,“God’s beloved friend.” In later times his Position as ḥabīb Allāh has beengenerally accepted inMuslim piety,while khalīlAllāh is used exclusively forAbraham,asiskalīmAllah,“theonetowhomGodspoke,”forMoses.4Infact,

fromMuhammad’sroleasḥabībAllāhonecouldderive theconclusion(asIbnArabiandhisfollowersdid)thatIslamis“thereligionofLove,”for“thestationofperfectloveisappropriatedtoMuhammadbeyondanyotherprophet.”5

TwofoldMuhammad,Turkey,eighteenthcentury,fromadesignintheTūrk-IslamEserleriMūzesi,Istanbul

The theologicalmanuals exactly define the qualities of a prophet.Thus onereads in the Sanūsiyya, a widely used handbook of dogmatics from the laterMiddle Ages: “The prophet has four necessary attributes: hemust be truthful(ṣidq)andtrustworthy(amāna);hehasdefinitely toproclaimtheDivineWord(tabligh)andhastobesagaciousandintelligent(fatanā).Itisimpossiblethatheshould lie (kidhb), be faithless or treacherous (khiyāna), should conceal theDivinemessage (katmdri), or be stupid (baldda). One possible trait is that hemay be subject to accidental humanweaknesses.”6 The doctrine of the ʽiṣma,“being protected from error and sin,” must be seen in connection with suchdefinitions. Qadi Tyadwrites of the prophets in general that “they have beenprotectedbyGodandhavebeentakencareofbyfreechoiceandacquisition.”ThatholdsobviouslyafortioriforMuhammad,TheProphetparexcellence.7In the oldest days no official doctrine concerning the sinlessness of the

Prophetwasknown,andthereareconflictingtrendsintheearliestinterpretationsof the Koran. Some commentators would declare him free from all moraldefects; but this leaves open the question, what was his status before he wascalledtobeaprophet,nay,thefinalprophet?ThereistheembarrassingremarkinSura93:7,inwhichtheProphetisaddressed:“DidHenotfindyouerringandguideyou?”SomeearlycommentatorsseehereanallusiontothepossibilitythatMuhammad in his childhood followed the religion of hisMeccan compatriots

beforehewasguidedtothetrueworshipoftheOneGod;inthisconnectionthestory of the “opening of the breast” and the cleansing of his heart gains itsspecial importance when used to signal his call to prophethood (see below,chapter4).8But simultaneously the commentators increasingly strove to prove that

MuhammadhadalwaysavoidedtheidolatrouspracticesoftheMeccans.Evenasa young boy he is said to have refused to participate in the games of hiscompanions,and therewasnothinghehatedmore than theMeccanidols.AbuNuaim’sDalā’ilmentionsanumberofinstancesinwhichtheyoungMuhammadwas protected from sinful pursuits, or even minor defects in his boyhood.9Zamakhshari clearly states in his commentary onSura 93: “If one claims thatMuhammadhad lived for fortyyears exactly likehis companions, and that hewaslacking,likethem,inthosesciencesthatonecanlearnbyinstruction,thatisfair.Butifoneintendstosaythathelivedaccordingtothereligionandinfidelityofhistribalcompanions—Godforbid!”10The often discussed tradition according to which Satan once urged

MuhammadtoacceptthethreemajorMeccangoddessesAl-Lat,Al-ʽUzza,andManat as gharānīq (evidently meaning they were mediators in some sensebetween man and God), slowly fell into oblivion. As mentioned earlier, innumerous ḥadīth Muhammad is seen praying for forgiveness, and thesetraditionsareboundupwiththequestionofhissinlessness:

TheApostleofGodusedtosaywhenhestoodupfortheprayers:“ThouartmyLord, IThyservant. Ihavewrongedmyselfand Iconfessmysin.Forgivemethenallmysins,forthereisnonethatforgivethsinssavethee!”11

Such prayers, which could be taken as proof of Muhammad’s very humanfeelingofweakness and sinfulness,were later regarded as intended to instructthe believers, who thus would receive a paradigm for their own prayers ofcontrition.Foras theSpanishArabic theologianIbnHazmsaidin theeleventhcentury:“Ifdisobediencewerepossibleintheprophetsitwouldbepermittedtous all aswell sincewe have been asked to imitate their actions, and thuswewould not know whether our faith were all error and infidelity and perhapseverything that the Prophet did, disobedience.”12 This argument has remainedvalid to our day; indeed, the absolute obedience owed to the Prophet ismeaningful only if Muhammad was free from any faults and could thusconstituteanimmaculatemodelevenforthemostinsignificantdetailsoflife.Some remarks, for instance that the light of Muhammad shone brightly

through his body, can in a certain way be interpreted as pointing to the

materialization of his luminous spiritual qualities: there was nothing grosslymaterial about him, so that sin could stain him. Here, as in the wholedevelopment of the doctrine of the impeccability of the Prophet, Shiiteinfluenceshavecertainlyplayeda role, for the ʽṣmaof the imamswasalwaysmaintained, and elaborated in detail, by the Shiite scholars; there could be noquestionthattheimams’greatancestor,theProphet,hadtobeexemptfromsinanderrorandtobethepurebeareroftheDivinelight.Certain religious groups, again, considered it possible that a prophet could

commitsins,evengraveones,fordidnot theKoranmentionsomesinfuloratleastfaultyactsbyearlierprophets?Otherearlyexegetesregardedatleastminorsins as possible in a messenger of God. Thus, the outstanding historian andcommentatorontheKoran,at-Tabari(d.923)interpretsthebeginningofSura48inthefollowingmanner:

“VerilyWehavegivenyouanapparentvictory[asasign]thatGodforgivesyouyourpreviousandlatersins.…”GodinformsHisprophetthatthegreatvictorythatHehasgivenhimandthegracethatHehascompleted,shouldawakenhisgratitudeandspurhimtoaskforgiveness,andbythisrequestGodwillgranthimthe forgiveness of those sins which he had committed before the victory andafterthevictory.…Forotherwisetheordertoaskforforgiveness,whichisalsogiveninlaterpassagesoftheKoran,wouldbemeaningless,andsowouldbehispiousexercisesofthiskind.13

Tabari was evidently convinced that the Divine mercy that the Prophetexperienced led toan intensificationofgratitude that resulted inhis increasingapproximationtoGod.Thisviewpointappearsfrequentlyinthedoctrineofthemystics, with the difference that this wholesome gratitude is not only adistinctive attribute of the Prophet alone but rather a spiritual duty of everybeliever.Someinterpreters,particularlyintheearlyMu’taziliteschool,thoughtthatthe

Prophet could commit sins out of negligence, but that even the smallestinadvertence of a prophetweighsmore heavily than the sin of another humanbeing, and his foibles are thereforemore severely blamed. In laterMu’taziliteteaching,however,itismaintainedthattheProphetcannotsinatall,eitherfromnegligenceorfromobliviousness.Theethicalteachingsofthisschool,whicharebasedonsternmoralismand thepostulateofGod’sabsolute justice,couldnotadmitthattheProphetcouldhavesinnedinanypossiblemanner:theprincipleofthe“mostuseful,”whichisappliedbyGodtoeverythingonearth,requiresthattheproclaimerofHismessagebeperfectlyfreefromblemishandmoralstain.

A different viewpoint was defended by the early Asharite school. Theirgreatest theologian, al-Baqillani, held that the ʽṣma of the prophets meansmainly that they are Divinely protected from intentionally lying whenproclaiming their message, and from “major abomination and gross, deadlysins,” as Baqillani’s theological adversary, Qadi lyad, writes with palpabledismay.14ToappreciateBaqillani’spositiononehastorememberthatheiswellknownforhavinggiventheKoranthecentralpositioninhistheologicalthought.It is the Divine Word, the pivot of Muslim life, that matters; the one whoproclaimeditisoflesserimportance.Ofcourse,saysBaqillani,theProphettoohasgivencertainrulesthatmustbefollowed,buttheseconcernonlythesayingsheuttered, as itwere,excathedra about religious problems, not everyminutedetailofhis lifeandbehavioras related inḥadiīth.15Baqillani’sviewis rathersimilartothatofsomemodernisttheologians(likeSirSayyidAhmadKhanandhiscollaborators)whohavewanted to restrict theMuslims’duty to imitate theProphet’sexampleonlytoreligiousmatters.But in general the doctrine of the absolute sinlessness of the Prophet

prevailed. As Qadi Tyad writes: “Thus we cling to the opinion, which issupportedby theconsensusof the faithful, thatawrongpronouncement in theproclamationof theDivinerevelationandwhileinforming[his listeners]abouthisLord—beitwillinglyorunwillingly,ingoodcheerorinwrath,inhealthorinillness—isnotpossibleinhis[Muhammad’s]case.”16AndiftheProphetdiderrinaworldlymatter,asforinstanceinhisremarkaboutthefertilizationofpalmtrees,hewasabletocorrectsuchamistake.The Sufis certainly had a most important share in the development of the

doctrineoftheProphet’sabsolutefreedomfromsin.The“overcloudingsoftheheart” thatarementioned inawell-knownḥadīthhavebeen interpretedby themystics as pertaining to the Prophet’s continuous traveling through ever newveils of light on his way to God. They explain these “over-cloudings” as thechangingspiritualstatesthatthewayfarerexperienceswhiledrawingcloserandclosertoGod.17ButtheSufisfoundalsoanotherProphetictraditionthatofferedthem, again, a model for their own spiritual education in the imitatioMuhammadi. When the Prophet was asked once about the shaiṭān, the basefacultiesandcarnalappetitesofman,heansweredattheendofthediscussion:Aslamashaitān,“myshaiṭānhashandedhimselfovertomecompletely[or,hasbecome a Muslim], and does only what I order him.”18 That means, theperfectedmanhas tamedhis instinctsandpassions in suchaway thatheusesthemintheendexclusivelyforpositive,godlyworks,obeyingthewillofGodineverymomentofhislifeinthoughtandaction.ThisisfortheSufisthesecretof

the “greater Holy War,” namely, the constant struggle with one’s negativetendencies and lowly passions, which should not be obliterated but ratherovercomeandtransformedintopositivevalues.TheProphet’ssayingabouthis“defeatedshaiṭān”pointstoaveryimportantpsychologicaltruth,anditbecametherefore not only an example for the mystics but also for some of themodernists: Iqbal has placed it at the center of his thoughts about the relationbetweenmanandthe“satanic”powers.TheProphetis,inthiscase,seennotascompletely sinless by nature but as having been transformed by constantspiritualgrowthinthegraceofGod.It is this constant growing toward Divine proximity that constitutes for

Maulana Rumi the true proof ofMuhammad’s superiority over others.WhenShams-iTabrizi askedwhyBayezidBistami,who exclaimed,Subḥānī,“Glorybetome!”wasnotgreaterthanMuhammad,whoconfessedtoGodthat“wedonotknowYouasweoughtto,”MaulanaansweredthatBayezidhadstoppedatastationwhereheconsideredhimselffilledwithGod,whereastheProphet“saweverydaymoreandwentfarther”intotheDivineproximity,andwasawarethatnoonecouldeverfathomGod’sgreatness.19But ifoneaskshowSatancouldatallapproachtheProphet—for theḥadīth

states that “Satan flies from the shadow of ʽmar” (ibn al-Khattab, the secondcaliph)—MaulanaRumiagainhasananswer: “Muhammadwasanocean, andUmaracup.Onedoesnotprotecttheoceanfromadog’ssaliva,foranoceanisnot polluted by a dog’smouth, but a cup is; for a small vessel’s contents arechanged to the worse from the licking of a dog.” Thus, whatever seemingly“impure”matter touchestheProphetcanneverchangethepurityofhisocean-likepersonality.20Muhammad’spositionasthefinalprophet,theSealofallthosewhopreceded

him, leads the Muslim quite naturally to discuss also how he relates to theprevious messengers. The Koran had warned the Muslims: “We do notdistinguish between the prophets!” (Suras 2:130, 3:84). There exists also oneḥadīth that prohibits tafḍīl, “preference,” that is, preferring Muhammad toanotherGod-sentmessenger:“DonotplacemeaboveYunusibnMatta,anddonotmakeanycomparisonsorpreferencesamongtheprophets,anddonotpreferme toMoses.”21Butatalmost thesame timeotherḥadīthwerecirculated thatseem to express the Prophet’s self-consciousness and explain his superiorityabovetheothersbyhiswillingnessandcapacitytointercedeforhiscommunity:

IamthemessengerofGod,withoutboasting.Ishallbearthebannerofpraiseonthe Day of Resurrection. I am the first to intercede and the first whoseintercessionwill be granted. I am the first tomove the knocker at the gate of

Paradise.Godwillopenitformeandwillleadmeintoit,andwithmethepooramong the faithful.Thus I am themosthonoredoneamong the leadersof theearlierandthelater[generations].22

NajmuddinRaziDayagivesthetraditioninasomewhatdifferentform:

The Prophet, upon whom be peace and blessings, said: “I have been grantedexcellence over the other prophets in six things: the earth has been made amosqueforme,withitssoildeclaredpure;bootyhasbeenmadelawfulforme;Ihavebeengivenvictorythroughtheinspiringofaweatthedistanceofamonth’sjourney; I have been given permission to intercede; I have been sent to allmankind;andtheprophetshavebeensealedwithme.”23

ButRazihasanevenmorebeautifulexplanationforMuhammad’sactivityintheworld:“FromtheageofAdamtothetimeofJesus,eachoftheprophetskneadedthe dough of religion in a different fashion, but it was to Muhammad, uponwhombepeace,thattheglowingovenfullofthefireoflovebelonged.”Inthis“ovenof love”the“breadofreligion”wasbakedfor twenty-threeyears;“thenhebroughtitforthfromtheovenofloveandhungoverthedoorofhisshopaproclamationsaying,ThavebeensenttotheRedandtheBlack.’”Itisthisbreadthatsatiatedthehungryand“becametheobjectofdelight”ofthosewhobelongto Muhammad’s umma.24 And yet all these prerogatives and graces did notinduce the Prophet to take pride in them; he was so detached that all thesewonderfulqualitiesnotwithstanding,hecouldsay:“Povertyismypride.”The ninth-century historian Ibn Saʽd callsMuhammad sayyid al-mur-salīn,

“thelordofthemessengers,”anepithetthatbecamedeeplyrootedinIslam.Inthe fourteenth century, the Hanbalite theologian Ibn Qayyim al-Jauziyyaformulated the important principle that the status of the Prophet of Islam isdoubtless superior to that ofMoses:Moses fainted at themanifestation of theDivine attributes in the Burning Bush, but Muhammad, during his heavenlyjourney, could immediately speak to God without even trembling.25Thiscomparisonwasalsoafavoritewiththemysticsfromearlydays(seechapter9below).Thepoets constantlymeditatedhow topraiseMuhammad’s superiority.Not

allofthemwentsofarasʽUrfiattheMoghulcourtinIndia,whoaddressedtheProphetwithcontrivedhyperboletypicalofhisPersianpoeticalstyle:

Jesusisafly,whileyourspeechIssweetmeatfromtheshopofcreation.

ʽUrfi refers to flies again in another context: the sabʽmathāni, the “sevendoubleones”(probably“sevenKoranicverses,”Sura15:87)are“thefliesoftheProphet’s honey.”26 But centuries before him, Khaqani in Iran had alreadymentionedthatthetwoimmortalprophetsJesusandIdriswillcomedownfromtheir heavenly abode when they see the leftover victuals on Taha’s(Muhammad’s)tableinordertocarrythemhome27—aninvertedallusiontotherelationofJesustothemiraculoustablementionedinSura5.Rumiexpressessimilarthoughtsinmorepoeticalandattractiveimages:

JesusisthecompanionofMoses,JonahthatofJoseph;Ahmadsitsalone,whichmeans:“Iamdistinguished.”Loveistheoceanofinnermeaning,everyoneisinitlikeafish;Ahmadisthepearlintheocean—look,thatiswhatIshow!28

Traqi,inthethirteenthcentury,describedtheProphetwithaformulationthatbecamecommonplaceinPersianatepoetry:

ApinchofhisnoblebeingwasplacedinJesus’breath,

AndfromtheradianceofthecandleofhiscountenanceMoses’firewaslighted.29

Here,wearealreadyconfrontedwiththemysticalideathatallpreviousprophetswere nothing but partial aspects of the light ofMuhammad,which became socommoninthemysticaltrendsundertheinfluenceofIbnArabi.Jami,amajorprotagonistofthisidea,poeticallysingsofMuhammad’sgreatnesscomparedtotheotherprophets:whileSolomontouchedtheQueenofSheba’sthronewithhishand,Muhammad’s foot touched the apex of the Divine Throne, and GabrielservedhimasthehoopoehadservedSolomon.…30

This elevation of metaphor is of course also reflected in Muslim prayers.DirinidescribestheProphetasfollows:

Adamknewhimandmadepetitionthroughhim,andhetookacovenantfromalltheprophets tohimself.HetookthepurityofAdam, the lamentationofNoah.Part of his teaching contains the knowledge of Idris. Included in his ecstaticexperiences is the grief of Jacob. Within the mystery of his ecstasy is theenduranceofJob.EnfoldedinhisbosomistheweepingofDavid.ApartonlyoftherichesofhissoulexceedsthewealthofSolomon.HegatheredintohimselfAbraham’s friendship with God. He attained the converse of Moses, God’s

interlocutor,andwasmoreexaltedthanthehighestkings.Heexcelstheprophetsasthesunexcelsthemoon,theoceanthedrop.31

Muhammad’ssuperiorityoverMosesandJesusismostfrequentlymentioned:

Certainly,AdamisGod’sspecialfriend,MosestheonewithwhomGodspoke,JesusiseventhespiritofGod—butyouaresomethingdifferent!32

ThusanIndianMuslimpoetsangsometimeago.ForMuhammadcombinesthequalitiesofthetwogreatprophetswhosefollowersarestillactiveintheworld:hedoesnotrelyexclusivelyonGod’sjusticeandonthelawasdidMoses,nordoes he concentrate only onGod’s lovingkindness and on otherworldliness asdid Jesus.Hispath is the soundmiddlepathbetween theextremes,unitingallthatisvalidfromtheteachingofthepreviousprophets.AmirMina’iinIndiainthe late nineteenth century expressed his blessings upon the Prophet with thewords

Godblesshimandgivehimpeace,TheleaderofMoses,theguideofJesus!33

HiscompatriotIsma’ilMeeruthiwrote,ataboutthesametime:

ThemessageofwhichGod’ssignthroughAbrahamconsistedAndhisgoodtidingsthroughJesus,ThatwastheappearanceofAhmad.34

And in thepietyofordinaryMuslims,whodonotdelve into the intricaciesoflegal works or deep speculations about the ḥaqīqa muḥammadiyya, the“archetypalMuhammad,”asthemysticsdid,thereisnoquestionwhateverthatMuhammadisgreaterandhigherthanalltheprophetsbeforehim.Besides,itisfirmlybelieved,andrepeatedinapologeticwritingsoverandoveragain,thatthepre-IslamicsacredbookscontainnumerouspassagesthatforetellMuhammad’sarrivalinmoreorlessclearterms.35ThissublimeanduniquepositionoftheProphethadofcoursetobeprotected

againstslander,contempt,anddefamation.ThelegalscholarsinIslamthereforediscussedatgreatlengththeproblemsconnectedwithalackofreverencefortheProphet. Especially in the western Islamic countries the theologians had anextremelystrongopinionabouttherespectanddeferenceduehim.36TheologicalwriterslikeQadilyadremarkedthatitisasignofbadtasteandlackofreverence

to use comparisons with the Prophet in mundane panegyrics for kings andprinces—as, for instance,when the notorious poetAbuNuwas had seeminglyplaced“Ahmadthemessenger”andAhmadAmin,thesonoftheAbbasidcaliphHarunar-Rashid,onthesamelevelinoneofhisencomiafortheprince.37This warning was certainly not always heeded by Persian poets, for in the

PersianliterarytraditiononeoftenfindsdaringallusionstotheProphetwhenaperson by the name of Muhammad is being eulogized and when normalhyperbolesseemedtooweaktothepoet.“Orthodox”Islam,however,regardedsuchaneccentricuseofthenameoftheProphet(which,afterall,hasasanctityandblessingpowerofitsown)asadangerousdevelopmentthatcouldevenleadtothedefamationoftheProphet.Andthisoffensewasregardedbytheearliestlegal authorities in Islam, such as the IraqiAbuHanifa (d. 767) as somethingalmostequalingapostasy.Forhowcouldonedefameorslanderapersonwhosenameismentionedclose to thatofGodin thesecondhalfof theprofessionoffaith?Ifsomeoneshouldcommitthissin,hehastobeaskedtoreturntoIslam;ifhe refuses, he has to be put to death.Other authoritieswent even farther: theslandereroftheProphetwasdeclaredtodeserveimmediatecapitalpunishment,which could not be averted even by contrition.And indeed Islamic historiansnowandthenreportthatsomeonewaseitherexecutedlegallyorlynchedbyanenragedmobwhenhehadbeenoverheardslanderingtheProphet.38It isironicthatoneofthegreatesttheologiansinIslamichistory,themedievalreformistIbnTaimiyya,was sentenced to heavypunishment because of his alleged “lackofveneration” for the Prophet when he spoke up against certain unhealthyexaggerations in the popular cult of the Prophet in Damascus, such as thevenerationofhisfootprint.Theproblemismorecomplicatedinthecaseoftheahlal-kitāb,thereligious

communitieswhopossessarevealedbookandareplacedundertheprotectionoftheMuslimsbyaspecialcovenant,dhimma, and thepaymentof a certain tax.TheseincludeJews,Christians,Sabians,Zoro-astrians,andinIndiatheHindusaswell.Certainly,aChristianmaysaythatMuhammadhasnothingtodowithhisownreligion,butassoonashepronouncesaninsultagainsttheProphet,hiscovenantofprotectionisinvalidated,accordingtotheopinionofseveraljurists,andhecansavehislifeonlybyconvertingtoIslam.Thisexplainssomeextantaccounts—especiallyfrommedievalSpain—ofChristianswhointentionallyandopenlyinsultedtheProphetandthusweregrantedmartyrdomforthen-faith,forwhichtheyhadyearnedsointensely.39ReportsofMuhammad’sownreactionstoslanderandinsultarecontradictory.

Manyḥadīth emphasize the Prophet’s mildness and generosity in such cases;

others found it necessary to give a much harder picture of his reactions. Anexample of the latter is Ibn Taimiyya—once himself accused of lack ofreverencefortheProphet!—whocomposedaspecialworkwiththetellingtitleAṣ-ṣārimal-maslūlalāshātimar-rasūl(TheSwordDrawnagainsttheVilifieroftheProphet), inwhichhestates that“whoevervilifiesaprophet is tobekilledandwhoevervilifieshisCompanionsistobeflogged.”Thelattersentenceisofcourse directed against the Shiites,who curse the first three caliphs and otherCompanions.Slightlylater,IbnTaimiyya’sworkwasfollowedbyasimilarbook(withmuchthesametitle)bytheEgyptianscholarTaqiuddinas-Subki.The problem still continues to excite and annoy theMuslims, as is evident

fromanincidentthathappenedinthelate1920sinIndia.AHindupublishedabookwiththeupsettingtitleRangilāRasūl(ThePleasure-lovingProphet).Aftersome time he was killed by two youngMuslims who could not bear such acalumnyoftheirbelovedProphet.40Althoughtheywerefoundguiltyofmurderandsentencedtodeath,thesympathiesofthelargemajorityofIndianMuslimswerewiththem.Someyearslater,in1935,IqbalinquiredaboutthepunishmentfordefamationoftheProphetinsomeotherconnectionandwasinformedthatitcouldindeedbepunishedbythedeathsentence.41Andduringthe1950s,inthecourseofarevivalofIslaminTurkey,theTurkishpressalsopublishedextendeddebates about the same problem. Everyone who has lectured in a Muslimenvironmentknowsthatevenaremarkthatmaybeintendedperfectlyinnocentlycanbemisinterpretedbytheaudience,whoarehypersensitivewhenitcomestothepersonoftheirbelovedProphet.

FOUR:LEGENDSANDMIRACLES

According to tradition the Prophet himself refused the claim that he hadproducedorwouldproduceanymiracletoattestthetruthofhismessage,withthe one exception of the Koran, which was given to him by his Lord.1NajmuddinDayaRazithereforestatesrightlythat“themiracleofeachprophetisconfinedtohisownage;butthespecialpropertyofthereligionofMuhammadisthat oneof hismiracles, namely theKoran, has survivedhimandwill remainuntiltheendoftheworld.”2Evenso,theHolyBookitselfcontainsallusionsnotonly toMuhammad’s noble qualities and actions but also to somemysteriouseventsinhislifethatpointtohisspecialstatusamongmen.Itwasherethatthecommentators, still more the popular preachers (quṣṣās), and most of all themystics and poets found sufficient material to develop longwinded and oftenfanciful legends and miracle stories that became, in the course of time, aningredient of almost all biographies of the Prophet and inspired numerouspoeticalworks.Prophetiemiracles are calledmuʽjizāt, “deeds that render [others] unable to

match them.”Theyaredifferent from themiraclesperformedbysaints,whichare termed karāmāt, “charismata.” In later times, especially in non Arabenvironments, miraculous actions performed by the Prophet, his Companions,familymembers, and great saints also came to be known by the general termmanāqib,“heroicdeeds.”ThemeaningoftheProphet’smissionandtherelatedproblemofthenecessity

of miracles were often discussed in later centuries, especially amongMuslimmodernistswhosawthedangerof toostrongarelianceuponthe“miraculous”aspect of prophetship and therefore tried to de-mythologize the Prophet’sbiography.3Among the legends connectedwithMuhammad’s career theOpeningof the

Breast became a central feature of all biographies.4 Sura 94 begins with theDivineaddresstotheProphet:“DidWenotopen[or,expand]yourbreast?”Thiswas interpreted to mean God’s special cleansing of Muhammad’s breastendowedtheProphetwithauniquedegreeofpurity,sothathecouldconveythedivine message without defect. An early tradition quotes the Prophet’s ownwordsaboutthisexperience:

While Iwas thus forsome timewithmyfriends, therecame tomeagroupof

three. One of them had a silver pitcher in one hand, and in the other hand avesselofgreenemerald,filledwithsnow.Theytookmeandhurriedwithmetothetopofthemountainandplacedmeverysoftlyonthemountain.Thenhe[thefirstofthem]splitmybreasttotheabdomenwhileIwaslookingatthem,butIdidnotfeelanything;itwasnotpainful.Thenhesankhishandintothehollowspaceinmyabdomen,tookouttheintestinesandwashedthemwiththatsnow,cleansingthemverycarefully.Thenheputthemback.Nowthesecondoneroseandsaidtothefirstone:“Goaway,youhavedonewhatGodhasorderedyou.”Thenheapproachedmeandsankhishandinthecavityofmybodyandpulledoutmyheart,splititandtookoutofitablackspeckfilledwithblood,threwitaway,andsaid:“ThatisSatan’spartinyou,ObelovedofGod.”Thenhefilleditwithsomethingthathehadwithhimandputitbackinitsplace,thenhesealeditwithasealoflight,andIstillfeelthecoolnessofthesealinmyveinsandjoints.Thenthethirdoneroseandsaid:“Goaway,bothofyou,foryouhavedonewhatGodhasorderedyou.”Now the thirdoneapproachedmeandpassedwithhishandfrommybreastbonetothepubicregion.Thentheangelsaid:“Weighhimagainsttenofhiscommunity.”Theyweighedme,andIwasheavierthanallofthem.Thenhe said: “Leavehim, for even if youweighhimagainst his entirecommunity,hewouldstillbeheavierthanthem.”Thenhetookmebythehandand helpedme descend carefully, and they bowed down uponme, kissedmyheadandbetweenmyeyes,andsaid:“ObelovedofGod,verilyyouwillneverbefrightened,andifyouknewwhatgoodhasbeenpreparedforyou,youwouldbeveryhappy.”Andtheyletmesitonthismyplace,andthentheysetofftoflyawayandenteredtheskies,andIwatchedthem,andifyouwantIwillshowyouwheretheyhavegone.5

In the sources, this story is told by the childMuhammad to his nurseHalimawhohadbeenworriedwhenhehaddisappearedsuddenly.Thestorypresentsatypicalinitiationriteinwhichtheyoungboyisbeingpreparedtoreceivedivinerevelation. For this reason the biographers sometimes place the event not inMuhammad’schildhoodbutratherbeforehisheavenlyjourney.InsuchaccountstheProphetsays:

“MuhammadistheMessengerofGod,”Turkishwallpainting,nineteenthcentury

They came tomewhile Iwaswithmy family, and Iwas brought to thewellZamzam,andmybreastwasopenedandwashedwithwaterfromZamzam;thenIwasbroughtagoldenvessel,fulloffaithandwisdom,andmybreastwasfilledwithit.Thentheangelrosewithmeheavenward.6

Then follows theheavenly journeyandMuhammad’smeetingwith the formerprophets (see below, chapter 9). Here again the story serves clearly as aninitiatorypreparationforhispropheticcallingandmission,whichtheheavenlyjourneythensetsinmotioninthisparticularlegendcycle.IftheOpeningoftheBreastisconnectedwiththeProphet’sinitiationintothe

spiritualworld,anotherfavoritemiracleoflatergenerationsisseenasproofofhis truthfulness. This is the Splitting of theMoon, shaqq al-qamar, which isderived from the beginning of Sura 54: “The hour approached, and themoonwas split.”7 Even in early traditions this sentence is explained not as aneschatological sign but rather as pertaining to a miracle performed by theProphetinordertoconvincethedoubtingQuraishofthetruthofhismessage:hesplit themoon into twohalves, betweenwhichMountHira could be seen.Toconvincethosewhodonotbelieveinthismiracle,Qadilyadarguesthat

Ithasnotbeensaidofanypeopleonearththatthemoonwasobservedthatnightsuchthat itcouldbestatedthat itwasnotsplit.Evenif thishadbeenreportedfrommany different places, so that onewould have to exclude the possibilitythatallagreeduponalie,yet,wewouldnotacceptthisasprooftothecontrary,forthemoonisnotseeninthesamewaybydifferentpeople.…Aneclipseisvisibleinonecountrybutnotintheotherone;inoneplaceitistotal,intheotheroneonlypartial.8

LivinginCeuta,QadilyadofcoursedidnotknowtheIndiantradition.HewouldhavebeendelightedtolearnthatitistoldinthatpartoftheworldthatoneKingShakrawati Farmad in southern India had indeedwatched the Splitting of theMoon, and when he learned from reliable witnesses what had happened inMecca on that very night, he embraced Islam. Accordingly, the first Muslimsettlements in the Indian subcontinent are supposed to have resulted from thisverymiracle.ThisstorymusthavebeenratherwellknowninsouthernIndiaandwasrecountedthereinthelaterMiddleAgesinanArabictext.9Itisinterestingtonotethatevenaslateasthemid-nineteenthcenturyaminiaturepaintedattheRajput (Hindu) court of Kotah shows the Splitting of the Moon with all itsdetails.10Because Muhammad is equated in poetical language with the sun or the

morning light, it isnatural for thepoets that“thesunshouldsplit themoon intwo,”asSana’iexpresseditintheearlytwelfthcentury,11andpopularpoetry—beitinSindhi,Panjabi,Swahili,orotherlanguages—hasalwayslovedtoretellthismiracleandtoembellishitwithcharmingdetails.Morerationalisticthinkershad,understandably,somedifficultieswhenitcametoexplainingtheSplittingofthe Moon, and they sometimes tried to de-mythologize that event and otherpreternatural phenomena. The Indian reformist theologian Shah Waliullah ofDelhiwrote in themid-eighteenth century that theSplitting of theMoonmayhavebeenakindofhallucination,orwasperhapscaused“byasmoke,by theswoopingdownofa star, acloud,oraneclipseof the sunor themoonwhichmight have given the impression that the moon was actually split in two.”12However,intheArabicpoetryhewroteinhonoroftheProphet,ShahWaliullahtoo,inunisonwithhundredsofpiouswriters,haslovinglyspokenofthismiraclethat proves Muhammad’s greatness. For the believers know that he who iscompletelydevotedtotheProphet

splitsthemoonwithMustafa’sfinger,

asRumisingsinoneofhislyricalpoems.13TobesplitbytheProphet’sfingerisindeedthegreatestblissthelowlymoon

canhopefor.14ThisideaofRumi’swaselaboratedinahighlycomplicatedwaybyJami,whoplays,ashelovestodo,withtheshapesandnumericalvaluesoftheArabic letters.Thefullmoon,resemblingacircularm withthenumericalvalue40,was split by theProphet so that it became like twocrescent shaped

,whosenumericalvalueis50each—whichprovesthatthemoonhasindeedincreasedinvaluethankstothismiracle!15

Theastronomerwhobelievesinthismiracleshouldlaughathisownprofessionaswellasatsunandmoon,

AseveryonewhohasattendedtheschoolofAhmadtheummīmayridiculeknowledgeandart.16

In thisverse,MaulanaRumicombines twomiraculousaspectsof theProphet:theSplittingoftheMoon,whichshowsthefutilityofman’sscientificapproachtonature,andthefactthattheProphetwasummī,“illiterate.”HeisdescribedbythatepithetinSura7:157-58.ThewordalsooccursinSuras2:74,3:74,and62:2andseemstorefertheretotheumma,or“community,”thatis,inthiscontext,theArabic community, which unlike the Christians or the Jews had not yet beenblessed with a prophet before Muhammad’s appearance. In that sense ummīwould be an equivalent of the concept of “Gentile” in the biblical sense, or“ethnic.”17ButintheIslamictradition,particularlythemysticalsectorsofit,thisword isgenerallyunderstood tomean“notknowinghow to readand towrite,unlettered.”ThoughEuropeanscholarsaredividedconcerningwhetherMuhammadcould

readorwrite (even twoofhiswiveswere literate!),18Muslimtheologiansandespeciallymysticsfoundintheconceptofummīas“illiterate”amarvelousproofforthetruthofMuhammad’smessageanditstrueinspiration.Forhowcouldhe,whowasunable towriteor to read,haveknowledgeofsomanyeventsof thepastandthefutureasarenoteddownintheKoran?DoesnotthisveryqualityofummīindeedguaranteethattheKoranwasGod’strueword,Hispure,untaintedrevelation?HowshouldanorphanfromArabiahavegainedallthescientificandhistorical information that thebeliever findson everypageof theKoran?Themystics have seen in this word ummī an expression of the mystery ofMuhammad’s extremely close relationship with God: he was not only thecupbearerwhoofferedtheworldthewineofDivinewisdomandguidance,butratherhewas,asRumisays,thevesselthroughwhichthiswinewasofferedtomankind.19 As in Christian dogmaticsMarymust be a virgin so that she canimmaculatelybeartheDivineWordtoitsincarnation,thusMuhammadmustbeumml so that the“inlibration,” the revelationof theDivineWord in theBook,canhappenwithouthisownintellectualactivity,asanactofpuregrace;forasHallaj(d.922)saysinhiscomparisonoftheProphetwithIblis:“Hewithdrewfromhisownpowerbysaying:‘IntheeIturnandinTheeIwalk.’“20Nizamipoetically interpreted the termumml asconsistingof theaofAdam

andthemofmasīḥ,“messiah,”andthuscomprisingallpreviousprophets.21ButJamihasinventedanevenmoreingeniouspuntoexplaintheword:theProphetwasnourishedby thegraceof theUmmal-kitāb, theMother of theBook, the

primordialprototypeof theKoran;hencehewas trulyanummī,“belonging tothemother,umm.”22Rumi,whosingsinhisMathnawīthat

AhundredthousandbooksfullofpoetryBecameashamedbeforetheummī’sword,23

elaboratedthattopicinhisproseworkFīhimāfīhi:

Muhammad… is called “unlettered” not because hewas incapable ofwritingandlearning;heiscalled“unlettered”becausewithhimwritingandlearningandwisdomwereinnate,notacquired.Hewhoinscribescharactersonthefaceofthemoon,issuchamanunabletowrite?Andwhatisthereinalltheworldhedoesnotknow,seeingthatallmenlearnfromhim?Whatthen,pray,shouldappertaintothepartialintellectthattheUniversalIntellectdoesnotpossess?24

Thusinaratherrarephilosophicalmoodheequates,asitwere,MuhammadwiththeUniversalIntellectfromwhichallhumanknowledgeisderived—anideathatwasdevelopedindetailincertainmysticalcirclesduringhistime.The poets have always mentioned the quality of ummī when they wish to

highlighttheProphet’smysticalpropensities:

AnorphanwhoneverlearnedtoreadWashedoff[thetextsinall]thelibrariesofmanylands,25

says thePersianpoetSaʽdi in the thirteenthcentury,andsome350years later,FaiziwritesinMoghulIndia:

WithsharīʽaandDivineBook,asplendidlight;Withswordandwithtongue,acuttingproof;Fromdust,andyetdescendingontheapexoftheThrone,Illiterate,butalibraryinhisheart.26

Afewyearsafterhim,around1600,Nazirigoesevenfarther:

InthelibraryofmysteryheknewbyhearttheKoranonthedayWhentheUniversalIntellectcouldnotyetdiscernaandbinthealphabet.27

OtherIndo-PersianpoetsplaywiththeterminologyofIslamiccalligraphy:

Withoutknowing[thecalligraphicstylesof]naskhandta’liq,Hedrewthelineofabrogation(khaṭṭ-inaskh)overeverythingbeforehim.28

That is, after the unlettered Prophet appeared, the earlier books of revelationsuchastheTorah,thePsalms,andtheGospelswerenolongervalid.AndasinRumi’s example, the Prophet’s quality of umml was often combined with themiracleoftheSplittingoftheMoon:hewhodrewalineacrossthemoon,whyshouldhetakeapeninhishand?29Forthemystics,Muhammadtheummlbecametheexemplarofallthosewho,

withoutbookish learnedness, havebeen inspired solelybyDivinegrace, thosewho,inpoeticalparlance,donotknowfromthealphabetanythingbutthefirstletter,alif.That letter is, inmystical interpretation, thecipherofGod, theOneandUnique, and therefore contains “themeaningof the four sacredbooks” initself.For

Ifperfectionwereinreadingorwriting,Whythenwastheqiblaoftheuniverseilliterate?30

as Jami asks.For this reasonmanySufis have claimed to be illiterate like theProphet.Ummlhasthereforebeenused,amongotherthings,asasurnamebyawholegroupofTurkishmysticalfolkpoets(ÜmmiKemalandUmmiSinanforexample),whofeltthattheirworkwasinspiredanddidnotrelyupontraditionalsourcesoflearning.This immediate knowledge of God, called in the Koran ʽilm ladunī, “a

knowledge fromMe” (Sura18:65) enabled theProphet toknoweverything intheworld,even thefuture.QadiTyadrelates,on theauthorityof theProphet’scompanion Hudhaifa, that “once the Prophet rose and talked, and on thisoccasionhedidnotleaveanythingunmentionedthatwouldhappentotheDayofJudgment.Thosewhokeptitintheirmemory,rememberit;thosewhoforgotit,forgot it. My companions have known it. When something happens [that hementioned] I remember it as one remembers the face of a personwhen he isabsent so that one recognizes him when one sees him again.”31 This ideacontradicts theKoranic statement thatevenMuhammadcouldnotboastof theknowledgeoffutureevents(Sura6:50),butitshowsthatevenincomparativelyearlytimesitwastakenforgrantedbyhisadmirersthathisknowledgesurpassedby far the limits of human acquisition. Endowed with such knowledge,Muhammad could become the alleged founder of all branches of science, andjustastheSufistracetheirchainofinitiationbacktohim,sohavecalligraphersandhistorians,scientistsandphysicians,discoveredthathehadsettheexample

fortheirrespectivefields.ThoughmiraclesliketheOpeningoftheBreastortheSplittingoftheMoon

aswellasMuhammad’sroleasummīcanbederivedfromtheKoran,ascanhisheavenly journey and to a certain degree his role as intercessor atDoomsday,numerousothermiracles thatareascribed tohimappear tobebasedonmotifswidespreadinfolklore.InordertoshowthatMuhammadtoowasabletoinfuselifeintodeadmatter

asJesusdidaccordingtotheKoranicreport,itistoldinapopularPashtoballadthatwhentheProphetwasaskedtoproduceabirdfromastone, indeedabirdwith feet of agate, eyes of lapis lazuli, a neck of crystal, and a golden beakappeared toattestMuhammad’sveracity.32Though this is a typeofmiracleofwhich the Indo-Muslims were apparently particularly fond, others are morefrequently mentioned. In oriental countries miracles connected with theproductionofrainoccupyaspecialplaceinhagiogra-phy.Sincetheprayerforraininalongperiodofdrought(istisqā)iscountedamongtheofficialprayers,itis only natural that the Prophet is mentioned as the first to utter an efficientprayerforrain.33Thushisarethewordsthatshouldbeusedbythefaithfulwhenthey perform this special rite. His appellation as raḥmat, “mercy,” and theconnectionbetweenraḥmatand“rain”inorientallanguagesmayhavehelpedtostrengthenfaithintheefficacyofusinghisprayer.Closelyrelatedtorainmakingisthemiracleofproducingwater,whichMuhammadcausedtogushforthfrombetweenhisfingers.AslateasinthesixteenthcenturytheTurkishpoetFuzuliwas inspiredby thatevent tocomposeahighlyartisticeulogyfor theProphet,whichisdistinguishedbytheradīf(continuingrhyme)ṣī;,“water.”HereferstoMuhammad’smiracleandexpressesthehopethat“thewaterofhiskindnesswillextinguishhellfire.”Keepingthemetaphorconsistent,hecloseshislongpoeminstylewiththerequestthat

ThefountainofunionmaygrantwatertomyeyesWhicharethirstyforthevision[oftheProphet].34

Othermiraclesareconnectedwithfood,whichisveryimportantinasocietywhere hospitality is regarded as one of the highest virtues.35Among the foodmiracles theoldest andbest attested isprobably the storyofUmmMaʽbad.AgroupofCompanionsoftheProphetpassedbyUmmMaʽbad’stentinthedesertandtriedtobuysomemeatanddatesfromher,butshehadabsolutelynothingediblewithher.ThentheProphetpointedtoheronlysheep,whichwaslyinginacorner,andasked:

“Hasitmilk?”Shesaid:“Itistooweak.”Heasked:“Willyoupermitmetomilkit?”Shesaid:“Youwhoaredearertomethanfatherandmother,ifIhadseenany

milkinitIwouldhavemilkeditbefore.”Then theMessenger of God called the sheep and passed his hand over its

udderandcalledtoGodandprayedforherandhersheep.Suddenlythesheepspraddleditslegstowardhim,andmilkbegantoflow.Hecalledforavesseltoholdthemilk,andmilkedaplentifulquantityintoit.Thenhegavehertodrinkuntilshewassatisfied,andhegavehiscompanionstodrinkuntiltheywerefull,and he drank the last.When they had quenched their thirst hemilked it oncemoreuntil thevesselwas full,andhe left itwithherand took leave,and theycontinuedtheirjourney.Somewhat later her husband,AbuMatad, arrived, driving a fewmiserable-

lookinghungrygoatswhosemarrowhadalmostdriedup.Whenhesawthemilkhewasamazedandaskedher:“Wherehaveyougotthismilk,UmmMatad?Forthesheepisbarrenandtherearenomilkingcattleinthehouse.”Shesaid:“True,butablessedmanhaspassedbywhowassoandso.”Hesaid:“Describehimtome,UmmMatad!”Shesaid:“Isawamanwhowasverycleanly,withbrightface,offinemanner.

Neither did leanness disfigure him nor did baldness make him despicable;gracefulandelegant;hiseyesdeepblack,withcurvedeyelashes,inhisvoiceaneighing and in his neck luminosity, in his beard thickness, with beautifullyarched eyebrows.When he was silent, dignity surrounded him, and when hespoke hewas towering, and radiance surrounded him.Themost beautiful andradiantofmenfromadistance,andthesweetestandloveliestonefromnearby.…”36

This legend also seems to form the basis for the descriptions of the Prophet’slooks, such as one finds in the poetry ofHassan ibn Thabit. Its wordingwastakenoverbylaterpoetswhosometimesaddedmoredetails.Therearemorefoodmiraclesinlatertraditions:asinglesheepsufficedtofeed

athousandpeople,orsmallquantitiesoffoodprovedsufficientforalargecrowdofunexpectedguests.VeryfrequentlyquotedisthestoryoftheroastlambthataJewishwomaninKhaibarofferedtotheProphet,whereuponheremarked:“Thislamb’slegtellsmethatitispoisoned.”Hencethelegendeventuallydevelopedthattheroastedlambreally“gotuponitsfourlegs”37andaddresseditselftotheProphettowarnhimofthedanger.

In addition, animals often appear to attest the sincerity of theProphet.AbuNuaim and Baihaqi, for instance, mention in their respective Dalā’il an-nubuwwahowcamelsandwildbeastsprostratedthemselvesbeforehimandhowthegazelle,thewolf,andthelizardproclaimedthathewasindeedthemessengersent by God.38 Trees and stones also bear witness that Muhammad is theMessengerofGod,and thuscontribute to theconversionof infidels.39Pebblesthatheheldinhishandpraisedhim,40ofwhichJamimanycenturieslatersings:

Alittlestone,smallerthanarosary’sbeadRecitedinhishandwitheloquentwordsthepraiseofGod,Andthoseeloquentoneswhoseheartswereblackasstone,Wereunisoninsilence.41

Even thedoorsandwallsofahousearesaid tohavegiven the“Amen” tohisprayer,42andwhenhewentoutinscorchingheatacloudwanderedwithhimtoprotecthimfromthesun.It is natural that Muhammad’s companions should have used his washing

water as medicine, as is common in the veneration of a powerful leader, foreverything that touches his body participates in hisbaraka. A similar conceptunderlies thecases inwhich theProphethealedsomeoneby theapplicationofhissaliva,anothersubstance thatbearsstrongblessingpowers.43 In laterdays,AbdulQadirGilaniwasblessedbyavisionoftheProphet’sputtingsomeofhissaliva onto his tongue to enable him to preach successfully;44 such initiatoryvisionsarenotrareamongSufis.Notonlyhumanbeingsbutalsoanimals—forinstance,aweakcamel—were

curedbytheProphet’shand,anditisthiskindofmiraclethathasbeenrepeatedagain and again in popular songs, for Bedouins and villagers appreciate suchmiraculousactsbetterthanothers.ForthisreasonnotallmiraclesenumeratedinAbuNuaim’s and Baihaqi’sworks are equally popular, and other legends notfoundin their listshavequiteoften incited the imaginationof theologiansand,even more, of poets. The learned, American-educated Muslim editor of theSindhiFolkloreSeries,Dr.N.A.Baloch,rightlyremindsmodernistswhoregardsuchmiraculousstoriesasoutdatedleftoversfromprimitivesocietiesthat“itisapsychological truth that it is natural to exaggerate in the description of thebeloved because [such an exaggeration] comes from the heart.”45 Nothing iswonderful and beautiful enough to give an adequate impression of thepersonality of the beloved Prophet, and thus the legends and verses that havegrownuparoundtherathersimplelifestoryofMuhammadaretruereflections

of people’s deep and sincere love for him.Ahmad al-Arusi, a Spanish-Arabicpoet of the lateMiddle Ages, offers a model of the innumerable invocationsaddressedtotheProphetwhenhesingsinalongpoem:

Isitnotyouwhohasbeensentasmercytomankind?IsitnotyouwhomthepebblespraisedAndwhomthelizardinthedesertaddressed,andthewolftoo?Isitnotyouforwhomthefullmoonintheskywassplit?46

Onestoryinparticularhasbeenafavoritewiththepoetsandhasbeenrepeatedwithdeepaffectionthroughtheages:thetaleofthehannāna, thesighingpalmtrunk.Muhammad used to put his hand on a palm trunkwhile preaching, butwhenfinallyapulpitwaserectedforhim,thepalmtrunkbecamesuperfluous.47Fullofgriefandlonging,thepieceofwoodsighedheavilybecauseitlongedforthe touch of the Prophet’s hand—and the Prophet, taking pity on it, had itbroughtintohispresencetoconsoleit.Onthiscue,Rumiasks:

Shouldwethenbelowerthanthesighingpalmtrunk?”48

IfevenasoullesspieceofwoodfeelslongingfortheProphet,howmuchmoreshouldapersonendowedwithheartandintellectlongforhimwhosevirtuesandelevatedrankhecanunderstand!Thefolkpoetswerealsofondofthestoryofagazellethathadbeencaughtby

a cruel huntsman.49 (According to some traditions, the culprit was the son ofMuhammad’sarchenemy,AbuJahl.)50As theProphetpassedby,he found theanimalweepingbecausehertwokidsinthedesertweredyingfromthirst.Thishasbeenawonderfultopicforpopularsingers,wholiketodescribetheplightofthepoorcreatureindramaticortouchingverse.ThusoneofthethirteenSindhipoetswhohaveelaboratedthisstorytellsinsimplerhymes:

HercallwasheardbythePrince—Ahmadcameclosetoher.

Hesaid:“Whydoyoucallforhelp—Whathappenedtoyou,Ogazelle?”

Shesaid:“Lord,Ihavelefthungrymytwokidsinthedesert.

Helpme,poorme,please,bemybailsman,OAhmad!

I’llgo,I’llcomebackverysoon,

Justgivethemalittlemilk!”Theexcellentlord,withhisnoblehands

openedquicklythesnare,Andthegazelleranswiftlyaway

towhereherkidswerewaiting.Thencamethestupidhunterback

andaskedtheMessenger:“Look,Ihavedonethiscruelty

becauseI’vefuninhunting—Whydidyoutearapartthesnare?

Whydidyousendoffthegazelle?Whoareyou,wheredoyoucomefrom,

andwhatisyourname?Tellmethat!Eitheryou’llproducethegazelle,

orgiveananswertome!”TheMessengerrosebeforetheman,

thelordofpatiencefull:“MuhammadAmin,thefaithful,I’mcalled—

Thatismypropername.Thegazellepromisedmetoreturn

andtoofferherselftoyou,ButIaminanycaseforyou

herbailsmanhereinherplace,Andwhenthegazelledoesnotreturn

Ishallbehersubstitute…”

In the meantime the gazelle has reached her kids, who inquire what hashappened.ShetellsthemthattheProphethasmadehimselfherbondsman;thenshe asks them to accompany her.All of them fall down and kiss his feet; thehunter,confrontedwiththismiracle,immediatelyembracesIslam.51Thefaithfulgazelleisthensetfreetoreturntohernativehillsalongwithherkids.Inalaterversionof the same legend, the theologicallywell-trained animal even says totheProphet,alludingtoSura108,Al-Kauthar:

ForyoutheKautharflows,inmyteatsthemilkflowstoo.

LetmankinddrinktheKauthar,Iwouldliketogive[mykids]adrinkofmilk!52

Inanothertale,aneaglethatsnatchestheProphet’sslipperdoessobecauseapoisonoussnakeishiddeninit;toprotecthimhecarriestheslippertothedesertmountains,wherehedropsthevenomousanimal.53Inmuchthesameway,AbuHuraira’scatsavestheProphetfromasnakethattakesadvantageofhiskindnessand tries to strangle him. The kerchiefwithwhichMuhammad haswiped hisfacedoesnotgetburntwhenitiscastinthefire,foritisimpregnatedwiththelightofprophethood,whichisstrongerthanfire.54DidnotHellfireitselfaddressthe true believer who follows the Prophet with the words “Your light hasextinguishedmyfire”?Even the greatest classical poets in theArabic andPersianate tradition, like

Busiri in hisHamziyya and Jami in his lyrical and his epic verse, describe inlively words all the miracles of the Prophet, because of the firm popularconvictionthatthesestoriescarryinthemselvesabaraka,ablessingpower,thatextendstoboththetellerandthelistener.55ThusaSindhipoetpromisesendlessrecompenseontheDayofResurrectiontoeveryonewhoreciteshispoemabouttheMiraclewith the Snake in the night before a Friday.56 South Indian poetshavemadesimilarpromiseswhenrecitingpoeticallegendsorencomia.Thefaithfulbelievethatbycomposingorlisteningtosuchtraditionallegends

oneisable toestablishaverypersonalrelationshipwith theProphet.TheyarecertainthatthoughburiedinMedina,heyetlivesinGod’spresenceandisableto be present everywhere, especially in places where his name is lovinglymentioned,asinthedhikr-meetingsofdervishorderswhenblessingsuponhimare recited (the Tijaniyya order hasmade this almost part of the fundamentalbelief;seechapter5),orduringtherecitationofamaulidthattellsthemiraclesconnectedwithhisbirth.57BlessingsfortheProphetandthelovingrepetitionoflegendsconnectedwith

himmayalsograntthefaithfulMuslimthegreatestboononecanhopeforinthislife,thevisionoftheProphetinadream.SuchdreamsplayanextraordinaryroleinIslamicpietytothisday.58Theyarealwaystrue,forSatancanneverassumetheProphet’sform.Thesedreamsconsolethefaithful;theycanbringhealingincasesof illnessormelancholia.Todreamof theProphetmightbeaninitiatoryexperiencefortheSufi,oritmighthelpsomeonetosolveatheologicalproblem.Amedieval Sufi, Ibn Khafif of Shiraz, when he learned that the Prophet hadperformedtheritualprayerontiptoebecausehisfoothadbeenwoundedinthebattleofUhud, tried to imitatehimwithoutsuccess;hewas then instructedbyMuhammad in a dream that this kind of prayer was reserved for the Prophetaloneandthattheaveragebelieverwasnotboundtoimitatethisspecialstyle.59InSufilore,theProphetappearstochastisetheologianswhohavenofaithina

certain mystic,60 or to honor a Sufi leader.61 Maulana Rumi’s friend andsuccessor,HusamuddinChelebi,evensawhimholdingRumi’sMathnawīinhishands, reading it and boasting of the presence of such a saint among hiscommunity.62This theProphet alsodid, according to another source,withAl-Ghazzali.63 Sometimes practical problems were solved by his appearance indreams.Oneearlymystic,onthepointofstarvation,wenttotheProphet’stomb,claimedtobehisguest,andinadreamwasgivenbread,halfofwhichheate;the other half he found on his mat upon awakening in the morning.64 Evenḥadīth could be transmitted through apparitions of the Prophet in dreams; butthese ḥadīth were, as Shah Waliullah clarified, valid only for the dreamingperson,notforothers.SomeSufisrecommendedaspecialprayer,Jami’spoemwiththerhyme-wordMuḥammad,forinducingavisionoftheProphet.65Butitseemsthatimpostorssometimestookadvantageofpiouspeople’sfirmbeliefinsuchapparitions,usingallegedvisionsinwhichtheProphetrecommendedthemto do this or that, or to teach the community certain formulas of prayer orblessing.WefindHamadhanidealingsatiricallywiththistopicinhisMaqāmātbytheearlyeleventhcentury,66andsomeSufissawintheirfriends’boastingofsuchvisions“imaginingsonwhichtheinfantsofthePatharenurtured.”67Alovelystorytoldbyas-Suyutiaboutanearliermysticshowswellwhatthe

dreamapparitionoftheProphetmeansforthepious,lovingMuslim:

OnenightIfulfilledthenumberofblessingsof theProphetandIfellasleep.Iwasdwellinginaroomand,lo,theProphethadcometomeinthroughthedoor,and thewhole roomwas lighted up by him. Then hemoved towardsme andsaid:“GivemethemouththathasblessedmesooftenthatImaykissit.”Andmymodestywouldnotlethimkissmymouth;soIturnedawaymyface,andhekissedmycheek.ThenIwoketremblingfrommysleepandmywifewhowasbymysideawoke,andlo,thehousewasodorousofmuskfromthescentofhim,andthescentofmuskfromhiskissremainedonmycheekabouteightdays.Mywifenoticedthescenteveryday.68

Inanotherinstance,aTurkishcalligrapherwastoldinadreambytheProphettospend the rest of his life in writing the Dalā’il al-Khairāt,69 a book whosecontents—prayers for the Prophet—lead us to another aspect ofMuhammad’smiraculousactivitiesandtheMuslims’reactiontoit:thatis,hisintercessionforhiscommunityandtheMuslims’callingdownofblessingsuponhim.

FIVE:MUHAMMADTHEINTERCESSOR,ANDTHEBLESSINGSUPONHIM

The titleofabookpublishedsomeyearsago,Muhammad:AMercy toAll theNations,expressesverywell theProphet’sposition in theologyandfaith.1Thetraditions thathighlight theProphet’smildnessandkindnesscouldalways relyontheKoranicstatementthatMuhammadwassent“asaMercyfortheworlds”(Sura21:107).“Hewasclothed,”asNajmRazisays,“inthecloak-of-honoroftheAttributeofMercy.Then,asmercyendowedwithform,hewassentdowntocreation.”2Thebeliever can therefore trust himwithout reservation; heknowsthattheProphetcanquickendeadheartsandprotectthosewholovehim.3Orientalpoetshavefoundawonderful imagetodescribethisspecialquality

oftheProphet:thatofthe“cloudofmercy”or“rainofmercy.”InAnatoliaandtheeasterncountriesofIslamrainisstillcalled,inruralareas,rahmat,“mercy,”becauseinaridzonesthefertilityofthelandandagoodharvest,aswellasthewell-beingofthecattle,entirelydependupontherightamountofrainfall.Itwasthereforea logicaldevelopment that themercifulProphetwassymbolizedasabeneficent rain cloud that sails over all lands and reviveswith its showers theunfeelinghearts,whicharesimilartodried-upfields.Jamihaspraisedthiscloudofmercywhich,pouringdownitsrainfromthe“sphereofgenerosity”saturatesthethirstylovers,4andtheIndo-MuslimpoetGhalibcalledhisdidacticpoeminhonor of the Prophet Abr-i gauharbār (The Jewel-carrying Cloud). One caneasilydrawaparallelherewiththeBuddha,whoisdescribedintheSaddharmaPundarika as the great merciful rain cloud. The image of rain for an act ofDivinegracewasinfactcommonallovertheEast,5andcanbeobservedintheSufitraditionfirstinthewritingsofan-Nuriaround900.6AnUrdupoet,Rasikh,went so far as to compare the coarse black rug onwhich the Prophet used tosleep,tothedarkcloudofmercy.7LongbeforehimRumisangaboutthiscloud,whichmanifestsDivinegrace:

OyouMercyfortheworlds!OutoftheoceanofcertitudeDoyougrantpearlstothedustborn,peacetothefishes!8

Perhapsthemostbeautifuldescriptionofthecloudofmercyisfoundin“SurSārang,”oneof thechapters in theRisālōof theSindhipoetShahAbdulLatif(d. 1752). He tells in realistic images of the approaching clouds and of the

longing of humankind, animals, and plants for their arrival, and he describespoetically the life-givingdownpourof the rain. In the final lyrical songof thechapter he suddenly turns to the praise of the “cloud of mercy,” that is, theProphet:

Todaythereisanorthwind,andthecuckoodoescomplain.

Thefarmertakeshisploughout,theherdsmandoesrejoice:

Todaymyfriendhasdonnedthegarmentoftheclouds.

Todaythereisanorthwind,andtheclouds:blacklikehishair,

Redgarmentslikemybridegroom—eachflashoflightningwears!

ThusbringstherainyairMyfriendfromfaraway.

ForthecloudshavecomefromtheRauda,themausoleumoftheProphet,anditisfromtherethatthelightningturnstowardthethirstydesertofSind.

Ocloud’pleaseshowkindnesstothethirsty,forGod’ssake!

Collectwaterintheponds,O,makethegraincheap,Makefertiletheland,

Thathappybethefarmer!

Theyallthinkoftherainclouds,gazelle,man,buffalo,

Wildducksawaitthecloud,andthefrogcomplains.

Theoysterintheoceanlooksoutforitallday—

O,fillthewatertanks,Thathappybethefarmer!

Thecloudscomeinrows,

thelightningbeginstoflashTheblissfulcloud

fillsthedried-upriverbeds.

Thecloudscomeinrows,thelightningbeginstoflash—

Thelightningmademehappyintheblackclouds,

Therain’sgentledrizzlingwashesthedustofgrieffromthehearts.

Myprincewillprotectme’thereforeItrustinGodThebelovedwillprostrate,willlamentandcry—thereforeItrustinGod.Muhammad,thepureandinnocent,willintercedethereforhispeople…Whenthetrumpetsounds,theeyesallwillbeopened…Thepiouswillgather,andMuhammad,fullofglory…WillproceedforeverysoultothegateoftheBenefactor…AndtheLordwillhonorhim,andforgiveusalloursins—thereforeItrustin

God!

Another canto of the same “Sur Sārang” ends with an even more poeticaldescriptionofthecloudofgrace,whichissaidtoextendfromIstanbultoDelhiandJaisalmer;thepoetimploresittopourspecialblessingsuponhiscountry,theprovinceofSind.9ButinthepoemShahLatifleadshislistenersfromthemercifulcharacterof

the Prophet to another important—perhaps even more central—aspect ofprophetologyasitdevelopedfromearlydays:Muhammad’sroleas intercessorforhiscommunity,whichultimatelyis theconcomitantofhismercifulness.Tobesure,itisdifficulttoderivethisroledirectlyfromtheKoran.10IntheThroneverse(Sura2:256)it isstatedthatnoonecanintercedewithGod“exceptwithHis permission”; but one could interpret this to mean that the Prophet wasgranted this special permission, for Sura 17:79 speaks of his “praiseworthyrank,”whichmight point to his power to intercede for his community.Again,Sura 40:7 mentions that those (the angels) who carry the Divine Throne andsurrounditaskconstantlyforforgivenessforthefaithful.There is alsobelief inother possible intercessors.Onevery commonlyheld

ideaisthattheKoranitselfwillappearatDoomsdayasanintercessorfor thosewho have studied it lovingly and devotedly. This hope is often expressed in

certain prayers that are uttered after one completes a recitation or reading(khatm)oftheHolyBook;thesearesometimesfound,especiallyinmanuscriptcopies,attheendofthetext.Furthermore,thepiousworksofthefaithful,ortheprofessionoffaith that theyhaverepeatedagainandagain,mayalso intercedeforthematDoomsday.Martyrs,too,canactasintercessorsforcertainpersons,justaschildrenwhohavediedininfancyarebelievedtointercedeonbehalfoftheirparents.Buttheseareonlyperipheralpossibilities;intercession,shafāʽa,initsfullnessistheprerogativeoftheProphetofIslamalone.Heistheshafīʽ,asoneofhis epithets states, and thusMuslimboys, especially in India, areoftencalledMuhammadShafʽ,orevenShafaʽat.TheideaofintercessionbytheProphetbeganearlyinIslam.Someversesby

Muhammad’seulogistHassanibnThabitcontainallusionstotheMuslims’hopeforhisintercession.11ButitismainlythestoryconcerningtheDayofJudgment,as found in various redactions in the oldest collections of hadith, that hassuppliedbelieverswiththebasisfortheirhopeinMuhammad’sveryspecialroleon thatdayofhorrors.12On theDayof Judgment, so the traditionhas it,Godgathers all mankind on a hill. The sun draws closer to them and they areoverwhelmedbyfearandgrief.Finally theyagree toseeksomeonewhocouldintercedewithGodontheirbehalf.TheycometoAdamandsay:

“Youare the fatherofmankind.YouhavebeencreatedbyGod’sownhandandHehasbreathedintoyoufromHisspirit.Hehasmadetheangelsprostratethemselvesbeforeyou. Intercede foruswithyourLord!Youseehowworriedweare!”ButAdamreplies:“TodaymyLordisangryashewasneverbeforeandwill

never be again. He had prohibited me [to eat from] the tree, and I havedisobeyedhim—nafsī,nafsī:Imyself,Imyself,[havetofear].”

Theythenproceedtoaskeachandeveryprophet,buteachremembersoneactofdisobedienceorsin,withtheexceptionofJesus.Butevenhesays:“Imyself,Imyself!”They thencometoMuhammadandsay:“OMuhammad,youare theMessengerofGod,theSealoftheProphets!Godhasforgivenyouyourpreviousandlatersins—intercedeforuswithyourLord!”AndMuhammadconsents:

Thus I shallgoandcomebefore theThrone.He revealsHimself tomeandinspiresinmesuchaglorificationandpraiseasHehasneverinspiredinanyonebeforethat.ThenHe says: “OMuhammad, lift your head, ask, and youwill be given;

intercede,andyouwillbegranted[whatyouask]!”

I lift my head and say: “O Lord, ummatī, ummatī: my community, mycommunity!”13AndGodsays:“OMuhammad,leadintoParadisethosefromyourcommunity

whoneednotundergoreckoning,throughtherightgate.Butinwhatisbeyondthattheyshallbeequaltothosethatenterthroughtheothergates.”

Thisḥadīth and its variations have been a source of consolation forMuslimseversince,althoughithasbeendebatedattimesexactlyforwhomtheProphetwouldintercede.Hisownanswerinḥadīthisclear:“Myintercessionisforthosefrommycommunitywhohavecommittedgravesins.”14Andhowfewmayhavefeltcompletelyfreefromgravesins!In a strange anecdote, Maulana Rumi refers to this tradition and tells his

listenersthatthereasonfortheexecutionofthegreatmysticHallajwasthatheexclaimed:“IfIcouldgetholdofMuhammadIwouldhavetakenhimtotask!”ForhemindedthattheProphetrestrictedhisintercessiontothebelieversanddidnot intercede for everyone on earth.TheProphet, of course, defended himselfagainst Hallaj’s complaint in a vision, and the mystic had to suffer for hispreposterousremark.15Tobesure,thetheologicalschooloftheMu’tazilitesintheninthcenturydid

notagreewiththegrowingemphasisonMuhammad’sroleasintercessor,whichthey felt contradicted one of the two central principles of the cosmic order,namelyGod’s absolute justice.But on thewhole the belief in his intercessionbecamepivotal inMuslimreligiouslife.Thisbeliefreflects theconvictionthatDivinemercymanifestsitselfinandthroughtheProphet;hisintercessionisinacertainwayaresultofhispositionas“Mercyfortheworlds.”AbuAbdallahat-TirmidhiinhisNawādiral-uṣūlremarksaptlythatotherprophetshadbeensenttotheircommunitiesasanʽaṭiyya,thatis,agiftofmercythattheLordsendshisservantswhenHeseesthemweak,meek,andhelpless.Muhammad,however,ismorethanthat:heisahadiyya,agiftoflove,whichtheLordgivesHisservantsto honor them and towin their hearts. The first kind of gift puts its recipientunderanobligation;thesecondonegratifieshim.16TheimportanceofthesublimerankofMuhammadisalsoindicatedinthatthe

Muslims, in someof their prayers, have imploredGod specifically to confirmthis high position of theProphet andmake him the truly accepted intercessor.Thusitissaid:

OGod,IaskTheebyhispositionwithThee,andhisconfidenceinThee,andhisyearning for Thee, to appoint him a Mediator to whom is given the task ofintercessionformeandformyparentsandforallwhobelieveinThee.17

OneofthemostwidelyusedhandbooksofblessingsfortheProphet,theDalāʽilal-khairāt by the Moroccan Sufi al-Jazuli, mentions the following prayerformula:

OGod, appoint our lordMuhammad as themost trusted of speakers and themostprevailingofrequestersandthefirstofintercessors,andthemostfavouredofthosewhoseintercessionisacceptable,andcausehimtointercedeacceptablyforhisnationandhispeople,withanintercessioninwhichthefirstandthelastareincluded!18

Themost strikingaspectof theearly traditionconcerning theshafāʽa is notthatasingleindividualisselectedtobecometherecipientofaspecialgrace,butrather that Muhammad’s intercession embraces his entire community. Onetradition expresses this conviction with words that have been repeatedfrequently:

Godwroteascripta thousandyearsbefore thecreationof theworld.ThenHeput it onHisThrone and exclaimed: “OcommunityofMuhammad, look,MymercyprecedesMywrath.Igiveyoubeforeyouask,andforgiveyoubeforeyouaskmyforgiveness.EveryoneofyouwhomeetsMeandsays:Thereisnodeitysave God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God’—I shall lead him toParadise!”19

Like other basic facts and early narratives about the Prophet, the traditionconcerning the intercession was elaborated as time passed. One of its mostimportant ingredients is the idea,againexpressed inaḥadīth, thatMuhammadwill carry the Flag of Praise, liwāʼ al-ḥamd. Later poets love tomention thisbanner,underwhichthefaithfulwillgathertobeprotectedfromthehorrorsofDoomsday, and it has also been said that all the previous prophets are underMuhammad’sbanner.20(OnethinkshereofGoethe’sdescriptionofthepropheticmessage,inwhichhesaysthattheprophettriestogatherpeoplearoundhim“asaround a banner”—an intuitive grasping of the Islamic idea of the liwāʼ al-ḥamd.)21The Muslims have never ceased inventing moving words and touching

sentencestoimploretheProphetnottowithholdhisintercessionfromthem:

ThouaretheIntercessorwhosemediationishopedforonthenarrowpathwhenfootstepsslide.

ThenbemyIntercessorwhenIaminthetomb,andhavebecomeThyguest,for

aguestisrespected!22

Learnedscholarsandecstaticmystics,popularminstrelsandcunningstatesmen,haveutteredcountlessversestoexpresstheirhopeofMuhammad’sintercession,sometimes using artistic rhymes and other times simple words like sighs, orrecalling the traditional oriental hospitality (as does the prayer quoted justabove).TheyclaimtobetheguestoftheSealoftheProphets,hopingforasipfromhisblissfulfountain,theKauthar.23Itisunderstandablethatsomestandardformulasoccurwhereversuchverseswerewritten,andonemayfindacertainmonotony in theseconstant repetitionsof sighsandcries.Yet fewbranchesofIslamic religious poetry are sowarm, so sincere, and often so touching as theversesinwhichtheProphet,thebestofallcreatures,isaskedforhismediationattheterriblemomentwheneverysoulhastomeettheEternalJudge,orthosethatexpressthepoet’sgratitudethatheisamemberoftheummamarhuma,thecommunity to which mercy has been granted.24 It is trust in Muhammad’sintercessionthatmakesdeatheasyforthebeliever:

Mywishisthis,thatwhenIdieIstillmaysmile,

AndwhileIgo,Muhammad’snamebeonmytongue,

singsShakilBadayuni,anIndianMuslimpoetofourday.25Inthisconnectiontheologianshavefrequentlydiscussedtheproblemwhether

it is permitted to address the Prophet with Yā rasūl Allāh, “O Messenger ofGod!”orYāḥabībAllah,“ObelovedofGod!”orsimilarpersonaladdressesthatimplythatheisindeedalive,ḥażirunāẓir,“presentandwatching,”asitissaid.Though stern traditionists reject this kind of address, a large number oftheologianshavepermittedit,andthefatwāgiveninSouthAfricain1982aboutthisquestionoffersnumerousexamplesfromclassicalandpostclassicalsourcesin which the authors, whose piety is undoubted, address the Prophet in thesecond person singular.Not only are the poets from theMiddleAges (amongthemMaulanaRumiinhisNaʽt-isharīf)citedbutalsonumeroustheologiansoftheschoolofDeoband.26Andindeed,therearefewpoemsinwhichtheProphetis either blessed or implored for help and intercession, in which this verypersonal form of address is not used: it evokes the feeling that he is close tothosewholovehim.There is scarcely any author, be he poet or scholar, “heretic (bidʽatī), drug-

addict (bhāngī), or wine-bibber,”27 who has not entreated the Prophet’s

intercessionand, touseJami’spoetical term,didnot“sowtheseedofblessingfortheProphetinthesoilofaskingforforgiveness.”28Someofthem,whofeltparticularly close to the Prophet, went rather far in their requests, as whenAhmad at-Tijani made the supplication “I beg the favor of our master, theMessenger ofGod, that he guaranteeme admission to Paradisewithout beingbroughttoanyaccountorundergoinganypunishment,”extendingthiswishalsoto hiswhole family, his ancestors, and his followers.29 But on thewhole, theheart of the request is to obtain forgiveness of sins. The great North Africanphilosopherofhistory,IbnKhaldun,askstheProphet:

Grantmebyyourintercession,forwhichIhope,Abeautifulpageinsteadofmyuglysins!30

Writingacenturybeforehim, themysticʽAfifuddinat-Tilimsani,suspectedbytheorthodoxMuslimsforhisextreme,“pantheistic”utterances,desperatelycallstotheProphetinalongpoem:

Ihavesins,abundant—butperhapsYourintercessionmaysavemefromHellfire…

andcloseshiscryformercywith:

Ihavecalledyou,hopingforanactofgracefromyou—Godforbid,Godforbid,thatyouwouldbecalledandwouldnotanswer!31

ShahʽAbdulLatifinSindbeginshispoeticalRisālōwiththestatement:

Whenthosewhosay“HeisGodalonewithoutcompanions”VenerateMuhammadtheintercessoroutofloveintheirhearts,ThennooneisdoomedTo[reach]abadlandingplace.32

SlightlylaterthegreatestlyricalpoetofUrdu,MirTaqiMir(d.1810),singsatthebeginningofhissecondDīwān:

Whydoyouworry,OMir,thinkingofyourblackbook?ThepersonoftheSealoftheProphetsisaguaranteeforyoursalvation!33

AndapoetofourdayinthemountainsofChitral(Pakistan)likewisecloseshis

encomiumfortheProphetinhisnativetongue,Khowar,withtheline

Thissinnerawaitsyourintercession!34

Rulers in the Islamic world, who were anything but paragons of piety, alsoturnedtotheProphetintheirverses.AmongthemistheMamlukSultanQaitbayofEgypt(d.1496),whosingsinaverysimpleTurkishstrophicpoem:

ThisisGod’sbeloved,Thephysicianforallpains—Look,thisnoble,one,unique,Inthemidstofthefieldofintercession!35

Inthedhikrmeetingsofcertaindervishorderstherequestforintercessionissometimes used as a litany, as among the North African beggar order of theHeddawa,who constantly repeat the exclamation “OMulayMuhammad, prayforus!”36Thenumerousrefrainsofpopularpoetrythatexpressthepoets’hopefortheProphet’sintercessionmayhavedevelopedfromthiscustom.InTurkishreligious poetry, this device has been used frequently from the days ofYunusEmre (d. ca. 1321), whose verses were primarily sung in the meetings ofdervishes. Likewise, the repeated line in poems in Sindhi, Panjabi, or Urdu,which is usually sung in chorus in a distinct rhythm, often contains the samecall:

Theworldslongforyou—Muhammad,intercedeforus!37

Italsooccursinotherpoeticalforms,suchasthemusaddas,asix-linestanzainwhichthelastlineofeachstanzamaycontainacallformercy.Agoodexamplefrom the regional tradition isamusaddas inPanjabiwith the telling title“ThePain-filledSearchforRefugeofthePeopleofGod[Allāhwālūn]inthePresenceof the Leader of Creatures, the Pride of Existent Things, Ahmad MujtabaMuhammadMustafa,”inwhichtherepeatedlinesays:

OHazrat,inthetwoworldsIhavenoonebutyou!38

Sometimespopularpoetsoflatertimesgoslightlytoofarintheirdescriptionsofthe gracious Prophet: the Balochi poet Hammal Faqir Laghari (d. 1872), adevotee of the branch of theNaqshbandi order centered in Lunwari Sharif in

Sind, has enumerated in his Sindhi eulogy for the Prophet no fewer than 141places in which the Prophet’s power is at work; these extend from Ingrez(England) toKathiawar, fromSibi inUpper Sind to Lucknow, fromPoona toKanaan, and all these names are connected by puns and the constant use ofalliteration, each rhymingstanzacappedwitha repeatedplea for themercyoftheProphet.Forexample:

YourdrumisthereinTuran,Persians,Arabs,andIran,Mecca,Misir[Egypt],andMultan—Mustafa,bekindtome!

CloudsarerainingonBulghar,Ghazna,Ganja,andGirnar,Masqat,Mambay[Bombay],Malabar—Mustafa,bekindtome!

InBabal,Bukhara,andBalkh,InKhiwa,Khorasan,andKhalkhYouareobeyedbyantandmalkh[locust]—Mustafa,bekindtome!

Andattheendofthepoem,whichcomprises81stanzasofthiskind,theProphetis finally asked once more to intercede on behalf of the poet at the Day ofJudgment.39In India even Hindus took up the custom of imploring the Prophet for his

intercession.Thussings,intheearlytwentiethcentury,theSindhifolkpoet,SufiBhaiAsuram:

Savemefromunbelief’sdarkness,Helpme,OProphetofGod!Youaretheluminouslight,Friend,sweetest,oftheMostHigh,Nosecondorthirdislikeyou—Bemerciful,ProphetofGod…40

His contemporary and coreligionist, the noted Urdu poet Kaifi, exclaimstriumphantly:

Myprotector,hewhomIpraise,istheintercessorforthepeoplesoftheworld—OKaifi,whyshouldIbeafraidoftheDayofReckoning?41

The faithful imagine time and again how theywill look for shelter under theprotectivebanneroftheProphetontheDayofJudgment:

IntheplaceofresurrectionatDoomsdayMuhammadarriveswithhisgreenbanner.

Thepioustelleachotherthegoodtidings:Muhammadarriveswithhisgreenbanner!42

Andtheyknowwhatwillhappenthen:

“Ohmydearcommunity,mycommunity!”thuscriesMuhammad.43

Thesamefeeling that isexpressed in these linesby themedievalTurkishpoetYunusEmre issharedbyMuslims inAfrica. Inreligiouspoetry inSwahili theProphet appears above all as the intercessor underwhose banner thebelieverswill triumphantly enter Paradise,44 and this faith inMuhammad’s shafāʽa andprotection,asmanifestedinhis“greenbannerofpraise”helpsthemtokeeptheirhopesup.The recitation or composition of verses that radiate hope and trust has a

talismanicpowerofitsown.WhenGhaniofThatta,intheIndusValleyaround1700,composedthePersianlines

HereismyhandandthepurehemofMuhammad—HereismyeyeandthecollyriumofthedustofMuhammad,

the poemwas “accepted extremelywell by the tongues of old and young andserved as a means for those who wanted to achieve their goals.”45 In otherwords,thereaderfeltthatsimplybyrecitingthisverse,hehadasitwerealreadygraspedtheprotectivehemoftheProphet’srobeandusedthedustofhisblessedfeet as a healing salve for his eyes. Examples of this kind of poetry arefrequentlyfound,asforinstanceinapopularPashtoballadthathastherefrain

OnthedayofResurrection,OProphet,Myhand[ison]yourskirt!46

Poets even expressed the hope that their eulogies might serve as a kind ofmediatorbetweenthem,sinfulcreatures,andtheProphet,whocan“washofftheauthor’ssinswiththewaterofthecloudofkindness.”47MuhsinKakorawi,thegreatestpanegyristof theProphet inmodernUrdu,evenhas theangelGabrielrecitethepoemhehaswritten,closingitwiththesedaringlines:

IntherowsofResurrectionyourpanegyristwillbewithyou,Inhishandthisenthusiasticghazal,thisqaṣīda,AndGabrielwillsaywithahint:“Now,InthenameofGod:‘FromthedirectionofBenareswentacloudtowardMathura…’”

Thepoethopesthat thispoem,whichis indeedunusuallyimpressivethankstohis skillful use of two different stylistic levels, will move the Prophet toadministerspecialkindnesstohisservantwhohaspraisedhimsoeloquently.48Isnot thepoempraising theProphet “a flagof forgiveness, a candleonone’stomb?”49But besideswriting beautiful poems and prayers or litanies, the pious have

sought various otherways to ensure that their sinswill be forgiven, and havesometimesresortedtocharmsinspired,astheybelieve,bytheProphethimself.Among these is the Seal of Prophethood, about which the caliph Abu Bakrallegedly said: “Whosoever puts it in his shroud or his grave will neverexperience the pain of the grave, andGodwill forgive all his sins, great andsmall,andwillfillhisgravewithlight.”50

Theso-calledSealofProphethood,asgivenintheJawahiral-auliya

Though thousands of prayers and poems speak of the Muslims’ hope ofMuhammad’s intercession for themselves and their families,51 there is one

meanstothisendthatismuchmorepowerfulthananythingelse:toimploreGodtoblessMuhammadandhisfamily.TheKoranitselfsays(Sura33:56)thatGodandHis angels “pray upon,” that is, bless the Prophet. Could the believer doanything better than follow the example given by the Lord Himself? In fact,Rumiexplainsthat“theseactsofserviceandworshipandattentiondonotcomefromusandwearenot free toperformthem.…Theybelong toGod; theyarenotours,butHis.”52TheblessingformulaṣallāAllāhuʽalaihiwasallam,“Godblesshimandgivehimpeace,”knownasthe taṣliya,aṣ-ṣalātʽaldMuḥammador (in the plural) ṣalawāt sharīfa, has been used from earliest times, and thepiousMuslimwill nevermention the Prophet’s name or refer to himwithoutaddingthosewords.Inprint,theyareeitherstatedinfullorabbreviatedwitha

siglumoverorafterthename: ;inEnglish,often(S).Averyoldvariantofthisblessingformula,“OGod,blessMuhammadandhisfamilyasYouhaveblessedAbrahamandhisfamily,”connectstheProphetofIslamwiththe venerated prophet who erected the Kaʽba in Mecca and who is, throughIshmael,theancestoroftheArabs.Relatedformulashavebeenusedfrequentlythroughthecenturiesinmoreorlesselaboratewording.53Numerousḥadīth remindtheMuslimsof theimportanceof thisblessing,for

GodHimself,asitisreported,onceaddressedtheProphetwiththewords,“Doyou approve, O Muhammad, that nobody from your community utters theformulaofblessingforyou[even]oncebutIblesshimten times,andnobodyfromyourcommunitygreetsyou[even]oncebutIgreethimtentimes?”54ThisDivine promisewas later expressed inmore detailed form: for every blessingupon the Prophet, man is elevated by ten degrees, and ten good actions arecreditedtohim,andsooninsteadyprogression.TheProphethimselfsaid,astheḥadīthhasit,“Whosoeverutterstheblessingforme,heisblessedbytheangelsasoftenasheutterstheblessing,beitoftenorrarely.”55It is thereforenotsurprisingthat the taṣliyahasbeenaccordedsinceearliest

timesa fixedposition in ritualprayer.One shouldalsoutter it at certainothertimes,forinstancewhilethecalltoprayerisrecited(theearliestattestedmentionofthiscustomisfromtheyear710).Aḥadīthadmonishes thefaithful toblesstheProphetoftenonFriday,“foryourgreetingsareputbeforeme thatday.”56Theblessinghasalsobeenregardedasanecessaryconditionforthegrantingofa prayer of petition: “The personal supplication (duʽā) remains outside [theheavens]untiltheprayingpersonutterstheblessingsupontheProphet.”57Or,astheSufi Ibn ʽAta (d. 922) says: “Prayer has supports,wings,means for beinggranted,andspecialtimes.…ThemeansforbeinggrantedaretheblessingsfortheProphet.”58

Inthebeginning,theṣaldtʽalāMuḥammadwasprobablyconsideredtobeakindofprayerintendedtoaddtotheProphet’sglory,butastimepasseditwasincreasinglyregardedaspraisethattheProphet,alivenearGod,couldenjoy.Theattendantproblem,thatis,wheretheProphetwouldhavetobeinordertoreallyenjoytheblessings,hasbeendiscussedindetail.Accordingtosometraditions,theprophetsareallaliveintheirgraves(theProphetcanthusanswerfromtheRaudatothegreetingsofhisvisitors);accordingtoothers,atleastMuhammadlives close to God, and IbnAsakir states that ifMuhammad can reply to thesalām fromhis grave, he can do the same from everywhere.But however theprophets’ life after death is imagined, there seemsno doubt possible that theyare, in a mysterious way, alive in their tombs, nourished by Divine signs ofgrace.59Howcould theProphetof Islamnotbealive, argues IbnHazm, sinceone says “Muhammad is the messenger of God” and not “has been themessengerofGod”?60ThisfirmbeliefinthelivingpresenceoftheProphet,whoseubiquitywasfelt

with increasing strength by the believers, led to ever more beautifulembellishmentsoftheformulaofblessing.Onefindsatthebeginningofliteraryworks after the long, poetically elaborated formula “In the name of God,”blessingsfortheProphetthatarewritteninequallyartisticverse,fullofsublimeeulogies. These became so developed as to form a special genre in Persian,Turkish,andUrduepicpoetry.Theologians have occasionally discussed the problem whether the blessing

upon the Prophet might be superfluous, because he is already perfect andperfectedineveryconceivablemanner,sothateventheblessingofthefaithfulcannotaddanythingmoretohishonor.Thereplytothiswouldbe,“Thereisnoperfection,butthereisagreateroneexistingwithGod.”61Thesearethewordsof ShahWaliullah, the Indian reformist theologian of the eighteenth century,rebukingthosewhoconsideredthetaṣliyaunnecessary.Insodoing,hefelt,andmost likely reflected theopinionof themajorityofbelievers, that theblessingfortheProphetwasstillpossible,evennecessary.TodefendhisviewhequotedfromBusiri’sBurda:

VerilytheProphet’sgreatnesshasnolimit,sothatanyonewhospeakswithhismouthcouldexpressit.62

UltimatelymostMuslimswouldprobablyagreewithRumi,whosaw in theṣalawātameanstodrawclosertothebelovedProphet.63Asafolkpoet in theIndusValleysings:

Yourdhikr[remembrance]isessentialforthepeaceofthesoul—Lord,theṣalawātforyoucuregriefandpain.64

Thusinthemysticalfraternitiesandthepopularpietythatdevelopedundertheirinfluence,aswellasinhighpoetry,theṣalawāt-isharīfaor,astheysayinIndo-Pakistan,durūd-isharīfbecameanimportantingredientofthedhikrandisstillrepeatedhundreds and thousandsof timesby the faithful,whooften sing it tobeautifultunes.TheShadhiliyyaorder,forexample,usesinthedhikrthewell-known ṣalawāt al-mashīshiyya, a prayer that goes back to the medievalMoroccan saint Ibn Mashish; these blessings are recited every day after themorning and the sunset prayers. Such litanies are regarded as extremelyefficaciousinmanyordersandarethereforewidelyused.Inpoetrytheblessingformulaoccursfrequently,again—aswiththeprayerfor

intercession—mainlyasa refrain,so thatpoemacquires toacertainextent thecharacter of a true litany. The wording of the durūd varies according to theexigencies ofmeter and rhyme.A typical example is theArabic refrain of anUrdu poem by the pioneer of Indo-Muslim historiography, Maulana ShibliNumani(d.1914):

Bless,OLord,thebestProphetandmessenger!Bless,OLord,thenoblestamongdjinnandmen!65

Innumerable formulas from the Koran and ḥadīth have been collected andelaborated in the course of the centuries in order to recite these blessings inincreasingly artistic andat the same timememorable forms.66Pious collectorsoftenmentionthefuturerecompenseforrecitingthisorthatformulaatacertainmoment,oraspecificnumberoftimes.Amongthemanyhandbooksthatcontainsuch prayers and invocations the Dalāʼil al-khairātby al-Jazuli has been afavoriteof thedevoutfromthefifteenthcenturyonwardandisstillbeingusedby millions, from its Moroccan homeland to Malaysia and Indonesia.67 ItinvokesblessingsovertheProphetinhighlypoeticallanguagewhosebeautyisunfortunately lost even in the best translation. In it,Muhammad is described,interalia,as

“MayGodblesstheunletteredProphet,”tughrācalligraphybytheauthor

ThemanofthestalwartstaffThemanwhoworesandalsThemanofargumentThemanofsoundreasonThemanofpowerTheweareroftheturbanTheherooftheNightAscent…HeofwhomthegazellessoughtintercessioninarticulatespeechHetowhomthelizardspokeatanopenconferenceofthemostlearned

ThedevotedevangelistThebrilliantlamp…HewhowaspureandyetpurifiedThelightoflights…ThespreadingdawnThebrilliantstarThetrustyhandleThemonitorofthepeopleoftheearth68

There was even a sort of brotherhood inMarrakesh, called Ashab ad-dala’il,whose essential function was the recitation of this celebrated collection ofprayers. The Dalāʼil commonly functions as a sort of talisman and is often

carefullycalligraphedorpreservedinsilverorembroideredleathercases.69In other formulas, God is asked to bless the hero of faith, who bears

innumerablebeautifulnamesandsurnames,andwhodeservesblessings

tothenumberoftherollingcloudsandthesweepingwinds,fromtheDaywhenThoudidstcreate theworld to theResurrectionDay…to thenumberofdropsthatrainfromThyheavensonThyearth,andthatwillraintilltheResurrectionDay… to the number of breezes of the wind and the movement of trees andleavesandfieldcrops,andallthatThouhastcreatedindesertorcultivatedland,fromthedayofCreationtilltheResurrection.70

ConstanceE.Padwick,whohas collected these invocationswithgreat care, isright in maintaining that “the taṣliya has become an essential, sometimes itwouldseem,theessentialof the lifeofsalvationanddevotion,”71andher fineanalysis of this type of piety is doubtless the best introduction to the lovingvenerationoftheProphetMuhammad.“IfamanbringsontheDayofResurrectionasmanygoodworksasthoseof

allpeopleintheworldanddoesnotbringwiththemthecallingdownofblessingontheProphet,hisgoodworksarereturnedtohim,unacceptable.”72ThussaysUthman al-Mirghani, the founder of a Sufi brotherhood noted for its extremevenerationoftheProphet,andinoneofhispoemshesings:

MayGodtheMosthighbless’alaahAhmad!Theelected,chosenProphet’alaahAhmad!Weconstantlyyearnforyou’alaahAhmad!Weflyfromjoytowardyou’alaahAhmad!Weleadourcamelstoyou’alaahAhmad!Wewailinlongingforyou’alaahAhmad!…,73

“Muhammad is the Messenger of God—may God bless him and give himpeace!”bytheTurkishcalligrapherNasihEfendi,1852

But there are much earlier stories that show that the taṣliya was consideredcentralforman’ssalvation.Inonetalerecountedinthefifteenthcentury,

One of the saints saw in his sleep a hideous form, and he said, “Who artthou?”Itanswered,“Iamthymisdeeds!”Hesaid,“AndhowcanIbedeliveredfromthee?”Itsaid,“BymuchcallingdownofblessingontheProphet!”74

TheMuslimshavetrustedthateventhoughtheirsinsmightbeasmanifoldasthe foamon theocean, theywillbe forgivenbyvirtueof thisblessing.And ifone has repeated the ṣalawāt often enough, the grave will become wide andspacious,agardenofserenity,andthescalesatDoomsdaywillbeheavyinone’sfavor. But evenmore important is the belief that the formula of blessing canbringthebelieverclosertotheProphetandcanalsohelphimtoseethebelovedMuhammad in his dream. That is why many authors finish their works withblessingsonorgreetingstotheProphet:

Ihavefinisheditinablessedhour—ThousandsofgreetingstotheProphetMuhammad!75

says Ghawwasi, the author of the Dakhni epic Saiful Mulūk in seventeenth-centuryGolconda,tomentiononlyonetypicalexample.Andthetaṣliyacanalsobe used for practical purposes, for instance, to avert the evil eye, even “whenlookinginthemirror.”76Handbooks that teach such formulas of blessing still appear frequently;

recently some of them have begun to be published in transcription in Romanletters,orwithanEnglishtranslationoftheArabictextforthosewhohavenotyet learned Arabic (as often with recent converts) or have grown up in anenvironmentwithadifferentlanguageandscript(asinIndia).77The formula of blessing had definitely become an integral part of the daily

ritualbyabout1200,butprobablymuchearlier.ThegreatsaintAbuHafsTJmaras-Suhrawardi (d. 1234) provides a good example of this constant use of thetaṣliyainhisʽAwārifal-maʽārif(TheGiftsofSpiritualPerceptions),abookonreligious etiquette (as onemay describe it) that was widely studied wherevermystically inclined pious Muslims were found. In the following passage, theauthorinstructsthenoviceinthecorrectperformanceoftheablutionforlesserimpuritybeforetheritualprayer:

Duringtheritualablutiononebeginswiththetoothbrush,thenoneturnstowardMecca and begins with the ablution, starting with “In the name of God theMerciful, the Compassionate” and saying: “O Lord, I seek refuge with Theefrom the instigations of the devils, and I seek refuge with Thee from theirvisitations.”Whilewashinghishands, thebeliever says: “God, I askThee forhappiness and blessing and I seek refuge with Thee from misfortune anddisaster.”Whilerinsinghismouthhesays:“MyGod,blessMuhammadandhelpmetoreciteThybookandtorememberTheeoften.”Whiletakingthewaterintothenostrilsonesays:“OmyGod,blessMuhammadandletmeexperiencethefragranceofParadisewhileThouartcontentwithme.”Whileblowingout thewateronesays:“MyGod,blessMuhammad!ItakerefugewithTheefromthestenchofHellfireandtheevilabode.”Whilewashingone’sfaceonesays:“MyGod,blessMuhammadandmakemyfacewhiteonthedayonwhichthefacesofThyfriendsbecomewhite,anddonotblackenmyfaceonthedaywhenthefacesofThyenemiesturnblack.”Whilewashinghisrighthandandlowerarm:“MyGod,blessMuhammadandgivememybookinmyrighthandandreckonwithmewithaneasyreckoning.”Whilewashinghis lefthandandlowerarm:“MyGod,ItakerefugewithTheefrom[thepossibility]thatThougivestmemy

bookintomylefthandorfrombehind.”Whilepassingthehandoverthehead:“My God, bless Muhammad and cover me with Thy mercy, send downsomethingfromThyblessingandprotectmeundertheshadeofThyThroneonthedaywhenthereisnoshadebuttheshadeofThyThrone.”Whilerinsingtheearsonesays:“MyGod,blessMuhammadandmakemeoneofthosewholistentothewordandfollowthebestofit.MyGod,letmehearthecalloftheheraldofParadisealongwiththepure.”Whilewashingone’sneckonesays:“MyGod,savemyneck fromHellfire. I take refugewithThee fromchains and fetters.”Whilewashing the right footonesays:“MyGod,blessMuhammadandmakefirm my foot on the Sirat-bridge along with the feet of the faithful.” Whilewashingtheleftfootonesays:“MyGod,blessMuhammad!ItakerefugewithThee from [the possibility] that my foot slide on the Sirat-bridge on the daywhenthefeetofthehypocritesslide.”78

HereoneseesthatalmosteverymovementduringtheablutionisintroducedbyablessingovertheProphet;thesameholdstruefortheotherritualactsthathavetobeperformedthroughoutthedayandtheyear.‘Umar as-Suhrawardi was the organizer of one of themost successful Sufi

orders, the Suhrawardiyya, and the taṣliya has indeed become a distinctivefeature of someSufi fraternities. It is told thatMaulanaRumi,whenwhirlingaroundinecstaticdance(samāʽ),sometimesutteredtheblessingformulaintherhythmofthemusic.79OfcertainSufisintheSudanitissaidthat“thisblessingisolatesthemfromeverythingworldly,beitgoodorevil,becauseitisaprayeroutoflovefortheProphetforhisownsake,notoutofhopeforhisintercessionorfearlesthewithholdit—nay,purelyoutofloveforhim.”80Thatiscertainlyanimportantaspectofthetaṣliya,butitcannotbedeniedthateveninSufiordersamore“magical”qualityoftheṣalawātsharīfawaswellknown.InsomeNorthAfrican circles one attends ṣalawāt meetings in which one indulges incongregationalprayersfortheProphetandhopesthatarequestmadeinsuchameetingwillsoonbegranted.Amongtheformulasusedthere,onefindstheso-calledCordovanPrayerofConsolation,whichshouldberecited4,444timesinonesessioninordertoobtainone’swish“asfastasfire.”Itgoeslikethis:

OGod,blesswithaperfectblessingourlordMuhammadbywhomdifficultiesare solved, sorrows consoled, affairs completed, throughwhom the longed-forobject is obtained and fromwhose noble countenance the clouds ask for rain,and[bless]hisfamilyandhiscompanions.81

Members of the contemporaryHamidiyya Shadhiliyya ordermay pray for the

ProphetMuhammadfortwohourseachnight.82ButevenmoreremarkablearetheprayersoftheTijaniyyaorder,whosefounder,Ahmadat-Tijani,claimedthathehadbeen instructed in these litaniesby theProphethimself.Abriefprayer,thesalātal-fātiḥ,washeldinparticularesteem:

OGod, bless ourmasterMuhammad,whoopenedwhat had been closed, andwhoisthesealofwhathadgonebefore;hewhomakestheTruthvictoriousbytheTruth,theguidetoThystraightpath,andblesshishouseholdasisthedueofhisimmensepositionandgrandeur!

Shortasitis,theprayerisconsideredtohave

meritsofeightcategories…:Hewhoreadsitonceisguaranteedtheblissofthetwo abodes; also reciting it once atones for all sins and is equivalent to sixthousand times all prayers of glorification to God, all dhikr and duā, long orshort,whichhaveoccurredintheuniverse.Hewhorecitesittentimesacquiresrecompensegreaterthanthatduetoawalī[saint]wholivedtenthousandyearsbutdidnotsayit.Sayingitonceisequivalenttotheprayersofallangels,humanbeings,anddjinn from thebeginningof theircreation to the timewhen itwasuttered,andsayingitasecondtimeislikeit[i.e.,equivalenttotherecompenseofthefirst]plustherecompenseofthefirstandthesecond,andsoon.83

EvenmoreexaltedistheJauharatal-kamāl,whichtheProphethimselftaughttoTijani, andwhich he and the four first caliphs of Islamwill attendwhen it isrecited seven times.84 Tijani saw nothing unusual in his close constantrelationshipwiththeProphet,forthelatter’sdeath“meantmerelythathewasnolongervisibletoallhumanbeings,althoughheretainedtheappearancewhichhehad before his death and became ubiquitous; and he appeared in dream ordaylight to thosewhomhe especially favored.”85OrthodoxMuslims, however,rebutted the claim ofAhmad at-Tijani and his followers, for if the Prophet inpersonhadtaughthimcertainspecialformulasitwouldmeanthatMuhammadhad“diedwithoutcompletelydeliveringhispropheticmessage,and[tobelieve]thisisanactofinfidelity,kufrr.”86Though suchexaggerated claimsofSufi leaders about their familiaritywith

theProphethavealwaysbeenviewedwithmistrustinmoreorthodoxcircles,theSufipoetsspreadthegladtidingsofMuhammad’skindnessandofthenecessityofdurūdforhimoverthewholeMuslimworld.Forexample,thesingersintheIndiansubcontinent,theqawwdte,oftentakeupthethemeoftheblessingfortheProphet in their songs. Then the listeners’ ardor is aroused; they recite or

murmurthewordstogetherwiththesinger,orhumthesoft,rhythmicalmelodiesfullofdelight,placingtherighthandontheirheartasasignofveneration.

Oheart,callblessingsonhimwithblackenedeye—OntheDayofResurrectionhewillbeyourhelperintheterror!87

This is the beginning of a popularArabic epic poem in honor of theProphet.Eveninthepuppettheaterthetaṣliyaisnotlacking,irreligiousasthecontentsofthepiecemaybe.88The medieval Turkish poet Ashiq Pasha reminds his compatriots of the

primordial existenceofMuhammad,whichbecame suchan important facet ofmysticalprophetology:

Adamwasstilldustandclay—Ahmadwasaprophetthen,HehadbeenselectedbyGod—Utterblessingsoverhim!89

ASindhifolkpoetofourcenturysings,verysimilarly,inhis“GoldenAlphabet”undertheletterl:

LovelyisandpureMuhammad,KingoflaulākisMuhammad!Leadsyoutothegoal,Muhammad,Leavesnobodygrieved,Muhammad—

Blesshimalways,OmyGod!90

Andoneofhiscompatriots,asimpleshepherdfromtheIndusValley,offershisblessingsfortheProphetinthestyleofplainchildren’ssongs.Inmorethanfiftyversesheaddressesall theprophetsmentioned in theKoranand theBibleandremindsthem,asheremindseverythingcreated,thattheirblessingsareallduetotheProphet:

OyouChosenoftheLord!Master,blessingsuponyou!

HourandhourandplaceandplaceMaster,blessingsuponyou!

Khidr’sblessing,Abraham’s,Elijah’sandIsmailʽs,

Elisa’sandIsrael’s,Master,blessingsuponyou!

Onthemoveandduringrest,Beitdaytime,beitnight,Morning,noon,andevening

Master,blessingsuponyou!Asthedropsinalltherains,Asthehairsonallthebeasts,AndassandsindesertwideMaster,blessingsuponyou!91

Forthefolkpoetsknowthat“water,fire,windandearth,nayratherheavenandearthrecitetheṣalawātwithouttonguedayandnight.”92Theimportanceofthedurūd-isharīfinpopularpietybecomesevidentfroma

charming littleSindhiballadwhose theme,as faras Iknow,doesnotoccur inclassicalArabicliterature;allusionstoitare,however,foundinboththeTurkishand the Indo-Muslim tradition. It is the story of the bee.Around1300,YunusEmreinAnatoliahadmentionedthatthebee,whenenteringthebeehive,humstheblessingsfortheProphet.93ThisremarkisparticularlyinterestingbecauseitiswidelyreportedthattheProphetwasindeedfondofhoneyandhadpraisedthebees,whicharealsomentioned in theKoranasexamplesofGod’s inspirationworkinginanimals(Sura16:68-69).ThʽProphet’sfondnessforthewholesomehoneyinspiredmedievalMuslimsinNorthAfricatocallhisbirthdaythe“honeyfeast”becausemuchhoneywasusedduringthecelebrations.Ontheotherhand,severalmiraclesofAlitellofhisspecialrelationswiththeusefulinsect.94OneSindhipoet,whoflourishedaround1920,celebratedinplainverses,allrhymingina,amarvelouseventthathappenedonedayinMedina:

InthebooksthereiswrittenSuchalovelytale:

Onedayinthenoblemosquetheheroesassembledwere,

ComingasMuhammad’sgueststheywerefullofcheer,

Andtheygreetedtheleadertherewithgreatsincerity.

“Anduponyoubepeace!”thussaidnowthesweetMuhammad,

Andheconversedfriendlywiththem—howhappytheywerethere!

Quicklyheorderedeggsandbreadtobemadefortheguests—

Buttherewasnothingtoeatwithitwhichcouldbeofferedtothem.

Whentheydiscoveredthismistake,theywerecompletelyconfused!

Suddenlytherecamealittlebee,whirlingaroundthemabit.

“Whydidyoucome?”thusaskednowMuhammadthelittlebee.

AndinfrontofMuhammadtheprincethebeeexplainedeverything:

“IhavecomeherethistimeforyouonorderoftheLord—

Givemeaspecialservantnowtogoalongwithme!”

ThesweetMuhammadnowpresentlypointedtoAliShah,

AndthebeeflewaheadandthentherefollowedherAliShah.

InahurrytheyreachedacertaintreewhichisnotfarfromMedina,

Andwithastickhethentookdownthebeehivesaltogether.

Hebroughtthemandgavethemtotheguestswhoatethemhappily.

ThenPrinceMuhammadaskedthebeetoexplainthestrangeevent.

“Howhappenedsuchagracetoyou,tellhonestlythetale!”

InfrontofPrinceMuhammadnowthebeeexplaineditwell:

“Whateverhoneybeestherebe,Iamtheleaderofall;

Weflyandwegrazeinthewoodsandtrees,

bitterbetheyorsweet,Andwecollectallthisflowersap

inhiveshighinthetrees,Butthesapwillnever,neverbesweet—

itservesusonlyasfood.Butwhenwespeak,OProphetdear,

theblessingsforyouwithlove,Thenourhoneybecomessosweet

byvirtueofthisword.Thusyoutoospeaktheblessingsnow

ForMuhammadwithgreatlove,Andbecome,thankstothisblessing,then

assweetashoneyis!”95

This little folk ballad leads us back to the numerousmiracle stories about theProphet,fromwhichourdiscussionoftheshafāʽabegan.

SIX:THENAMESOFTHEPROPHET

Itisawell-knownfactinthehistoryofreligionsthataperson’snamecontainsaveryspecialpower.Itisconnectedwiththenamedoneinamysteriousway:toknow someone’s namemeans to knowhim himself. That iswhyGod “taughtAdamthenames”(Sura2:30)tomakehimthemasterofeverythingcreated.Forthe same reason the lover is not allowed to reveal his beloved’s name, for hedoesnotwantanyonetohaveaccesstothesecretsofhislove.Sincethenameispart,andaveryimportantpartindeed,ofathingoraperson,itcarriesbaraka,blessing power,with it, andwhen someone is endowedwith special power oroccupiesaparticularlyloftyrank,hisnametoocanworkinamysteriouswayonpeoplewho are given the samename (hence the numerousMarys, Johns, andPetersintheChristiantradition).ItisthereforenotsurprisingthatMuslimshavealwaysascribedaveryspecialbarakatotheProphet’sname.1ThesefeelingsaresummedupinaninvocationbytheAnatolianminstrelYunusEmre,writtenca.1300:

PleaseprayforusonDoomsday—Yournameisbeautiful,youyourselfarebeautiful,Muhammad!YourwordsareacceptednearGod,theLord—Yournameisbeautiful,youyourselfarebeautiful,Muhammad!2

ItappearsthatthisvenerationofthenameofMuhammadmayevengobacktothelifetimeoftheProphet,forQadiʽIyadquotesaversebyHassanibnThabit,the Prophet’s poet, which could easily have formed the basis for all laterspeculations about Muhammad’s name. In these lines, the famous Arab poetpoints to the relation between the name Muhammad and one of the Divineattributes,maḥmūd:

[God]derivedforhim,inordertohonorhim,partofHisname—ThustheLordoftheThroneiscalledmaḥmūd,andthisonemuḥammad?3

That is,muḥammad is the passive participle of the second form of the verbḥamada,“topraise,tolaud,”andmeans“[hewhois]worthyofpraise,[theone]oftenpraised.”maḥmūd is the passive participle of the first form of the sameverbalroot,“[hewhois]praised,towhompraiseisdue.”Becausethefirstsura

oftheKoranbeginswiththewordsAl-ḥamdulillāh,“PraisebetoGod,”Godisthe “Praiseworthy,” the maḥmūd par excellence. This simple grammaticalconnection between the Divine attribute and the name of the Prophet wasespeciallyemphasizedbythemysticsandthenelaboratedinvariousways.4Thenineteenth-centuryUrdupoetTapishgoesso faras toclaim in thisconnectionthat

WhenthePenwrotethenameofGod,Itwrote[also]thenameoftheMessengerofGod[Muhammad].5

Thisremarkcanalsobeinterpreteddifferently,fortheMuslimshavealwaysdwelt upon the fact that the Prophet’s name ismentioned in the profession offaith directly after the name ofGod:Lā ilāha illā Allāh,Muḥammadun rasūlAllāh.ThiscombinationhaslongservedtoremindtheMuslimsoftheProphet’sunique position, and not only have the theologians pondered this mysteriousconnection and its implications, but poets never tire of alluding to it, as forinstanceNazirididintheearlyseventeenthcenturyinIndia:

IntheshahādaHehasspokenMustafa’snamealongwithHisownnameAndhasthusmademanifestthefinalgoalofAdam.6

Thepoettakesupthisveryideaafewpageslaterinthesamepoemandaddsanimportantdetail:

Godhasmadehis[Muḥammad’s]nameintheshahādathesequenceofHisownname,

AndbymentioninghimhasseparatedthebelieverfromtheChristian.7

These lines reveal the return to a more orthodox viewpoint after Akbar’sreligiouslatitudinarianism.The ninth-century collector of Prophetic traditions, ad-Darimi, wrote in the

preface to hiswork onḥadīth somewords thatwere taken over, six centurieslater,bytheEgyptiantheologianJalaluddinas-SuyutitoexplainthemysteryofMuhammad’sname:

HisnameisMuḥammadandAhmad;hispeoplearethepeopleofpraise(ḥamd)—and his prayer rite and the prayer rite of his people is opened with praise(ḥamd). In thePreservedTablet inGod’sabode itwaswritten thathisCaliphsandhisCompanions inwriting theSacredVolume, should open itwith praise

(Sura1:1).AndinhishandontheResurrectionDaywillbethebannerofpraise.Andwhenhe thenprostrateshimselfbeforeGod in intercessiononourbehalfand it is accepted hewill praise the Lordwith a new song that shall then berevealedtohim,forhisistheheavenlyStationofPraise(al-maqāmal-maḥmud,Sura17:79)—andwhenherisesupinthatStationall theassemblyshallpraisehim,Muslimsandmisbelieversalike,thefirstandthelast,andallmeaningsandmodesofthankfulpraiseshallbegatheredupandofferedtohim.8

Inotherwords,theverynameMuḥammadprefiguresallthepraisethatwillbehis share and that of his followers in thisworld and the next. This name hasexisted from the beginning of time and will forever resound in Paradise. AsSana’iexclaims:

OntheThroneoftherevolvingspheres,youseehisplaceassigned;OnthebaseoftheDivineThroneyouseehisname!9

Amysticalhandbookelaboratesthistheme:

AndbythatnameAdamnamedhimandthroughhiminterceded,andblessingswerecalleddownuponhiminthenuptialsofEve…andbythatnameIsawillnamehimintheotherworldwhenheindicateshimformediation;andbythatnameGabrieladdressedhimin the tradition(ḥadīth)ofthemʽrāj.Andby thatnameAbrahamalsocalledhiminthetraditionofthemiʽrāj.AndtheAngeloftheMountains addressed him by that name, andwith that name theAngel ofDeath ascended weeping when he bore his soul away, crying: “Oh me!Muḥammad, Ah!” And by that name he called himself to the Guardian ofParadise,whenheaskedforitsopeninganditwasopenedtohim.10

Inaddition,themysticsdiscoveredbyapplyingthemethodofishtiqāqkabīr(thederivationofacertainmeaningfromeachletterofaword)thathisnameconsistsofthemofmajd,“glory”;theḥofraḥma,“mercy”;themofmulk,“kingdom”;andthedofdawām,“everlastingness.”11TheProphethimselfiscreditedwiththesaying“DoyounotwonderhowGod

averts from me the abuse and the curse of the Quraish? They insult me as‘blameworthy’ (mudhammam)andcursemeasablameworthyone,but Iamapraiseworthyone(muḥammad)”12InanotherearlyḥadīththeProphetmentionsashisnames,besidesMuḥammad,Ahmad(derivedfromthesameroot,ḥamd);al-māḥi, “he throughwhomGod effaces (maḥw) infidelity”; al-ḥāshir, “he atwhosefeetmankindwillgatheratDoomsday”;andfinallyal-ʽāqib,“the last,”

becausetherewillbenootherprophetafterhim.13Amongthesenames,AhmadhasgainedaveryspecialimportanceinIslamic

theology.Sura61:5statesthatGod“willsendaprophetbythenameofAhmad”or“ofhighlypraiseworthyname.”ThissentencewasregardedbytheMuslimsfromearlydaysasareferencetotheParaclete,whoseadventwasforetoldintheChristians’GospelofJohn.Thereadingofparacletosaspericletos,whichcouldbeinterpretedas“mostpraiseworthy,”madesuchaninterpretationpossible,andthusAhmadwasgenerallyacceptedastheProphet’snameintheTorahandtheGospel.14Rumisays in thefirstbookofhisMathnawī thatsomeChristiansofoldusedtokissthenameAhmadintheGospelandweresavedfrompersecutionthanks to the blessing power of that name.15 Ahmad is also Muhammad’sheavenlyname,aroundwhichtheregrewupacomplexmysticalliterature,asweshallseepresently.Ashis“spiritual”nameitisatthesametimethenameofallprophets(whoarepartofhisprimordiallight).16NajmRaziDayainventsaveryodddescriptionofthedifferentnamesgivento

Muḥammad:“WhentheeggofthehumanstateoftheProphethadnotyetbeenlaid by the hen of ʽAbdallah, God called him Ahmad (Sura 61:5),” that is,Ahmadishisprimordialname;“butwhenthategghadcomeintobeingnurturedwith prophethood and messengerhood under Gabriel’s wing,” he was calledMuḥammad(Sura3:144),andwhenthebirdfinallybegantofly“inthestationofqābaqausain,Hecalledhimbondsman(ʽabduhu)(Sura53:io).”17According to Ibn Ishaq, Muḥammad was called during his early youth al-

Amīn, the faithful and trustworthy one, for his friends were impressed by hisnoblequalitiesandreliability.ThatexplainsthefrequentuseofAminasapropernameinIslamiclands.BesidesthenamesmentionedbytheProphethimselftheMuslimsdevelopeda

plethora of names for him that they claimed to have discovered either in theKoran or in the tradition. Those taken from the Koran remained of courseessential.BesidesMuḥammadandAhmadwefindʽAbdallāh,“God’sservant,”or ʽAbduhu, “His servant” (derived from Suras 17:1 and 53:10, both versesreferring to his exalted rank during his heavenly journey). The mysteriousunconnectedlettersatthebeginningofSura20andSura36,Ṭāhā18andYāsīn,werelikewiseunderstoodasnamesoftheProphet.Sura20begins:“Ṭāhā—didWenotsenddowntheKoranuponyou?”ThelettersYāsīnat thebeginningofSura36(whichiscalled“TheHeartoftheKoran”)areinterpretedasYāinsān,“Ohman!”—which is again an address to the Prophet.19 Therefore Taha andYasin became proper names among the Muslims, and many writers haveponderedtheirsecretmeanings,readingṬāhā,forinstance,asanabbreviationof

ṭāhir,“pure,”andhādī,“guiding.”TheTurkishpoetKhaqanisingsinhisḤilya.that

ThatwalkingcypresscamewiththeṭūghofTaha,Swinginglikeabannerdidhecome.20

(Theṭūghisanimperialstandardmadeofayak’stail.)AndAmirKhusrauinIndiacombined,threecenturiesearlier,thewordYāsīnwiththeinterpretationofthelettersīnas“teeth”:

Yāsīnhasspreadoutpearlsfromhismouth,Hisṭāhāhasreceivedinyakādu,

(that is, it isconnectedinsomemysteriouswaywith the last threeversesofSura68,whicharerecitedagainsttheevileye).21TheuseofthesenamesisstillcommonevenindistantcornersoftheMuslimworld,andjustastheqawwālsinKhuldabad(India)repeattimeandagaintheUrdurefrainoftheirsong:

HowGodhassurroundedyouintheKoranwithwonderfulnames!SometimesHeaddressedyouasTaha,sometimesasYasin…

so toodoes thepiouscontemporarypoetofGilgituse thesesameepithets inaeulogyoftheProphetinhisnativelanguage,Shina.22In later times the lettershā-mīm,whichare foundat thebeginningofSuras

40–46, have also been assumed to pertain to the Prophet, signifying HabībīMuḥammad,“MybelovedMuḥammad.”Assuch,theyaresometimesdevelopedindecorativecalligrams.Muḥammad’sdesignationasḥabīb,“belovedfriend”ofGod, has likewise led to the formation of numerous proper names, such asHabibullah,“BelovedofGod,”orHabibur-RaḥMan,“BelovedoftheMerciful,”whicharenothingbutequivalentsofthenameMuḥammad.A particularly important source for the veneration of the Prophet is Sura

33:45,inwhichMuḥammadiscalledbothbashīr,“bringerofgoodtidings,”andnadhīr,“warner.”Bothepithetsarefrequentlyusedaspropernames,especiallyin the Indian subcontinent (BashirAhmad,NadhirAhmad, and the like). ThenextKoranic verse contains a description ofMuḥammad as sirājunmunīr, “ashining lamp,” and this too has inspired Muslim nomenclature: Siraj ud-din,Sirajud-daula,Sirajul-Islam, that is,LampofReligion,of theState,of Islam.Munir is used either alone or in combination (here again, frequently withAhmad,asinMuniruddinAhmad).

TheProphet is also calledal-muṣṭafā, “thechosenone,” and somewhat lessfrequently al-mujtabd, “the elected one”;23 both have become favorite propernamesamongMuslims.DivineaddressestotheProphetsuchastheintroductorywordsofSura74,Yāayyuhāʼl-mudaththir,“Oyoucoveredone,”andSura73,Yāayyuhāʼl-mūzammil,“Oyouenwrappedone,”areused,particularlyinIndia,asmalenames.24InthefourteenthcenturythehistorianSafadicomposedaratherlongpoemin

whichheenumeratedallthenamesoftheProphet,andquiteearlytheMuslimsdiscoveredthatMuḥammadtoohadnofewerthanninety-ninenames,theasmāʼash-sharīfa,NobleNames,whichareparalleltotheninety-nineasmāʼal-ḥusnā,theMostBeautifulNamesofGod.25Wheneveranyofthesenamesismentioned,thetaṣliya“MayGodblesshimandgivehimpeace”follows,asitmustfollowevery mention of the Prophet in written or spoken discourse.26 Among theseninety-ninenamesonefindstwothatarealsoamongtheDivineNamesandthatweregranted,astraditionhasit,totheProphetasasignofGod’sspecialgrace:ar-rāūʼf,“themildone,”andar-raḥīm,“themercifulone.”Jamigoessofarastoclaimthat“theProphet’sbeautyisthemirroroftheGreatestName[ofGod]!”27Many modern printed copies of the Koran enumerate the ninety-nine DivineNamesatthebeginningandlisttheninety-ninenamesoftheProphetonthefinaltwopages.AnannotatedlistappearsintheAppendixofthisvolume.28A seventeenth-century Suhrawardi mystic of Ucch (Pakistan) composed a

workcalledJawāhiral-auliyā(JewelsoftheSaints),thatcontainsaninterestingchapteronthevirtuesandblessingpowersofMuḥammad’sninety-ninenames.29These names, or some of them, were also used in talismans.30 The authorrecounts various traditions connected with their use. Abdul Qadir Gilani isreportedtohavesaidthatapersonwhorecitesthemonceeverydayandeverynight will be preserved from all kinds of affliction, and his faith will alwaysremainundisturbed.Accordingtotheauthor’sancestor,MakhdumJahaniyanofUcch, the recitation of these names after the dawn prayer will cause all sins,great and small, open and secret, to be forgiven, and Sultan Sayyid maḥmūdNasiruddin Bukhari is reported to have said that whoever recites them seventimesafter thenoonprayerwillneverbeharassedbybirdsorbeasts.AnotherSufiascribedtotheirelevenfoldrecitationaftertheeveningprayeranincreaseinknowledge, mildness, and gnosis. But the greatest reward, for someone whorecitesMuḥammad’sninety-ninenamestwelvetimesafterthenightprayer,wasrevealedtoMakhdumJahaniyanbytheProphethimselfduringthatSufi’svisittoMedina:Muḥammadpromised thathewoulddefinitelybring thatperson toParadise,andwouldnotenteritwithouthim.31

But even ninety-nine names seemed insufficient for the Prophet. Soon twohundrednameswere enumerated, later even a thousand.32 Popular belief evenholdsthattheProphetiscalledaspecialnamebyeachtypeofcreature.Forthefishes he is Abdul Quddus, “Servant of the All Holy”; for the birds, AbdulGhaffar, “Servant of the All-Forgiving”; for the wild beasts, Abdus Salam,“Servant of the Peace(maker)”; for the devils, Abdul Qahhar, “Servant of theAll-Powerful”;andsoon.33

The“MuhammadanRose,”containing,left,theNinety-nineNamesoftheProphetand,right,theNinety-nineNamesofGod;thelowerflowersbearthenamesoftheTentowhomParadisewaspromised(Courtesy

StaatsbibliothekPreussischerKulturbesitz,Berlin)

ThepoetstoonevertiredofinventingnewnamesforthebelovedProphet.Inthe report of Umm Maʽbad, whose barren sheep the Prophet had milked,

Muḥammadisdescribedasnasīmwasīm, “gracefulandelegant.”Thesewordswere used, in an expanded form, in themid-thirteenth century bySa’di in hisfamouspoematthebeginningofhisBūstān,wheretheProphetisgiven,amongothers,theappellations

wasīmunqasīmunjasīmunnasīm:Elegant,wellshaped,noble,andgraceful.

This mellifluous string of epithets, presented so prominently in what was tobecome one of the favorite books of the Persianate world, was soon knowneverywhere, and the attributes of the Prophet were then often used as propernames, either alone (Wasim, feminine Wasmaa), or in combinations, likeJasimuddin.Later, especially among the non-ArabMuslims, the Prophet was frequently

referred to with appellations pertaining to his native country and his family:Quraishi,Muttalibi (after his grandfatherAbdulMuttalib),Ha-shimi (from theclanHashim),Makki,Madini,orsimplyArab.AlludingtotheplaceswheretheProphet’searthlymanifestationsoccurred,Nizamiaddresseshimas“OyouwithaMedinanburqa andaMeccanveil!” andaskshim to“lifthishead from theYemenitecloak”becausehiscommunityneedshimsomuchintheseevildays.34ItseemsthatJami,whoelaboratedsuchutterancesinevenmoreartisticform,issomewhatresponsibleforthefrequentuseoftheseappellationsinlaterPersianandmore especially in Indo-Persian andUrduparlance, for hisnatiyya poetryabounds in such terms as “O Idol of al-Batha!” (that is, of the area aroundMecca)35and

Oyouwithacountenancelikethemoon,withtherising-placeofMecca,WiththecradleofMedina,withaYemeniteveil!

He,“theenvyofthesun,”is“themoonofal-BathaandtheluminaryofYathrib[Medina],”36andassuchhecan

drawtheArabs’swordbecauseeloquenceishis,AndcanhuntthePersiansbecauseeleganceishis.37

Theseideasarerepeatedinthousandsofverses.ButwhereasinJami’slinessuchepithets apparently serve to emphasize the all-embracing power and beauty oftheProphet,intheIndiantraditiontheyareoftenunderstoodasremindersfortheMuslimsoftheArabhomelandoftheirreligion.

Itwouldbeatemptingprojecttocollectallthelovingandadmiringepithetswith which Muslim poets and prose writers, mystics and non-mystics, havesurroundedMuḥammad, who is often simply called rasūl-i akram, “the mostnobleProphet,”or in thePersianate traditionrisālat-pandh, “the shelter of theprophetic office.”He is, for example, the sarwar-i kāʼināt, “the leader of theuniverse,”andtheNightingaleofLove,theSunoftheworldofmonotheism,theMaster of theLovers, theAxis of the spheresof bothworlds, theRoseof themeadows of prophethood—and on and on.38 The poets andmystics carefullyselect appropriate names for him that are in consonancewith the character oftheir work; in a heroic epic, for instance, his power and strength may behighlighted,inalovepoem,hisbeautyandkindness.BecauseMuḥammad’snamecontainsaverystrongbaraka,everyboyshould

be called by it or at least by one of its derivatives or equivalents.A traditionrelatedby JaTar as-Sadiq, the sixth imamofShiite Islam, holds thatGodwillcalloutontheDayofJudgment:“EveryonewhobearsthenameofMuḥammadshallriseandenterParadise!”InMoroccoitissaid:“IftherelivesamanbythenameofMuḥammadinahouseoratent,thenthereareangelsalwayspresent,unless they are driven away by a black dog or a band of musicians anddancers.”39The Prophet has a special relationship with those who bear his name, as

Busiri,thepoetoftheBurda,tellsinhisfamouspoem:

ForsinceIhavebeengiventhenameofMuḥammad,hehasformeanobligation,

He,whoismostperfectinfulfillingallhisdutiesamongthecreatures.40

A touching story,which shows thedeep trust in thepowerofMuḥammad’sname,isconnectedwithapoemcomposedbyʽAbdurRahimal-Burʽi,oneofthegreatest religious poets in the Arab world in the eleventh century. When hisyoung son Muḥammad was seriously ill, he turned to the Prophet, the greatintercessor,andendedalongsupplicationwiththelines

Andafflictionhasbecomeaggravatedonmysonwhoisnamedafteryou:Havemercyuponhistears,whichflowoverhischeeks!

And indeed, “the boywas healed.”41 Similar examples fromPersian, Turkish,andIndo-Muslimpoetrycouldeasilybequoted.But theuseofMuhammad’sname for everyboyalsohas another aspect. It

was rightly feared from the very first years of Islam that the Prophet’s name

might be desecrated by its constant use among the faithful. Of course, theMuslims also called their children by the names of earlier prophets, such asMusa,Sulaiman, orTsa; butwas it not outrageouswhenparents scolded theirsonMuḥammad,callinghimnames,orwhensomeMuḥammadwascalledaliaror a fornicator?Oneway to overcome this difficultywas to add an honorificwordwhentheProphetwasintended,suchassayyidnā,“ourlord,”sīdī,“lord,”orHazrat,“HisExcellency,”oralwaystoaddthetaṣliyawhenmentioninghim,orelsesimplytospeakofhimasTheNobleProphet.Anotherwaytosolvetheproblemwas topronounce theconsonantsofhisname,mḥmd,withadifferentvocalizationwhenapplyingthemtoordinarymortals:thusinMoroccoonefindspersonal names like Mihammad, Mahammad, or simply Moh and similarabbreviations.42 InWestAfrica, forms likeMamado are in use. InTurkey thepronunciationMehmetwas generally accepted for private use, and the correctMuḥammadwasexclusivelyreservedfortheProphet.Onemayalsoshortenthename,especiallyincombinationwithothernames,toanM,pronouncedMim(asinM.N.Rashid=MimNunRashid), form is themost important letter in thenameoftheProphet.ItcanalsobeusedasanabbreviationforMustafa(asinM.Kemal).TheTurkishBektashiorderdevelopedaspecialmīmduasī,“prayerofmīm”thatdwellsuponthesecretsofthisletter.43Byretainingtheconsonantsofmḥmd,onepreservesthebarakaofthename;atthesametime,bychangingthevowels,oneneednotfearprofaningtheProphet’snoblename.LikeeveryArab,Muḥammadtoohasakunya,anamethatdesignateshimas

“fatherofso-and-so.”ThiskunyawasAbu’l-Qasim,andtheproblemhasoftenbeendiscussed,andneverunanimouslysolved,whetheraboymaybecalledbyboth the Prophet’s proper name and his kunya (that is, Muḥammad Abu’l-Qasim),orwhetheroneshouldrestrict theusetoonlyoneofthetwonames.44ThecombinationMuḥammadAmin,however,hasfrequentlybeenused.ItisgenerallybelievedthattherepetitionoftheProphet’sholynameconveys

blessings upon the reciting person. The closing line of an old Urdu charkhīnāma,apoeminwhichtheimageryofspinningisusedtoadministerreligiousinstruction,admonishesthepious:

Youarethemaidservantinyourdervish’shouse—SayAllahandtheProphet’snameineverybreath!45

But on the other hand, poets andmystics often expressed their fear of notbeingworthyeventopronouncetheholy,purenameoftheProphet.InthelatesixteenthcenturyinIndia,ʽUrfiwrotethat

AthousandtimesIwashmymouthwithmuskandwithrosewater,

Andstill,tospeakyournameisabsoluteimpudence.46

AndGhalib,almostthreehundredyearslater,devotedaqasīdaof101versestothe Prophet, describing toward its end how “etiquette” warned him lest hetrespassthelimitsofdecentbehavior:asinnerlikehimshouldbesilentandnotaddresstheProphetatall—him,whowaspraisedbyGodMostHigh!47The Sufis began very early to meditate upon the mystical and symbolic

qualities ofMuḥammad’s names.Hallajwas among the first to resort to lettermysticism.48WasnotAdam,theprototypeofhumanity,createdfromthenameMuḥammad?Hisheadistheroundletterm ,hishandtheḥ ,hiswaistagaina smallm , and the rest ad —so that the entire human race emerges, as itwere, from thenameof theProphet.49 IbnArabi has probably given themostdetailedexplanationofthislettermysticismoftheProphet’sname:

The firstmīm is the head, and that is the world of the supreme Sovereignty(ʽālamal-malakūtal-āʽlā) andof theGreatest Intellect (al-ʽaqlal-akbar). Thebreast and the armsareunder the letterh, and this is theGloriousThrone; itsnumericalvalueis8,whichis thenumberof theangelswhocarrytheThrone.The secondm represents the stomach, and that is theWorld of the Kingdom(ʽālamal-mulk).Thehips, the legsand the feetare from thed, and that is thestablecompositionbymeansoftheEternalWrit.50

Similarly, in its calligraphic form Muhammad’s name was interpreted torepresentahumanbeinginprostration:Bycabalisticdevicesonecouldfindcontainedinhisnamethenamesof the

313prophetswhoweremessengers,plus theonewhowasasaint.51Andevenmore:whenAdamwascreatedhesawthatthenameofMuḥammadwaswritteneverywhere from pre-eternity. This is mentioned even in folk poetry, as, forexample,inaneighteenth-centurypoemfromtheIndusValley:

OntheThrone,onthepinnaclesMuḥammad’snameiswrittenasamantra[magicformula];Onthetrees,onleafafterleaf,Muḥammad’snameiswrittenasamantra.52

ThesameideaoccursinEgyptiannarrativeballads:

Yourname,OProphet,istheonechoseninmajestyBeforethefirmament,togetherwiththehighestheaven,wasfounded.53

AmongtheearlyPersianpoets,NizamiwasmosteloquentinhisexplanationofthenameAhmad:isnotAhmad

Straightlikeanalifinfaithfulnesstothecovenant,Thefirstandthelastoftheprophets?54

Thisisaverycleverpun,forthewordanbiyā,“prophets,”beginsandendswithanalif, the first letterofAhmad,so thatAhmad’s twofold role iswellattestedeveninagrammaticalfact.Apparently the great mystical poet of Iran, Fariduddin Attar, was largely

responsibleforfurtherspeculationsaboutthenamesofMuḥammad.Inhiswork(ca. 1200) there appear for the first time allusions to certain aspects ofprophetology that became very popular in the following centuries. In hisMuṣībatnāmaAttarclaimsthatbothworldsarecreatedfromthetwom’softhenameofMuḥammad,forthewordʽālam,“world,”hasonlyonemandthusthetwo m’s ofmḥmd must refer to both worlds, this one and the next.55 Threecenturies later Jami tookup this ideabutelaborated it, asusual, throughmorecomplicated reasoning, by regarding the Prophet’s name Ahmad (to whichNizamihadreferredsoskillfullyinhispoem).Thealif,thefirstletterofAhmad,cameintoexistence,hesays,fromthe“dotofUnity”(asincalligraphytheinitialdotisthemeasurementforallletters,andalifistheletteraccordingtowhichtheotherlettersaremeasuredandshaped).Thisalifisuprightlikethediameterofacircle ( ,againa traditionalcalligraphic form),and thussplit thecircleof thehiddenDivine Ipseity into two: one half is theworld of uncreatedness, of theunknowable Divine Essence, and the other is the world of contingency. TheProphet—or rather the ḥaqīqa muḥammadiyya—is the juncture between thetwo.56 (Some later Naqshbandi mystics would even speak of the ḥaqīqa aḥ-madiyyaas the firstand lastmanifestationof theProphet,whichexpresses theclosestpossibleapproximationtoPureLove.)57ToreturntoAttar:healsoalludestoatraditionthatwastobecomeextremely

importantforthedevelopmentofmysticalthoughtintheeasternIslamiclands,andisconnectedwiththenameAhmad.Thisistheḥadīthqudsī,oneofGod’sextra-Koranicrevelations,AnāAḥmadbilāmīm,“IamAhmadwithoutthem,”that is,Aḥad, “One.”“Aḥmad is themessenger of Ahad” as Attar repeatedlystates,58andheknowsthatwhen

theradianceofthelightofmanifestationbecameevident,themofAhmadbecameinvisible,59

thatis,onlyGodtheOneremained.ScarcelyanyotherḥadīthqudsīhasbeenusedsofrequentlyinthePersianate

partsoftheMuslimworld,eventhoughitisnotattestedintheearlycollectionsof traditions and appears only in the twelfth century. It seems to prove thatAhmad-MuḥammadisseparatedfromGodonlybyasingleletter,them.IntheArabicnumeric system this letterhas thevalueof40, thenumberofpatience,maturing, suffering,preparation. (Israelwas for fortyyears in thedesert; Jesusspentfortydaysinthedesert;Muḥammadwasfortywhenhiscallingcame;theforty days of Lent; the forty days of complete retirement as practiced by theSufis,calledarbaʽīnorchilla;theseandothersimilarcustomsandtraditionsareexpressions of this special role of the number 40.)60 In Islamic mysticalspeculations40furthermoresignifies thefortysteps thatmanmustpassonhisway back to his origin—a topic elaborated byAttar in hisMuṣībatnāma, andlaterbynumerousmysticsintheIbnArabitradition.ThemofAhmadpointstoall these mysteries; it is “the fountainhead of his teachings for which reasonthirsts,”asJamisays.61AlaterpoetinthePanjabhascalledthem“theshawlofhumanity,”62 which the One God put on when he createdMuḥammad in hisexemplary role. Amir Khusrau, in a different vein of thought, found that thecircularformofthismrevealeditas“theSealofProphethood,”63anditisoftencalled the“letterofcontingency.”MaulanaRumi,whosings that“Ahmad isaveil” throughwhich hewants to reachAhad,64 dwells on themystery of thisḥadīthqudsiinhisprosemusings,Fīhimāfīhi:“Everyadditiontoperfectionisadiminution.…Aḥadisperfect,andAḥmadisnotyetinthestateofperfection;whenthemisremoveditbecomescompleteperfection.”65Innumerablepoetshave followedAttar in their love for the traditionofAnā

Aḥmad bilāmīm—poets who, asMuhsin Kakorawi sings, “have the name ofAhmadontheirtongue,thesecretof‘withoutmīm’intheirhearts.”Intheearlysixteenthcentury theUzbekrulerShaibaniused thisDivinesayingasmuchasmodernUrdupoetsdo;TurkishfolkpoetsloveitasmuchasdidthemysticsofthePanjaborcourtpoetsinIran.TheSindhimysticShahAbdulLatifquotestheḥadīthqudsī,asdoes,acenturylater,MirzaGhalib,theelegantpoetofDelhi.66OneofthepoetswhomostindulgedinspeculationsabouttheProphet’sname

wasJami,whodecidedthatthefirstmofMuḥammad formsthefirstringletofthewordmulk,“kingdom,”whiletheletterḥ,withthenumericalvalue8,provesthat theProphetopened in thishexagonalworld theeightwindows toward the

eight Paradises, and the footling of the d shows that the heads of the trulyfaithful (dīnparwarān, which begins with d) touch his feet.67 He invents stillother configurationswith the letters of the Prophet’s name: theḥ between thetwora’slookstohimlikeahouri’s(beginswithḥ)facewithtwotresses,andthefinaldisconnectedwithdil,“heart.”68Eventhisisnotenough:withacabalistictrickprobablyinheritedfromIbnArabi,69JamiseesthefirstwordofSurai,al-ḥamd, and the mysterious initial letters of Sura 2, a-l-m, as a wonderfulcombination: thea-l ofSura2 are the sameas the first lettersofal-ḥamdandpointtothem,thethirdconstituentofthemysteriousgroupofletters,sothatthevery name of Muḥammad emerges from al-hamd. Thus, the Prophet’s nameforms,forthosewhoknowhowtoread,theveryfirstwordoftheKoran.70Ontheotherhand,thea-l-mofSura2:1wasoftenunderstoodtosignifythesecretoflovebetweenGod(alij)andMuḥammad(mīm).Thel,acipherfortheunitingpower of love, could also be interpreted a sign of Gabriel, the angel ofrevelation.71Themysteriousqualitiesofthem intheProphet’snamecontinuedtoinspire

theMuslims,particularlyinIndia.72AhmadSirhindi,theNaqsh-bandireformerin Northern India during the early seventeenth century, developed an entirereformativetheologybaseduponthetwom’sintheProphet’sname(seechapter9below).73Andalthoughtheideaseemsalmost toofar-fetched,onemayevenspeculatewhetherthetrustinthemysticalqualitiesofthelettermmaynothaveinducedBusiri toselectm as the rhyming letterofhismost famouspoem, theBurda, justassomeofSana’i’smostglowingeulogies for theprophetuse thissamerhyme.For the Sufis, the letter d, with whichMuḥammad’s name ends, is equally

meaningful. Itsnumericalvalue is4, and itoccupies the fourthposition in theProphet’sname;74besides, theProphet ismentionedbynamefour times in theKoran.75 Mirza Ghalib, in nineteenth-century India, carries this kind oftheologicalplayevenfarther:fromAḥmadonereachesAḥad,andwhenonethentakesawaythealif, theletterofDivineUnity, thelettersḥandd remain; thesehave the numerical values 8 and 4 respectively, total 12, and thus refer to thetwelveimamsoftheShia.ThisshowsthatthenameAhmadcontainsinitselfacomplete dogmatic compendium.76 Even so, Ghalib’s scheme falls somewhatshort of one devised by Ibn Arabi, who—as a good Sunni mystic—had notdiscovered the tenets of Imamiyya Shia theology in the Prophet’s name, butevolvedanumero-logicalschemeofevenmoreedifyingsophistication:d(=4)ishalfofh(=8),whilem(=40)istentimesd77and,aswemaycontinue,thetwora’s(=80)equaltentimestheh.

The veneration of the Prophet’s name has influenced numerous aspects ofIslamicculture.Thepeculiaritiesof theArabicalphabetallowcalligra-pherstowriteitnotonlyinelegantcursiveformsbut(evenmoreoften)insquareKufi,so that it can be featured on tiles and brick walls and in embroideries andweaving(oftenalongwithAllāhand,inShiacircles,withAlt).Circularpatternsorrosettesarealsoeasilyformedfromthesacredname.

DecorativemotifsusingtheProphet’sname:a.Muḥammad,contemporarylinearmotifsbyWasmaaChorbachi;b.twofoldMuḥammadincontemporaryKufi,byWasmaaChorbachi;c.fourfoldMuḥammad,

tileworkpatternoftenusedinarchitecturaldecoration

DecorativemotifsusingtheProphet’sname:a.eightfoldMuḥammad;b.eightfoldMuḥammadwitheightfoldAli;c.“MuḥammadistheMessengerofGod,”intughrastyle

WhenIqbalin1912callsinhisgreatUrdupoemJawdā-iShikwā:

Lighttheworld,toolongindarkness,WithMuḥammad’sradiantname,78

heismovedbythesamefeelingastheQutubshahikingMuḥammad-Quli,whosangaround1600intheDeccan:

ThegatesofbothworldsareopenedforahappylifeToeveryonewholowershisheartbeforethenameoftheProphet!79

Muḥammad-Quli’sownnameinfactshowsthatinthelaterMiddleAgesandto this day, theMuslims not only used the Prophet’s different names for theirmale children, but also—especially innon-Arab areas—formednewnamesbycallingthem“servantof”or“slaveof”Muḥammad:Muhammad-Quli,“servantof Muḥammad”; Paighambar Qul, “slave of the Prophet”; Ghulam Rasul,“servant of the Messenger”; Ghulam Sarwar, “servant of the leader”; Al-iAhmad, “familyofAhmad”;YarMuḥammad, “Muḥammad’s friend”;GhulamYasin,“servantofYasin”;andevenʽAbdunNabi,“servantoftheProphet,”andʽAbdur Rasul or ʽAbdul Muḥammad, although the use of ‘abd should berestricted to combinationswith the names ofGod (one therefore also finds anʽAbd Rabb an-nabi, “servant of the Lord of the Prophet”).80 Even NurMuḥammad, “Light of Muḥammad,” is found in Indo-Pakistan. On the otherhand, masculine names like Nabibakhsh or Rasulbakhsh in Indo-Pakistanproclaimthatthebearerwasbornas“agiftfromtheProphet,”whomtheparentshad imploredforhelp.Thus, thenameof theProphet is indeedfoundineveryhouseofthefaithful.In light of these many examples of the venerated names of the Prophet it

seems fitting that we conclude this chapter—which could be extended almostinfinitely—withthebeginningofanaʽtfromGhawwasi’sDakhniversionofthetaleSaifulMulūkwritteninthesimple“heroic”metermutaqārib(---|---|---|---),theversesread:

OtrulyMuhammad,OyouMustafa,YoutrulyareAhmad,youareMujtaba;YouTaha,youYasin,youareAbtahi,Youummī,youMakki,youmessengertrue!Thefirstandthelastyou,andyouaretheprince,Youinward,yououtward,youProphetunique!TheHashimiProphet,Quraishiareyou—Whateveryousay,Godacceptsitfromyou.…Andyouarethetruelordofallthethreeworlds,Thehouseofreligion,itprospersthroughyou…Theangelsaremothsall,surroundingyourlight,Thesaintsarethedustspecksaroundyou,thesun…81

AndtheselastlinesleadustoanotherimportantaspectofIslamicprophetology:thespeculationaboutthenūrMuḥammad,theProphet’sluminousnature.

SEVEN:THELIGHTOFMUHAMMADANDTHEMYSTICALTRADITION

Oneofthecentralthemes(ifnotthecentraltheme)ofmysticalprophe-tologyisthatoftheLightofMuhammad,nūrMuḥammad.1Itislikethelightofthesunaroundwhicheverythingrevolves;itisthat“lightofthename”whichIqbal,assomany poets before him,mentions in his verse. The idea has colored everyliteraryexpressionofmysticalIslam,andhasalsofeaturedwidelyinfolkIslam,fromearlydaystoourowncentury.2OneofthemostmovingexperiencesavisitortoIndiaorPakistancanenjoyis

aqawwāli,agatheringinwhichreligiousmusicissung.Theleadingsingerandtherespondingchorusslowlybecomeexcitedand, likemanyof their listeners,seemtoreachastateofnearecstasy.Amongthesongsmostfrequentlyheardatsuch occasions is a Persian ghazal ascribed to Amir Khusrau, the medievalIndianpoetandmusician,towhomHindustanimusicowesifnotitsfoundationthenatleastaverymomentousimpetus.Thepoembegins:

Namīdānamchemanzilbūdshabgāhīkimanbūdam:Idonotknowwhichplaceitwas,thenightlyplaceinwhichIwas…

andafterspeakingofamysteriousnocturnalcelebrationinwhichGodHimselfappearsasthecupbearer,thepoetcloseswiththesurprisingline:

Muṫammadsham‘ʽ-imaḥfilbūd…Muhammadwasthecandlethere—thenightlyplaceinwhichIwas.3

TheProphetMuhammadisthecandleoftheassembly,shamʽ-imaḥfil,thelightthatilluminatesthedarknessofthisworldinwhichthelistenersaregathered,theradiantcandlearoundwhichhumanheartsthronglikespellboundmoths.Among all the attributes and descriptions that have beenwoven around the

Prophet’spersontocoverhimwithluminousveilsofpraise,thosethatspeakofhim as belonging to the sphere of light aremost common. Indeed, theKoranitself(Sura33:46),aswesaw,callstheProphetsirājunmunīr,“ashininglamp,”anexpressiontakenoverbyHassanibnThabit,whooncedescribedMuhammadastheonewhobroughtlightandtruthinthedarkness(asinSura5:15):

TherecametoyoufromGodalightandaclearbook!4

Furthermore, in the description of the battle of Badr, Hassan claims that theProphet’s face shone like the full moon, badr,5 and in his threnody for theveneratedProphethementionsalsotheradiantlightthatshoneatMuhammad’sbirth,atopicrepeatedtimeandagainintheliterature:

Andhewhoisguidedtotheblessedlight,iswellguided.6

ThispoeticalstatementlookslikeapreludetothemysticalinterpretationoftheLightverseof theKoranas itwas introducedby the theologianMuqatil in theeighth century. He seems to have been the first to interpret thewords of thisverseasreferringtotheProphet:

God is theLightof theheavensand theearth; the likenessofHis light isasanichewhereinisalamp—thelampinaglass,theglassasifitwereaglitteringstar—kindledfromaBlessedTree,anolivetreethatisneitheroftheEastnoroftheWest,whoseoilwellnighwouldshine,evenifnofiretouchedit:LightuponLight;GodguidestoHisLightwhomHewill.AndGodstrikessimilitudesforman,andGodhasknowledgeofeverything.(Sura24:35)

It is the lamp,miṣbāh, thatMuqatil sees as a fitting symbol forMuhammad.Through him the Divine Light could shine in the world, and through himmankindwasguidedtotheoriginofthisLight.7Theformula“neitheroftheEastnoroftheWest”wasthentakenasareferencetoMuhammad’scomprehensivenature,whichisnotrestrictedtoonespecificpeopleorraceandwhichsurpassestheboundariesoftimeandspace.8Toourday,oneofthemostcommonepithetsoftheProphetisnūral-hudā,theLightofRightGuidance.DidnotMuhammadhimselfmentionthelightthatpenetratedhiminoneofhisprayers,aprayerthathas belonged to the most precious treasures of the faithful for century aftercentury?

OGod,placelightinmyheart,andlightinmysoul,lightuponmytongue,lightinmyeyesand light inmyears,place lightatmy right, lightatmy left, lightbehindmeandlightbeforeme,lightabovemeandlightbeneathme.Placelightinmynerves,andlightinmyflesh,lightinmyblood,lightinmyhairandlightinmyskin!Givemelight,increasemylight,makemelight!9

Theories concerningMuhammad’s luminous character began to develop, onthebasisofMuqatil’sexegesis,inthesecondhalfoftheninthcentury.Itwasan

IraqiSufi,Sahlat-Tustari(d.896),whofirstexpressedtheentireHeilsgeschichteintheterminologyoftheLightofMuhammad,andhetooderivedhisideasfromthe Light verse. As his modern interpreter, Gerhard Bowering, writes in hisfundamentalstudyoftheProphet’sroleinTustari’stheology:

God,inHisabsoluteonenessandtranscendentreality,isaffirmedbyTustariasthe inaccessiblemystery of divine lightwhich yet articulates itself in the pre-eternalmanifestationofthe“likenessofHislight,”mathalunūrihi,thatis,“thelikeness of the light of Muhammad,” nūrMuḥammad. The origin of the nūrMuḥammad in pre-eternity is depicted as a luminous mass of primordialadorationinthepresenceofGodwhichtakestheshapeofatransparentcolumn,ʽamūd,ofdivinelightandconstitutesMuhammadastheprimalcreationofGod.Thus, explaining the terminologyof theLight-verse,Tustari says: “WhenGodwilled to createMuhammad,Hemade appear a light fromHis light.When itreachedtheveiloftheMajesty,ḥijābal-ʽaẓamah,itbowedinprostrationbeforeGod.Godcreatedfromitsprostrationamightycolumnlikecrystalglassoflightthatisoutwardlyandinwardlytranslucent.”10

Interestingly,Tustari also connects Sura 53with theLight ofMuhammad.HedoesnotinterpretthissuraeitheraspertainingtotheProphet’sinitialvisionortohis heavenly journeybut claims instead that thewords “Andhe sawHim stillanothertime”(53:13)mean“atthebeginningoftime,”whenthecolumnoftheLightofMuhammadwasstandingbeforeGod,

before the beginning of creation by a million years. He stood before Him inworship,ʽubūdiyya,withthedispositionoffaith,and[tohim]wasunveiledthemysterybyMysteryItself“attheLoteTreeoftheBoundary”(Sura53:14),thatisthetreeatwhichtheknowledgeofeveryonecomestoanend.11

Then,whencreationbegan,God“createdAdamfromthelightofMuhammad.”

The light of the prophets is from his,Muhammad’s light and the light of theheavenlykingdom,malakūt,isfromhislight,andthelightofthisworldandoftheworldtocomeisfromhislight.

BöweringcontinueswithhisinterpretationofTustari’sdoctrine:

Finallywhentheemanationoftheprophetsandspiritualuniverseinpre-eternitywas completed, Muhammad was shaped in the body, in his temporal andterrestrialform,fromtheclayofAdam,whichhoweverhadbeentakenfromthe

pre-eternalcolumnofnūrMuḥammad.Thusthepre-eternalcreationoflightwasperfected: the primal man was moulded from the crystallized light ofMuhammadandtookthecorporatepersonalityofAdam.12

That means, as Ibn Arabi was to state three centuries after Tustari, that theProphetis“liketheseed,bidhr,ofthehumanrace,”13andthepoetshavenevertired of alluding to the paradox thatMuhammad is prior to Adam in essencethoughoutwardlyhisdescendant.Tustari’shigh-soaringspeculations,whichweretoinfluencealargecurrentin

Sufithought,wereelaboratedmorepoeticallybyhisdiscipleHallaj,whosaysin“Ṭāsīnas-sirāj”(TasinoftheLamp),thefirstchapterofhisKitābaṭ-ṭawāsīn:

[Hewas]alampfromthelightoftheInvisible…amoonradiatingamongthemoons, whosemansion is in the sphere ofmysteries; the Divine Truth [God]calledhimummībecauseof thecollectednessofhisnobleaspiration (himma).…The lights of prophethood—from his light did they spring forth, and their

lights appeared from his light, and there is no light among the lights moreluminousandmorevisibleandprevious topreexis-tence, than the lightof thisnobleone.14

Onemustkeepinmindthatthesewordswerewrittenlessthanthreehundredyears after the Prophet’s death. From this time the luminous Prophet appearseverywhere in mystical and poetical works. He himself is credited withstatementspertainingtohissublimerank,forinstance“ThefirstthingthatGodcreatedwasmy light,”15 andhis remark“Mycompanionsare like the stars”16fitswellwithhisroleasthecentralsunorthefullmoonofIslam.Hallaj’sfriend,thesomewhateccentricShibli,recitedonhisdeathbedaversethatisstillsunginqawwālis:

AnyhouseinwhichyoudwellDoesnotneedanylamps,AndonthedaywhenproofsarebroughtThenmyproofisyourface.17

EventhoughthisversemaynotoriginallyhavebeenmeantasaeulogyfortheProphet(thatwouldcontradictShibli’sgeneralattitudetohim),itistellingthatithassincebeenunderstoodasanallusiontotheProphet’sradiantface.Again,IbnʽArabiislargelyresponsibleforthecentralroleofthislightinlater

Sufism. “The first light appears out of the Veil of the Unseen, and fromknowledgetoconcreteexistence,itisthelightofourProphetMuhammad,”hestates in his Profession of Faith, and he goes on to compareMuhammad, thesirāj munīr, to the sun, inferring from this that “the intelligences, ʽuqūl, thespirits,arwāḥ,theintuitions,baṣāir,andtheessences,dhawāt,arenourishedbytheluminousessenceofMustafatheElect,whoistheSunofExistence.”18The ideas of Ibn ʽArabi and his interpreter ʽAbdul Karim al-Jili underlie a

greatmanyremarksinpoetrythroughouttheMuslimworldinwhichtheProphetis described in terms that sometimes sound surprising, if not shocking, to theoutsider. Jili speaks, for instance, of the ḥaqīqat al-ḥaqāʼiq, the “innermostReality,”whichisindeedtheḥaqīqamuḥammadiyyaandwhichappearsinpre-eternityasawhitechrysolite,yāqūtabaiḍāʼGodlooksatit,anditdissolvesintowavesandotherwaterysubstances,outofwhich thecreatedworldemerges.19But the tradition was much older. Thaʽlabi, in his ʽArāʼis al-bayān, writtenshortlyaftertheyeariooo,knewacolorfulmythinwhich“aradiantpearl”playsthe central role. In a less poetical vein, Najm Daya Razi, Ibn Arabi’scontemporarybutnothisfollower,offersasimilarstoryofcreation:thepearlydropsofsweatthatemergefromtheMuhammadanLightarethesubstancefromwhich the 124,000 prophets are created.20 It is in this tradition that poets inTurkeyandinBengalsangofthewondrousroleofthelightofMuhammad,asdoesforinstanceKhaqaniinhisTurkishḤilya:

God(ḥaqq)lovedthislightandsaid:“Mybelovedfriend(ḥabībī)!”Andbecameenamored(ʽāshiq)ofthislight…21

Andthenthisprimordiallight,perspiringwithaweandbashfulness,produceddropsofperspiration,eachofwhichwastobecomeaprophet;thenindegrees,anocean,vapor,andthespheresemergedfromthislight.ThemysticsbeforeIbnʽArabihavelovinglyusedTustari’svisionofthepre-

eternalcolumnof light,andfewpassages inmedievalPersianpoetryconveyamoreimpressivepicturethanʽAttar’slinesintheintroductionoftheManṭiquṭ-ṭair.

WhatfirstappearedfromouttheUnseen’sdepthWashispurelight—noquestionandnodoubt!Thisloftylightunfoldedsigns—theThrone,TheFootstool,PenandTabletthusappeared.Onepartofhispurelightbecametheworld,

AndonepartAdamandtheseedofman.Whenthisgrandlightshoneup,itfellBeforetheLord,prostrateinreverence.ForagesitremainedthusinprostrationAnderaslongingenuflectiontoo,Andyearbyyearitstoodinprayerstraight,Alifetimeinprofessionofthefaith:ThisprayerofthesecretSeaofLightGavethecommunitytheprayerrite!22

ButnotonlythemajorlearnedpoetsspeakoftheluminousMuhammad;theyare joined, even surpassed,by thepopularminstrels.ThusYunusEmre, in thelatethirteenthcentury,hasGodsay:

IcreatedhimfromMyownlight,AndIlovehimyesterdayandtoday!WhatwouldIdowiththeworldswithouthim?My,MyMuhammad,MyAhmadofLight!23

Ataboutthesametime,aSufiinIndiawrote,inPersian:

ThisisthelightofGod(ḥaqq),whichbecameembodiedintheProphet’sperson,Justasthemoonlightistakenfromthesun.24

TheKalhoraprinceSarfarazKhanofSind,whocomposedatouchinginvocationof the Prophet during his imprisonment in 1774, affirms, like innumerablewritersbeforehim,that

Therewasnocreation,noangels,neitherheavennorearth—Yourlightwasradiantbeforeeverything.25

MaulanaRumitoopraisedthewondrousqualitiesoftheprimordiallight:

Ifonlyonebranchofitsmillionsofbrancheswereunveiled,ThousandsofChristianecclesiasticswouldimmediatelyteartheirinfidels’

girdle.26

Likewise,asJamisings, this lightcanchangetheconditionsof theMuslimsforthebetter:

Everyoneonwhomthelightofyourkindness[or,sun:mihr]shines,Willbecomered-faced[honored]inthewholeworldlikethedawn.27

AndbeforehimRumiagainhadasked:

Howcouldwecommitanerror?ForweareinthelightofAhmad!28

It is thisparticipation in the lightofMuhammadbywhich the truebeliever isdistinguished,andwhenhehassubmergedhimselfinthisprimordiallight,Hellwill tell him: “Your light has extinguished my fire.”29 For Hellfire, beingcreated,issubjecttoextinction,whereastheLightofMuhammadispre-eternal,andhenceunchangeable.OnadifferentleveltheconceptofMuhammadasthenūral-anwār,“lightof

all lights”was connectedwith the legend that he did not cast a shadow.30AsNajmRaziexplains,“hewas,fromonepointofview,thesun,andthesunhasnoshadow,”justashewas,fromanotherpointofview,“themonarchofreligion,”and“themonarchisGod’sshadowonearth,”andashadowhasnoshadow.31Itwas also said that this light could work like a lamp in the dark night.Calligraphers found it natural that for this very reason none of the Prophet’soriginalnamesMuhammad,Ahmad,Hamid,andMahmud,norhisepithetrasūlAllāhhasanydiacriticalmarksinArabicwriting:hisluminositywasnotsulliedbyblackspotswhenhisnameandstatuswerewritten.32In certain areas an entiremythology developed from the speculations about

thenūrMuḥammad.ThewayinwhichaBengalimysticalpoetofthefifteenthcentury,ShaikhChand,describesthebeginningofcreationwouldcertainlynotbeacceptable toamoreorthodoxand lesspoeticallymindedMuslim,but it ismoreorlessapopularizationofthoughtsmentionedinthewritingsofIbnArabiandhissuccessors:

TheLordofnūr[light]withastickinhishand,gazedtotheeast.ThecreationbeganwithnūrMuḥammad,TheLordbroughtthenūrfromhisownheart.

AfterdescribinghownūrMuḥammad isendowedwithconsciousness,passion,intelligence,purpose,power,andalsodeath,hecontinues:

ThentheLordpronouncedthewordkun[“lettherebe”],Kāfandnūn,thesetwoletterswerecreated,Andthroughcombiningthesetwoletters,theLordexpressedHimself.

Kāfrepresentingkalima[professionoffaith]andnūnrepresentingnūr[light],fromoneofthesetwoselves.Outoflovefornūr,Allahcreatedtheuniverse,Byseeingthebeautyofnūr,hebecameenchantedAndbecameattractedandgazeduponhim…,33

The similarity with Khaqani’s description of the act of creation (mentionedabove)isclear.Cross-relations between the speculations of Sahl at-Tustari, Hallaj, and Ibn

ʽArabi on the one hand and Shiite doctrines of the light of the imams on theotherhandarehighlyprobable,butitisdifficulttoassesstheirexactarticulation.ThesameistruefortheinfluenceofHellenistic-Gnosticideasthatmaylieatthebaseof theentiremysticismoflightaswellasofother traditionsinwhichtheProphetwas elevated to an almost superhuman rank.Much research has beendevotedtotheseaspectsofmysticalprophetology,butthefullhistoricalpictureisstillnotcompletelyclear.34AlongwiththedevelopmentoftheideathatMuhammadistheoriginallight

increationgoes thedesire toelevate theProphet ineverypossible respectandgivehimapositionfarabovethehumanrank.Thegrowingtendencywasevertoforget that some of the earliest Sufis—among them the first representative oflovemysticism, Rabiʽa of Basra (d. 801)—had claimed that love of God hadfilledtheirsoulssocompletelythattherewasnoroomleftforaspecialloveforthe Prophet.35 But a century later, when themystic al-Kharraz gave the sameanswertotheProphet,whomhesawinadream,hereceivedthereply:“HethatlovesGodmusthavelovedme!“36However,somelaterSufiswerestillafraidofassigningtheProphettooelevatedaposition;Shibli,forexample,addressedthe Lord when he uttered the call to prayer (which contains the bipartiteprofessionoffaith):“IfYouhadnotcommandeditIwouldnotmentionanyonebesidesYou!”37Butsuchdoubts,whicharosefromthefeeling that tomentionthe “messenger of God” in such a prominent place might impair theincomparable Unity of God, were erased by many later mystics. Hujwiri,speakingofBayezidBistami’sheavenly journey, tellsof theconfusedmystic’squestion: “What am I to do?”God answered: “OAbuYazid, Thoumust winreleasefromthe‘thou-ness’byfollowingMybeloved.Smearthineeyeswiththedustofhisfeetandfollowhimcontinually.”38From at least Muqatil’s days the mystical veneration of Muhammad grew

rapidly. Numerous ḥadīth are now quoted to show that he was indeed themeaningandendofcreation.Inonehestates:“IwasaprophetwhileAdamwas

stillbetweenwaterandclay,”thatis,uncreated.39TheProphetisalsoreportedtohave said, “The first thing that God created was my spirit”; but one findsconflicting statements such as “The first thing thatGod createdwas the Pen”(whichis“identicalwiththeMuhammadanSpirit”)or“theIntellect.”NajmRaziskillfullycombinesallthreeseeminglycontradictoryḥadīthbyinterpretingallofthem as pertaining to the Prophet: “When God Almighty created theMuhammadan spirit and looked upon it with the gaze of affection, shameovercameit,andcausedittosplitintwo”—onehalfofthePenofGodbecametheSpiritoftheProphet,theotherhalftheIntelligenceoftheProphet.40Pivotalinthisdevelopmentwasaḥadīthqudsī,anextra-Koranicrevelation,in

whichGodsaid:Laulākamākhalaqtuʽl-aflāka,“Ifyouhadnotbeen[i.e.,butforyour sake], Iwould not have created the spheres.”41This tradition became socentral, especially in poetical parlance, thatMuhammad is often addressed as“the lord of laulāka.” There is still another Divine word that was repeatedlyquotedasproofoftheProphet’ssupremerank,especiallyintheIndiantradition:“From the Throne to that which is beneath the dust everything seeks Mysatisfaction,andIseekyoursatisfaction,OMuhammad.”42Latermystics and poets did not hesitate to apply to the Prophet the ḥadīth

qudsī that saysKuntu kanzan makhfiyyan…, “I was a hidden treasure and Iwantedtobeknown;thereforeIcreatedtheworld.”43God,longinginHispre-eternallonelinesstobeknownandloved,createdMuhammadasthefirstmirrorforHis lightandHisbeauty,amirror inwhichHecan lookatHimself fulloflove. Therefore, the tradition that “Who has seenme, has seenal-ḥaqq” (hasseen reality, the Truth, i.e., God)44 was often interpreted to mean thatMuhammad was indeed the perfect mirror of Divine Beauty, the locus ofmanifestation for all Divine names and attributes, through whose beauty onecould understand the Divine Beauty and Perfection.45 Ibn ʽArabi placed thetradition of the “hidden treasure” at the center of his system, and in hissuccessionasinthatofhispoeticalinterpreterJamithepoetscontinuedtosing:

GodmadeyouthemirroroftheEssence,AlookingglassfortheuniqueEssence;46

or:

From“Iwasatreasure”yourtruenaturehasbecomeclear:YourpersonisthemirroroftheunqualifiedLight!47

TheProphetisalsoseenastheseedandfruitofcreation,orasthegreattree—

a reflectionofancientmythsof theCosmicTreeor theTreeofLife.MaulanaRumiinterpretedsomeone’sdreamofatreeattheshoreoftheoceanasfollows:“ThatendlessoceanistheGreatnessofGodMostHigh,andthathugetreeistheblessedexistenceofMuhammadandthebranchesofthistreearetheranksoftheprophets and stationsof the saints, and thosebigbirdsare their souls, and thedifferent tunes they sing are the mysteries and secrets of their tongues.”48Similar ideas—whichwereby far better known to themedievalMuslims thanhistorical facts of the Prophet’s life—are found, for instance, in Indo-Muslimliterature.49 In the sixteenth centuryManjhan sings in his epicMadhumālatī,aftermentioningthe“Mu-hammadanlight”:

Muhammad,havingbecometherootofthe[cosmic]tree,Thewholeuniverseishisbranch.Godputacrownofninelākhs[100,000s]onhishead.Thereisnoonewhocanequalhim.Heisthebodyandthewholeworldishisreflection.Heisthehiddencreatorwhomeveryonerecognizes;Muhammad,whoisthemanifestationofGod,nooneknows.Hewhoisvisible,invisibleandlimitless,ThesamehastakentheformofMuhammad,ThenameoftheformremainsMuhammad…50

ThisbeliefinthepreexistenceofMuhammad’sessence,firstelaboratedbySahlat-TustariandHallaj,praisedineloquentwordsbyauthorslikeath-Thaʼlabi,andsystematized into theory by Ibn ʽArabi, permeates later Sufism. As an IndianNaqshbandiofthelatenineteenthcenturywritesinoneofhisnumeroustreatiseson“TheBeloved,”

TheseedoftheessenceofMuhammadwasveiledandinvisibleinthegroundofnon-existence.When the sun of the Real Existent and RealizedBeloved [i.e.,God] radiated on it, and when that seed, which is “Mercy for the worlds,”received thewaterofMercy, it lifted itshead from theearthofnon-existence,and everything besides God, what is found between earth and the Throne,between East and West, lifted its head from the blessed womb of theMuhammadan Essence and found freshness and charm. Therefore God said,Laulāka,“Butforyoursake…”

IftherewerenotMuhammad,nobodywouldbe,

Andthetwoworldswouldnothaveexistence.51

In Sufism after Ibn ʽrabi the preexistent essence of the Prophet, called al-ḥaqīqaal-muḥammadiyya,isconsideredtobethefountainheadofallpropheticactivity.Forthisḥaqīqamuḥammadiyya—atermoftentranslatedas“archetypalMuhammad”—manifestsitselffirstinAdam,theninalltheotherprophetsuntilit finds its full expression once more in the historical Muhammad, who thusbecomes,asitwere,theAlphaandOmegaofcreation.MuhammadtheProphetis the all-comprehensive andperfectmanifestationof theprimordial light, andwith him the cycle of manifestations is completed, for he is the Seal of theProphets. In the Arabic tradition, Ibn al-Farid (d. 1235) is among the first toexpresssuchthoughts,inhisgreatTāʼiyya:

Andtherewasnoneofthem[theformerprophets]buthadcalledhispeopleTotheTruthbygraceofMuhammadandbecausehewasMuhammad’s

follower.52

Theseideasareconstantlyrepeatedinlaterpoetry.InthePersiantraditionitwasJamiwhoespecially liked tosing, in the long introductorypoemsofhisepics,about thismiraculousdevelopment.According to hiswording, themessageofany prophet who ever lived was nothing but a fragment of Muhammad’scomprehensivemessage:

HislightappearedonAdam’sforeheadSothattheangelsbowedtheirheadsinprostration;Noah,inthedangersoftheflood,Foundhelpfromhiminhisseamanship;ThescentofhisgracereachedAbraham,AndhisrosebloomedfromNimrod’spyre.Yusufwasforhim,inthecourtofkindness[Only]aslave,seventeendirhams’worth.HisfacelightedthefireofMoses,AndhisliptaughtChristhowtoquickenthedead.53

SuchlineshelpusunderstandwhylaterSufisusuallystroveforunionwiththeḥaqīqamuḥammadiyya,whichwasnowconsideredthefinalstationonthePath.On their way thither they ascended and finally surpassed the stages of allpreviousprophets.ThustheSufimightfeelatonemomentthathehadreached

thestationofMoses,atanothertimethatofAbraham,orthathehadreachedthestation of Noah and experienced the flood, and it might be that he or otherswouldremaininoneofthesestations;foronlyafewmightbeblessed,perhaps,byunionwiththefirstprincipleofcreation,thatistheArchetypalMuhammad.Wehavereportsbymysticalleaderswhotellofthisascendingwaytowardtheḥaqīqamuḥammadiyya,andSufipoetry,especiallythatwrittenbytheleadersofSufiorders,aboundsinreferencestoprogressinthestations.54

Yea,mygrowinginlovewasbeforeAdam,IwaswiththelightofAhmadintheheights,

sings Ibrahim ad-Dasuqi, the founder of a fraternity in Egypt during thethirteenthcentury.55Under the influence of Ibn ʽArabi, who claimed to be the “heir to the

totalizing nature of the Prophet,” aṭ-ṭabīʽa al-jamʽiyya, and “heir to theMuhammadan Station,” al-maqām al-muḥammadī, such poetry becameincreasinglypopular.IbnʽArabihimselfhadinherited,attheageofthirty-three(in1197–98),themaqāmmuḥammadībyasolemninvestitureinthepresenceoftheSupremeCompany,al-malʼaal-aʽlā,andhadbecome,as“sealofthesaints,”thesealingsaintontheheartofMuhammad,ʽalāqalbMuḥammad.56Thisclaimmade him utter his ideas most daringly, but it is interesting to note that hisyoungercontemporaryShams-iTabrizi,thepowerfulinspirerofMaulanaRumi,remarked that although Ibn ʽArabi had stated, “Muhammad is our curtain-keeper,” nonetheless “he did not [really] follow him”—an accusation that hasbeenrepeatedtoourdaybymanyanti-SufiMuslims.57In Ibn Arabi’s system Muhammad appears as the comprehensive figure,

“nourishedby themost holy, supreme fluxof grace,”al-faiḍal-aqdasal-aʽlā.HeisthePerfectMan,inwhomthepleromaoftheDivineattributesandnamesisreflected.58Hencearosetheclaimofthosewhoreachedunionwiththeḥaqīqamuḥammadiyya that they were endowed with the “totalizing” nature ordistinguished by the epithet al-jāmiʽ the Comprehensive One (as Mir Dardwritesinhisaccountofhisascentthroughthestagesoftheprophets).59Inthesetheories,Muhammadassumesthepositionofthemicrocosmwhorepresents,orreflects,inhimselfthemacrocosm—heisindeedthemirrorthatGodcreatedtoadmire Himself. His heart, as Ibn ʽArabi’s disciple Kashani remarks in hiscommentary on Sura 7:54, is equal to the Divine Throne: the Koranic word“Who was on the Throne” means “on the Throne of Muhammad’s heart, bymanifestingHimselfcompletelywithallHisattributestohim.”60As the insān kāmil, the Perfect Man, Muhammad is as it were the suture

between theDivineand thecreatedworld;he is, so to speak, thebarzakh, theisthmus between the Necessary and contingent existence. This role of theProphet as the intermediate principle is found, according to the school of IbnʽArabi, in the very words of the profession of faith,Muḥammad rasūl Allāh:Muhammad is the “manifested principle,” rasūl, the messenger, is the“manifestingprinciple,”andAllah is the“Principle in Itself.” It is theelementrasūl that relates the Principle in Itself to the manifested principle.61 In thisposition the Prophet exhibits a twofold quality: contemplative and receptive,becauseheisthevesselforDivineinspiration,yetactiveinthatheimplementstheDivinewillinthisworld.Hecanbeseenasthefirstprincipleofcreationandis therefore equated, by some more philosophically inclined Sufis, with theUniversalIntellect;sometimes,inpoeticalhymns,eventheUniversalIntellectisportrayed as an infant compared to him.62 And as he is the first thing evercreated, thus he is the last prophet to appear in the flesh. In this dual role hebears all theDivineNames in himself, whereas a normal human being is thelocusofmanifestationforonlyone.ThustheKoranicwordinSura5:5,whichwas revealed during Muhammad’s farewell pilgrimage, is interpreted asexpressing this supreme rank of the Prophet: “Today I have completed yourreligionforyouandcompletedMymercy,anditisMywillthatIslambeyourreligion.” For Muhammad, the Seal of the Prophets, is the perfection of thepropheticmessage,andinhimastheseal,alltheperfectionsofhispredecessorsare united “as the sum of an arithmetic series represents all numbers.…Essentiallytheyareonewithhimandshareinthehonourspaidtohim.”63ThedescriptionsoftheeternalMuhammadgivenbythemysticsinproseand

laterinpoetryarerepletewithgrandiosehyperbolesandradiatepoeticalbeauty;they are a far cry from the sober statements of the Prophet,who saw himselfonly as “a human being to whom revelation has come.”One fine example isfoundinthewritingsofʽAbdulQadiral-Gilani,thefounderoftheQadiriyya,theSufiorderwiththelargestnumberofadherents,inthetwelfthcentury(hediedoneyearafterIbnʽArabiwasborn):

Hehasbeenglorifiedbyallgloriousqualities;hewasgrantedallwords.Byhisnoblenaturethepropsofthetentofthewholeofexistencestayfirmlyplaced;heis the secret of theword of the book of the angel, themeaning of the letters“creationof theworld and the heavens”; he is the penof theWriterWhohaswrittenthegrowingofcreatedthings;heisthepupilintheeyeoftheworld,themasterwhohassmithedthesealofexistence.Heis theonethatsucklesat theteats of revelation, and carries the eternalmystery; he is the translator of thetongueofeternity.Hecarriesthebannerofhonorandkeepsthereinsofpraise;

heisthecentralpearlinthenecklaceofprophethoodandthegeminthediademofmessengers.Heisthefirstaccordingtothecause,andthelastinexistence.HewassentwiththeGreatestndmustoteartheveilofsorrow,tomakethedifficulteasy, to push away the temptation of the hearts, to console the sadness of thespirit,topolishthemirrorofthesouls,toilluminatethedarknessofthehearts,tomakerichthosewhoarepoorinheartandtoloosenthefettersofthesouls.64

Muhammadthusbecomestheonlygoalofcreation,asillustratedbytheḥadīthlaulāka;butevenmore,itisthroughhimalonethattheworldassumesexistence,andthroughhimalonethatDivinegraceismediated.S.H.Nasrhaspointedoutthatevensuchdescriptions,whichseemsoaliento

thehistoricalpictureofMuhammad,havedevelopedperfectlylogicallyfromthevenerationowedtotheProphet.ThoughMuhammadwasremindedintheKorantosay,“Iamonlyahumanbeinglikeyou,”piousMuslimssoonadded,“True,but like the ruby among the stones.”65 Outwardly he resembled them, butinwardlyhecarriedtheDivineLight,whoseraysbecameincreasinglyvisibleastimepassed.S.H.NasrishereinagreementwithnumerousMuslimmysticsandpoetswhohave argued in a similar vein.WhenGhalib,writing in nineteenth-centuryDelhi,callstheProphettheimām, that is, thelongpearl intheMuslimprayerbeads thathangsapart fromtheothersandyet formsan integralpartoftherosary,66heexpressesthesamefeelingevidencedincomparingtheProphetto“therubyamongstones.”TobringthiscomparisonclosertotheunderstandingofWesternreadersoneshouldaddthat theruby,accordingtoorientalfolklore,growsoutofordinarystonesbypatientlyreceivingtheraysofthesun:therubyis,asitwere,sunlighttransformedintostone.ThustheparallelwiththeProphetas the human being who has been made transparent for the Divine Lightbecomesevenmoremeaningful.

PoeminpraiseoftheProphet,“thelightwhoseshadowthethingsare,”byFakhruddin‘Iraqi,EasternIran,ca.1500

(CourtesytheFreerGalleryofArt,Washington)

OneshouldalsonotforgetthatHallaj—asfarasoneknows,forthefirsttime—expressedtheideaofthetwofoldnatureoftheProphet:assirāj,asthelampofprophethood (nubuwwa), he is pre-eternal; but his role as messenger (risāla)beginswithhisappearanceonearth.67In the theory of somemysticsMuhammad appears sometimes as themuṭāʽ

“he who is obeyed.” This epithet can easily be derived from the KoranicinjunctionstoobeyhimandfromSura81:21.ForSaʼdiheisrasūlunmuṭāʽun,“the obeyed Prophet,” and Jami calls him “themuṭā [who is obeyed] for thepeopleandthemuṭīʽ[theobedientone]forGod.”68

InGhazzali’sesotericworkMishkātal-anwār (TheNicheforLights)—againanallusiontoMuhammad’spositionaccordingtotheLightverseoftheKoran—themuṭāseemstobeakindofFirstIntellect,abeingtowhomtheguidanceoftheworldisentrusted—“acosmicpoweruponwhomtheorderandmovementoftheuniversedepends.”TherelationbetweenGodandthemuṭāʽiscomparedtothat between the inaccessible essence of light and the visible sunlight.69Ghazzali’stheorieshavepuzzledthefirstinterpretersofhiswork,astheyseemto foreshadow an interpretation of Islam—the “gnostic” or “theosophical”interpretation—thatheotherwisefoughtsorelentlessly.However,inthecontextof thehistoryof thevenerationof theProphet,his interpretation fitswellwiththeonethatbecamemoreandmorecommonamongtheSufis.Muhammad, theprototypeof theuniverse aswell as of the individual, “the

pupilintheeyeofhumanity,”thePerfectManwhoisnecessaryforGodasthemedium throughwhichHe canmanifestHimself to be known and loved—alltheseideashavebeentheologicallyelaboratedafterIbnʽArabibyhisfollowers,among whom ʽAbdul Karim al-Jili in the late fourteenth century occupies animportant place because of his theories about thePerfectMan.His ode to theProphetcontainstherelevanttheoriesinanutshell:

OCentreofthecompass!Oinmostgroundofthetruth!Opivotofnecessityandcontingency!Oeyeoftheentirecircleofexistence!OpointoftheKoranandtheFurqan!Operfectone,andperfecterofthemostperfect,whohasbeenbeautifiedbythemajestyofGodtheMerciful!ThouartthePole(quṭb)ofthemostwondrousthings.Thesphereofperfection

initssolitudeturnsonthee.Thouarttranscendent,naythouartimmanent,naythineisallthatisknownand

unknown,everlastingandperishable.ThineinrealityisBeingandnot-being;nadirandzenitharethytwogarments.Thouartboththelightanditsopposite,naybutthouartonlydarknesstoa

gnosticthatisdazed.70

Thisfaith inMuhammad’sroleas themovingprincipleof theworldformsthebasisofmostofthegrandhymnsinhonoroftheProphet,astheyweresunginArabicandevenmore inPersian,Turkish,andUrdu. It is reflectedalso in thepopular descriptions of Muhammad’s birth and his heavenly journey. Itsometimes seems as if the poets had preceded the theologians by applying toMuhammad ever more glorious names and epithets, and by praising him in

wide-ranginghyperbole.TheverseofSana’iandʽAttar,writtenlongbeforeIbnʽArabi’ssystematizationofmystical“Muhammad-ology,”provesthattheseideaswere in theairmuchearlier.After IbnʽArabi,whose teachingsweregenerallyaccepted and propagated in the rapidly expandingSufi orders, they percolateddowntoalllevelsofSufism,andappearevermoreoutspokenlyinhymnssungintheProphet’shonorfromMoroccotoIndia.71Tothe laterSufipoets, theProphetappearsas thedawnthatstandsbetween

thenightofcreaturely lifeandthedayofDivineLight; it ishe throughwhomonecanexperiencethis light,andwhoformsthebeginningof theDivineDay.AsaNaqshbandiSufioftheeighteenthcenturyinSindsays:

Wondrousistherealityofthefriend[i.e.,theḥaqīqamuḥammadiyya]:OnecannotcallhimLord,

butalsonotcreature.Similartothedawn

heunitesnightandday.72

OnecaninterpretthisroleoftheProphetindifferentimages:astheSealoftheProphets,Muhammad is for this worldwhat the stone is for the ring, for thestone bears the inscription with which the king seals his treasure chests. ThenumerousallusionstotheheartasthesealthatoccurinIslamicliteraturesinthecenturiesafter Ibn ʽArabihadwrittenhisworkonprophetology, theFuṣūṣal-ḥikam(BezelsofWisdom),mayhavebeenmoreorlessinspiredbythiswork,inwhosetitlethesymbolismofthesealisevident.In themystical interpretationofMuhammad’s role, theKoranic allusions to

himwere constantly filledwith newmeaning, and their contents expressed inoftenverydaringimages—beitSura54:1,“Thehourdrewnear,andtheMoonwassplit,”orSura93,“BytheMorninglight!”orSura17:1withitsallusiontothe nightly journey, or the visionary Sura 53, “The Star.” One short Koranicchapter,Sura108,Sūratal-Kauthar,hasbeenafavoritewiththeSufis,manyofwhomhaveheld it tobe themostbeautifulexpressionof the fullnessofgracethatGodbestoweduponHisProphet.Thewordkauthar,fromtherootk-th-r,“tobeplentiful,”hasbeeninterpretedasthenameofablessedfountaininParadise;but it isat thesametimethesymbolof thecomprehensivegracebywhichtheProphetwas distinguished,whereas his enemy and slanderer is doomed to beabtar, “without issue.”A typical exampleof a rather late interpretationof thissura is thatwritten by aNaqshbandimystic in Sind in the eighteenth century,

ʽAbdurRahimGirhori.HislongpoeticalcommentaryonSura108,inSindhi,iscertainly influenced by the grandiose verse of Jami, who, like him, was amember of theNaqshbandiyya.73But he goes even farther than themaster ofHeratandmakesGodsay,amongotherexaltedwordsofpraisefortheProphet:

SomanygiftsgaveItononebutyou.Youarethecup-bearerofthefountain:carryonnowitsdistribution,Obrave

one!ThekeysofpowerhaveIputintoyourhand,Ofriend;ThesciencesofheavenandearthareagiftforAhmad.Thephilosophers’stonehaveIgivenyou,theelixirofAdam,Ofriend.ToJesus,acertainportionofgracewas[given]fromthiselixir,Withwhichthedeadwerequickened,thedeafbecamehearing;Fortheblind:seeingeyes;fromthelepersfelltheirleprosy.WhateverisintheTorahislikeasipoutofthatocean,ThewholebeautyofJoseph,asignofthatgift.Asmallquantityonlyofyourlove,OAhmad,hasreachedZulaikha;Paradiseispartofthatocean,asthoughitwereiceoftheocean.Hellisatyourdoorsupplicatinglikeabeggar,Havingwithoutyourpermissionnostrengthtoburntheunbelievers.Paradiseisyoursplendidmanifestation,justalookoflove;Yourlookofwrath,Opureone,isHellfire.Heaven,earth,empyrean,God’sThrone,humans,djinn,andangelsLive,Mybeloved,alwaysindependenceonyou.Dearest,humanitybecameworthybecauseofyourlight,Thankstoyourreflection,Mydarling,budsandflowersareblossoming…74

ItwasofcoursepossiblethatsuchloftyideasaboutMuhammad’sprimordialrank andhis central place in thehistoryof theuniversemight degenerate intobizarre mythical images, particularly on the folk level, and the comfortablePersianexpressionhamaūst,“EverythingisHe,”didleadignorantbardstowhatone could call ‘heretical” statements in their wish to praise Muhammad asintenselyaspossible.Themoresober theologiansandscholars,however,werealwaysawareofthisdanger.Indeed,howcouldtheynotbe,whenanUrdupoetdaredtosing:

HowcouldoneknowtherankofourLeaderoftheworld?

IfyouwanttoreachGod,knowMuhammadasGod!75

EventhemostfaithfulfollowersofIbnʽArabiwouldprobablyhaveshudderedatsucharemark,for“theLordremainsLord,andtheservant,servant.”Itseemsthatmythologicalembellishmentsof thestoryofcreation involving

Muhammad were not unknown, especially in the Indian environment. ShaikhChand,themedievalBengalipoetwhoseremarksabouttheLightofMuhammadwe quoted earlier, describes the creation of the world from the body of theprimordialMuhammadinveryconcretetermsreminiscentofVedicmythology:

ThesevenheavenswerecreatedfromthesevenpartsofthebodyofMuhammad:

Thefirstheavenisinthepalate,thesecondupontheforehead,Thethirdiswithinthenostrils,thefourthatthebaseoftheupperlip.Thefifth,youknow,isinthethroat,Thesixthwithinthechest,Theseventhinsidethenavel.76

In Jili’s classical system the angels were created fromMuhammad’s spiritualpowers (Israfil from his heart, Azra’il from his judgment, etc.).77 But ShaikhChandtellshislistenersthattheycameoutoftheProphet’sprimordialbody:

Thefarista[angel;Persianfirishta]Israfilwascreatedfromthenose,AndʽAzra’ilwasfromtheear,FromthemouthcameZibril[Gabriel]FromtheeyessprangMika’il.Witheachandeveryfaristacame70,000more,Fromeachandeveryhairofeach/arista’sbodywasbornanotherfarista,From300millionbodilyhairscame300millionfarista.ThusfromnūrMuḥammadcamecreation.

And, as the author continues, on God’s command this creation became themurīd,“disciple,”ofMuhammad.In the lightof theuniquepositionof theProphet it isnotsurprising thathis

nameisusedininnumerableprayers,andeveninmagicalincantations,tosecuresuccessandhelp.AgoodexampleisalongPersianprayer,calledMunājāt-ikunfayakūn (Prayerof“Be,and ItBecomes”) inwhichnotonly thenamesofallprophets, companions, imams, and saints are mentioned but also a fortyfold

invocation “By the honor of…Muhammad,” usually in rhyming pairs or inalliterations;forinstance:

BythehonorofMuhammad’scharacter,khū,andMuhammad’stresses,gēsū,BythehonorofMuhammad’sheart,dil,andMuhammad’sclay,gil,BythehonorofMuhammad’sbeauty,jamāl,andMuhammad’sperfection,

kamāl,BythehonorofMuhammad’staste,dhauq,andMuhammad’slonging,shauq,BythehonorofMuhammad’spath,ṭarīqat,andMuhammad’slaw,sharīʽat.BythehonorofMuhammad’scrown,tāj,andMuhammad’sheavenlyjourney,

miʽrāj,BythehonorofMuhammad’sjourney,safar,andMuhammad’svictory,ẓafar,BythehonorofMuhammad’sintercession,shafāʽat,andMuhammad’s

braveness,shajāʽat…,78

Another litany, said to “draw out ailments,” uses similar formulas: after theprofessionoffaithfollowstheformula

Thereisnoillnessandnopainthathasnotacureandaremedy—BythehonorofMuhammadtheMessengerofGod.

ThenfollowsthenameofaCompanionoftheProphet,thenthesamerepetitionof the initial formula, and so on until all Companions and all caliphs (or, inrelated litanies,allmembersof theSufiorders fromtheProphet to the leadingmedieval saints) are enumerated. The praise of Muhammad, however, is thefocal point of all these litanies.79 They too prove the unshakable faith of thepiousinthepoweroftheProphet,andtheirtrustinhim,thefirstandthelastinthechainofprophethood.ItisastonishingthatdespitethiscentralpositionoftheProphetinthemystical

tradition of Islam, and especially in popular, post-thirteenth-century Sufism,many outside critics have remained barely aware of the sublime role that heplays in the religious life of his followers. This becomes evident from theexample of some Hindu interpreters of Muslim poetry in India. Although anumber of Hindus were ardent followers of Muslim saints and even sangeulogiesfortheProphetinUrduandinSindhi,itseemsthatmanyofthemcouldnotgaugethedepthofthemysticalvenerationoftheProphet.AgoodexampleisLilaramWatanmal,who in1889published the firstcomprehensivebookabouttheSindhimysticalpoetShahʽAbdulLatif.Hewritesquitecondescendingly:

ShahLatif, too,has inhisRisālō, in severalplaces, impresseduponhishearerthenecessityofbelievinginMahommadasaprophetandsomethingmore.Itistrue that some of the verses in praise of the prophet, somewhat vulgar inlanguage, arenotourpoet’s.…But it cannotbedoubted that thereare severalgenuineversesinwhichourpoethasexpressedhisfullbeliefintheprophet.…TheorthodoxMahommadans[sic]mightwellbelievehimasthechiefprophetofGod.But theSufis cannot, consistentlywith their pantheistic doctrines, saythattheprophetMahommadistheonlymediumofsalvation.…ItmaybethatShahLatifwantedtoleadthemindsofhisfollowersslowlyandgraduallyintohigher Sufism by allowing them to believe first in their prophet, and then bydegreestoascendhigherandhigher.80

Watanmal,who, like all Hindu interpreters of Sindhi and Panjabi Sufi poetry,triestoexplainSufismasamoreorlesspantheistic,slightlyIslamicizedversionof theVedanticmysticismofUnity,mighthaveknownexternal IslambutwascompletelyunawareofthecentralpositionofMuhammadastheintercessorandthe“columnoflight,”asthePerfectManandthefirstandlastoftheprophets,asithadbeenexpressedforsomanycenturiesinmultifariousimagesandsymbols,and as it was indeed decisive for religious experience in wide circles inIslamdom.However,onemustkeepinmindoneimportantfact:eventhoughMuhammad

waselevatedtoluminousheightsandreachedapositioncomparable,incertainways,tothatoftheLogosinChristiantheology,yetevenasthePerfectManheremained ʽabduhu, God’s servant and His creature—the most beloved of Hiscreatures, to be sure. Even though some poets seem to transgress the properlimitsintheirencomia,theideaofanincarnationintheChristiansensewasandis absolutely impossible in the Islamic tradition. Over the centuries Islamicorthodoxy has felt, understandably, uncomfortable with the growing mysticalvenerationoftheProphet,whichseemedtomanytobeexaggeratedandnotinharmonywiththeessentialspiritofIslam.Theyhaverightlypointedoutthattheaxis of Islam is not the person of the Prophet but rather theWord ofGod, asrevealedthroughhimandlaiddownintheKoran.Nevertheless,itseemsthattheoverflowinglovefortheProphet,thetrustinhimandthevenerationofhim,wasa decisive factor in the formation of poetry and popular piety and offered theMuslims a human object to which they could devote their tender, admiringfeelings. The human aspect of the Prophet, and the possibility of a person-to-personencounterwithhim,whoseemedmoreaccessiblethantheeternalDivineEssence,filledthemwithhappiness.Anditisprobablyalogicalcorollaryofthe“Gnostic” tendency of later Islamicmysticism, inwhich the loving encounter

betweenmanandapersonalGodwho isatonceCreator,SustainedandJudgewas no longer deemed possible, that the pious imagination turned to theveneration of theProphet,whowith all hismystical grandeur still remained aperson towhomhis fellowcreatures could turn in love,hope, andadmiration,which they then tried to express in ever new, evermore colorful and ecstaticwords.

EIGHT:THECELEBRATIONOFTHEPROPHET’SBIRTHDAY

ATurkishdervishoftheseventeenthcenturysings:

ThenightinwhichtheMessengerwasbornisWithoutdoubtsimilartotheNightofMight,1

thatis,tothenightinwhichtheKoranwasrevealedforthefirsttime,whichiscalledinSura97“betterthanathousandmonths.”Acenturylater,theMalikitemuftiofAlgiers,IbnʽAmmar,broughtforththreescholarlyproofsforthisidea:(1)thebirthday,maulid,hasgiventheProphettothewholeworld,buttheNightof Might, lailat al-qadr, was meant especially for him; (2) Muhammad’sappearance was more important for the community, umma, than the “comingdownoftheangels”ofwhichSura97speaks,forMuhammadissuperiortotheangels; and (3) the maulid is a most important day for the entire universe,whereasthefirstrevelationoftheKoranismeantfortheMuslimsinparticular.2These two statements clearly indicate the degree to which veneration of theProphethadincreasedduringthelateMiddleAges,andhowmuchitpermeatedthepietyofthemassesandtheelite.In general, the Prophet’s birthday is calledmaulid, a word that also often

denotes thefestivitiesheldonthisday.Analternativetermismīlād,“birthday,anniversary,” and the passive participle maulūd, from the root w-l-d thatunderliesalltheseterms,isalsoused.maulūd(writteninmodernTurkishmevlutormevlud) appears, however, more frequently to denote poetry or literaturewritteninhonoroftheProphet’sbirthandeven,moregenerally,ofhislife.(Forinstance:“Wewenttoamaulidinhishouseandlistenedtoaclassicalmaulūd”)To be sure, even in the earliest reportsmiraculous events arementioned in

connection with the night of Muhammad’s birth. This was the night of 12Rabiʽal-awwal,thethirdlunarmonth,whichwasrememberedalsoasthedayoftheProphet’sdeath.3Longafter colorful celebrationsof theProphet’sbirthdayhadbecomepopular in theNearEast, the IndianMuslimsstill spent thisnightlistening to earnest sermons and recitations of the Koran as well as inalmsgiving;thedaywascalledbārahwafāt,“thetwelfth,[dayof]death,”andinsomeplacesa“generalziyārat[visit]ofthedead”tookplace.4InthelateeighthcenturythehouseinMeccainwhichMuhammadhadbeen

born was transformed into an oratory by the mother of the caliph Harun ar-Rashid,andpilgrimswhocametoMeccatoperformtheḥajjvisiteditinpiousawe. It seems that the tendency to celebrate the memory of Muhammad’sbirthday on a larger andmore festive scale emerged first in Egypt during theFatimid era (969-1171). This is logical, for the Fatimids claimed to be theProphet’s descendants through his daughter Fatima. The Egyptian historianMaqrizi (d. 1442) describes one such celebration held in 1122, basing hisaccount on Fatimid sources.5 It was apparently an occasion in which mainlyscholarsandthereligiousestablishmentparticipated.Theylistenedtosermons,andsweets,particularlyhoney,theProphet’sfavorite,weredistributed;thepoorreceivedalms.However,thisrathersolemnlypiousatmospherechangedbeforelong.Alively

descriptionofearlymaulidfestivitiesisgivenbythehistorianIbnKhallikaninhis account of Ibn Dihya, who had witnessed them in 1207 in Arbela, IbnKhallikan’snativecity, innorthernIraq.Preparationsforthemaulidhadbegunduringthefirstlunarmonth;woodenpavilionswereerectedandguestroomsforthenumerousvisitorsfromabroadprepared,andlargequantitiesofsheep,goats,andcowswerebrought tobeslaughteredfor theguests.TheprincesofArbelaparticipated not only in the prayer meetings and the sermons but also in thesamāʽ themysticalconcertarrangedbytheSufis.Therewereprocessionswithcandles,andeven“Chineseshadow-players.”6Illuminationwaslatertobecomeatypicalaspectofmanymaulidcelebrations.

InTurkey,forexample,themosquesaredecoratedwithlights,andthedayitself,calledmevlûtkandĭlĭ, “the candle feast for the Prophet’s birthday,” is spent infastinguntil sunset. It is evident that theSufisplayedan importantpart in theelaborationofthemaulidandcontributedtoitscolorfulcharacter.Butitisalsounderstandablethatorthodoxtheologiansdeclaredsuchcelebrationstobebidʽa,an “innovation.”The reformer IbnTaimiyya (d. 1328) especially energeticallyattackedsuchlightheadedamusements,“whichearlierMuslimsdidnotconsiderrightnorpracticed.”7Butoneof theearlyArabicmaulidworks(whichconsistsalmost exclusively of Ḥadīth concerning the night of the Prophet’s birth)emergedfromthepenofoneofhisdisciples,IbnKathir.Not only the Hanbalite Ibn Taimiyya, but the theologians of the Malikite

schooloflaw,whichhasitsstrongholdinNorthAfrica,clearlyspokeagainsttheexaggerated festivities on 12 Rabiʽ al-awwal: on a day that is also theanniversary of theProphet’s death, neithermusic nor joy are permissible.TheecstaticmysticalpoetryoftenrecitedinconnectionwithamaulidhasremainedastumblingblockformoresoberMuslimstoourday,asaBengalischolarwrotea

fewyearsback,inhisdiscussionofthemaulidinhiscountry:“Themainthemeoftheghazals[whicharesungafterthemīlādproper]istoeulogizetheProphetinthemostextravagantterms,oftengivinghimanidenticalplacewithGod.Alltheaudiencerelishthesesongsenthusiasticallywithoutamurmurofdissent.”8Authoritiesofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,likethemysticallyminded

polymathSuyuti(whocomposedaworkdefendingthe“goodinnovation”ofthemaulid)9 and the traditionist IbnHajar al-Haithami,deemed itpermissible thatthe Koran be recited and religious songs be sung, but they prohibited othermusicalentertainmentandevenmoretheuseoflightsandcandles.ProcessionswithcandlesandilluminationsremindedthemtoomuchofthecustomsoftheirChristianneighborsandthecelebrationofChristmasorCandlemas(2February)—which indeedmaywell have influenced the customs of the popularmaulid,just as Christian critics of Islam would, in turn, sometimes see “parodies ofChrist’s life”10 in the elaboration of the maulid stories as well as in somemiraclestoldaboutMuhammad.EvensomeMuslimmoderniststendtoascribethisdevelopmentto“clearlyjealousemulationofwhattheChristianssayaboutJesustheChrist.”11Despiteallthiscriticismmaulidcelebrationsbecamemoreandmorecommon

inIslamiclands,atleastinthecentralandwesternareas.12InNorthAfricasuchcelebrationsarefirstmentionedasaninnovationintroducedbytheMerinidrulerofFezin1291;eversincetheyhaveformedanimportantpartofreligiouslifeinMorocco and the adjacent areas—all the more since several North Africandynastiesclaimsharifianstatus,thatis,descentfromtheProphet.Thusreligiousandnationalemotionscouldbesuccessfullyblendedinthemaulidcelebrations.As in Iraq, theSufis inMoroccohaveparticipatedactively in the festivitiesoftheProphet’sbirthday,whichcametobeconsideredin thehierarchyoffestivedays second only to the canonical feasts, that is, the ʽId al-fiṭr at the end ofRamadan, and the ʽIdal-aḍḥā, the feast of sacrifices during the pilgrimage toMecca. And just as a boy born during the fastingmonth of Ramadan can becalledRamadan(PersianandTurkishRamazan),inNorthAfrica—andprobablyelsewhere—children born on the maulid day may be named Maulud or(feminine) Mauludiyya, or similar forms. A recent article has shown thatrecitations of mystical poems and processions of dervish orders—like theIssawiyya and the Hamadsha—were at times integral parts of the maulidcelebrationsinNorthAfrica;theseperformancesoftenendedinawildfrenzynolongercompatiblewiththecharacterofthecelebrations.13In Egypt, the tradition ofmaulid was continued from Fatimid days by all

subsequent dynasties. The Mamluk rulers in the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries usually celebrated the feast (generally not on the twelfth but on theeleventhofthemonth)withgreatpompinthecourtyardofthecitadelofCairo.14Thereanenormous,beautifullydecoratedtentwaspitched,andafterrecitationsand readings from the Koran the sultan distributed purses and sweets to thereligiousdignitaries.Speciallettersofcongratulationweresentoutaccordingtoprotocol.15ThepeopleoutsidetheMamlukmilitaryestablishmenthadtheirowncelebrations.Oneobserver,aBritishorientalist,laterpublishedalivelyaccountofamaulid in theEzbekiyyaPark inCairo at thebeginningof thenineteenthcentury,whichcertainlymaintainedmanyancientfeatures;thestrophicpoeminwhichthesingersexpressedtheirloveforMuhammadremindedhimsomewhatof the love lyrics of the biblical Song of Songs.16 Nowadays, recordings offamousmaulūdsongsaresoldinstores,sothateveryonecanenjoythespecialmoodofthecelebrations.ThroughouttheMiddleAgestheProphet’sbirthdaywaslavishlycelebratedin

Mecca. In Kashmir—to mention a comparatively modern example from theIndiansubcontinent—peoplelikedtocelebratethefirst twelvedaysofRabiʽal-awwal near theHazratbalMosque in Srinagar,where a hair of the Prophet ispreserved.Andfromasearlyas thesecondhalfof theseventeenthcenturywehave very colorful descriptions of the celebrations of the maulid under theQutbshahikingsofGolconda.17In theircapital,Hyderabad/Deccan,drumsandbugleswereplayedduringthefirsttwelvedaysofRabiʽal-awwal,anddurūdfortheProphetwere repeated 101 times after the ritual prayers.Avast plainwastransformed into a center of exhibitions,wheremerchants from all over Indiawouldselltheirproducts,fromtoystocarpetsandjewelry.Theking(atthattimeʽAbdallah Qutbshah) even inaugurated an exhibition of paintings, and in theevening,lecturesonthelifeoftheProphetweredeliveredunderahugecanopy.Afterthat,onethousandprettyTelugugirlsperformeddances;acrobatsshowedoff their tricks, and ghazah were sung. The first day of the celebrationsconcluded with a luxurious dinner party; on the actual birthday an enormousamountof tastyfoodwasdistributed toallandsundry.Onasimplerscaleonecouldalso,asisstilldoneinIndia,cooksomefood,dedicateittotheProphet’sspirit,andthendistributeittothepoor.18InthelatterdaysoftheOttomanEmpire,in1912,the12Rabiʽal-awwalwas

declared a public holiday, and it is celebrated as such today in Pakistan.Wehave, for example, a lively account (from the leadingPakistani newspaper) ofthe celebration of the Prophet’s birthday on 29 December 1982: “another‘spectacular feature’ of the day was the elaborately arranged Id-i miladprocession in which thousands of participants participated to express their

profound love with the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him). Cities and townswhichhadbeentastefullydecoratedwithflags,bunting,festoonsandstreamersworeafestiveappearance,andanaddedattractionwastheglitteringilluminationatnight.”ASeeratconference,dealingwith thebiographyof theProphet,wasinaugurated by the president of Pakistan, and numerous mahfils (gatherings)tookplace,and“radioand televisionbeamedoutspecialprogrammesbefittingtheoccasion.…Thedaybeganwitha31-gunsalute inRawalpindiand21-gunsaluteintheprovincialcapitals.Thenationalflagwashoistedovergovernmentandprivatebuildings.”19YetintheverysameyearafatwāofthechairmanoftheMecca-basedRābiṭa,

anorthodoxMuslimorganization,declaredthecelebrationsofthemaulidtobean“evil innovation.”ThisremarkarousedsharpcriticismfromvariouscornersoftheMuslimworld,fromSouthAfricatoIran.20Duringrecentdecadesan increasing tendencyhasbeenobserved throughout

the Muslim world to use the maulid in the service of modernist ideas. InPakistan, thewholemonthofRabiʽal-awwal isdevoted toremembranceof theProphetandhisethical,political,andsocialrole,andasimilarattitudeisfound,moreorlessoutspokenly,inotherIslamiccountriesaswell.Schools,thepress,and broadcast media unite in their efforts to portray the Prophet in mostimpressive colors and to call theMuslims to strive to emulate his exemplarymoralattitude.It is therefore understandable that the touching popular, poetic stories about

the miracles that accompanied his birth are no longer cited as they were informerdays.Intunewithmanycriticalmodernists,aBengalischolardescribedafew years ago with utter dismay the celebrations of the Fātiḥa dawāzdahum(Fatihaofthetwelfth),asthemīlādiscalledinBengal,inwhich

suchfictitiousstoriesaretoldasnorationalmancanbelieve.Itisneedlesstosaythat in the narration of these stories decency is lamentably violated and thehistoricityoftheProphet’scareerisdisgracefullydisregarded.Peoplearetaughttobelievethat theProphetpresentshimself inspirit insuchparties,andthis iswhy, when the mulla finishes his narration with the birth of the Prophet, theaudiencestandsup from their seats tohonor the spirit of theProphet andhailhiminchorus.21

In fact, in1934 theministerof education inEgypt turnedagainst the fanciful,uselessstorieswithwhichthelargepartofpopularmaulūdpoetrywasfilled,andtried, ashadorthodox reformists from IbnTaimiyya to theWahhabis inSaudiArabia,topurgethesestoriesofalltheaccretionsthatseemedincompatiblewith

amodern,scientificviewpointandtoreducethevenerationoftheProphettoasound,soberlevel.ButitwasnolessanauthoritythanthefamousblindliterarycriticTahaHusain,educatedinFrance,whoobjectedtosuchanintrusionuponthepeople’straditions.Hewrote,amongotherarguments:

It seems most fitting not to deprive people of ideas which do not contradictreligionanddonotspoiltheminanypartoftheirfaith.WhatisthedangerfortheMuslimswhenone tells them the sweet and lovely storiesof theseḤadīthand informs them that thecommunitiesofbirds andbeasts competedafter thebirth of the Prophet because all of them wanted to look after him, but wererefused because it had been decreed that the Prophet should be nursed by theblessedHalima?AndwhatiswrongfortheMuslimswhentheyhearthatdjinn,men,animals,andstarscongratulatedeachotheratthebirthoftheProphet,andthatthetreessproutedleavesathisbirth,andthatthegardensblossomedathisarrival,and that theskycameclose to theearth,whenhisnoblebody touchedtheground?22

Itwaspreciselythemiraclesthatweresaidtohavehappenedontheoccasionof theProphet’sbirth thatmostdelightedanduplifted thedevout,and inspiredpoetsandtheologianstodescribethebirthof“thebestofmankind”inevernew,evermoreglowingimages.The earliest Arabic sources, basing their claims on Koranic epithets like

sirājunmunīr, “a shining lamp,” tell that a light radiated fromAmina’swombwiththearrivalofthenewbornProphet.HassanibnThabitsingsinhisdirgeforMuhammadthathismotherAminaofblessedmemoryhadbornhiminahappyhourinwhichtherewentforth

alightwhichilluminatedthewholeworld.23

ItisnotsurprisingthatthisspirituallightwassoongivenmaterialrealityintheaccountsoftheProphet’sbirth,ascanbeseenfirstinIbnSardʽshistoricalworkintheninthcentury.YunusEmresings,likenumerouspoetsinhissuccessioninTurkey,Iran,andIndia:

TheworldwasallsubmersedinlightInthenightofMuhammad’sbirth.24

And Ibn al-Jauzi before him—without doubt a serious, critical theologian ofHanbalitepersuasionandnotamysticalpoet—wroteinhismaulidbook,which

isthefirstofthiskind:

WhenMuhammad was born, angels proclaimed it with high and low voices.Gabrielcamewiththegoodtidings,andtheThronetrembled.Thehouriscameout of their castles, and fragrance spread. Ridwan [the keeper of the gates ofParadise]wasaddressed:“AdornthehighestParadise,removethecurtainfromthe palace, send a flock of birds from the birds of Eden toAmina’s dwellingplacethattheymaydropapearleachfromtheirbeaks.”AndwhenMuhammadwas born, Amina saw a light, which illuminated the palaces of Bostra. Theangelssurroundedherandspreadout theirwings.The rowsofangels, singingpraise,descendedandfilledhillanddale.25

AnAndalusianscholarinthetwelfthcentury,theQadiIbnAtiyya,takesupthisidea:

ThemonthofRabi’precedesthe[other]monthsAnd,byGod!ithasonenightwhichisresplendentWithluminousmeteorsbetweenthehorizons…26

Qadi ʽIyad, the great authority on the Prophet’s biography,whowas a devoutNorthAfricanMuslim,doesnotmentionanymiracleexceptthelightinhisbriefdescriptionofMuhammad’sbirth.This is rather astonishing, for thenarrativesabout the various wondrous events that happened during Muhammad’s birthbelongtotheoldestlayeroflegends.Itwassaidthataradiantlightshonefromthe forehead of ʽAbdallah, Muhammad’s father, and although several womentriedtowoohimawayforthesakeofthislight,hemarriedAmina,whomGodhad predestined to become the Prophet’smother. The lightwas carried in herwomb.InthenightwhentheProphetwasbegotten—thusAbuNuʽaim’sDalāʼilan-

nubuwwa—all the cattle of the Quraish talked among themselves to tell eachother that the future leader of the community had been begotten. Amina wasordered to call the childMuhammad or Ahmad. She had an untroubled, easypregnancy.Butwhen the time came that shewas to give birth, strange thingshappened:

And while it became heavier and heavier for me and I was hearing anincreasinglystrongnoise,lo,awhitesilkenkerchiefwasspreadbetweenheavenandearth,andIheardavoicesay:“Lethimdisappearfromtheviewsofmen!”Isaw men standing in the air, who held silver ewers in their hands. The

perspiration which dropped from me was like pearls and more fragrant thanstrongmusk,andIexclaimed:“OthatʽAbdulMuttalibwouldcometome!Woethat ʽAbdulMuttalib is far fromme!” Then I saw flocks of birds descendinguponmeandcoveringmy lap; theirbeakswereofemeraldand theirwingsofhyacinth.AndGodtookawaytheveilsfrommyeyes,andIsawtheearthintheEastandintheWest.Isawthreeflagserected,oneintheEast,oneintheWest,andoneontheroofoftheKaʽba.Laborsetin,anditbecamedifficultforme.…ThusIgavebirthtoMuhammad,andIturnedtohimtolookathim,andlo,therehewaslyinginadoration,liftinghishandstoheavenlikeonesupplicating.ThenI saw a cloud coming from the sky which covered him so that he becameinvisible tome,and Iheard someonecall: “Leadhimaround theearth inEastandWest,andleadhimtotheoceansthattheymayrecognizehimwithhisnameandhisstatureandhisqualitiesandthattheymayknowthathewillbecalledinthe oceans al-Māḥī [the One Who Wipes Out] because he will wipe out allpolytheism.” Then the cloud disappeared quickly, and lo, there he was lying,wrapped inawhitewoolengarment,andbeneathhim therewasagreencoverfrom silk. He held three keys of white pearls in his hand, and someoneexclaimed:“Look,Muhammadkeepsinhishandthekeyofvictory,thekeyofbloodshed,andthekeyofprophethood.”27

Otherreports tell that thenewbornProphetfell to thegroundand,pressinghishandson theearth, lookedup to thesky; thiswas interpretedas indicatinghisroleasrulerofthewholeearth.Nopoetforgetstomentionthelightthat“illuminatedtheworldtothepalaces

of Bostra” in Syria. “A shining bow appeared like rainbow. This light whichappearedwasliketelevision,foritbroughtnearbyandshowedclearlycitiesfaraway,”ishowaSwahilipreacherexplainedthismiraclein196328Significant signs were witnessed in the neighboring countries when the

Prophetwasborn;itissaidthatthehallsofthepalacesofthePersiankingwereshattered, or that theTigris andEuphrates flooded the capital, and later poets,especially in the Persianate tradition, have played in their encomia with theverbalconnectionbetweenKisra(Khosroes,thePersianemperor)andtheArabicwordkisr,“breaking.”29The popular tradition according to which Amina was attended during her

laborbyAsiyaandMary,containsahintatMuhammad’ssuperiorityoverMosesandJesus.AsiyaisPharaoh’sbelievingwifewholookedaftertheinfantMoses,andMaryasChrist’svirginmotheroccupiesalongwithher,andevenmorethanshe,aplaceofhonorinIslamicpiety.

It is also important to remember that Muhammad was born free from allbodily impurities.Hewascircumcisedwhenheappeared from thewomb; thislegendispopularlytakenasthebasisforthecircumcisionofboys—adutynotmentionedintheKoranbutknownamongMuslimsasasunnaoftheProphet(itisthereforecalledsünnetamongtheTurks).ThefirstcomprehensivebookabouttheProphet’sbirth,asfarasoneknows,

wascomposedbytheAndalusianauthorIbnDiḥya,whohadparticipatedinthefestivemaulid inArbela in 1207.Written in prosewith a concluding poeticalencomium,hisworkhasthecharacteristictitleKitābat-tanwīrfimaulidas-sirājal-munīr(TheBookofIlluminationabouttheBirthoftheLuminousLamp),inwhich the light-mysticism associated with Muhammad is evident. TwoHanbalites, Ibn al-Jauzi and, a century and a half later, Ibn Kathir, devotedtreatises to the maulid. Poetical works about this important event were alsocomposed relatively early. It is noteworthy, however, that Busiri’sBurda (latethirteenth century), the most famous of all Arabic eulogies, mentions theProphet’s birth only in passing, and does not give any special, detaileddescriptionofit.AndoneshouldkeepinmindthatAhmadad-Dardir’sfamousmaulidbeginswiththepraiseofGod“Whoisfreefrom‘begetting’and‘beingbegotten’[or,‘beingborn,’maulūd].”30IntheTurkishtradition,thebest-knownearlymevlûtwaswrittenbySüleyman

ChelebiofBursaaround1400.Butmorethanacenturyearlier,YunusEmrehadalreadypromisedheavenly reward to thosewho recitemevlût,which shows—providedtheversesaregenuine—thatmevlûtswerepopularamongtheTurksataratherearlystage.SüleymanChelebi’spoemiswritteninrhymingcouplets,aliterary form adopted from the Persian. Its rhythm is simple; themeter is thesame as that used primarily in Persian mystical and didactic epics such asʽAttar’sManṭiq uṭ-ṭair and Rumi’sMathnawī. The language is plain, almostchildlike,andthereforethepoemhasnotlostanythingofitscharmeventoday.31(Buteven thispoemwasconsideredan impious innovationbya sternTurkishtheologianof the fifteenthcentury,MollaFenari!)Themevlûd-isherif, as it iscalled,isstillbeingrecitedinTurkey,notonlyontheProphet’sbirthdaybutalsoon the fortieth day after a bereavement, as a memorial service on a deathanniversary,orinfulfillmentofavow,becauseitiscreditedwithaveryspecialblessingpower.Similarly,IndianMuslims,especiallywomen,usedtocelebratemīlādpartiesateverygreatfamilyevent.Thecelebrationofamevlūt inaTurkish family is a festiveaffair, andas in

otherpartsoftheIslamicworldoneputsonfineclothesforsuchanoccasionandthenseekswhatanEastAfricanpoetdescribes in thebeginningofhismaulūd

poem:

Fromthemomentyousetouttowardthemaulid,YouhavegoneouttoexperiencetherapturesofParadise.32

Sometimes incense is burnt, and at the end of the recitation, which isinterspersedwithnumerousrecitationsfromtheKoranaswellasprayers,sweetsaredistributed. InNorthAfricaoneusuallypreparesʽaṣīda,akindofpuddingmadeofhominy,butter,andhoney,thesamesweetthatisgiventotheguestsatareal childbirth.33 In other areas the participants are offered cool sherbet andcandies; in Turkey everyone used to take home a little paper bag filled withsweets.34Süleyman Chelebi’s mevlût was often imitated, so that there are about a

hundred different versions ofmevlût poetry in Turkish; but no other Turkishreligiouspoemcancompetewithitforthefavorofallclassesofsociety.Itsfirstpart tells the story of Muhammad’s birth as Amina experienced it. Full ofamazement,sherecounts(usingthetraditionalimagery)whathappenedtoherattheendofherpregnancy:

AminaKhatun,Muhammad’smotherdear:Fromthisoystercamethatlustrouspearl.AftersheconceivedfromʽAbdallahCamethetimeofbirthwithdaysandweeks.AsMuhammad’sbirthwasdrawingnearManysignsappearedbeforehecame!InthemonthRabiʽal-awwalthenOnthetwelfth,thenightofMonday,look,Whenthebestofhumankindwasborn—Owhatmarvelsdidhismothersee!Spokethemotherofthatfriend:“IsawAstrangelight;thesunwaslikeitsmoth.35Suddenlyitflashedupfrommyhouse,Filledwithworldwithlightuptothesky.Heavensopened,vanquishedwasthedark,AndIsawthreeangelswiththreeflags.OnewasintheEast,oneintheWest,OnestooduprightontheKama’sroof.

Rowsofangelscamefromheaven,andCircumambulatedallmyhouse;Camethehourisgroupongroup;thelightFromtheirfacesmademyhousesobright!Andacoverwasspreadinmid-air,Called‘brocade’—anangellaiditout.WhenIsawsoclearlytheseeventsIbecamebewilderedandconfused.SuddenlythewallsweresplitapartAndthreehourisenteredinmyroom.SomehavesaidthatofthesecharmingthreeOnewasAsiyaofmoonlikeface,OnewasLadyMarywithoutdoubt,Andthethirdahouribeautiful.ThenthesemoonfacedthreedrewgentlynearAndtheygreetedmewithkindnesshere;Thentheysataroundme,andtheygaveThegoodtidingsofMuhammad’sbirth;Saidtome:‘AsonlikethisyoursonHasnotcomesinceGodhasmadethisworld,AndtheMightyOnedidnevergrantSuchalovelysonaswillbeyours.Youhavefoundgreathappiness,Odear,Forfromyouthatvirtuousoneisborn!HethatcomesisKingofKnowledgehigh,Isthemineofgnosisandtauḥīd[monotheism].Fortheloveofhimtheskyrevolves,Menanddjinnarelongingforhisface.Thisnightisthenightthathe,sopureWillsuffusetheworldswithradiantlight!Thisnight,earthbecomesaParadise,ThisnightGodshowsmercytotheworld.Thisnightthosewithheartarefilledwithjoy,Thisnightgivestheloversanewlife.MercyfortheworldsisMustafa,Sinners’intercessor:Mustafa!’

Theydescribedhiminthisstyletome,Stirredmylongingforthatblessedlight.”Aminasaid:“WhenthetimewasripeThattheBestofMankindshouldappear,IbecamesothirstyfromthatheatThattheygavemesherbetinaglass.Drinkingit,IwasimmersedinlightAndcouldnotdiscernmyselffromlight.ThenawhiteswancamewithsoftgreatwingsAndhetouchedmybackwithgentlestrength.

As this verse is recited, every participant ever so gently touches his or herneighbor’sback.

AndtheKingofFaithwasbornthatnight:Earthandheavenweresubmergedinlight!”

Then begins the great Welcome, which all nature extended to the newbornProphet,whosecomingtheyhadexpectedwithsuchlonging,awelcometotheFriendofGodinwhoseintercessionatDoomsdayallcantrust:

Welcome,Ohighprince,wewelcomeyou!Welcome,Omineofwisdom,wewelcomeyou!Welcome,OsecretoftheBook,wewelcomeyou!Welcome,Omedicineforpain,wewelcomeyou!Welcome,OsunlightandmoonlightofGod!Welcome,OyounotseparatedfromGod!Welcome,OnightingaleoftheGardenofBeauty!Welcome,OfriendoftheLordofPower!Welcome,Orefugeofyourcommunity!Welcome,Ohelperofthepooranddestitute!Welcome,Oeternalsoul,wewelcomeyou!Welcome,Ocupbearerofthelovers,wewelcomeyou!Welcome,OdarlingoftheBeloved!Welcome,OmuchbelovedoftheLord!Welcome,OMercyfortheworlds!Welcome,Ointercessorforthesinner!

OnlyforyouwereTimeandSpacecreated…

Therefollowsanextendeddescriptionof theProphet’smiracles,amongwhichthe heavenly journey occupies a central place. Importantly, every section endswiththeverse

IfyouwanttoberescuedfromHellfire,Uttertheblessingsoverhimwithloveand[longing]pain!

In Turkey, this mevlût (which, incidentally, has even been translated intoSerbo-Croatian)36isconcludedwithaspecialprayerinwhichGodisentreatedtosendtherecompensefortherecitationtoMuhammad’sRaudainMedina;thenfollowprayersfortheProphet’sfamily,forsaintsandscholars,andrequestsfortheparticipants’happinessandlonglife,“sothattheymayenjoyparticipationinmany, many more meetings of this kind”; then prayers for the caliph,37 forsoldiers, traders, and pilgrims, and for a peaceful death, and future life inParadise.TheconvictionthatamaulūdhasablessingpowerisnotpeculiartoTurkish

Muslims.ItsbarakaisacknowledgedeverywhereintheMuslimworld.TheEastAfricanMuslimisconvinced,forexample, that“whenapersonrecites it therewillbepeaceandblessingforawholeyear,disastersandthieveswillnotcomenear,andyouwillnot see theburningofhishouse.”38From theMiddleAgesonwarditwasbelievedthattherecitationofthemaulūdwouldgrantthelistenersnotonlyworldlybutalsoheavenlyreward.AsaTurkishversesays:

IfyouwantsalvationfromHellfire,CometothemevlûtforGod’smessenger!39

Yunus Emre, at a very early point in Turkish literary history, described theeventsatresurrectionandduringtheLastJudgment:

OnDoomsdayitwillbecalledout:“Hewhohassungmevlût,shallcome!”Godgivesalicensemadeoflight—Hewhohassungmevlût,shallcome!HeshallgofasttoParadise,Heshallturntotheleftandright—WhatgracetheLordhasshowntohim!Hewhohassungmevlût,shallcome…40

Onemaulid that has been particularly popular in theAfrican countrieswaswrittenintheeighteenthcenturybyal-Barzanji,aMalikiteqadiofMedina.41ItsoriginalArabictextwasinprose,butlaterpoetsoftentransformeditintopoetry;thereare threepoeticalversionsof it inSwahili. It isalsowidespreadinIndia.OntheAfricanscene,anacrosticqaṣīdaof1,400lines(28X10x5)byoneal-Fayyazialsodeservesmention;itisrecitedformaulidcelebrationsinNorthernNigeria.42AmongtheArabs,theHadramisseemtoexcelinmaulidpoetry;oneanthologistandcriticmentionsmorethantwentyqaṣīdas,“eachofwhichhasadelightful Hadrami tune,” that are used in maulid celebrations in southernArabia, where the interaction between the singer, who recites the poem intarannum (recitative) style, and the audience is very common.43One sees thesame trendwithmanymysticalmaulid poems recited inqawwāli in India andPakistan. In Egypt, a panegyric by the Sufi al-Munawi, from the seventeenthcentury,isrecitedwithgreataffectionduringthemaulidcelebrations.AmodernEgyptianwriter,Ahmadash-Sharabasi,evencomposed(in1962)aplayentitledMaulidal-hudā(TheBirthoftheRightGuidance).IntheIndiansubcontinent,amaulidliteratureproperdevelopedratherlateand

waswrittenpredominantly—atleastasfarasnarrativepoetryisconcerned—inPersian. Popular maulids in Bengali have a long tradition, but as can beunderstood from the remarkof theBengali scholar cited above, these seem tohave been generallymore fanciful than poems popular in other areas. Seriousnarrative maulids in literary Bengali were composed only comparativelyrecently.However,intheMiddleAgesthereweresomemysticalaccountsoftheProphet’sbirthinBengalithatplacedtheeventwithintheall-embracingIndianreligious scene by having Brahma, Vishnu, and others foretell the Prophet’scoming.44Insomelanguagesofthesubcontinent,suchasSindhi,theso-calledmaulūdis

abrieflyricalpoemthatisrecitedinapeculiarstyle.Itscontents,however,arenot restricted to theProphet’sbirthbut touchvariousaspectsofhis life.45Thecolorfullegendsconnectedwiththemilddaretold,inSindhi,inlong,ballad-likepoems,calledmunāqibā,astylethatalsoservestonarratetheothermiraclesofthe Prophet.46 Panjabi poets might use the form of Siharfi, or “GoldenAlphabet,” orwrite longqaṣīdaswith fanciful titles like “TheMostBeautifulRemembrance of the Birth of the Best of Mankind” to translate into simplePanjabi verse the loving greetings uttered by birds and plants to the newbornchild.47These poets loved to adorn their descriptions of the Prophet’s birth with

delightful embellishments from their own local environment—a practice no

moreastonishingthanthedepictionofChristmasinaNordicwinterlandscape,towhichweareaccustomedintheWest.ThusapoetfromGujarataround1600introducesintohismaulūdaBrahminwhowaspresentduringtheProphet’sbirthandputhis sacred threadaround thenewbornbaby’sneck.48Otherpoetshaveinvented lullabies for theProphet, likeFaqirMuhammadMachhi inSind,whotells in detail how God granted the Prophet before his birth the qualities ofpatience,wisdom,modesty, gratitude, intelligence, and love andafterhisbirthorderedGabrieltorockthecradle“lestmybelovedcry.”49Godthentaughttheangel,orthepoet,anArabiclullaby;itsrefrainisanelaborationofamedievalverse:

qumqumyāḥabībīkamtanāman-naumuʽalāʼl-ʽāshiqḥarām:Getup,getup,myfriend—howlongwillyousleep?Sleepisforbiddenforthelover!50

Inthecourseofthiscertainlynotexactlyartisticbutwell-intendedlittlepoemallthethingsthatcannotsleepfromjoyattheProphet’sbirthareenumerated:

Thepondandthekauthardonotsleep—Getup,mybeloved,howlongwillyousleep!TheCreatorofcreationdoesnotsleep…ThePenandtheTabletdonotsleep…HeavenandHell,theydonotsleep…Sunandmoon…ThroneandFootstool…Daysandnights…mountainsandoceans…Therightandtheleft,theydonotsleep…Sleepisforbiddenforthelover:Getup,mybeloved,howlongwillyousleep?

Inthecourseofthelastcenturytherehasemergedashiftinthemysticalandmythical orientation of the maulid celebrations, toward a more practical,timebound emphasis on Muhammad’s political and social achievements, hismoral behavior, and his intelligentway of organizing the communal life.Thistrendisquiteinharmonywiththemoremoderninterpretationofthepersonalityof theProphet, and is reflected also in pious poetry.The earlywritings of SirSayyid Ahmad Khan, the leading Indo-Muslim modernist, aim atdemythologizing the literature about the maulid, and following Sir Sayyid’s

example,his friend thereformistpoetHaliclearlyexpressed thisnewspiritbycitingthelegendthatthePersianpalacesandthefiretemplesfelltoruinonthedayofMuhammad’sbirth:

Extinguishedthefiretemple,Crumbleddowntheidoltemple,Checkmatedisdualism,VanishedistheTrinity!51

The birth of theProphetmeans the victory of absolutemonotheismover bothPersian dualism andChristian trinitarianism, both being aspects of the victoryoverpolytheismingeneral.Theideaisofcoursenotnew,butinacountryunderChristian supremacy, as British India was during Hali’s lifetime, these versesboreaveryspecialmeaning.Still,despiteallattemptsatmodernization,theold,tender,andcolorfulsongs

aboutthemiracleofMuhammad’sbirtharestillsung,andthankstothem,lovefortheProphetisimplantedinthechildren’sheartstobecomeanintegralpartoftheirreligiouslife.

NINE:THEPROPHET’SNIGHTJOURNEYANDASCENSION

AfolksongfromtheIndusValley,composedintheeighteenthcentury,greetstheProphet dozens of times, taking up thewelcome that once the angels and theblessedsoulsinParadiseaccordedtohim:

Muhammad,youtraveledtoheavenshigh,Theangelsaddressedyouwith“Welcome!”TheinhabitantsoftheheavenstooSaid:“Welcome,ahundredtimeswelcome!”1

TheProphet’smysteriousnightjourney(isrā)throughtheheavenshasinspiredaliteratureevenmorecomprehensivethanthataboutthemiraclesaccompanyinghisbirth.2Furthermore,fromtheviewpointofboththeologiansandmystics,hisascension to heaven (miʽrāj) is much more important in the DivineHeilsgeschichtethanthemaulid.3The nucleus out of which the story of the mysterious journey grew is the

statementatthebeginningofSura17:“PraisedbeHewhotraveledbynightwithHis servant from the sacred mosque to the farthest sanctuary!” The “farthestsanctuary,”orratherthe“farthestmosque,”al-masjidal-aqsā,wasinterpretedasmeaningJerusalem:4hencethepresentnameoftheAl-Aqsamosqueinthatcity.The earliest biography of the Prophet, theSīra of Ibn Ishaq, tells the story

thus:OnenighttheangelGabrielliftstheProphetontoaheavenlymountcalledBuraq;Muhammadthen travelswithGabriel,andon thisnight journeyor isrāhe is shown themarvels of heaven and earth en route to Jerusalem,where hemeetswiththeformerprophetsandleadstheminritualprayer.Then,fromthe“farthestmosque”hebeginshisheavenlyjourney,firstdescribedasclimbingaheavenly ladder, miʽrāj.5 (Some commentators separate the two events—thenightjourneyandtheascenttoheaven—butevenIbnIshaqcombinesboth,andsinceheisregardedasthemostreliablebiographeroftheProphet,hisaccountisgenerallythebasisforfurtherelaborations.)TheascentisdescribedasfollowedinhisSīra:

A trustworthy person has reported to me from Abu Sa’id that he had heardMuhammadtell:“AfterIhaddone thenecessary inJerusalemIwasbroughta

ladder(miʽrāj),andIneversawamorebeautifulone.Itwastheoneuponwhichthe dead turn their glances at the resurrection. My friend [Gabriel] made meclimbuntilwe reachedoneof theheavenlygates,which is calledGate of theGuard.Theretwelvehundredangelswereactingasguardians.

Here,Isma’ilasksMuhammad’snameandinquireswhetherheisindeedatruemessenger.Afterreceivingasatisfactoryanswer,heallowsMuhammadtopassthrough the heavens. In the lowest heaven theProphet seesAdam, in front ofwhomthesoulsofmankindareparaded,andheisshownthepunishmentsofthesinners, which correspond to the nature of their crimes. Those who haveembezzled the money of orphans must swallow fire; usurers with terriblyswollenbodiesarechasedbycrocodilesintothefireandaretrampleddown;andso on, throughmanyother, evenmore horrible punishments.Muhammad thenvisits the subsequent heavens and meets in them some of the prophets whoprecededhim.HeseesJesusinthefourthheavenandAbrahamintheseventh.ThatAbraham is located in the highest possible sphere proves oncemore hisvery specialposition in the Islamic traditionbothas theancestorof theArabsthrough Isma’il and as builder of the Kaʽba, and as the spiritual hero whosmashedtheidols.FinallytheProphetentersParadise.Insomeredactionsofthetale,heisofferedonhiswaythreecups,onewithwater,onewithmilk,andonewith wine; he chooses the milk, which is interpreted as choosing the right“middlepath.”Thisbriefinterludeisatypicalinitiationrite.According tooneoft-repeated tradition,God then commands theProphet to

introduce fifty daily prayers in his community. While he descends to earth,Moses remonstrates with him, saying that his people will never be able toperformthatmanyprayersandheshouldreturntoaskGodthatthenumberbereduced.After several repeated effortsGod does finally reduce the number ofrequired prayers to five. When Moses says that even this is too much,Muhammadrefuses toask forany lighterduty, so thenumberhas remainedatfivefor theMuslimeversince.6Thustheheavenlyjourneyisshowntohaveavery practical purpose. But this purpose did not remain so central in laterversions of the legend, which substitute other motives or supplement it withelaborations.Inparticular,therightofintercessionbytheProphetisoftenseenasthechiefresultofhisdialoguewiththeLord.AccordingtoIslamictraditiontheisrāandmiʽrāj tookplaceduringthelater

MeccanperiodofMuhammad’slife,notlongbeforehisHegiratoMedina.Itiscommemorated on 27 Rajab, the seventh lunar month. In some areas, forinstanceinKashmir,thememoryofthemiʽrājusedtobecelebratedforawholeweekwithrecitationsandilluminations.InTurkey,thenightofthemiʽrājcame

to be treated parallel to the night of the Prophet’s birth, as a kandĭl, anilluminatednight,inwhichthemosquesaredecoratedwithlamps.Childrenbornon this auspicious day can be called, as I know at least from Indo-Pakistanipractice,Miraj,MirajDin,MirajMuhammad,andthelike.NootheraspectoftheProphet’slifehasinterestedorientalistsandhistorians

of religion more than the heavenly journey.7 It appears to be a kind ofBerufungserlebnis,or initiatoryexperience,and is thereforecombined in somelegendswiththecleansingofMuhammad’sheart.ScholarshaveevenseeninthenightjourneyparallelstotheexperiencesofSiberianshamans;theseatofhonorthatMuhammadwasaccordedat theSidratal-muntahā, “theLoteTreeof thefarthest limit” (Sura 53:14) inParadise, has reminded historians of religion ofthe visions of shamans who reach the world-tree in their ecstatic flights.InfluencesfromIranhavealsobeenpostulated,astheyarefoundintheMiddlePersianArdaVirafNāmak,andIndianparallelshavebeensuggestedaspossibleprototypes or at least as analogous religious phenomena. Needless to say,comparisons with Jewish and Christian apocalyptic visions have presentedthemselvesasparticularlyappealingparallels.8It is said that at Muhammad’s return his bed was still warm and that the

pitcherofwater,whichhadtumbledoverwhenhewascarriedaway,hadnotyetleaked out completely.9 Thus the heavenly journey became a model of theecstatic state in which man can live in a single moment through years, nay,centuries and millennia; for the nunc aeternum with which the mystic’s soulcomesintouchduringsuchanexperienceisbeyondcreated,serialtime.Itisthewaqt,themoment,or,asGermanmedievalmysticswouldsay,dasNu, that theProphet experienced during his flight. In order to explain this experience ofcompletetimelessnesstodoubtingspiritspresentineverycommunity,apologistsliketousetheoldIndiantaleofthemanwho,submergedinwater,livesinafewinstants through a whole lifetime—a story that has been used in India toexemplify the play ofmaya, illusion, and has been taken over into the NearEasternandevenEuropeantraditions.10Islamic theologianshavedevotedmuchspeculation to theheavenly journey,

foritpresentssomedifficultiestosolve.FirstofallithadtobeclarifiedwhetherMuhammadmade this journey in the body or in the spirit. The remark of hiswife Ai’sha that “his body was not missed” was countered by an increasingtendencytoclaimthatthejourneyhadindeedbeenaphysicalone.Certainly,theMu’taziliteschoolconsideredthewholeeventavisionandadmittedonlyofthepossibilityofaspiritualjourney,11whilethe“orthodox,”forexampletheleadingMuslim commentator on the Koran, Tabari (early tenth century), were of the

opinionthattheProphet’sjourneyindeedtookplaceinthebody,fortheyweremoreliterallyinclined,andtheKoran,asTabaristresses,clearlystatesthatGod“traveledwithHisservantatnight”andnot“withHisservant’sspirit.”Andwhywould the Prophet have needed a mount like Buraq for a purely spiritual,visionary journey?12 The modernists, again, have regarded the miʽrāj as avision.13 At least one scholar in the modernWest has drawn a parallel to anecstatic experience familiar to and accepted byChristians: he reminds us thatPaulspeaksin2Corinthians12:1–10ofaseeminglysimilarevent.

Iknowaman…,whetherinthebody,oroutofthebodyIknownot,wascaughtup even to the third heaven … was caught up into Paradise, and heardunspeakablewords,whichitisnotlawfulformantoutter.

Perplexedthoughhewasaboutthenatureofhisownexperience,“withPaulthisis the record of indubitablymystical experience, whichwas the occasion andgroundofanunyieldingassurance.”14Later literature, especially popular poetry, contains numerous tales that tell

how terribly thosewere punishedwho deniedMuhammad’s bodily journey toheaven.Foraccordingtoonewidespreadtheory,whichisparticularlycommonamongtheSufis,theProphet’spurebodycouldreachanimmediateproximitytoGodthatthenormalbeliever,nay,eventhegreatestsaint,canreachonlyinthespirit. The highest grace granted to a human being is thus that his spiritmayattainthesamepurityastheProphet’sbody:onlythenwillhebeabletoperformaspiritualjourneytodrawclosertotheDivinePresence.Thispointbecameanimportant argument indiscussionswhether theProphetor the saintoccupies aloftierplaceinthespiritualhierarchy:itistheheavenlyjourneyinthebody—abodythatis“spiritembodied,”astheTurkishpoetKhaqanisings—thatonceandforallprovestheuniquepositionoftheProphet.AnothercontroversialquestionwaswhetherMuhammadhad really seen the

Lord, and if so, whether with his eyes or with his heart. This problem wasdiscussedparticularlyinconnectionwiththeinterpretationofSura53,An-Najm,“TheStar.”ThisSuradescribesinitsfirstpartavisionoftheProphetwho“sawhim on the highest horizon.” One can take the “him” to refer to Gabriel, thebringeroftherevelation,andthusunderstandthewholesuraasanaccountoftheProphet’svisionduringarevelation;butas“Him”ithasalsobeeninterpretedaspertainingtoGod.15That is thecasewhenSura53,as lateroftenhappened, isinterpretedasdescribing theheavenly journey. “Some said:He sawGabriel atthehighesthorizon;otherssayhesawAllāhwithhisheartandhisinnerview;stillotherssay,hesawHimwithhiseyes;butallofthemspeakthetruthforthey

onlytellwhattheyhaveheard.”16ThosewhoregardedSura53asanaccountofMuhammad’svisionduringthe

heavenlyjourney—andthesewereaboveallthemystics—pointthentoverse17,“The eye did not rove.” To them that means that even during the immediatevisionoftheDivineEssence,Muhammaddidnotturnawayhiseyes.

Iclosedmyeyetightlyfrombothworlds—ThatisitthatIlearnedfromMustafa:Themysteryofmāzāgha[itdidnotswerve]andmātaghā[itdidnotturnaway]

—WherebutfromhimcouldIlearnit?17

ThussaysRumiinwordsthatareechoedtimeandagaininlaterpoetry.Nobodycan imagine how close the Prophet was to the one he saw: qāba qausain auadnā,“twobowsorcloser”(Sura53:9).Thistermhassometimesbeenexplainedaspertainingnottothelengthoftwobowsbutrathertothefinejuncturewherethe two halves of a bow are glued together; it is almost invisible and yetconstitutes a distinct line of separation. So close did the Prophet come to hisLord.It is a proof ofMuhammad’s superiority over all other prophets that in this

extreme proximity “his eye neither swerved nor was turned away.” Did notMosesfaintwhentheDivineattributesweremerelymanifestedtohimthroughtheBurningBush?Andhehadheardonly theLord’svoiceandhadbeen told“You will never behold Me!” (Sura 7:139), whereas Muhammad, withoutmoving and turning away his eye, had experienced the vision ofGod.18 “Thelord of qāba qausain” has therefore been praised by poets in most daringhyperboles.PerhapsthemostsuccinctdescriptionoftheeventwasgivenbyanIndo-Persianpoetofthelatefifteenthcentury,JamaliKanboh,whosumsupthismysterywithinafamouscouplet:

MoseswentoutofhismindbyasinglerevelationoftheAttributes—YouseetheEssenceoftheEssence,andstillsmile!19

NotonlytheSufis—asearlyasHujwiri20—butalsotheorthodoxtheologians,includingespeciallytheHanbalites,utilizedthesameargumentfromSura53toproveMuhammad’ssuperiorposition.Theyalsousedittoprovethatthehighestlevelofreligiouslifeisnotmysticalannihilation(aswithMoses,whoswooned)butratherthesoberattitudeoftheProphet,whoexperiencedGod’spresenceinfullconsciousness.21

Accordingtoonetradition,MuhammadclaimedtohaveseenhisLord“inthemost beautiful shape”22 or, in a later version, as a beautiful unbearded youthwearinghiscapawry23—aḥadīththatthemajorityofMuslimsofcourserefutedvehemently, though it gave certain groups of Sufis a justification for theiradmirationof“unbearded”youths.Other interpreters, particularly among the latermystics, see in the heavenly

journey the true consecration of the Prophet, because they relate the wordistawd,“hestoodupright,” inSura53:6not to theonewhomMuhammadsawbut rather to the Prophet himself. Likewise the phrase “he came closer anddescended”(53:8)wastakentomeanMuhammad,whoaftertheinitiationcamedownagaintohisbelovedcommunitytolookafterthem.Thisinterpretationfitswell with later descriptions of the ideal religious path as exemplified by theProphet: he is ready to take upon himself the descent into the world afterexperiencingtheDivinePresenceinorder topreachwhathehas learnedthere.Animatedandsanctifiedbyhisinexplicable,face-to-facedialoguewithGod,hewill try tochangetheconditionsof theworld(eventhough,assometraditionshave it, he also suffered under the burden of this duty).24Muslim theologiansandWesternhistoriansofreligionwouldagree that in this interpretationof themiʽrājthebasicdifferencebetweenthemysticalandprophetictypesofreligionisindeedwellexpressed;adifferencesosuccinctlysummedupbyMuhammadIqbalinthebeginningofthefifthchapterofhisLecturesontheReconstructionof Religious Thought in Islam, where he quotes the saying of the Indian SufiʽAbdulQuddusGangohi:“MuhammadofArabiaascendedtothehighestheavenand returned. I swearbyGod,had Ibeen inhisplace, Iwouldnothavecomeback.”25Thesewords point unambiguously to the different attitudes ofmysticandprophettowardtheexperienceoftheDivine,anditsconsequencesforone’srelationtotheworldanditsinhabitants.ButevenanumberofMuslimmystics,suchasIbnal-Farid,interpretedthenightjourneyas“thethirdstageofOnenessinwhich themystic returns fromthe‘intoxicationofunion’ to ‘thesobrietyofunion,’ “26 which exactly corresponds to the “prophetic” way back, as Iqbalexplainsit,inthesuccessionofearlierthinkers.Furthermore, Islamic modernists (and again particularly Iqbal), when

discussingtheheavenlyjourney,havepointedout thatMuhammadwasabletospeak to God in a true I-and-Thou relationship. This seemed to Iqbal a veryimportantcorrectiveofthewidespreaddoctrineoftheUnityofBeing:thelegendoftheheavenlyjourneyconfirmsthatGodisnotamute,remoteprimacausabutindeedapersonalpowerwhocanbeaddressed,andthusprovesthatthereisthepossibilityofafruitfulperson-to-persondialoguebetweenCreatorandcreature,

adialogueinprayer,outofwhichtruereligiousactivitycangrow.Connected with this person-to-person encounter is another aspect of the

heavenly journey that has been frequently discussed: the interpretation of theword‘abduhuatthebeginningofSura17.ItisstatedtherethatGodhadtraveledbynightwith‘abduhu,“Hisservant.”This ledmanyexegetes toconcludethatbecause it is used in the Koran to designate the Prophet during his supremereligious experience, ‘abduhu must indeed be the highest possible and mosthonorificattributetobegiventoahumanbeing.Thisisallthemorelogicalasthesameword‘abduhuisusedinSura53:10,tomeaneithertheactofrevelationortheDivineaddresstotheProphetattheculminationofhisheavenlyjourney.A remarkably large literature developed out of this concept ofabduhu; it wasdiscussedintheeleventhcenturyintheRisālaofthemysticalwriterQushairi,27which remainedoneof themostwidely readmanualsofSufism for centuries,and it has been given a central place in this century in Muhammad Iqbal’santhropology and prophetology (see chapter12 below).At the same time, theemphasis on ‘abduhu served to remind Muslims always to remember thatMuhammad remained a created being even during his highest mysticalexperience, howevermuchGod had glorified him and exalted him among allcreatures.ButthemysticsinthetraditionofIbnArabihaveoftenrepeatedtheideathat

therecannotbearealmiʽrājinthespatialsense,forGodisomnipresent.“Godspoke: ‘HowcouldMyservant travel toMe? Iamalwayswithhim!’“28ThistrulymysticalinterpretationofthemiʽrājhasfounditsmostpoignantexpressioninaquatrainbythemuchmalignedPersianSufiSarmad,whowasexecutedforheresyinDelhiin1661.

ThemullahsaysthatAhmadwenttoheaven—SarmadsaysthatheavendescendedintoAhmad!29

At least as important as the elaborate discussion about and variousinterpretationsof theheavenly journeyby theologiansandmystical teachers istherole themiʽrājplays in Islamicartandpoetry.Thepoets,especially in thePersian and Persianate areas, have depicted this mysterious event throughincreasingly fantastic and grandiose images, using all their imagination to viewith one another in fanciful descriptions of the Prophet’s journey through thespheres.MostofthegreatepicpoemsinPersianinclude,afterthepraiseofGodandaeulogyfortheProphet,longdescriptionsoftheheavenlyjourney,inwhicheveryconceivablerhetoricaldeviceisusedtogivethereaderatleastafaintideaof this unique event. The story was embellished with ever more charming

details,suchasthegrowingoftherosefromMuhammad’sperspirationthatfelltoearthduringhisnocturnal flight.And thepoets tried toexpress theparadoxthattheSunofExistencehadrisenheavenwardsatnight.30In the regional languages of Indo-Pakistan, for instance in Panjabi, long

sīharfts,“GoldenAlphabets,”aredevotedtothemysteryofthemiʽrājandalsotothepunishmentofthosewhodenythatmiracle.31AmongthePersianmysticsʽAttar is particularly expressivewhen depicting the heavenly journey in novelimages.TheintroductionofhisIlāhīnāma(availabletononspecialistsinJohnA.Boyle’sEnglish translation)givesagoodideaof theboundlessfloodofcolorsthatheusedtodepicttheProphet’sjourneythroughthespheres.Whenreadinghis and related poemsone has to keep inmind that an importantmotif of theearlytraditionisgraduallydisappearing,thatis,theladder;thewholejourneyisnowmadeonBuraq.HelmutRitter’seditionofthePersiantextoftheIlāhīnāmapresentsaversion

of the introduction that is simpler than the one used byBoyle, but it containsimportantelementsofmysticalprophetology;itdoesnotmentionthereductionof fifty ritual prayers to five, but rather combines the heavenly journey withMuhammad’s role as the intercessor for his community, a development thatseemstohavesetinratherearly.HereiswhatʽAttarsings:

AtnightcameGabriel,andfilledwithjoyHecalled:“Wakeup,youleaderoftheworld!Getup,leavethisdarkplaceandtravelnowTotheeternalkingdomoftheLord!Directyourfootto‘Wherethereisnoplace’Andknockthereatthesanctuary’sdoor.Theworldisallexcitedforyoursake,TheCherubsaretonightyourlowlyslaves,AndmessengersandprophetsstandinrowsToseeyourbeautyinthisblessednight.ThegatesofParadiseandskiesareopen—Tolookatyou,fillsmanyheartswithjoy!YouaskfromHimtonightwhatyouintend,ForwithoutdoubtyouwillbeholdtheLord!”Buraqwasnowbroughtnear,aslightningswift—GodhadcreatedhimfromHispurelight,FromheadtotoeenlivenedbyGod’slight—

Andfromthewindhelearnedswiftnessandspeed.TheProphetmountedhimintimeandspace;Heleftthisplacefor“Wherethereisnoplace.”ThereroseatumultinthegreatestThrone:“Herecomesthefirst,thefullmoonoftheworlds!”TheangelsstoodwithtraystoscattercoinsForhim,whomtheyalllovedwithheartandsoul.HesawtheprophetsonhisroadinlineTotellhimofthemysteriesdivine…32

BeginningwithAdam,theProphetisnowintroducedbyallmessengersofGodinto themysteriesofGod’sbeauty andmajesty, for everyprophet experiencestheDivineEssenceinadifferentway;MuhammadaloneisgrantedknowledgeofItinItsfullness.

WhenJesussawhim,loftyandsublime,HemadehimthenuniqueinPoverty.Then,whenhefeltthenearnessoftheFriend,HewenttoseethepresenceoftheFriend.WhenAhmadranbeyondtheSidra-tree,TofindtheessenceoftheHighestFriend,Hisfaithfulguide,thismightyGabriel,Whoseonewingcoversallfromskytoearth,Stayedtherebehind;butMustafawenton,SoondrawingclosertotheRoyalHall.TheprinceturnednowtoGabrielandasked:"Whydoyoustaybehind?Comewithmenow!"Heanswered:"O,myKingofmysteries,Icannotfarthergo,cannotproceed!You,ruleroftheworld,mustgoahead—Mywayendshere,andmoreisnotallowed:ShouldIproceedahair’sbreadthinmyflight,MywingswouldburninGod’sconsuminglight!ButyoumustgotowardtheFriendSupreme,Foritbefitstoyoutobesoclose!"Thuswentthelordandlefthimtherebehind,

Cutoffhisheartfromev’rythingbutGod.Hewentsofastthatwhenhelookedagain,ThemightyGabriellookedlikeawren.ProceedingfartherheleftthisbehindAndlookedintotheveilsoftheUnseen.Hesawnoplace,direction,reason,thought,NoThronenorfloorandnotthedustyearth:HesawtheNon-Placewithoutsoulandeye—He,inbewilderment,washiddenthere.Whenheperceivedtheendinthebeginning,Heheardacall,amessagefromtheFriend.AcallcamefromtheEssenceoftheAll:"Leavesoulandbody,transitoryone!You,OMygoalandpurpose,enternowAndseeMyEssencefacetoface,Myfriend!"Inawe,helosthisspeechandlosthimself—MuhammaddidnotknowMuhammadhere,Sawnothimself—hesawtheSoulofSouls,TheFaceofHimwhomadetheuniverse!

The poet goes on to depict in more detail the Prophet’s state of totalbewilderment and depersonalization; but then God once more gracesMuhammadwithHisaddressandfinallytellshim:

“YouareMygoalandpurposeincreationAndwhatyouwish,requestit,seeingeye!”Muhammadsaid:“OmniscientwithoutHow,Youinwardsecret,outwardmystery—Youknowmyinnermostanddearestwish:Iaskyounowformycommunity!Sinfulismycommunity,but,sure,TheyareawareofYou,Yourboundlessgrace.TheyknowtheoceanofYourloveandgrace—HowwoulditbeifYouforgavethemall?”OncemorehewasaddressedbyGodMostHigh:“Ihaveforgivenaltogether,friend:

Youneednotworryforyourpeople,forMyboundlessgraceisgreaterthantheirsins.”

AndaftertheintercessionfortheMuslimcommunityhasthusbeenaccepted,theLordinitiatestheProphet,whomHeaddressesas“uniqueamongthecreatures”and“seeingeyeofall”intothreetimesthirtythousandmysteries.33ʽAttarthenspeaksoftherealmysteryoftheheavenlyjourneyandfinallyendswithaprayeraddressedtohimwhowasthusdistinguishedamongtheprophets,thatis,totheProphetofIslam,inwhomhetrustsandwhomheloves.InʽAttar’sdescriptiontheroleofGabrielisofspecialimportance.Aḥadīthof

whichthemysticswereveryfondalludestothearchangel’ssituation:hehastostayback at theSidratal-muntahā, “theLoteTree of the farthest limit” (Sura53:i4),34 “like a nightingale separated from his rose” (so the Turkish poetGhanizadeinhisMi’rdjiyya).35WhateverGabriel’sgreatness,Muhammad’swasofa specialorder.According to legend, theProphethadonce requested to seethearchangel,whousuallyappearedasahandsomefriend,inhistrueform;36therealitywassoawe-inspiringandterriblethatMuhammadfainted.Still,eventhismightyangel,whoseonewingfillsthespacebetweenheavenandearth,hasnoaccess to the Divine Presence; as Yunus Emre sings in unison with all greatmystics,

ForloversevenGabrielisaveil.37

InthefamousḥadīthconnectedwiththismysterytheProphetsaid,LīmaaAllāhwaqt…,“IhaveatimewithGodtowhichevenGabriel,whoispurespirit, isnotadmitted.”38This remark is interpreted as pertaining to themystery of theheavenlyjourney,inwhichtheProphetwastakenoutofserial,createdtimeandtouchedtheEternalNowofGod.Thetermwaqt,“time,”then,becameacentralconcept in Sufi life: the Sufi is called to give himself over completely to thisDivinemoment, to be ibnul-waqt, “son of themoment,” that is, to live in themomentofDivineinspiration.Evenmore,theḥadīthaboutwaqtalsorelatestotheexperienceofprayer.Afterhisreturnfromheaven,theProphetusedtocallhis Ethiopian muezzin Bilal, “O Bilal, quicken us with the call to prayer!”39wheneverhelongedtoreturnintotheDivinepresenceandleavetimeandspace.For it is in prayer thatman can feel this immediate relationwithGod.Ritualprayeris,therefore,astheProphetoncesaid,aheavenlyjourney.MaulanaRumiformulatedthissecretofprayerinafamousreplytoaquestionposedbyoneofhisdisciples:

Formal prayer has an end, but the prayer of the soul is unlimited. It is thedrowning and unconsciousness of the soul so that all these forms remainwithout.AtthattimethereisnoroomevenforGabrielwhoispurespirit.40

Drawing on the same tradition, Rumi in hisMathnawī used Gabriel as thesymbolofintellect,whichcanleadmanallthewaytothedooroftheBeloved,butisnotadmittedwithintoexperiencelovingunion:intellecthastostopatthethresholdoflove,for,likeGabriel,ithastofearlesttheconsumingDivinelightburnitswings.41Numerousembellishmentsaccruedtothebasicstoryofthemiʽrāj,especially

inSuficircles.AdelightfullegendfromBalochistangoesevenfartherthanthetraditionjustmentionedandaccordsthegreatmedievalSufiʽAbdulQadirGilania place superior to Gabriel. It is said that whenMuhammadwanted to alightfromhisheavenlymountBuraqtoenterthesecretchamberofGod’spresence,Gabrielhadalreadywithdrawn.But ʽAbdulQadir stepped forth:he, the futurefounderofthemostwidespreadmysticalfraternityintheIslamicworld,offeredtheProphethisneckthathemightsteponittoalightwithoutdiscomfort.Outofgratitude, Muhammad granted the future saint a very special rank: when hewouldappearonearthsomefivecenturieslaterhisfootwouldbe“ontheneckofeverysaint.”42ThusʽAbdulQadir’sfamousclaimtoprecedence,“Myfootison the neck of every saint,” which was heard by all saints of his age, ischarmingly connected with his presence at a crucial point of Muhammad’sheavenly journey.TheMevlevi tradition does not lag behind in inventiveness.According to the Manāqib al-ʽārifīn, the Prophet saw a wonderful effigy(timthāl)attheDivineThrone;itwastheportraitofJalaluddinRumi.43AnditisnotatallsurprisingthatinsomeShiatraditions,ʽAliibnAbiTalibaccompaniestheProphetintotheDivinePresence.Themi’rqj never ceased fascinating the poets, even the nonmystical ones.

Nizami, ʽAttar’s senior compatriot, offered in his romantic epics some mostartistic descriptions of the heavenly journey, and in the course of time everydetail, the colors of the sky, the garments of the angels that surrounded theProphetandflewbeforehim,theluminouscloudsandthereactionsofthesevenplanets,wereelaboratedwithever-increasingloveandimaginativepower.Jami’sgreat epics contain a whole set of such poems, represented perhaps mostbeautifullyinYūsufandZulaikhā,wherehesingsoftheblessednightinwhichwolfandlamb,sheepandlion,liepeacefullytogetherandGabriel,swifterthanagreenpeacock,bringsMuhammadthelovelyBuraq.Jami(followingNizami)44loves to recount the reactions of the different spheres and planets that theProphet traverses; he describes the fourth sphere, for instance, as bringing the

Prophetaewerofwaterwithwhichtowashhisfeet,whileMercuryandVenusjoininservinghim,andmelancholySaturnisconsoledbythelovelysightoftheSunofExistence.45Laterpoetsallover the Islamicworld, especially in thePersianate tradition,

elaborated on the examples set byNizami, ʽAttar, and Jami, andwhether onereadsSayyidBulaqiorNusratiinseventeenth-centuryBija-pur,46or,tomentiona particularly fine example, their contemporary in Turkey, Ghanizade, onealways meets with surprising, fanciful descriptions. Thus the idea that theProphet’ssandalstouchedtheDivineThroneandthat“thedustofhisroadwasthecrownfortheThrone”isrepeatedoverandagain.47Ghanizade’sMiʽrājiyye from seventeenth-century Turkey seems to me an

outstanding example of this art, surpassing most other descriptions of theheavenly journey inbaroque images.48Thepoetdescribes theblessednight inwhich “the darkness was black sable,” and then sings of the innumerablemiraclesoftheProphetuntilheadmonisheshimselftocomeatlasttothethemeproperofhispoem,theheavenlyjourney.Here,itisespeciallythedescriptionofBuraq,aquadruped larger thanadonkeybutsmaller thanahorse, that isveryattractive. The poets have always loved to describe this creature, which wascreatedfromlight,hadawoman’sheadandapeacock’stail,andswiftlycarriedthe Prophet through the galaxies of angels, all of whom greeted him full ofadmiration.

TheheavenlymessengercametotheholyProphetinthatnight,HebroughtaBuraq,fastlikelightningandsky-traversing,Itwasastrangemount,trottingspeedily,runningaboutnowonearthandnowon

theheavenlyThrone.Intheearthlyrealmahasteninggazelle,intheheavensaswiftlyflyingphoenix.Itsbody,roses;itshair,hyacinth;imperialitstail,thatdelightfultail;Itsearalily’spetal;itsreddisheyeashimmeringnarcissus…

WhiletheProphetfliesthroughthespheres,everythinginthecosmosishappytoservehim:

Mercurywrotetheorderofthatprinceonthetabletofthesky:Forhimthenightwasletters;thestars,blottingsand;andthemoon’sforehead

theimperialhandsign(tughrā)…

Then Gabriel must remain behind near the Lote tree, and Buraq itself is

exchangedforamysteriousvehiclecalledrafraf(cf.Sura55:76,whereitissaidtomeanakindofheavenlycushion),49andfinallyeventherafraf(hereperhapsagreencloud)remainsbehind“likealeaf,separatedfromthefreshfruitinthefall.”Now,MuhammadmovesonaloneintotheDivinePresence,experiencingwhat themystics inthePlotiniantraditionusedtocall“theflightof theonetotheOne.”Buraq looms large in thewholeprocess andbecomes soprominent in these

poems that the central object of the earlier versions, the heavenly ladder ormiʽrāj,seemscompletelyforgotten,eventhoughitcontinuestolenditsnametothewholeexperience.50Notonlythepoetslovedthesceneofthisheavenlyjourneythatgavethemthe

opportunity to display all their rhetorical skills to glorify the Prophet. Theminiaturists of Iran and the countries under its cultural influence also devotedtheir most beautiful painting to the miʽraj. The superbly illustrated UyghurmanuscriptoftheMiʽrājnāmafromtheTimuridcourtinHerat,nowpreservedinParis,belongsamongthefirstexamplesofthisgenre,whichbegantodevelopinthe late fourteenth century.51 ThisMiʽrājnāma (available in a fine facsimileedition) gives a lively account of all the stages and stations that the Prophetpassedonhis journey. Inmostothercases,onlyhispassage through thestarryskiesispaintedand,astheSindhifolksongsays:

Gabrielbeforehimafoot,thebridegroomridingonhorseback.52

OneseestheProphet,hisfaceveiled,surroundedbymulticoloredclouds,flyingonBuraqthroughthenightsky;inmoderntimesheissometimessymbolizedbyagracefulwhitecloudoraroseonBuraq’sback.Angels inpreciousgarmentssurroundhim,carryincensebeforehim,andaccompanyhim,asbefitsaprince,inpompandcircumstancetothegateoftheDivinePresence.Anyonewhohasseen Sultan Muhammad’s painting of the heavenly journey, in the Nizamimanuscript now in the British Library, knows that poets and painters wereequally inspiredby theProphet’s ecstatic experience tocreatedeeply religiousmasterpieces.53TheProphet’sheavenlyjourneywasafavoritesubjectofpopularpoetrytoo,

for folk poets enjoy telling stories about miraculous events in which theProphet’sglorycanbedescribedinhighlycolorfulterms.54Typicalofthisgenreis apoembyYunusEmre, composedaround1300 inAnatolia (closeparallelscanbefoundinthefolkpoetryofIndo-PakistaniMuslimsaswell):

GodsentoutGabrielandsaid:”MyMuhammadshallcome!”Hesaid.

“TaketheBuraq,drawittohim—MyMuhammadshallmount!”Hesaid.

“HeshallgotoMedinafirst,Infrontofhimshallangelsfly,OpenthegatesofParadise—

Enter,myMuhammad!”Hesaid.

“MyMuhammadshallcome,shallcome,HeshallseeandlookatMyThroneShallplucktheroseofParadise—

MyMuhammad,smellthem!”Hesaid.

“Ishallbringnearthefarthestthings,Ishallfulfillhiseverywish,Andalltheangelsingreenrobes—

MyMuhammadshallsee!”Hesaid.55

SuchpoemscorrespondtothesimplepaintingsofthemiʽrājfoundinIndianorTurkishmanuscripts but evenmore to those that nowadays adorn freight andtankertrucksinAfghanistanandPakistan:onecanfindonthemamoreorlesselegantBuraqinfullbridalattire,sometimesevenwiththebride’snosering,thehoovesgracefullycrossed,allpaintedwithgreatcareandlove.Onecanbesurethat this sacred creature will protect the vehicle, leading it along ruggedPakistaniroads,asitoncehadcarriedswiftlyandcarefullythebelovedProphetthroughthegalaxies.As the image of Buraq has become an amulet or talisman for simple truck

driversinthemountainousareasofPakistan,orforvisitorstothemajorshrinesof saints in the Indian subcontinent, so too was the heavenly journey of theProphetunderstoodfromearlycenturiesonwardasaparadigmforthespiritualexperienceof themystics.Since theninthcentury theSufishavebeenwonttodescribetheirownecstatictransportsasajourneythroughtheheavens,because—as we saw earlier—they experience in the spirit what the Prophet hadexperienced in the body.BayezidBistami, the lonelymystic of northern Iran,whose visionary account of his flight through heavenly realms belongs to theearliest “paradoxes of the Sufis,” was apparently the first to utilize this

symbolism.56AsShams-iTabrizisaid:“TofollowMuhammadis,thathewenttothemiʽrāj,andyougobehindhim.”57FromAvicennaandSuhrawarditheshaikhal-ishrāq to Ibn ʽArabi,mystical visions,which led the seeker’s soul into thePresence of the Divine, were described in the terminology of the miʽrāj.58Remembering—at least subconsciously—that themiʽrāj is a kind of initiationexperience,theBektashisinTurkeyuntilrecentlyusedthattermasthenameofthe day on which a new member of the order “took his share,” that is, wasinitiated into theorder, andwould felicitatehimwith thewordsMiracīnkutluolsun!“Mayyourmiʽrājbeblessed!”59

Buraq,paintedonthebackofaPakistanitankertruck

In high mystical poetry, then, Buraq sometimes becomes an equivalent ofLove, the Divine Love that, as Rumi repeatedly sings, can bring man in thetwinklingofaneyeintotheDivinePresencewhileintellectlagsfarbehindinthedust likea lamedonkey.60 It isquitepossible that thePersianwordnardabān,“ladder,” which occurs so frequently in the mystical verse of Sana’i and,followinghim,Rumi,wasintendedtobeanallusiontotheheavenlymiʽrājthattheProphetascended,foritisgenerallyusedtodescribethemystic’sjourneyto“theroofoftheBeloved.”AndRumicallssamā‘themysticaldance,“aladderthatleadshigherthantheseventhsphere,”forinsamā‘themysticcanreachtheunitiveexperience,the“timewithGod.”61Whileenjoyingthemysticalandpoeticalrenderingsofthemiʽrājonehasto

keepinmindthatthestoryofMuhammad’sheavenlyjourneyhasalsoexertedaconsiderableinfluenceonothercultures.WhenlookingattheminiaturesintheUyghurMiʽrājnāmamanuscriptinParis,somanyofwhoseimagesaredevotedto the Prophet’s visions of Heaven and even more of Hell, one cannot helpfeeling that one has here to do with illustrations of Dante’sDivine Comedy.Indeed, several decades agoMiguelAsmPalacios discoveredpossible Islamicinfluences from the miʽrāj stories on Dante’s visions.62 These first studiescausedquiteasensationinEurope,andsomewhatlater,EnricoCerulliwasableto prove thatArabic books about the heavenly ladder,Kitābal-mʽrāj, and theProphet’s ascensionwere not unknown in theMediterraneanworld during theMiddle Ages; in fact, they were apparently well enough known to influencesomeofDante’sdescriptionsof theOtherworld.63How ironic that theheroofthe truemiʽrāj, the Prophet Muhammad, should have been placed by DanteamongtheschismaticsinthelowestpartofHell!In thehistoryof Islamic literatures themotifof the journey throughHeaven

andHellwasalsousedoutside themystical tradition.One immediately thinks,forexample,ofsatiricalworkslikeAbu’1-ʽAla’al-Maarri’s(d.1057)Risālatal-ghufrān,whichcanbeclassifiedasaverywittyparodyofajourneythroughtheotherworldly realms.64 In this work the author displays a breathtakingknowledge,especiallyofphilology,butalsootherkindsofscholarship,andthewhole is studded with innumerable ingenious puns, apt comparisons, anddelightfully malicious observations. This complicated but highly enjoyablemasterpiece from the eleventh century found a rather dull echo in an Arabicpoem published in 1931, Jamil Sidqi az-Zahawi’s “Rebellion in Hell,” whichtakes up the satirical approach of Maarri to explain in the end the wholeexperience as a bad dream, caused by indigestion.65A year later,MuhammadIqbal published in Lahore his Persian Jāvīdndma (The Book of Eternity), inwhich the motif of the journey through the heavens receives a modernphilosophicalcontent.GuidedbyMaulanaRumi,whomheinvokesinthebeginningandwho,asit

were, assumes the role ofGabriel in the classicalmiʽrāj, and of Virgil in theDivineComedy,thepoetdiscussespolitical,social,andreligiousproblemswithprominentinhabitantsofthedifferentspheres.Intheend,hestandsallaloneintheDivinePresence,whichis“growingwithoutdiminishing.”66Of course, an orthodox Muslim who is aware of modern technical

achievementsmaylookattheheavenlyjourneyfromadifferentangle.In1978at theUniversity of Peshawar I heard a noted theologian draw the conclusionthat man’s landing on the moon was a stringent proof for the reality of the

Prophet’sheavenlyjourney.67

TEN:POETRYINHONOROFTHEPROPHET

Sana’i (d. 1131), the first great Persian exponent of the genre, explains veryaptlywhyna‘t,poetry inhonorof theProphet,hasnever lost itsbroadappealacrossallIslamiccultures:

TospeakanywordbutyournameIserror,iserror;TosinganyartisticpraisebutforyouIsshame,isshame!1

AndanUrdupoetoftheearlynineteenthcenturyexclaims:

Friend,beforeallofusisthejourneyintononexistence—Butwhenonehaswordsofthena‘t,thenonehasprovisionsfortheroad!2

SuchlinesexpressafeelingthathasbeensharedbymostpoetsandauthorswhohaveundertakentopraisetheProphetinverse.Butatthesametimeallofthemhavebeenconvincedthatitisnexttoimpossibletodojusticetohisgreatness,ortodescribehisbeautyandmildnessinappropriatewords.Yet

Howshouldnotmen,angels,anddjinnpraisehimSinceGodMostHighHimselfhaspraisedhim?

ThisquestionwasposednotbyaMuslimbutbyaHindupoet,ShivprasadDohi,who claimed that his soul was “a moth around the candle of meeting withMustafa.”3Itisinfactexactlythisformulation,that“GodHimselfhaspraisedhim,”that

has caused serious difficulties for poets and collectors ofna‘tiyya poetry.Onenotableexample isYusufan-Nabhani,apious lawyer fromBeirutwhospentalifetimecollectingdevotionalworksabout theProphet;hepublished theentirecorpus ofArabic eulogies for the Prophet in a four-volumework and himselfcomposed thousandsofverses inpraiseofMuhammad.Hebeginshismassiveanthologywithachapter inwhichhestates the traditionaldisclaimer that“thepoetsareincapableofpraisingMuhammadasitbehoovesandasitisnecessary,”because it is impossible to record the greatness of Muhammad’s rank with

panegyrics.4Herecordsthesamesentimentsinoneofhisownpoems:

Theysaytome:“DidyounotpraiseMuhammad,TheProphetoftheGodofeverythingcreated,Themostworshipableamongmen?”Isaidtothem:“WhatshallIsayinhispraiseSincehisCreatorhaspraisedhimandhasnotleftanythingtosay?”5

In otherwords, the very fact thatMuhammad ismentioned in theKoranwithwordsofpraiseandthatGodHimselfuttersblessingsuponhimrendershumanbeings incapable of praising him as he deserves to be.As the Spanish authorLisanuddinibnal-Khatibasks:

TheversesoftheHolyBookhavepraisedyou—sohowCouldthepoemofmyeulogypossiblypraiseyourgreatness?6

Similarly Busiri says in a fine pun in hisHamziyya, is not the true miracle,muʽjiza,oftheProphetthattonguesareincapable,ʽijz,ofdescribinghim?7Isnothispraiselikeanunfathomableoceanwithoutashore,whichthediverscannotmeasureout?8Andyet even though theologiansandpoetsarewell awareof thisdilemma,

they have returned time and again to eulogies of the Prophet, praising him intender, colorful, or grandiloquent images, for “the heart longs to mention hisnoblenameandhisqualities”andthustoestablishaspiritualrelationwithhim,“becauseitbelongstothenatureofthelovertomentionthebelovedconstantly.”These are the words of the editor of a comprehensive collection of na‘ts inSindhi,whosaysinanotherplace:

The Prophet’s distinctive role in the history of man’s spiritual revolution isgenerallyaccepted.Withtherevolutionarytheoryofmonotheismhehaslaidthefoundationstonefortheunityofhumanityandtheintellectualelevationofmen.Insteadof“form”hehasquickened“spirit”;hehasliberatedthoughtandmadeitworld-embracing; instead of conjectures and fanciful ideas he has illuminatedthewayofactionandexperience;andhasmadetheuseofhearingandseeing,ofknowledge and intellect, a common feature; has brought the glad tidings of[man’scapacity]tomakesunandmoon,nay,heavenandearth,subservient;andhasinspiredmankindtounderstandandgrasptheprimordialRealitybystudyingcreationandpsychological facts.Topraise andeulogize suchanaugust leaderandbenefactorofmankindaswellashiscompanionsandloversishappinessfor

everyoneendowedwithsoundnature.9

At about the same time that this Pakistani scholar from Hyderabad/Sindcompiled the Sindhi eulogies for the Prophet, an IndianMuslim, professor ofPersian literature in theOsmaniaUniversity,Hyderabad/Deccan,wrote a longarticleaboutthecentralroleofna‘tiyyapoetryinMuslimlife.Accordingtohim,praiseof theProphet goesmuch farther than simply expressingveneration fortheProphet;rather,itexcelsbyits“character-buildingpower”10andstimulatesa“longingforthePerfectMan”:

TheProphet’scharacter,asdeterminedinthena‘tpoetry,presents totheworldanidealexampleofsubmissiontoandharmonywithGod’sWill.The most part of na‘tia poetry is related to the moral and spiritual values

which are directly concerned with the training of the individual and thecollectiveselfofman.The chaos and the unrest brought about by the Second World War has

naturallycreatedanurgeforanewworldorder.This isapparentlyreflected intheeffortswhicharebeingmadeonalargescaleforcoexistence.Thena‘tisabranch of literature which plays an important part in building up the type ofcharacteraimingatbreakingtheracial,geographicalandclassbarriers.11

The feelings that these scholars expressed in modern terminology were wellknown toMuslims in everypart of the Islamicworldduring theMiddleAgesandwere popularized through themaddāḥūnar-rasūl, the singers of eulogies,whoformed,forcenturies,regularguildsintheArabcountriesandwerecalledto perform at every important festivity.12 The legends that surroundedMuhammadandthedescriptionswithwhichtheSufishadglorifiedhimwereallintegratedinthepoeticalpraiseoftheSealoftheProphetsandBelovedofGod,to praise whom appropriately one selected the choicest expressions and mostartisticforms.

THEARABICTRADITION

ThefirstpraisepoemsfortheProphetwerewrittenduringhislifetime.HassanibnThabitservedhimasapoetinMedina.HisdutywasinacertainsensethatofajournalistwhopoeticallynoteddowntheimportanteventsthathappenedintheyoungIslamiccommunity.HewastheretodenigratetheProphet’senemiesand to extol the brave deeds of the Muslims. His poems are therefore animportantsourcefortheearliesthistoryofIslam.Atthesametimetheycontain

manyrudimentsthatcametobeelaboratedinlatertheologyandpoetry,suchasthedogmaticstatement:

IwitnesswithGod’spermissionthatMuhammadIsthemessengerwhoishigherthanheaven.13

EventhoughHassan’spoetrystillcontainsallusionstowineandloveastheywere commonplace in pre-Islamic poetry, “his eulogies of the Prophet, whichextol his spiritual virtues and his religiousmission, and enumerate the gracesbestowedonhimbyGod,breatheatrueIslamicspirit.”14Hassanstates:

WeknowthatthereisnoLordbutGod,AndthattheBookofGodisthebestguide.15

We have mentioned earlier Hassan’s repeated allusions to the light thatradiatedfromtheProphet,tohismiraculousbirthandhishoped-forintercession.ItisthereforenotsurprisingthatinlatertimeseverymajorpoetwhoexcelledinpraisepoetryfortheProphetwascalledtheHassanofhiscountry.AsaPersianpoetmodestlysays:

HowcouldI,inallthisconfusion,perform[Theroleof]Hassaninlaudandpraise?16

Other poets besidesHassanwere part of the Prophet’s entourage, and theirverse likewise contains some source material for the first period of Islam.Among them are Ka‘b ibn Malik and ‘Abdallah ibn Rawaha;17 their names,however, are barely mentioned in the later, non-Arabic tradition. But even innon-Arabictraditiononeworkisrepeatedlymentioned,whichindeedbelongstothegreatmasterpiecesofearlyArabicpoetry:aqaṣīdabyKaʽbibnZuhair,whohadslanderedtheProphetandthen,movedbyfear,recitedthatlongpoeminhispresence.ItbeginswiththewordsBdnatSudd,“Suadwentaway.…”18Thepoetdescribesinthetraditionalstyleofthepre-Islamicqaṣīdatheseparationfromhisbeloved,andthepainsandfatiguecausedbyhisjourneyingthroughthedesert(ajourneythatallowshimtopraisehislightfooted,powerfulcamel),andtheninadaringtransitionswitchesoverfromthedescriptionofaburninghotnooninthedeserttothepictureofthepoorwidowwholiftsherarmsindistressbecausethenews of her son’s, that is,Kaʽb’s, death has just reached her.His she-camel’sswiftmovementis

Likethemovementofthehandsofabereavedelderlywoman,Whostandsand[whosecries]areansweredbyotherswhohavelosttheir

children[aswell],Asthosethatannouncedeath,bringherthenewsofherfirst-bornson’sdeath;ShetearsherbreastwithherhandswhileherbodiceIsrippedfromherbonesandtorntotatters.Theslanderersspread[calumny]athersideAndsay:"Verily,SonofAbuSalma,youareabouttobekilled!"AndeveryfriendinwhomIhadputhopesaid:"Icannotspendtimewithyou.forIambusy[withotherthings]!"SoIsaid:"Goaway—mayyouhavenofathers!"ForwhatevertheMercifuldecreeshascometopass.Everyonebornbyawoman—eventhoughhislifelastlong—Willbecarriedonedayonacurved[bier].IhavebeentoldthattheProphetofGodhasthreatenedme—ButforgivenessishopedforfromGod’sMessenger…

Then the poet turns to the Prophet, apologizing for his mistakes, and askingforgiveness.Muhammadwas so impressed by this poem that he cast his ownmantle,theburda,onKaʽb’sshoulders,thusgrantinghimforgiveness.Even thoughsomecriticsdoubt thehistoricityof thisevent,19Kaʽb’s ode—

called theBurda—soon gained a very special place in Arabic poetry and notonlybecamethemodelofalllaterpoemsinpraiseoftheProphetbutassumedasanctity of its own. To our day it has been commented upon, enlarged, andimitated, and in the remote Indus Valley the popular poets who specialize inextollingtheProphetderivetheirappellation,bhdn,inafancifuletymologyfromthewordsBānatSu‘ād.20Andtheburda-iyamdni,theProphet’scloakofstripedYemenitematerial,hasbecomeinPersianpoeticalparlance,primarilyinJami’sverse,asymboloftheveilthattheProphetisaskedtoliftfromhissun-likefacetoblessthelovingfaithfulwiththeviewofhiscountenance.21WhentheProphetdied,numerousshortdirgeswerecomposedforhim,some

ofthembythefirstcaliphs.Butthemultifacetedandelaboratedescriptionofhisqualitiesandvirtueswasdevelopedduringthefirstcenturiesinproseratherthaninpoetry.Wehavealreadymentionedthatthissonorousrhymingprose,inwhichthebeautyandstrengthof theArabiclanguagereveals itselfmostexpressivelyandwhichalmostdefiestranslationduetoitsdensity,containsnumerousworksabouttheshamā’ilanddalā’ilan-nubuwwa, thesignspointingto theProphet’s

uniquequalitiesandattributes.AttheturnofthefirstmillenniumA.D.Thaʽlabiwasabletocollecta longlineofrhymingdesignationsof theProphet thatoneshouldusewhenmentioninghim,forinstance,intheintroductorysentencesoflearnedworksorbelleslettres.Inhiscollectionsonefindsstatementslikethese:

Hebroughthiscommunityfromdarknesstolight,andaffordedshadowforthemwhen the sun was burning bright; Muhammad, God’s messenger and closestfriend,hisprimechoiceamonghiscreatures, thebestoneevercreatedbyGodandHisproofonHisearth;he,guidingtoHistruthandalertingtoHiswisdomandcallingtoHisguidance;he,whosebirthwasblessedandwhosearrivalwasfortunate;radiantishismorninglightandglowinghislampatnight;he,whosewarsarevictoriousandwhosesermonsareglorious,…22

ThegenreofpoeticalpanegyricsfortheProphetemerged,asfarasonecansee,in the early eleventh century, and expressions like those collected byThaʽlabipercolatedintopoetry.Asthemysticsweremainlyresponsibleforthedevelopmentoftheveneration

of the Prophet into an elaborate literary genre, it was also a member of amystical fraternitywho composed the poem that to our day is regarded as theuniquelycomprehensive,andhencemostvalued,expressionofthepraiseoftheProphet.Itsauthor,Muhammadal-Busiri(d.1298),wasawriterfromAbuSirinEgyptwhohadgivenallegiancetotheShadhilimasterAbu’l-ʽAbbasal-Mursi.He composed, besides some lighter verse, several eloquent hymns inhonoroftheProphet.23Themostbeautiful,poetical, andexpressiveodeamong them isprobably theHamziyya,apoemrhyming inā,whichcontains interaliaa longdescription of the Prophet’s best-known miracles. Yet it was not the superbHamziyyathatmadeBusiri’snameimmortal,butratherhispoemrhyminginm,which soon became famous as Al-Burda (in Turkish usually Al-Bur’a).Accordingtolegendthepoethadsufferedastroke,andinhismiseryheturnedto the Prophet andwrote a poem in his honor. Faith in the Prophet’s healingpowerwasandisstillstrong,24andindeedMuhammadappearedtoBusiri inadream and cast his mantle over him as he had done during his lifetime withKaT}ibnZuhairafterlisteningtohisodeBānatSuʽād.AndasKaʽbwasgrantedforgiveness of his trespasses, Busiriwas healed by the touch of the Prophet’smantleandcouldagainmoveaboutthenextmorning.ThecorrecttitleofthissecondBurdaisAl-kawākibad-durriyafīmadhkhair

al-bariyya,“GlitteringPlanetsinthePraiseoftheBestofMankind.”Numerouslegends are connectedwith the auspicious qualities of the poem. It was soonpraisedforitsblessingandhealingpower,whichworkednotonlyforitsauthor

butalsoforthosewhorecitedorcopiedit.Onemightputitonone’seyetobecured from pain and inflammation; specific verses were supposed to avertpovertyorpestilence,orwardoffenemiesandenviers.

EndofamanuscriptofBusiri’sBurda,byAibekibn‘Abdallahas-Saifi,Egypt,1346

(CourtesyÖsterreichischeNationalbibliothek,Vienna)

Lines23and24, ifrecitedatdawn,conveypeacetoabrokenheart.25For thisreasontheBurdaisoftenusedinamuletsorwrittenonthewallsofreligiousandprivatebuildings.26Preciouscopiesofthepoemwereproducedinthecourseofthecenturiesforleadingstatesmenortheologians,especiallyinMamlukEgypt,wheretheodeoriginated.27ThepoetsintheArabic-speakingcountries,andlateralso in India, expanded theBurda by inserting their own verses between the

original lines, thus creating long strophicpoems; thismethod is called tashtlr,“splitting.”The favoritevariationwas toplace threeofone’sown linesbeforeone verse of the Burda and thus to obtain a takhmīs, a poem with five-linestanzas,atechniqueoftenusedforotherfamousreligiouspoemsaswell.MorethaneightysuchtakhmīsoftheBurdaareknownfromEgyptalone.TheArabic-writing poets of southern India too viedwith thosewhosemother tonguewasArabicinpreparingnewversionsoftheauspiciouspoem.VerysoontheBurdawas translated intoother Islamic languages.28 In thePersian tradition themostskillful poetical rendering was composed in the second half of the fifteenthcentury by Jami, who himself is famous for his na‘tiyya poetry. Turkish andUrdutranslationsfollowed;Panjabi29andPashtointheIndiansubcontinenthavealsotheirownversions,andSwahiliinEastAfricadoesnotlacksomerenditionsofthepoem.30ThereisaMalayanversionoftheBurdadatingfromthesixteenthcentury,31andamorerecenttranslationintoShilha-Berber.Typicalofthebeliefin theblessing and talismanicpowerof theBurda is the touching littleprayerpoemthatoneoftheSwahilitranslatorsaddedtohiswork:

Lord,helpmywife!LetthedisastersofthislifeavoidherAndtomorrow,intheotherlife,MaysheenterParadisewithoutreckoningorblame!32

Inthenon-Arabiccountriespeoplelikedtowrite,andlatertoprint,copiesoftheBurdaintheArabicoriginalaccompaniedbyoneortwotranslations,sothattheblessingpoweroftheoriginaltextisfullytransmittedwhileatthesametimetheforeignreadercanenjoythehighlycomplicatedtextinalyricalrenderinginhis own language. Interlinear versions of theBurda are easily available in thebookshops in Lahore, Delhi, and elsewhere; a beautifully calligraphed editionwith interlinear Persian and Urdu verse renderings was recently published inHyderabad/Deccan. In the Deccan the recitation of parts of the Burda,interspersed with numerous readings from the Koran and eulogies for theProphet, is still celebrated in a festive atmosphere,33 and the Sufis have veryspecialrulesforitsproperrecitation.34But not only the Muslims have reverted to the Burda time and again.

European scholars too became interested in the poem at a very early stage oforiental studies. The poem was printed first in 1761 in Leiden in theNetherlands,andisthusoneoftheearliestliteraryArabictextspublishedintheWest. After Rosenzweig-Schwannau’s poetical rendering of 1824, a youngGerman orientalist, C. A. Ralfs, edited the work along with a Turkish and a

PersianpoeticalversionandtranslateditintofinebutveryheavyGermanprose;unfortunately he died prematurely from consumption, and his work was seenthrough the press by others. The great French orientalist Sylvestre de SacytranslatedBusiri’s poem forGarcin deTassy’sExposition de lafoimusulmane(1822). Still frequently cited is the translation by the French scholar ReneBasset,whodespitehisaversionto“mystical”poetrygivesausefulcommentarythat explains many of the allusions in which theBurda abounds. The BritishscholarJ.W.Redhousepublishedhisversioninaprivatelyprintedbook;35 themosthandyandreliablemoderntranslationforanEnglish-speakingaudienceisthatbyArthurJefferyinhisReaderonIslam.36

Pagefromanenlargement(takhmīs)ofBusirisBurda,Egypt,fifteenthcentury

(CourtesyStaatsbihliothekPreussischerKulturbesitz,Berlin)

The Burda is indeed a true compendium of medieval prophetology, andalthough itshighlyelaborateversessoundsomewhatsoberandnotsoenticingwhen translated into Western languages, yet each of them contains certainarticles of faith and statements about the Prophet that were central to themedieval Muslim world view. That is why the poem became so immenselypopular.Thepoetbeginshisqaṣīdaintraditionalclassicalstylewithacomplaintabout

hisseparationfromhisfriends:

Haveyou,rememberingtheneighborsinDhuSallam,Mixedwithbloodthetearswhichflowfromtheeyeball?

Then, in line35,he turns to theProphet, fromwhomheexpectsspiritualhelpandwhomheextolsinthefollowing150lines:

Muhammad,thelordofthetwoworldsandofmenanddjinn,Ofthetwocommunities,theArabsandthenon-Arabs,OurProphet,whocommandsandprohibits—andnotasingleoneIsmoretruthfulthanheinsayingNoorYes;AndheisthebelovedforwhoseintercessiononehopesIneveryhorrorandinhazardousundertaking.Hehascalled[us]toGod,andthosewhoclingtohimAregraspingaropethatcannotbesevered.Hesurpassedtheprophetsinbodilyformandcharacter,Andtheycamenotclosetohiminknowledgenorinkindness…

BusiriseestheProphetasthespiritualguideofthecommunityandintercessoratDoomsday,theperformerofmiraclesandtheSealoftheProphets.Onlyaverybriefremarkconcerninghismiraculousbirthismade,butothermiracles—suchastheprostrationofthetrees—receiveextensiveattention.

Answeringhiscall,thetreescame,prostratingthemselves,Marchingtowardhimononelegwithoutfoot,AsiftheyweredrawingalineforthedelightfulwritingThattheirbrancheswroteinthemiddleoftheroad,37Likethecloudthatwastrailingwhereverhewent,Protectinghimfromthefurnace-likeheatatnoon…

TheProphet’sheavenlyjourneyisdescribedinwell-chosenimages:

AtnightyoutraveledfromonesanctuarytotheotherAsthefullmooninthegloomiestofdarkness,Andyouroseuntilyoureachedaway-station,Namely“Twobows’length”—thathadneverbeenreachedoraimedat.Andforthatallthemessengersgaveyoupreference,And[also]theprophets;apreference[asbefits]alordwhoisserved,fromhis

servants,Andyoutraversedthesevenspheres,passingthroughthemInatriumphalprocessioninwhichyoucarriedthebanner…

TheProphetis,asBusirisingsinanoft-imitatedverse,

Likeaflowerintendernessandlikethefullmooninglory,Liketheoceaningenerosityandliketimeingrandintentions.

ButatthesametimethistenderandgenerousProphetisalsoaheroinwarfare,andhismilitaryachievementsareelaboratedingruesomedetail:

HedidnotceasetomeetthemineverybattlefieldUntiltheyresembled,bydintoftheirlances,meatonabutcher’sblock…HeledanoceanofanarmyonfloatingsteedsThatthrewupclashingwavesofheroes,EachofthementrustedtoGodandexpectingheavenlyreward,Assailing,andcompletelydevotedtotheextirpationofinfidelity.

Again,likemanypoetsbeforeandafterhim,Busiritooreferstothefactthathehimself, by virtue of his nameMuhammad, has a very special relation to theProphet,who isbound toprotecthisnamesake.However,he isalsocareful towarn his coreligionists that all the praise that he bestows upon theProphet solavishlyshouldnotbeconfusedwiththevenerationofChristbytheChristians,fortheyhaveconsideredJesustobetheSonofGod.Muhammad,eventhoughdistinguishedbyeverypossiblevirtueandexcellingineveryconceivablenoblequality,isacreatedbeing:

LeaveasidewhattheChristiansclaimabouttheirprophet,Butawardtohimwhateveryouwantintermsofpraise,andstandbyit,

AndascribetohispersonwhateveryouwantintermsofnobilityAndascribetohispowereverygreatnessyouwant,FortheexcellenceoftheMessengerofGodhasnolimitSothatanyonewhospeakswithhismouthcouldexpressit[completely].

Thus,Busiri’sBurdacomprisesall thoseideasthat themedievalMuslimlovedandaccepted,andhasthereforecontributedsubstantiallytotheformationoftheidealpictureoftheProphetinArabic,and,asaresult,alsoinnon-ArabicIslamicpoetry.BythemiddleofthethirteenthcenturyonefindsquiteafewwritersinArabic

countrieswhoseodesshowthedirectionthatreligiouspoetryinlargepartwastotake in the subsequent centuries, that is, an increasing artificiality that almostsuffocatestherealconcernofthepoets.ThesepoetscompetedwitheachotherasitwereincomplicatedrepresentationsoftheProphet’squalities;theirstylewasoften overburdened with farfetched rhetorical devices and affected puns. Onecanof course interpret suchpoetry as a “poeticaloffering” inwhich thepoetsapplied all their skills to the production of something really worthy of theProphet. Some of them composed verses in which each line began with therhymingletterofthepoem,otherswroteodesinexclusivelyundottedletters,andsome included every single figure of speech as enumerated by Arabicrhetoricians—in this last category Safiuddin al-Hilli (d. 1349) is probably themostfamous.38Agoodexampleofthetendencytoartificialityisaeulogybyas-Sarsari, who was killed when theMongols under Hulagu sacked Baghdad in1258. It is so “artistic” that each of its lines contains all the letters of thealphabet!Likehispredecessorsandsuccessors,SarsarialsoplacedtheLightofMuhammadatthecenterofhisverse.Heopensonepoem,forinstance,withawidelyusedrhetoricaldevice,tajāhulal-ʽārif,“feignedignorance,”andasks:

Isityourfaceorthemorninglightthatdawns?Orthefullmooninitsperfection,thatannihilatesdarkness?Orthesuninitsexaltationduringacloudlessday?39

Some of the eulogies for the Prophet composed by al-Witri (d. 1264) becameparticularlypopularinlatertimes.40InIndiatheywereelaboratedintostrophicformsandusedforvariousrhetoricalgames.41It seems that the poets of Morocco, or rather of the entire Spanish-North

Africanarea,wereespeciallyfertileinproducingpoeticeulogiesandprayersfortheProphet.Someofthesesoonbecameclassicsintheirownright,amongthem

the blessing formulas invented by Ibn Mashish and somewhat later Jazuli’sDalāil al-khairāt; these poets excelled in elated, worshipful poems and showsome special features of na‘tiyya poetry, such as the praise of Muhammad’ssandals (see chapter 2 above). One often finds long chains of anaphora,addressing theProphet:“O lord…O lord!…O lord!”or“Mercy…mercy…mercy!”

OmessengeroftheoneGod!Iamastranger—Succorme,Orefugeofthestrangers!OmessengeroftheoneGod,apoormanamI,Helpme,Ohelperofthepoor!OmessengeroftheoneGod,Iamillandweak—Healme,foryouaresoughtforhealing.OmessengeroftheoneGod,ifyoudonothelpmeTowhomcouldIlooktobemyrecourse?42

ThuswritesanArabicpoetofthefifteenthcenturyinhisSunrisesinLaudatoryPoemsfortheProphet,touchingachordwellknowninpopularpoetryfromallIslamiccountries,asinthelamentsofvillagebardsinthePanjaborSind.InthislaterArabicpoetry,skillfulplaysonwords,inwhichtheauthorenjoysusingallpossiblederivationsfromandcross-relationsbetweentheArabicroots,alternatewith unadorned, simple exclamations inwhich he asks for forgiveness of sinsandareoftensupplementedbyendlessdescriptionsoftheProphet’squalitiesandhismiracles.Famouspre-Islamicpoemssuchas Imru’l-Qais’sQifānabki (Let’sStayand

Weep, You Two Friends …) were “split” and filled with new verses to betransformed into strophic odes extolling the Prophet.43 Yusuf an-Nabhani hasoffered in his anthology of na‘tiyya poetry examples of this style along withnumerousspecimensofhisownart,amongwhichoneshouldmentionna‘tiyyaverseinallthesixteenmetersofArabicpoetry,withthetechnicalnameofeachmeter(e.g.“light,”“long”)cunninglyworkedintotheappropriatetext.44TheclassicalformofthelaudatoryodehasremainedaliveinArabic.Ahmad

Shauqi, poet laureate of Egypt in the early twentieth century, produced animpressivereligiouspoeminhisqaṣīda“IntheStyleoftheBurda”Fīnahjal-burda, and he also imitated Busiri’sHamziyya andwrote some poems on themaulid. But popular forms, even in na‘tiyya poetry, likewise becameincreasingly common in theArabic countries.Many of these poems could besungandwereeasytomemorize;allstylesofnonclassicalversewereused,and

thelanguageassumedformsinwhichtheclassicalrulesofgrammarwereonlypartly observed. The strophic form of the muwashshāh, not exclusively inclassicalstyle,especiallygainedinpopularity,sothatevenaleadingSufiauthorsuch as the learned ʽAbdul Ghani an-Nabulusi (late seventeenth and earlyeighteenth centuries) might choose to use it for his songs in honor of theProphet.45It is interesting to note that the traditional form of the Arabic qasīda was

preservednotonlyintheArabiclandsthemselvesbutalsoinMuslimIndia.Bothin northern India and in the Deccan one finds poets and theologians whocontinuedtowriteinthesamestyleasthemedievalArabicpoetshaddone,forArabicwas, after all, the commonly used language of theology.46Not in vainwasthepolyhistorAzadBilgrami(d.1786inAurangabad)calledforhisartisticArabic na‘t poetry “the Hassan al-Hind.” Somewhat before him, the greatreformisttheologianofDelhi,ShāhWaliullah,wroteArabicversesintraditionalimageryaboutthesamemiraclesoftheProphetthathealsodiscussedinarathermoresoberfashioninhisscholarlyworks.InsouthernIndianotonlyweretheBurdaandsimilarfamouspoemsstrophicallyenlargedbynumerousinsertions,47butmystically-mindedpoets introduced theclassicalArabic tradition into theirown linguistic environment: Tamil, for instance, boasts a remarkable Islamicliterature, among which Omar Pulavar’s Sīra Purānam (ca. 1700), a longbiographicalpoemabouttheProphet’slife,isespeciallyworthyofmention.48

THEPOETS’LONGINGFORMEDINA

TheEgyptianmysticalpoet Ibnal-Farid (d.1235),whohaddwelled formanyyearsintheHijaz,sangofhislongingfortheholycitiesofIslam:

Whentheanguishofpainsettlesonmysoul,thearomaOffreshherbsoftheHijazismybalm…49

Heseemstohavebeenamongthefirst toexpresshis loveand longingfor theProphet’snativelandinartisticverse,butinthevarioustypesofeulogiesfortheProphet,thetopicbecamepredominantinpoetryafterthethirteenthcentury.It isespecially the longing forMedina, the last restingplaceof theProphet,

thathasanimatedpoetsevendown toourday.TorAndraehas rightlypointedout that the idea that a visit to the Prophet’s tomb would guarantee hisintercession“movesinanareawhichisessentiallycompletelyalientoorthodoxIslam”;50hence theWahhabiaversion to suchvisits,whichwasanticipatedby

IbnTamiyya.51TheEgyptianscholarʽAliSafiHusainthinksthatthemotifwasfirstintroducedintoliteraturebytheEgyptianpoetandtraditionistIbnDaqiqal-ʽId(d.1302),52butitmaywellgobacktoearliertimes.PoetswereabletoelaboratethemotifofthevisittoMedinabyapplyingtoit

theclassicalArabic formof theqaṣīda and itserotic introduction, the tashbīb.The traditional description of the journey to the dwelling place of the distantbelovedcouldbetransformedintothatofajourneytothetombofthebelovedProphet; to the traveling poet’s longing heart the thorns in theArabian desertcould seem to turn into silk and brocade, caressing his feet.53 This topic, thedescriptionof the arduous journey to thebeloved’shome,was takenover intofolk poetry aswell. In Shāh ʽAbdul Latif’s SurKhanbath, the camel (that is,man’s restless, restive soul) is driven to the belovedProphet,who “is sweeterthanhoneyandmorefragrantthanmusk,”andtheradiantmoonisaskedtokisshis feet to express the traveler’s loving thoughts.54 Poets who could notundertakethejourneytotheHijazthemselves(oratleastdescribeitaccordingtotheirimaginationinevernewimagery)mightaskthemorningbreezetoconveytheir greetings to the Prophet and tell him of their love—again amotif takenfrom profane love poetry, and found frequently in ghazals in the non-Arabiccountries.Outofit,thesalām,“Greeting,”developedintoadistinctivegenreofreligiouspoetry.55Though Egyptian poets of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were

especiallyfondofdescribingthecountrytheylongedtoseebecausetheProphetwasdwellingthere,thesametopicisevenmoreinevidenceincountriesoftheAfricanandPersianateworld.ThefartherthepoetlivesfromMedina,themoreeloquenthewaxesinsingingofhisyearningfortheRauda,the“garden”oftheProphet.A description of a visit toMedina by amodern, highly sophisticatedTurkish lady, Emel Esin, in her fine bookMecca the Blessed, Medinah theRadiant, proves that this longing for theProphet’s presence is still verymuchpartofthelivingfaith.56IndeedpilgrimsfromIndiaandPakistanwhohavejustreturned from thehajj toMeccawill tellof theirvisit at theRauda in ecstaticwordsandoftendissolveintearswhenrecallingtheblessedmomentwhentheywerestandingatthegateoftheProphet’slastrestingplace.Ahandbookby the fifteenth-centuryEgyptian scholar as-Suyuti informs the

pilgrimhowtobehavewhenofferinggreetingstotheProphetinMedina:

WhenheenterstheProphet’smosqueitispreferablethatheshallofferaprayeroftwoprostrationsinthe“Garden”[rauda,thepillaredspacewestofthetomb].ThenheshallapproachtheNobleTombinthedirectionofitsqiblaandstandinfrontofitfourcubitsfromtheheadoftheTomb,insuchawaythatthelampis

abovehisheadandthenailinthewallofthenobleenclosureisfacingthelamp(it is a silver nail driven into red marble); and he who is facing the nail isconfrontingthefaceoftheProphet.LethimstandgazingdownatthelowerpartoftheTomb-enclosureopposite

tohim,hiseyesabased,inthestationofawe,lowliness,andreverence.Thenlethim say, “Peace to Thee, Thou Joy of God’s creation! Peace to Thee, ThoubelovedofGod!Peace toThee,Thou lordof thedivinemessengers!Peace toThee,Thousealoftheprophets!PeacetoThee,ThouleaderoftheFestalBand!PeacetoThee,Thoubearerofgladtidings!PeacetoThee,Thouwarner!PeacetoTheeandtothePureOnes,peopleofThyhouse!PeacetoTheeandtoThypurewives,mothersof the faithful!Peace toTheeand toall theCompanions!Peace to Thee and to all the Prophets and Apostles and to all the righteousworshippersofGod!57

Thosewhoforsomereasonwereunabletovisittheholycitiesneverceasedtosing about them. Yunus Emre (ca. 1300) expresses his longing for the sacredplacesbyimaginingvividlyhowhewouldfeelifonlyhewerethere:

IfmyLordwouldkindlygrantit,Iwouldgothere,weeping,weeping,AndMuhammadinMedinaIwouldseethere,weeping,weeping…,58

Some 150 years later, Jami inHerat praisedMedina in a longna‘t where thenameoftheProphet’scityformstheradif,orrecurrentrhyme.Forexample:

Itiswewho,likethetulipinthedesertofMedina,BearinourheartthescaroflongingforMedina.PassionatelongingforParadisemaydisappearfromthewiseman’shead,butItisnotpossiblethatthepassionatelongingforMedinashouldleavehim.…TheTubatreethathaslifteditsheadontheapexoftheThroneIs[only]abranchfromthegarden-adorningpalmtreeofMedina.Whenyoueatdates,kisstheirkernels,forThekernelsofthedatesofMedinaarethebeadsoftheangels’rosary!59

After Jamidescribeshow thedust ofMedinahasbeen transformed intowaterthankstotheProphet’spresence,sothattheUniversalIntellectnowdivesintheoceanofMedina,heturnsoncemoretohisfavoritepunontheletterm:doesnot

theverynameMedinacontain,afterthe“Prophet’sletter,”m,at itsverycentertheworddīn,“religion”?More than elsewhere, poets in the Indian subcontinent implored the help of

the“PrinceofMedina”:

PrinceofMedina,listentomycalling—Thejourneyisunderyourprotection.Youleadthetravelerstotheothershore.

LordofMedina,listentomycalling,Myhopesaredirectedtoyou,Idonotthinkofanyotherhelper.

BridegroomofMedina,listentomycalling!Comeagain,Muhammad,thesinnerhopesinyou!60

These are verses fromShāh ʽAbdul Latif’s great SindhiRisdlo of the earlyeighteenthcentury.HiscompatriotAbdurRaufBhatti,whowroteataboutthesame time,devoteddozensofpoems to thebelovedProphetandexpressedhishopetodrawclosertohim,inlittleliltingsongs:

IntheluminousMedina—couldIbethere,alwaysthere!CouldIsaywithallthepilgrimsblessingsfortheintercessor—IntheluminousMedina…CouldIprayclosetotheKa‘ba,bowingdown,myhumbleprayers!IntheluminousMedina…CouldItellsomelittlematterofmyhearttohim,ourleader!IntheluminousMedina…CouldI,therepulsivesinner,couldIspeakthepureprofession!IntheluminousMedina—couldIbethere,alwaysthere!61

Even the former Hindu prime minister of Hyderabad/Deccan, Sir KishanPrasadShad(d.1943),poeticallyexpressedhisloveofthePrinceofMedinaandhis longing for the Rauda, in eloquent Urdu verse.62 Poets like himwant “toleavetheirnativecountryandleavetheirgardenlikeadisturbednightingale”63and ask God “to lift the veil of separation” between them and the belovedProphet,for:

Don’tseekinbothworldsanyplaceforthepoor—TheGateofMuhammadisthereforthepoor;ThezephyrthatpassesbyAhmad’sabode—Itraisesandbringshealingdustforthepoor…Thisrebelisnaked,noshelter,noveil—ThekindnessofAhmad:acloakforthepoor!64

UrduverseoftheHinduprimeministerofHyderabad,SirKishanPrasadShad,inhonorofMuhammad,the“PrinceofMedina”

AnothermodernHindupoet,Kaifi,adoptsatraditionalimagecomparingthehearttothecompassneedle(calledinUrdu“compass-bird”)andimploresGodtomakethatbirdflytowardYathrib,wherethevisitorwillrecitetheSurātan-Nūr(Sura24),becausethereheexperiencestheDivineLight.65

Forthebeliever,howshouldthevisittotheProphet’stombnotbeaheavenlyjourney?

ThedustofthisRauda,repletewithlight,isthehighestParadise!66

Longbefore,Jamihadwritten that thesky,enviousof thedust inwhich theProphetislaidtorest,exclaims:“Oh,thatIweredust!”(Sura78:41).67AndonlyafewyearsagotheEgyptianprogressivepoetal-Faituriwroteinhis“DiaryofaPilgrimtotheHouseofGod”versesthattakeuptheages-oldimageryoflight,for inMedina theRadiant the“lightsofTanaal-Mustafa”shineforthfromthedust.68

OvertheProphet’sboneseveryspeckofdustIsapillaroflightStandingfromthedomeofhistombTothedomeoftheskies,AndtheawethatmakesourforeheadsbowDrawsahorizon,andeverhigherhorizons,Fromhandsandfromlips—

Theroad“InthenameofGod.”69

InMedina the poet—here, an IndianMuslim—may find everything he haseverdreamtof:

OnthetonguesofthenightingalesofthisRaudaarewordsofwisdom,MorebeautifullycoloredthanallflowersaretheflowersofMedina!70

Even the destruction of the Prophet’s tomb by the Wahhabis in the earlynineteenthcenturywasonlyapassingphase in the longhistoryofdevotion tothe holy site. The Wahhabis considered such visits and the cult of tombs assomethingthatcontradictedKoranicinjunctionsandadmonitionsinearlyḥadīthagainst tomb-worship.Andyetverysoonvisitorsagain thronged to the sacredplace where they felt protected from all danger, and were certain that theirprayerswouldbeheard:

LordofMedina,youfriendofthepoor—Youwillnotturnmebackempty-handed!

OnefindsthewishtovisittheProphet’stomb—alongwiththe“recitationofblessingsuponhim—insimplesongswithwhichTunisianworkmenaccompanytheirchores,71and therearewholecollectionsofpoemsaboutMedinaand theProphet’s presence there published in India and Pakistan. Even Iqbal’s lastcollectionof poems, theArmaghān-iHijāz (Gift of theHijaz), derives its titlefromthisverytradition.AndrecentlyayoungIndianMuslimfromtheDeccan,SayyidGhiyathMatin,hasdescribedinadramaticUrdupoemhisvisionofthetomboftheProphet,hisancestor:72theProphet’shandappearedfromthevelvetcurtainsandwasplacedonhisheadsothathewasableto“kisstheradiantfeetoftheProphetwithhiseyes.”73Woulditnotbewonderful,heasks,ifthisvisionbecamereality?Foritisonlythishopethatkeepshimalive,constantlywaitingfor theblessedmomentofmeeting theProphet.Thispoemisperfectly in tunewithtraditionalSufistoriesaccordingtowhichtheProphetcanindeedaddressavisitor from his grave (for he is said by some to be alive in his tomb): forinstance, the fourteenth-century saint of Ucch, Makhdum Jahaniyan, whoseclaim to sayyid status someArabs doubted,was thus greeted by his ancestor,whoansweredhissalāmintheRaudawiththewords:“Andpeaceuponyou,myson!”74The motif of longing for the Prophet’s tomb permeates pious verse from

everywhereintheIslamicworld,andonlyrarelywillapoetadmitthatheisso

closetotheProphetthatheneednottravelabroad:

Donotaskme,friend:“WhereisMuhammad?”Hiddeninmyheart,thereisMuhammad!IsthereneedtowandertoMedina?Hereandthere—apparentisMuhammad.InmyheartandeyesresidesforeverFromthedayofCovenant,Muhammad…,75

NA’TIYYAPOETRYINTHEPERSIANATEANDPOPULARTRADITION

ThespecialcharmofArabiceulogiesfortheProphetconsistsintheirlinguisticperfection, which as a rule cannot be conveyed in any translation, for nolanguagecansuccessfully imitate thecomplicatedwebofallusions thatArabiccan convey to the delighted listener. The readerwithoutArabicwill probablygain access more easily to the multicolored, mystically heightened world ofpoetry that is encountered in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu na‘tiyya verse. Theimageryinthesethreelanguagesisalmostidentical,andthefavoriteimagesofthe urban and court poets of Iran have percolated into the literature of theregional languages ofMuslim India aswell.A line fromMīr ʽAli ShirQani”(18thcentury,Sind),

ThewaterinthecanaloftheDīwānrunsfromthefountainheadofna‘t,76

captures precisely the central importance of the eulogy for the Prophet in thecompositionsofPersianatepoets:itisthisverytopicthatgivestheirworkslifeandluster.Apparently it was with Sana’i of Ghazna in Eastern Afghanistan that the

tradition of Persian na‘tiyya poetry proper began, around I ioo. Sana’i hadrenouncedhis formeractivitiesasacourtpanegyristandshiftedhis interest toreligious,morespecifically,asceticpoetrytobecomethefounderoftheascetic-mysticalmathnawī tradition in the Persian tongue. But at the same time heappears as the first and, in certain respects,greatestpanegyristof theProphet.Thesuperbrhetoricaltechniquehehadacquiredinsingingthepraiseofworldlyrulerswasnowapplied,evenmoreskillfully,tothepraiseoftheProphet;andashehadhopedforhandsomerewardsincashorkindfromprincesandgrandees,henowhopedformuchmoreimportantspiritualrewardsfromGod’smessenger,the intercessor at Doomsday and embodiment of all physical and spiritual

beauty.WeowetoSana’ioneofthemostimpressiveodesinhonoroftheProphetin

thePersianlanguage,apoemwhichatthesametimesetsthestageforthewholeofsubsequentliteratureinthisfield.ThisishispoeticalcommentaryonSura93,Wa’d-duhā,“BytheMorningLight.”77ThissurahadalreadybeeninterpretedaspertainingtotheLightofMuhammadandremainstothisdayapivotalpartofmystical prophetology. Sana’i recited this poem extemporaneously during ameeting of learned scholars, and its very first lines immediately capture thelistener’sattention:

Themanuscriptofjabr[predestination]andqadar[freewill]Iscontainedintheformofhisfaceandhishair;Thisonebecomesknownfrom“BytheNight”(Sura92),andthatonefrom“BytheMorningLight”(Sura93).Infidelityandfaith,indarknessandpurityrespectivelyHavenootherkingdombutMustafa’scheekandtresses.IfhishairandhisfacedidnotbringtothedesertDivinewrath(qahr)andDivinekindness(luff)Infidelitywouldremainwithoutprovision,andfaithhelpless.

Thatmeans that in the Prophet the two complementary attributes ofGod,Hisbeauty, jamāl, and majesty, jalāl, are manifested—attributes whose interplaykeepsthewholeuniverseinmotion.Laterpoets,fromNizamitoIqbal,tookoverSana’i’stechniqueofjuxtaposingtheProphet’sbeautifulandmajesticattributes:combiningMoses’sternnessandJesus’mildnessinahigherunity,heisabletoawakenfear in theheartsofhisenemiesand love in thesoulsofhis friends.78Sana’ithencontinueshispoem,nowaddressingtheProphethimself:

Theradianceofyourfaceiswhatonecalls“morning”;Theshadeofyourtwotressesiswhereyousay“evening.”

This comparison of the radiant dawn with the luminous countenance ofMuhammad,withwhichthelightoffaithisalsoconnected,andtheconnectionof Sura 92, “By the Night!” with the dark tresses of the Prophet and, in adifferent line of thought, with the blackness of infidelity, became a standardformulainPersianatepoetry.Gesudaraz,thesaintofGulbargaintheDeccan,intheearlyfifteenthcentury,expresseditlikethis:

Goodmorning!—thatisyoursun-illuminatingface!Goodevening!—thatisyournight-showingtress!79

‘AshiqPashainmedievalTurkeyusedthiscomparison,80asdidthegreatpoetsofIran;andthelastMoghulrulerofIndia,BahadurShāhZafar,wroteinoneofhisUrduna‘ts:

“Bythenight!”—thatisthepraiseofyourmusk-liketresses;“Bythesun!”—thatistheoathbyyourluminouscheek!81

Thistraditionremainsaliveeveninrecentna‘tpoetryinIndo-Pakistan.Just as Sana’i’s great mathnawī, the Hadīqat al-haqīqa (The Orchard of

Truth),becamethemodelofalllatermystico-didacticPersianpoetry,sotoohishymns inhonorof theProphetoffer thebasic ideas thatwereelaborated inallfollowing mystical eulogies. Besides his extensive and often surprisinginterpretationofSura93,Sana’i’s hugeDīwān contains numerousotherna‘ts.Basedonahadīth,82 theydescribetheProphetwhoattractseveryonetolovingservice:

InheavenhehasfriendslikeMichaelandGabriel,OnearthhehasservantslikeʽUmarandSiddiq,83

that is, the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq and ʽUmar ibn al-Khattab.ThesecaliphsareinvitedinSana’i’spoemstosingtheappropriatepraiseoftheProphet,astheyarementionedinmanylaterna‘tpoemsbySunnipoetsashismost loyal friends and supporters. This line of thought goes fromRumi’s andJami’s imaginative verse to the folk poetry of the Pathans84 and Sindhis, andeven in the verse ofDakhniUrdu poets, whowere living in a predominantlyShia environment, the first caliphs arementionedoften in connectionwith theintroductoryna‘tsofepicpoems,thoughsometimesaspecialpositionisallottedtoAli.85Sana’i’spoeticalimaginationshowsbutscantregardforhistoricalfact,andhe

appliesthewholevocabularyofmysticalandmythicalthoughttohispoemsofpraise.IsitnottheProphetforwhomeverythingwascreatedandwhosenameisthepowerthatmiraculouslyworksthroughallthings?

Iaskedthewind:“WhydoyouserveSolomon?”Itsaid:“BecauseAhmad’snameisengravedonhisseal!”86

Onlyby theblessingpowerofMuhammad’sname isSolomonable to subduedjinn,wind, oceans, and animals, for itwas a sign ofMuhammad’s greatnessthatGodtookanoathbyhisnamein theKoran87—thenameofhimwhowasthe reason for the existence of the whole universe, the Sun of EverythingCreated.In his Hadīqat al-haqīqa, Sana’i devotes the entire third chapter to the

question why Muhammad is preferable to all other prophets, and proves hisgreatnessinvariousnovelways:

Inordertoextolyou,therecamefromtherealmoftimeFriday,theWhiteNights,theNightofMight,theGreatFeast,andtheshab-i

barāt,Andoutofspacecame,withbentstatures,Mecca,Yathrib[Medina],[thecaveof]Hira,andtheHaram.88

Friday is the day onwhich the communal prayer is held in Islam; theWhiteNightsare thenightsbeforeandafter thefullmoon; theNightofMight is thenightinwhichtheKoranwasrevealedforthefirsttime,usuallycelebratedon27Ramadan (Sura 97); the Great Feast is the feast of sacrifice during thepilgrimage toMecca;and theshab-ibarāt is thenightof the fullmoon in themonth of Shaʽban, in which Muhammad victoriously entered Mecca and inwhich,as traditionalbeliefhas it, the fates for thecomingyeararedestined inheaven. All these events are depicted here as having appeared only for theProphet’ssake.Soalsodothesacredcities,MeccaandMedina, the cave onMount Hira whereMuhammad received the first

revelations, and the sanctuaryof theKaʽba exist onlybecauseofMuhammad.Faithful to the mystical tradition, Sana’i acknowledges the Prophet’spreexistence:

Ahmad’sexternalformcomesfromAdam,butinessenceAdambecamemanifestfromAhmad!89

ForeventhefirsthumanbeingandfirstprophetisnothingbutareflectionoftheprimordialLightofMuhammad.Sana’i’sbackgroundincourtlypanegyricsallowshimtoapplythedaringpuns

and rhetorical wordplay he once had used to praise worldly figures to theexaltationoftheProphetinstead.

ThosewhosayNo(Iā)tohim,becometurnedoverlike[thecrookedletter]Iā,

Butblessedbybounty(ni‘ma)ishewhohassaidYes!(na‘am)tohim.90

More importantly, Sana’i emphasizes Muhammad’s decisive role for thedefinitionoffaithandinfidelity:

IfGodhadnotcalledyou“Mercyfortheworlds”—WhointhewholeworldwouldseethedifferencebetweentheEternal(samad)

andanidol(sanam)?91

AcenturyandahalflaterBusiriexpressedalmostthesameideainhisHd’iyya:

IftherewerenottheProphetMuhammadandhisknowledge,Onewouldnotknowwhattoacceptasgoodandwhattoblame!92

For Muhammad defines the borderline between those who acknowledge theEternal Lord and thosewho venerate transient false deities; he is the ProphetwhobringstheconclusiveDivinelaw,and:

Aslongasthebreezeofyournamedoesnotriseoverthegardenofreligion,Thebranchofreligiondoesnotgrow,andtherootofthesunnadoesnot

sprout.93

ItishewhodeterminesthelimitswithinwhichtheMuslimsmuststayandmarksthebordersofIslamasahistoricalreligion.Thisideasurfacestimeandagaininlater poetry and mystical treatises, particularly among the “sober” mysticalthinkers.Another aspect that was to become central in the development of na‘tiyya

poetryinPersianduringthenextcenturieswasSana’i’stendencytocontrasttheProphetandtherevelationbroughtbyhimwiththeteachingsofphilosophy.Thephilosophers—those who pursued Greek philosophical thought—had alwaysbeenthetargetoforthodoxMuslims,anditisinthisveinofthoughtthatSana’isays:

“Mercyfortheworlds”cameasyourphysician,andfromhimcamehealing(shifā)—

Whydoyouseekitfromthisorthatrebel?Forthesalvation(najāt)andhealing(shifāʼ),thatthefolloweroftheProphetic

sunnahassoughtArenotcontainedin[Avicenna’stwobooks]An-NajātandAsh-Shifā.94

Avicenna (IbnSina),whohadbeen active inEastern Iran exactly one centurybeforeSana’iandwhosephilosophicaland,evenmore,medicalworkswerewellknown and widely read not only in Islamic lands but in medieval ChristianEurope, appears in one branch of Sufism as the exemplar of the loveless,intellectualist philosopher (although his philosophy contains some mysticalelementsaswell).95One reason for this imagemaybe that thegreatmedievaltheologianGhazzalihadvehementlycriticizedAvicenna’ssysteminhisTahāfutal-falāsifa, andhis compatriotSana’i transplanted this criticisma fewdecadeslaterintopoetry.Then,acenturyafterSana’i,theSufiMajduddinBaghdadiwasinformedbytheProphetinadreamthatAvicennahadtriedtoreachtheDivineTruthwithouthis,Muhammad’s,mediation,whereuponhehadpushedhimawaysothathefellintoHellfire.96Thisviewremainedprevalentinmystically-tingedorthodoxcircles, for ithighlighted the incompatibilityof theDivinesharīʽaasproclaimed byMuhammadwith the attempts of the philosophers to reach thetruthonadifferent,morerationalistic,path.Sana’i’sverdictwastakenupaftersomedecadesbyhissuccessorintherealmofmysticalverse,FariduddinʽAttar,whose poetical work is a treasury of mystical prophet-ology. In the longintroductiontohisMuṢībatnāmaʽAttarwrites:

Indeed,twohundredworldsoftheFirstIntellect(‘aql-ikull)Disappearbeforethemajestyofthe[Koranic]order[totheProphet]“Say!”(qul)NotasinglepersonisfartherawayfromtheHashimitesharīʽathana

philosopher.SharfaistofollowtheProphet’sorder,tothrowdustontheheadof

philosophy!97

Another two generations later, Maulana Rumi combines this idea with hisfavoritemiraclestory:

Thephilosopherwhodenies“thesighingpalmtrunk”(hannāna)Isunawareoftheinnermeaningofthesaints!98

He expresses Sana’i’s and ʽAttar’s feelings about the philosophers in evenstrongertermswhenaddressingtheProphet:

Oyouroyalrideroftheorder“Say!”—Oyou,inthepresenceofwhoseintellecttheUniversalSoul

Islikeaninfantwhooutofchildishignorancechewshissleeve!99

InourowncenturyitwasMuhammadIqbalwhotookupinhisverseonceagainthe old dichotomy between Love, asmanifested inMuhammad, and intellect,whoseprototype,IbnSina,isdoomedtofailure.100ʽAttar’spoetry incorporatesmanyofSana’i’s thoughtsand images.At times

hegivesthemanevendeepermeaningandaddssomenovelelements.SomeofthebestknownapocryphalḥadīthconcerningthenamesMuhammadandAhmad(suchastheonethatsays“IamAhmadwithoutra,”thatis,Ahad,“One”)mayin fact have originated in the visions of this great Persianmystic.One shouldalsorememberthattheProphetappearsasthehighestmysticalguideinthefortystagesof theseeker’sspiritualdevelopmentasʽAttardescribesthempoeticallyin the forty chapters of hisMuṢībatnāma; it is Muhammad who shows thewayfarer thepath towardthe“oceanofhissoul”wherehewill finallyfindhisLord,whomhehassoughtinvaininheavenandearth.TheintroductionstoallofʽAttar’sepicpoemscontainverycolorfuldescriptionsoftheProphetandhisheavenly journey(seechapter9above),and theLightofMuhammadplaysanevengreaterroleinhisversethaninthatofSana’i.Indeed,ʽAttarstatesthat

Whateveristheradianceofbothworlds,Isthereflectionofhis,Muhammad’s,heart.101

ʽAttar also takesup thedoctrineof thepillarof light thatboweddownbeforeGodinpre-eternity.Thisconcept,firstmentionedbySahlat-Tustari in thelateninth century, appears—as we saw—in the introductory passages of ʽAttar’sMantiqut-tair:Muhammad’slight,aluminouspillar,performsthefullcycleofaritual prayer in the presence of God, before the world and its inhabitants arecreatedoutofit.

FromhislightareThroneandFootstool,Cherubimaswellasspiritualpowers,andtheholyones.Thisworldandthenextaredependentuponhim,Andtheworldischeerfulthroughthelightofhisessence.102

ʽAttar sees the Prophet at the end of the long chain of previous prophets andobservesthathe,whocannotreadthealphabet,isyetreadingfromtheTabletoftheLord.Forasummī,“illiterate,”Muhammadis“silentinhimselfbutspeakingthroughtheLord.”103EventheFirstIntellectisonlypartofthereflectionoftheProphet’ssoul,and

Paradiseisonesipfromhisglass;

Thetwoworldsarefromthetwom’sofhisname.104

ʽAttar’s prophetology is as deep as it is poetical, and certainly deserves anextendedanalysis, aswould theprophetologyofothermedievalPersianpoets.For although thebasic formsofpraise are everywhere andalways similar, theelaborationsandtheshiftsofemphasisaroundthisorthatpeculiaraspectoftheProphetresultinasurprisinglymulticoloredpicture.In the succession of Sana’i and ʽAttar,Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi’s work is

alsorepletewithallusionstotheProphet,the“caravanleaderMustafa,”andhisversepresentsthescholarwithevenmoredifficultiesthandoesʽAttar’s,forhisprophetologyseemsalmostinseparablyconnectedwiththenameofhismysticalbeloved,ShamsuddinofTabriz,the“SunofReligion,”whowasforhimthetrueinterpreterof themysteriesof theProphet,105becausehe,asMaulana implies,wasunitedwiththepre-eternal,archetypalprincipleofMuhammad,thehaqīqamuhammadiyya:

Say,whoistheconfidantofAhmadtheMessengerinthisworld?Shams-iTabriz,whois“oneofthegreatest”(Sura74:3s).106

For:

Whenyourecite“BytheMorningLight!”seetheSun!107

ThisalsomeansthatShams“breathestogetherwithMustafainlove,”108forthetrue essenceof theProphet is love, that primordialLove, forwhose sakeGodaddressed Muhammad as Laulāka, “But for your sake.…”109 Single versesinserted inRumi’sghazals containhighlypoetical descriptionsof someof theProphet’swonderfulqualities,ofhislightandhisglory:

Thedervishesfindtheirhappinessfrom“Mercyfortheworlds,”Theirfrocksareradiantlikethemoon,theirshawlsfragrantlikeroses!110

Muhammad’sHegirafromMeccatoMedinabecomesforRumithemodelofthemystic’s journey, for it is by leaving one’s home and traveling constantly thatone’ssoulbecomespurified.111Healsooftenmentions“Muhammad’swine,”112that permissiblewinewhich inspiresmankind and canbe found at thegateofTabriz.113ForMuhammad isnotonly the cupbearerbut rather theverygobletthat contains thewineofDivineLove114—a fine allusion to his quality as theummī receptacleof theDivineword(seechapter4above).Andhe is thegreat

elixir thatcan transformman’scopper-like,basenature intopuregold.115LikeʽAttar,Rumialludestothe“Ahmadwithoutm,”andinanodeinmixedArabicandPersian,abundantinKoranicallusions,hecallsthebreezeofNajdtoconveyhis greetings to the beloved Prophet.116 Rumi’s greatMathnawī, the didacticpoem of some 26,000 lines, is a veritable treasure-trove of stories about theProphet,whoispraised(withextensiveanaphora)inhisroleasSealofProphetsandtheonewhoopenstheseal.117Rumiweavesnumerouswell-knownḤadīthinto his poetry and elaborates them into long and sometimes quite surprisingstories.HiswarmtrustintheProphet,whosereligion“isfirmlyrootedevenafter650yearshavepassed,”118 becomes as evident fromhis verse as the role thatMuhammadplaysasthespiritualleaderoftheroadtoabetterworld.ThenumerousinstancesinAflaki’sManāqibal‘ārifinthatrefertoRumi’sand

Shams’ deep love for the Prophet deserve systematic treatment. Like Shams,RumistressedthatnoonecanreachGodunlesshecomesfirst toMuhammad,fortheProphetisthewaythroughwhichthefaithfulcanreachGod:

WhentheformofMustafabecameannihilated,Theworldtookthe“Godisgreatest!”119

“KnowthatMuhammadistheguide.UntilamanfirstcomestoMuhammadhecannotreachUs”:thatiswhatRumilearnedbyDivineinspiration,forallgiftsare showered upon the Prophet first and then distributed from him to otherpeople.120“Soit isrealizedthatMuhammadwasthefoundation.…Everythingthat exists, honor and humility, authority and high degree, all are of hisdispensationandhisshadow,forallhavebecomemanifestfromhim.”121But Rumi also acknowledges the difficulties of the Prophetic office, and

devotes a talk to why the Prophet once sighed, “Would that the Lord ofMuhammad had not createdMuhammad!” For, as Rumi defends this strange-soundingdictum,“beingaprophetincomparisonwiththatabsoluteunionisallburdenandtormentandsuffering.”122Inanothertalkhecomesbacktothistale:

He [God] occupied Muhammad first wholly with Himself; thereafter Hecommandedhim,“Callthepeople,counselthemandreformthem!”Muhammadwept and lamented, saying: “Ah,my Lord, what sin have I committed?Whydrivest Thou me from Thy presence? I have no desire for me!” But Godconsoledhim: “Even in themidstof thatoccupationyou shall bewithMe. Inwhatevermatteryouareengaged,youwillbeinveryunionwithMe.”123

Here, the secret of the “second sobriety” of the Prophetic way is beautifully

alludedto.Everyonewhohaseverlistenedtothena‘t-isharīfthatissung,inamelodious

tune,atthebeginningofthemysticaldanceoftheMevlevidervishes,willfeelhowdeeplyRumilovedtheProphet,whomheaddresses:

YāhabībAllāhrasulAllāhkiyaktātūī…OGod’sbeloved,OmessengerofGod—uniqueareyou!You,chosenbytheLordofMajesty—sopureareyou!

Hegoesontocallhim“lightoftheeyesoftheprophets,”hewhoplaceshisfootontheninegreenspheresduringhismiʽrāj,andthenheappealstohismercy:

OMessengerofGod,youknowhowincapableyourcommunityis—Youaretheguideofthoseweakoneswithoutheadandfoot!

ButtheProphetisalso

Cypressofthegardenofprophethood,springtimeofgnosis,RosebudofthemeadowoftheDivinelawandloftynightingale.

AndintheendShams-iTabriziisinvoked,who“knowsthena‘toftheProphetbyheart,”forheistheonewhomthishighestlordhaschosenandelected.124OneofRumi’s contemporaries in the thirteenth century isFakhruddin Iraqi,

whospent twenty-fiveyearsofhis life inMultan in thesouthernPanjabat thethreshold of the Suhrawardi saint Baha’uddin Zakariya Mul-tani. He wasinspired to write nd‘tiyya poetry during his stay inMedina, and described inpompouswords

TheMercyfortheworlds,themessengerofGod,He,atwhosegatetheheavenlybeingssay:“Atyourservice,Godrevealedwhat

Herevealed!”(Sura53:10)…Sinceinpre-eternitythestyleofaddressinghimwasdictatedas“Bythe

MorningLight!”(Sura93:1)Thefixedtimecamethattheceremonialdrumming(nauba)of“PraisedbeHe

whotraveledatnightwithHisservant”(Sura17:1)wasexercised.125

‘Iraqi means with this clever wordplay that because the Divine oath “By theMorningLight!” referred toMuhammad from the verymoment that that lightwascreated,theofficialdrumsandpipesofSura17:1(theversethatalludesto

hisnightjourney)areplayedforhimduringhislifeonearth.Again,likeotherpoets, he points to the contrast of daylight and night as manifested in theProphet,who standsbetween theDivinedayand thedarknessof theworldofmatter,whoistheSunofExistenceandyet“travelsatnight.”‘Iraqi’seulogiesare typicalexamplesof thePersianstyle,whichabounds in

puns and sophisticated notions. This refined style had reached its firstculminationamongthenonmysticalpoetsofIran,intheworkofKhaqani.Thistwelfth-centurypoetfromCaucasiawasextremelylearnedandendowedwithanalmost unbelievable skill in theuseof rhetorical devices, andhas extolled theProphetingrandiosehymns.Forhim,theProphetwas“religionpersonified.”126His veneration of the Prophet earned him the surname Hassan al-‘ajam, “theHassan of the non-Arabs,” and his descriptions of his pilgrimage and visit toMedina are indeed among the most rapturous but also most difficult PersianqaṢīdaseverwritten.Khaqaniinventednumerousnewmeaningfulcombinationsofterms,amongthemthecomparisonbetweenMuhammadandtheKaʽba,andbetweentheProphet’sblackmoleandtheblackstoneoftheKaʽba,whicheveryMuslimaspires tokissduring thepilgrimage toMecca.Fromhis timeonwardthis combination appears as one of the favorite topics of Persianate poets.MaulanaQasimKahi,insixteenth-centuryIndia,sings,forexample:

Ahmad,thatistheKaʽbatowardwhichweallstrive,Theblackstoneiscertainlyhisblackmole.127

Among the poets in the Islamic Middle Ages who were not exclusivelypanegyrists ormystics, Sa’di (d. 1292) has always been a favorite of Persianreadersbecauseofhiselegant,clear,andlimpidlanguage.Althoughthenumberofhisna‘tiyyapoemsiscomparativelysmall,Persianliteratureowestohimoneofitsmostfrequentlyrecitedpoems,whichisespeciallywell-lovedinIndia.ItisfoundintheintroductorypartofhismathnawīentitledBūstān(TheGarden),andpraises the Prophet in plain but graceful words in the very simple, easilyrememberedmutaqāribmeter.HeretheProphetappearsas

nasīmunqasīmunjasīmunwasīm,well-shaped,graceful,elegant,ofnobleappearance,

wordswhich,aswehaveseen,alsoinfluencedIslamicnomenclature.InthefirsthalfofthesamestanzaSa’diaddressestheProphetas

shafī‘unmutā‘unrasūlunkarīm,

Intercessor,onewhoisobeyed,anoblemessenger.128

Mutā’ “hewho is obeyed” (Sura, 81:21), is a perfectly natural appellation forMuhammadwhenone recalls theverses in theKoran thatorder the faithful to“obeyGodandobeyHismessenger.”Butabout150yearsbeforeSa’dithisverytermhadbeenusedbyGhazzaliinhismysticaltreatiseMishkātal-anwār,whereit seems to designate, as we saw earlier, a mysterious power that is usuallyidentifiedwiththearchetypalMuhammad.Sa’di’suseofthetermprovesthatthewordmutā’asanepithetoftheProphetmusthavebeenverycommon,whateverits additional implications were, and it occurs quite regularly in the na‘tiyyapoetryofotherwriters,suchasJami.Another poet who adopted the term was Amir Khusrau. Although he is

consideredprimarilyacourtpoet,hiscloserelationshipwiththegreatmysticalteacherofnorthernIndia,NizamuddinAuliyaofDelhi,hadacquaintedhimwiththe languageofSufism,and in the introductorypassagesofhisepicpoemsheusesmanygrandandrefinedepithetsfortheProphetMuhammad(seechapter6above). He states in the beginning of his Majnūn Lailā, for instance, thatMuhammadis

Thekingofthekingdomsofmessengerdom,ThetughrāofthepageofMajesty.129

According to the imaginative Amir Khusrau, the moon in the sky giveswitnessofMuhammad’sgreatness: itbecomes firsta semicircularnūn, ,andthenacircularmīm, ,inhonoroftheProphet,thusformingthePersianwordnam, “dew,”which proves that themoon is nothing but “a drop of dew fromMuhammad’socean”;andtheangels’wingsservetosweeptheroadthatleadstohissanctuary.130°AmirKhusraualsoplayswiththeDivineword“IamAhmadwithoutm,”athemerepeatedduringhislifetimeandinthefollowingcenturiesthroughouttheeasternrealmofIslam.Again,heseestheroundmastheSealofProphethood131andclaimsthatonewhoputsthissacredmaroundhisnecklikea collar will walk in full faith like the ringdove.132 “The dove’s necklace” inArabo-Persian imagerymeansanextremelyclose relation tosomething,whichcannot bedissolvedor severed (just as thebandof feathers around thedove’sneckispartofthebird’splumage).ButAmirKhusraudoesnotreachtheheightsofecstasythathismodelinepic

poetry,Nizami,hadattained;forNizamiwasoneofthegreatestpanegyristsoftheProphet among thenonmysticalwritersof Iranandmayhave invented thecombinationof“creation,”āfrīnish,oftheProphet,with“praise,”āfrīn,thatlater

becameverypopularinPersianna’tiyya.133Probablythemostprolificwriterinthefieldofna‘tiyyapoetryisJami,poet

andhagiographerofthefifteenthcentury,whodelveddeeplyintothemysteriesofthehaqīqamuhammadiyyaandcombinedimmensetechnicalskillwithdeepreligious feeling.Wehave alreadyquoted him several times for his novel andpoignantdefinitions.Hisna’tiyyapoetry,highlyadmiredbyIqbal,134comprisesmajestic qaṢīdas, tender ghazals, and long introductory chapters in his sevengreatepicpoems.Inoneofthem,heproducesasequenceofnofewerthanfivena‘t, not to mention his vivid verbal depictions of the Prophet’s heavenlyjourney. But another of his poems is especially worthy of detailed attentionhere.135It isatarīʽband,astrophicpoemconsistingof twelveghazalseachofwhichhas thewordMuhammadasradif—almostcertainly inspiredbySa’di’smuchsimplerqasīdawiththesamerhyme:

ThemoondoesnotreachthebeautyofMuhammad,ThecypressdoesnotpossesstheharmoniouslyshapedstatureofMuhammad

…136

Theband,thatis,therepeatedversethatconnectstheghazals,inJami’spoemistheArabiccouplet

Myspeechcannotseektoattainthelaudatorydescriptionofhisperfection—OmyGod,blesstheProphetandhisfamily!

Thefirstpartofthepoembeginswiththerhetoricalquestion

Whatisthespringofwater?ThedustofthefeetofMuhammad!Andthe“firmrope”?ThenooseofdevotiontoMuhammad!

Thenfollowsthetraditionalstatement:

Thelimitsofhispraise—whoknowsthemexceptGod?WhoamI,thatIshoulddaretoextolMuhammad?

InthesecondghazalJamiturnstotheprimordialgreatnessoftheProphet:

Whateverwasnoteddownonthepageofexistence,IsonlyaselectionfromthebookofMuhammad.

Later,thepoetemploystheimageryofchess:

Don’tcallhimking(shāh),foreveryonewhoisnotcheckmatedbyMuhammadInthisarena[or,chessboard],walkscrookedlikethequeen[inchess].

But he soon returns to the cosmic glory of the Prophet and begins the fourthghazal:

Thesky,havingbecomecurvedbecauseofitsprostrationbeforeMuhammad,IsonlyawaterbubblefromtheoceansofMuhammad’sgenerosity.

Likewise,ashestatesintheseventhghazal,

ThemoonisareflectionofMuhammad’sbeauty,MuskisalittlewhifffromMuhammad’smoleandtresses.Inthegardenof“Stayupright!”nowalkingcypressHassetfoot,[whichwouldbe]comparabletotheharmoniousstatureof

Muhammad!

Because Jamibelieves that “there is noundue exaggerationof the loftiness ofMuhammad,”hecanclosehislongencomiumwiththestatement:

ThechainofbeingshasnoothersourceThanMuhammad’smusk-flavoredtresses!

AsintheArabictradition,inPersiantooanincreasinglycomplicated,stiltedlanguage developed inwhichMuhammadwas praised and implored.Eulogiescomposed by some later poets became almost incomprehensible because theyhadappropriatedthewholetechnicalterminologyoftheo-sophicalmysticismasdeveloped in thesuccessionof IbnArabi.Thisabstract terminology,noteasilyunderstoodeven in theological treatises,makes somePersianhymnsseem likeveritable enigmas.Agoodexample is apoemby ʽUrfi from the late sixteenthcentury,inwhichthepoet—whohadmigratedfromShiraztotheMoghulcourtin India; he is still celebrated as one of the leading panegyrists in Persian—strivestoexplainthatbecausepreexistence(theprimordiallightthatwascreatedbefore anything else) and temporal existence are mysteriously united inMuhammad, the Prophet is absolutely unique. The idea itself was not at allunknown toearlierwriters, for Jamihadexpressed it in someofhisna‘ts,butʽUrfiutilizes thevocabularyof classicalArabicpoetry to explain thismystery

and introduces the traditional feminine names of Salma and Laila into hisimagery.137Thushewrites,interalia:

Thedaythattheyreckonedwhoamongtheimpossiblecouldbeequaltoyou,Theywrote“nonexistence”asthedateofbirthforanyonelikeyou.Untiltheywroteyourexistencetobetheconfluenceofcontingencyand

necessity,Theobjectforacommonepithetcouldnotbedetermined.Destinyplacedtwolittersononecamel:OnefortheSalmaofyourbeingcreatedintime,theotherfortheLailaofyour

preexistence…

Andthereaderwhohasstruggledhiswaythroughforty-eightlinesofthiskindmarvelsatthelastverseoftheode,inwhichʽUrficlaims:

Ipraiseyouthroughsincerity,notwiththehelpoflearning—HowcouldIbringforththegazelleoftheKaʽbafromanidol-temple?

ʽUrfi’spoetrywashighlyadmiredinMoghulIndiaandalso,foratimeshortlyafterhisdeath,inOttomanTurkey,whereitinspiredsimilarlycomplicatedverse.His contemporary Naziri followed him in the use of the full theologicalvocabulary inhisna‘tiyya poetry,whichculminates in avery longqaṣīda thatcan be considered amystical commentary on the profession of faith. Naziri’sdescription of the Prophet, developed out of Koranic verses and hadith, is ofgreat poetical beauty and translates a central theme of prophetology intopowerful verse, that is, the perfect harmony of Muhammad’s internal andexternal qualities and actions, of hismodesty and strength, his “poverty” andmajesty:

Againstthestubbornheflungtheidea“Thereisnoprophetafterme;Forhisdearfriends,theword“Iamonlyahumanbeing”wassentdown…138

ImpressiveasNaziri’sna‘tsare,itwasapoembyanotherIndo-Persianpoetthatwasmuchmoreappreciatedbythemasses:arathersimple,beautifulsongbyQudsiMashhadi,stillafavoriteoftheqawwālsoftheIndiansubcontinent.139Taking up again formulations first used by Jami,Qudsi addresses the belovedProphet:

Marhabāsayyid-imakkī-yimadīni’l-‘arabī…

Welcome,OMeccan,Medinan,Arablord—Maymyheartandsoulbesacrificedforyou—whatwonderfulsurnamesyou

have!Opentheeyeofmercy,castaglanceatme,OyouwiththeepithetsQuraishi,Hashimi,andMuttalibi…

ThisemphasisontheArabicattributesoftheProphetistypicalofmanyPersianand,especially,Indo-Muslimpoets,becausealargesegmentofMuslimsinIndiahavelongtendedtohighlighttheArabicelementintheirIslamicheritage.Theyhavealways remainedaware thatArabia is the realhomelandof their religionandcultureandthattheirfathers—asShāhWaliullahofDelhiexpresseditintheeighteenth century—”have fallen in exile” in India.140 The same tendency tostresstheArabicheritageoftheProphetispalpable,perhapsevenmorethaninhigh literature, in thepopularpoetryof the IndianMuslims,where it resoundseverywhere.InoneofthefirstpoemsinhonoroftheProphetwritteninSindhi,by Shāh Mian Tnat around 1700, the “friend, Quraishi, Arab” is repeatedlyaddressed:

Bewithus,Arab!Helpus,Medinanprince!141

AsforQudsi,hecontinueshisna‘twiththetraditionalsurnamesandfiguresofspeechandcallshimself,towardtheend,adogattheProphet’sthreshold.Buteventhisdesignationsoundstohimtoodaring:

Irelatedmyselftothedog,butamverydistressedBecausetorelateoneselftothedogofyourstreetisunmannerly.

TheclaimtobethedogattheProphet’sdoororrathertobelowerthansuchalucky dog occurs quite often in Persian poetry, especially in the work of thesuccessorsofJami,forJamiisnotedforhisfrequentuseofthecomparisonwithdogsandevenclaimstobethelowliestslaveoftheProphet’sdog.Thetermisusedinpopularpoetryasoftenasinurbanverse,andaPanjabidevoteeof theProphetsings:

IamthedogoftheProphet’sfamilyAndfaithfullykeepwatchattheirdoor.142

These remarks in which the poets pretend to be the dog at the Prophet’s

thresholdmayhavegrownoutoftheideathateventheuncleandog—whichisnot allowed into the house and whose presence spoils ritual prayer—can bepurified by seeking the presence of noble human beings. TheMuslims knewfrom the legend of the Seven Sleepers (Sura 18:17-21) that the dog thatremainedwiththesevenyouthsinthecavefor309yearsbecamehonoredforitsfaithfulness;thepoetsmaythushaveintendedintheirself-identificationwiththedognotonlyanexpressionofmodestybutalsotheimplicithopethattheymightbepurifiedbyconstantlysittingattheProphet’sdoorstep.Qudsi closes his poemwith amixed Arabic-Persian request to the Prophet

whois,asintraditionalverse,boththebeloved,ḥabīb,andthephysician,ṭabīb,ofhisheart.Thena‘tinlaterIndo-PersianandearlyUrdupoetryshows,asfarasonecan

discern, two major lines of development. One is the ever-increasing use ofesotericconceptsinwhichtheentiretyofmedievaltheosophywascondensedincomplicatedtermsandexoticimages,asforinstanceinthisquatraindevotedtotheProphetintheeighteenthcentury:

OyouwhoselightisthebasmalaoftheKoranofmanifestation:Yourbodyisalllight,andyourcheekisthesura“TheLight.”Hereyouaretheleaderofyourpeople,theretheirintercessor,Oyoulocusofmanifestationofthe[Divine]names“Guiding”and

“Forgiving”!143

This development is equally visible inOttoman Turkish literature, whichwaslargelyinspiredbyPersianmodels,andlongpoemswithhigh-soaringtitleswerecomposedbothinTurkey144andinIndia—asforinstancea“EulogyfortheStaroftheSphere‘Heapproachedanddescended’[Sura53:8]andtheConstellationintheZodiacalHouse,‘Andhewastwobows’lengthorcloser’[Sura53:9],inthePresenceofWhoseRadiancetheSunandtheMoonofEveryMorningandEveningareSmaller than[thediminutivestar]Suha,”composedbyamysticalpoetofSouth India in thenineteenth century.145Bymeansof suchpoems themysticalconceptsconnectedwiththeProphetwerecarriedintowidercircles,foreventhoughthemasseswerenotconversantwithPersian,high-soundingpoetryimpressed them considerably and filled them with awe and fervor and theawareness of being in the presence of something extremely grand andmysterious.On the other hand, however—this is the other line of development—the

expressionoflovefortheProphetwaxedeverstrongerinPersianandevenmore

inUrdupoetry.Thiswasperhapsduetotheinfluenceofpoetryintheregionallanguages,whichespeciallyemphasizedthetender,warm,andsoftaspectsoftherelationship of the faithful with the Prophet. In the canonical collections ofḥadīthonefindstheProphet’sword,“NobodyisabelieveruntilIhavebecomedearer(ahabb) to him than his father, his son, and all human beings.”146 TherelationofthefaithfultotheProphetwasindeed,asanotherḥadīthmentioned,likethatofchildrentoafather,amostrevered,loved,andthereforeexemplaryelder in thefamily.147Butpoets latercame tousea stronger termfor the lovedue to Muhammad: ‘ishq, which can have a slightly erotic overtone ofpassionate longing. Numerous books were written in which the Prophet’sdevotees called themselves ‘dshiq, “lover” (or, better in keepingwithWesternusage,“infatuated,”or“in[spiritual]love”),suchastheMi‘rājal-‘āshiqīn(TheHeavenlyLadderfortheLovers)148orQūtal-‘āshiqīn(FoodfortheLovers),aSindhi book of the early eighteenth century that contains legends about theProphetbywhichhislovers’faithanddevotionarenourished.

FromthedayoftheprimordialCovenantIhavebeentheconfusedloverofMuhammad…

GodwillaskmeontheDayofResurrection:“Whoseloverareyou?”ThenI’llsay:“ThatofMuhammad,ofMuhammad,ofMuhammad!”149

Thus sang theUrdu poet Shefta in the nineteenth century; slightly earlier, theRohillaprinceMahabbatKhanpursuedthethemeinamoreromanticvein:

MuhammadMustafaisthecoloroftheroseofLove,AndhiscurlsarethespringofthehyacinthsofLove.Certainly,he,healoneisthemostradiantsunofLove,AndthroughhimareilluminatedtheluminousstarsofLove.150

Suchverses,writtenbyamanwhosemother tonguewasnotUrdubutPashto,are quite close to the popular poetrywritten in Pashto and other idioms,withtheiremphasisonLove.Alittlesidelight:inaPashtopoemwrittenbyaHindu,Sukya,theauthortellshowthedaughteroftheProphet’sgrimmestenemy,AbuJahl,immediatelyfellinlovewithMuhammadwhenheaddressedher!151A delightful combination of popular and high style in na‘tiyya poetry was

createdbyMuhsinKakorawi(d.1905),whoisregardedastheleadingmasterofna‘tiyya in premodern Urdu. He begins his most famous na‘t in plain Hinditerms:

FromBenaresfliesthecloudtowardMathura,AndthewindputthepitcherwithGangeswateronthelightning’sshoulder.

Aftertakingupinthetashbīb,theeroticintroductionofhispoem,thetraditionalimageryoftherainyseason(inwhichloverscomplainofseparationandlongforunion) and of the tales about Krishna and his dalliance with his lovesickgirlfriends,thegopis,theauthorsuddenlyturnstopraiseofthesun-likeProphetand changes his language into sophisticated Urdu with a heavy admixture ofArabicandPersianexpressions.152When studying the development of thena‘t in Indo-Pakistan onemust also

rememberthatinthisareathetraditionofreligiousmusicwasverymuchalive.ThereforemostofthepoemsinhonoroftheProphetaresingable, thatis, theyhave a strong rhythmical quality and comparatively simple rhymes,which areoftenrepeatedlikealitany.Manyofthemusealliterationintherefrain,inwhichtheletterm,thefirstletterofMuhammad,seemstoplayaparticularlyimportantrole.

MitthāMīrMuḥammad,madadmārrkar,SweetprinceMuhammad,givehelpandsupport!153

sings a Sindhi poet; and themitthā Muhammad, the “sweet Muhammad,” isoften connected, as well, with the appellationsMakkī andMadīnī and relatedterms.Certain favorite expressions are repeated in many of these poems, such as

allusionstoFaran,theareanearMecca,orthedescriptionoftheProphetasdurr-i yatīm or yatīma, “the unique pearl” (yatīm, “orphan,” refers of course toMuhammad’sorphanchildhood).Tobesure, thiscombinationappearsasearlyas in Sana’i’s verse,154 and Jami, the constant source of inspiration for laterpoets, was fond of it,155 but the singers in the Indian subcontinent seem todelight evenmore in its constant use. Onemay say that, in general, na‘tiyyapoetryinUrduasithasdevelopedinthelastfourcenturiesislessburdenedwiththeologicalsubtletiesandhighflownterminologythanPersianpoemsofthistypefromthesameperiod.JanKnappert’sremarkthat“Swahilipiousliteraturebreathesaspiritofgreat

love and devotion to the Prophet, of dedicated obedience to God’s ownmostlovedcreature”holdstrueforpopularpoetryinpracticallyallIslamiclanguages;for,asKnappertcontinues,“alllovewhichaMuslimhastogiveisconcentrateduponGod’s shining representative.”156Therefore the recitation of eulogies fortheProphet isusuallyconnectedwith thegreateventsofpersonal life. InSind

and inKashmir, andcertainly inmanyotherareas,na’ts are recitedor sungatweddings, at the celebration of a birth, at circumcision, and so on, and Indo-PakistaniMuslim ladies enjoy special gatherings inwhich poetry praising theProphetisrecited.The verses of many sīharfīs, “Golden Alphabets,” in the languages of the

subcontinent begin with Koranic quotations or ḥadīth that allude toMuhammad’suniqueposition.The lettermmay remind thepoetofmāzāgha,“the sight did not rove” (Sura 53:17);q sometimesevokesqalblldyandm, theḥadīth“myheartdoesnotsleep,”butmorefrequentlyqdbaqausain,“twobows’distance”(Sura53:9);bmay recall thehadithqudsl “[I amAhmad]bildmīm,withoutm,Ahad,One.”A different type of Golden Alphabet is found in the Arabic tradition. One

example,amukhammasby‘UthmanMirghani,calledAn-nūral-barrāqfīmadhan-nabīal-misdāq(TheBrilliantLightinthePraiseoftheTruthfulProphet),isastrophicpoemrhymingateveryfifthlineinaletteraccordingtothesequenceoftheabjadalphabet.157TheIndianbārahmāsapoems,whichdealwiththepeculiaritiesofthetwelve

months of the year as seen by a lovingwoman, are a genre used all over thesubcontinent.158Eachpoemdescribes through themouthofa lovesickgirlherdifferentfeelingsduringherbridegroom’sorhusband’sabsence.IntheMuslimcontext the girl often becomes the human soul who pines for the belovedMuhammad. In such cases, the bārahmāsa follows the sequence not of theIndianbutoftheIslamicmonths,andthebridalsoulreachesproximitytoGodinMeccaandthepresenceoftheProphetinhisRaudainMedinainthelastmonthofthelunaryear,Dhu’l-hijja,themonthofthepilgrimage.Heretheredevelopsamood somewhat comparable to the “bridalmysticism”of the Judaeo-Christiantradition,basicallyalien to theMuslimapproach to theProphetbutapparentlyassimilated from Hindu motifs such as Radha’s longing for Krishna and theentireterminologyofthatliterature.Thatiswhyinthisgenreofpoetry,whichiscommon in Sindhi and Panjabi, the poet addresses himself to imaginarygirlfriends as though he himself were a bride, and the Prophet assumes thequalitiesofthelonged-forbridegroom:

Hail!Hailbridegroom,MuhammadtheArab!Havemercy,Omostmercifulone!159

The“bridegroomofMedina”issomuchastandardtoposofSindhidevotionalpoetry(datingatleastfromthedayofAbdurRaufBhattiintheearlyeighteenthcentury)thatthepoetcanevenmaintainthatduringtheheavenlyjourney,

Gabrielwentinfront,afoot,thebridegroomridinghishorse.160

This imagery seems, however, to be restricted to the poetry of the IndianMuslims,andthereagainmainlytotheplainsoftheIndusValleyandthePanjab,where the mystical poets also like to compare their souls to the heroines ofSindhifolktales,suchasSassuiorSohni,bothofwhomsacrificedthemselvesinsearchofthebeloved—whointhiscasesymbolizesthefarawayProphet.Sometimes verses in the popular languages point to inexplicable mystical

secrets. This is especially apt to happen when they are composed in theenvironmentofanimportantlocalreligiouscenter,whichhaslikelyaccumulateditsowntraditionallore.InGulbarga,wherethegreatChishtisaintGesudarazliesburied,onesingsduringcelebrationsoftheanniversaryofhisdeathaveryoldHindisonginwhichitissaid:

Putinwater,somesalt—Whenitdissolves,whatshallitbecalled?LikewiseMustafameltedhisselfintoGod.Whentheselfisdissolved,whomcouldonecallGod?161

Suchanimageiscertainlynoteasilycompatiblewiththeorthodoxinterpretationof the role of the Prophet, but the verse is obviously a favorite among localbelievers.EverywherethepoetshavehopedtoseethebelovedProphetintheirdreams,

to be blessed by him as Busiri had been. A few decades after Busiri’s time,YunusEmreinAnatoliarecordedhisowngoodfortune:

InaninspireddreamtonightIsawMuhammad.InthecleanmirroroftheheartIsawMuhammad.

Theangelsstoodinrowsandrows,Theydonnedgreengarments,beautifulAndtheyexclaimed:“Muhammad!”—ThusIsawMuhammad.

Muhammadgaveabowltome,IntoxicatedwasIthen—

TheLordbestowedsuchgraceonme:IsawMuhammad.

I,likeadropsunkintheseas,Foundhealingformysuffering;TodayIwassogreatlyblessed—IsawMuhammad!162

Otherfolkpoetsdescribehowproudandhappytheyarethattheybelongtothecommunity that has been elected by God and upon whom His mercy hasdescended:

InMuhammad’scommunityIputonthetrousersoffaithAndcame,struttinglikeapeacock.163

ThussangEshrefoghluRumiinTurkeyinthefifteenthcentury;threecenturieslateroneofhiscompatriots,Sazayi,wrote,inmoresophisticatedlines:

Youarethatsunoftruthbeforewhomthewholeworldisnothingbutaspeckofdust,

Yourexistenceisthemotivefortimeandspace,OmessengerofGod!Thosewhodrinkthegobletofyourlove,don’tcareforKhidr’swateroflife—Foryourloveiseternallife,OmessengerofGod!164

And Egyptian folksingers in our day say with similar intentions but in lessartisticstyle:

All[passionate]loveisprohibited,ButfortheProphetitispermitted,

Andthedrinkingofwineisprohibited,Butpermittedis[drinkingfrom]theProphet’ssaliva.165

For the popular bards, love of the Prophet is the heart of their faith. Evenmore,itisthecenteroflife,notonlyofhumanlifebutofthelifeofeverythingcreated,forstonesandtrees,animalsandwalls,haveproclaimedhisglory.ThatiswhyaSindhipoetcansing:

Thelotusseesthesuninlongingdream,Themoth’senamoredbythecandle’sbeam,

Thenightingalerepeatstherose’stheme,Andfullofloveyouhearthepartridgescream—Butallofthem,theylovethatgloriousprince!166

Popularpoetsaswellasthemastersofhigh,classicalliteratureknowthatjustas the Prophet is themeaning and end of creation, he alsowill be the one toguidethemtoeternallife.Forheisthecaravanleader“whofirststeppedforthfrom the concealment of non-being, and led the entire caravanof creation outontotheplaneofbeing,”asNajmuddinRaziDayasays.167Andonthis“planeofbeing,”heisthemysticalguidewho—asattheendofʽAttar’sMuṢībatnāma—guidestheseekerinto“theoceanofhisownsoul”wherehewillfindtheLord.WhenMaulanaRumiproudlystatesthat

Ourcaravanleaderistheprideoftheworld,Mustafa,168

heisintunewiththepoetsintheIndusValleyandinAnatolia,whopraisethegreat caravan leader who guides them safely on their way to the centralsanctuaryinMecca,whichisthereflectionoftheheavenlyKaʽba.169Andifthepoetshappentoliveinthevalleysofthegreatrivers,orclosetotheocean,theypraisehimasthepilotwhosteersthefragileboatoflifethroughthedeepwaters,between sandbanks and whirlpools, to the faraway shore of peace, as ShāhʽAbdulLatifinSinddescribesitinSurSarīrag.170SoalsotheBengalifolkpoetuses images taken from the life of fishermen and sailors,who know that theydepend upon the experience andwisdom of the pilot to find their way to theothershore:

IshallneverfindagainAcompassionatefriendlikeyou.Youshowedyourself—Nowdonotleave,OProphetofthefaith.YouarethefriendofGod,Helmsmantothefarshoreoftruth—WithoutyouwewouldNeveragainseethatworldontheothershore.

ELEVEN:THE“MUHAMMADANPATH”ANDTHENEWINTERPRETATIONOFTHE

PROPHET’SLIFE

As much as the Muslims in general refuse to be called Muhammadans, theexpression ṭarīqamuḥammadiyya, “Muhammadan Path,”was used by quite afew premodemmystical groupswhowanted to express,with this designation,their faithful adherence to the sunna of the Prophet to the exclusion of laterusages that had been adopted into the mystical way of life. The term ṭarīqamuḥammadiyya was used in this fashion in eighteenth-century India by somemystical leaders, and the members of this ṭarīqa were to play an importantpoliticalroleinthesubcontinentduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthCentury.1Atthesametime,severalNorthAfricanmysticalfratemitiesusedthesametermtoemphasizetheexemplaryroleoftheProphetintheirreligiouslife.Recently,arelated movement of the “Muhammadiyya” has become prominent amongIndonesianMuslims.2Oneof theprecursorsof the Indian ṭarīqamuḥammadiyyawas, in а certain

sense,thereformerAhmadSirhindi,calledbyhisadmirersthemujaddid-ialf-ithānī, “the renovatorof the secondmillennium,” forheappearedon the sceneshortly afterA.H. 1000 (a.d. 1591–92).3AhmadSirhindiwas amember of theNaqshbandi Order, which had developed in Central Asia and played animportantroleinCentralAsianpoliticsduringthefifteenthCentury;almostallthescholarsandpoetsconnectedwiththeTimuridcourtofHeratwereassociatedwith theNaqshbandiyya,among themthepoet Jamiand thepowerfulministerMirʽAliShirNawa’i.Atthesametime,politicsinBukharaandadjacentareaswerelargelyundertheinfluenceoftheNaqshbandimasterʽUbaidullahAhrar,amanofgreatCharismaandpoliticalacumen,towhomJamidedicatedoneofhismajordidacticepics,theTuhfatal-aḥrār.TheNaqshbandiyyareachedIndiaviaAfghanistaninthelatesixteenthCentury;themajorfigureinthisdevelopmentwasKhwajaBaqi-billah,afriendofmanyintellectualsinAkbar’sdays.AhmadSirhindijoinedtheorderandsoonbegantopreachagainstthetendenciesoftheemperorAkbar,which seemed tomany toblur thebordersbetween Islamand“infidelity.”HewouldnotacceptanyreligiouswayasvalidwiththeexceptionofIslam.HisconceptwasthatofamysticallytingedIslamwhichyetretaineditspristine purity without any admixture of pagan, that is in his case, Hindu,

elements.InthisdefinitionofIslam,thepersonoftheProphetwascentral,foritwas he who defined the borderline between Islam and infidelity—an ideaexpressedbyeversomanypoets in theirhighflownnaʽts.Thefirsthalfof theprofessionoffaith,whichac-knowledges theOnenessandUniquenessofGod,couldbeacceptedbyHindusandmembersofotherreligioustraditions,butthesecond half,which givesMuhammad his unique position as themessenger ofGod,definesIslamasadistinctanddistinctivereligiousSystem.4AhmadSirhindi, likemanyotherNaqshbandi leaders,certainlyhadpolitical

ambitions, and this political role of his, which proved important for thedevelopment of Indo-Muslim self-consciousness, has been high-lighted duringourownCenturybythedefendersoftheTwoNationstheory:thattheMuslimsof India form a closed Community, sharply distinguished from the Hindumajority.Ahmad’smysticalspeculationsandhisremarksabouthisownmysticalrolehaveattractedcomparativelylittleinterest.Yethissayingsabouthisroleinthe divinely ordered plan of world history were so daring in his era that theemperorJahangir,Akbar’sson,hadhimimprisonedforsometime“untiltheheatof his temperament and confusion of his brainwere somewhat quenched,” asJahangir himself teils in his memoirs, horrified and perhaps also somewhatamusedbyAhmad’sClaimsasfoundinhisletters,“thatalbumofabsurdities.”5AsfarasIcansee,theformulaAnāAḥmadbilāmīm,“IamAhmadwithout

m,Ahad,”afavoriteofmostpoetsandmysticsintheeastemlandsofIslam,wasnot used by the Naqshbandis because they were afraid that it might lead topantheismanddidnotdefinetheuniquepositionofIslamsufficiently.ButevenSirhindi could not avoid puns on the names ofMuhammad, as they had beenwidelypopulārfromatleastthedaysofAttar.ThusheclaimedthatMuhammadduring his lifetime had two indi-viduations, which are manifested in the tworingletsofthetwom’sofhisname(mhmd).Oneisthehuman,bodilyone,theotheristheangelic,spiritualone.InthecourseofthefirstmillenniumofIslamichistory,saidSirhindi,thefirstmofMuhammad’snameslowlydisappearedandwas replaced by the letter alif, а, which is the cipher of Divine Unity andUnicity. Thus, Muhammad (mḥmd) became Ahmad (aḥmd). (The reader willhavenodifficultyseeinghereasubtleallusiontoAhmadSirhindi’sownname.)The reformer then developed the theory that a “normal be-liever” (whichperhapsmeanssomeonewhoisclosesttotheidealofthenormativeMuslimastheperfectfolloweroftheProphetiesunna)iscalledtoreconstitutetheoriginalmanifestationofMuhammad.ThatmeansthatthebelieverwouldтакеapparentintheworldnotonlythespiritualbutalsothepoliticalandsocialaspectsoftheProphet’s teaching, and thus give Islam new luster. Then the “perfections of

Prophethood”wouldreappearintheirfullnessandperfectglory.Ahmad Sirhindi considered himself and three of his descendants to be

qayyūm, that is, in his terminology, the highest spiritual power, which keepsintactthecourseoftheworld.6Itisastrāngecoincidencethatthefourthandlastqayyūm,PirMuhammadZubair, died in1740,not longafter theconquest andpillage of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739—an event that indeed marked thebeginningoftheendoftheoncemightyMoghulempire.Theempirehadbeenslowly breaking to pieces since the death in 1707 of Aurangzeb, the lastpowerful emperor, aged nearly ninety. Internal and extemalwars and tensionsshookitsveryfoundations,andthesackofDelhiin1739wasmerelyanoutwardsignoftheendofMoghulsupremacyoverthelargerpartofIndia.ButitwasinthisverytimeofdisintegrationthatаgroupofMuslimtheologiansrecalledthesignificanceoftheroleoftheProphetasthe“beautifulmodel”;andduringthesameperiod,threegreatmysticalthinkersinDelhi,allofthemaffiliatedtotheNaqshbandiyya(thoughalsotootherSufiOrders)appearedasleadersofthenew“Muhammadan” theology that intended to give the desperateMuslims a newimpe-tusandleadthembacktotheGoldenAgeoftheProphetandhisfirstfoursuccessors.7Themost famousof these leaders isShahWaliullah,whosepolitical role in

northwestemIndiawasremarkable.HesawhimselfascalledbytheProphetandinvested as his “vieegerent in blaming,”muʽātaba, and the thirteen visions inwhich the Prophet appeared to him allow us interesting insights into theformation of his religious identity. Thus, ShahWaliullah realized that he wascalled to guide a small fraction of the Prophet’s people, the umma marḥūma,“those upon whom God has shown merey.” Beside ShahWaliullah stood hisfriend and senior colleague, Mazhar Janjanan the sunnītrāsh, “Sunnicizer,” aNaqshbandi famed for his absolute, unflinch-ing Imitation of the Prophet’ssunna.NotonlydidMazharleadanexem-plarymysticallife,buthewasalsoagood poet in both Persian and Urdu, even distinguished as one of the “fourpillars ofUrdu poetry.” The third figure in this groupwasKhwajaMirDard,knownprimarilyastheonlytrulysuperiormysticalpoetinUrdu,alanguagethathadbecomeincreas-inglyrefinedandservedasavehicleofpoetryinDelhiandLucknowfromtheearlyeighteenthCenturyonward.HoweverDardwasalsoaspeculative theologian who was instrumental in the formation of the ṭarīqamuham-madiyya.His father,NasirMuhammadAndalib, friend anddevotee ofthefourthqayyūm,hadbeenblessedbyavisioninwhichImamHasanshowedhimthefundamentalsoftheṭarīqamuhammadiyya.(Incidentally,HasanibnAli,theProphet’seldergrandson,wasalsoanimportantsourceofInspirationtothe

Shadhiliyya,whichliketheNaqshbandiyyaisa“sober”order.)ProbablyImamHasanwaschosenasamodelbythenon-Shiiteandevenanti-ShiiteSufiOrdersinsteadofHusainbecausethelatter’svenera-tionamongtheShiahadassumeddimensionsthattheSunnites,despitetheirhighrespectfortheProphet’sfamily,couldnottolerate.AndalibinitiatedhissonMirDard,whowasatthetimeofhisfather’svision

(ca.1734)aboutthirteenyearsold,intotheMuhammadanPath;othermembersfollowed. This ṭarīqa is basically nothing but a mystically heightenedfundamentalisminwhichtheunificationoftheseekerwiththeprincipleoftheḥaqīqamuḥammadiyyaconstitutesthegoalofthePath.OnecansaythattheoldSufi tripartition of thePath, sharla-tarlqa-haqlqa,was expressed byDard andhisdisciplesintheideathatthefaithfulobservanceoftheMuhammadansharīʽain the Muhammadan ṭarīqa fi-nally leads to unification with the ḥaqīqamulmmmadiyya, in which the wayfarer is endowed with the pleroma of theNinety-nineNamesandbecomesthePerfectMan(eventhoughMirDarddoesnot use this term in his writings). For “Humanity consists ofMuhammadanism.”8MirDardcomposednumerousPersianworksmeant toserveexclusively the

cause of spreading theMuhammadanPath, for he believed that only this pathwouldsavethepopulationofDelhi,whichwassufferingfrominces-santraids,attacks,famines,andpoliticalinstabilityinthedecadesfollow-ingNadirShah’sinvasion. In the ṭarīqamuḥammadiyya as elaborated byMir Dard, his fatherAndalibappears forallpracticalpurposesas the representativeof theProphet,whosecorporealdescendanthewas(beingаsayyid),butwithwhomhehadalsoreachedperfectmysticalUnioninfandför-rasūl,“annihilation in theProphet.”The reports thatDard gives about his own investiture as the vicegerent of theProphet andhis ascent through the stagesofvariousprophetsuntil he reachedtheḥaqīqamuḥammadiyyaarepsychologicallyhighlyinterestingandattempttoexpress in long-winded, swinging Persian prose the same ideas that othermysticalpoetshadsunginecstaticverses.9However,Dard,whoneverlefthishometown,Delhi,andwhoalso—contrary

to Naqshbandi ideals—loved and sponsored music, was not inter-ested inpolitics,andoneneverfindsinhisworkanyderogatoryremarksaboutthelargeShia component in the country. Mazhar Janjanan, on the other hand, wasviolentlyanti-Shiaandwasevenkilled,atagreatage,after ridiculingaShiiteMuharramprocession. Itwas in thecirclesaroundMazharandShahWaliullahthat the political importance of the Prophet was emphasized. With anargumentation typicalofmodern IslamicpolemicsMazhar, forexample,wrote

abouttherelationsbetweenthetwomajorbranchesofIslam:

Accordingto theagreementofbothsides[SunnitesandShiites]ourProphet isthe mercy for the inhabitants of the world and the worthiest of prophets; hisnationisalsothebestofnations,andhisreligionabolishesallreligions.…Thusit is necessary that his lawbemore powerful than the other laws and that hisnationbemorenumerousinrelationtoothernations.…Itisabsolutelyclearthatthe largestpart of theMuslimsareSunnites; noothergrouphas themultitudeandstrengththatthisgrouppossesses,andallthesaintsandmostofthescholars,nay rathermost of the rulers andprinces of Islamic countries,withwhom thestrengtheningofthefirmreligionisconnected,havebeeninthepastandstillareatpresentmembersofthis[theSunni]faction.10

Thatmeans thataccordingtoMazhar’sconviction thegreatnessof theProphetcan be proved by the number of the members of his community: the greaternumberofbelievers is thereforeprooffor the truthofareligion.ThisproofofthetruthfulnessoftheProphet,whichisderivedfromthesuccessofhisteachingandhispoliticalactivities,wasknowninearliertimesaswell,butitseemsthatthetendencytointerprettheProphetieofficeasasociopoliticalfactorbegantoattractmorescholarsduringtheeigh-teenthCentury.ShahWaliullahtooClaimsthat thetruthandsincerityofаprophet’sclaimcanbeexaminedbylookingatthepoliticalandsocialresultsofhispreaching,for

Godgavehimintelligencebywhichhecouldfindthepropermeanstoinstituteahealthy society, [means] such as good breeding, domes-tic economy, socialintercourse,civiceconomy,andthemanagementofthecommunity.11

It is interesting tonotice thatmore than150years laterMuhammad Iqbal, thegreatmodemistInterpreterofIslam,expressedasimilaropinion,onlywiththedifference that instead of complicated Persian phrases he uses philosophicalEnglish:

Anotherwayofjudgingthevalueofaprophet’sreligiousexperience,therefore,wouldbetoexaminethetypeofmanhoodhehascreated,andtheculturalworldthathasSprungoutofthespiritofhismessage.12

This shows that—as Iqbal States somewhere eise, correctly—the modernapproach to Islam indeed begins with ShahWaliullah: scholars are no longerinterestedinthemiraclesoftheProphetbutratherinhisroleа5nation-builder

andmodelforsocialconduct.Thisviewpoint,ofnecessity,confrontstheMuslimsconstantlywiththeideal

of the Prophet and the reality of their own political disintegration, and thuscreates a permanent tension between the elusive ideal and the sad politicalreality. TheGoldenAge of the Prophet and the first four caliphs remains theyardstickbywhich theMuslimsmeasure theirpresentSituation. Ina time likeeighteenth-centuryIndia,whentheMuslimrulevirtu-allycollapsed,andforeignimperialists such as the British and the French encroached upon thesubcontinent, the person of the Prophet became in-creasingly central in theMuslimcommunity.EventhoughMuhammad’sroleasintercessoratDoomsdaywasmentionedtimeandagain,andhishelpimploredbythepoets,thereformersunderstandablyemphasizedthepracticalaspectsofhismessage.Thisemphasiswasneeded, for theMuslimshad tocope invariouswayswith resurgentnon-MuslimcommunitiessuchastheMahrattasandtheSikhs,butmoreimportantlytheyhadtoleamhowtoadjusttheirlivestotheruleoftheBritish,whoextendedtheir power successfully in practically every realm of life. In this respect it isworth mentioning that Shah Waliullah, who so energetically called upon thePathans(RohiliasandAhmadShahDurrani)forhelpagainsttheMahrattasandSikhs, never speaks of the British—who during his lifetime, in 1757, gainedtheir first,decisivevictoryatPlassey inBengalandwhose influence increaseddaybyday.Convinced that he was the Prophet’s “vicegerent in blaming,”13 Shah

Waliullahscoldedwithhardwordsall thosewhoneglectedtheirdutiesandtheGod-given commandments, indulging in vices of sorts; those who performedpilgrimagetotheshrinesofsaintsinsteadofprayingexclusivelytotheoneanduniqueGod;andthosewhodidnotevenopposetheconstruc-tionofwineshopsandbrothelsontheirlandsiftheywereabletoтакеsomemoneyfromsuchdirtybusiness.InholywraththereformeralsoattackedthosewhostudiedphilosophyinsteadofconcentratingupontheWordofGodandthetraditionsoftheProphet:arethesepeoplenotmeanerthandogs,heasks,thesemisguided“scholars”wholick the dry bones of two-thousand-year-old Greek philosophy?14 One thinksimmediatelyhereoftheversesofSana’i,Attar,Rumi,andotherearlySufipoetswhostated,timeandagain,thatnooneisfartherawayfromthesharīʽabroughtbytheHashimiteProphetthanaphilosopher.ItissomewhatdifficulttodescribeShahWaliullah’sownSystemofthoughtin

detail.Hisnumerousworksarewritteninacomplicated,idio-syncraticArabicorPersian style, and it is not always easy to discover the exact meaning of hissentences(eventhoughhisgrandson,ShahIsnrailShahid,composedaspecial

book to explicate his grandfather’s terminol-ogy). Like many other IndianMuslims, ShahWaliullah highlights theArabic aspect of the Prophet, and the“Hashimi, Quraishi, Makki, Madini” Prophet of whom Qudsi had sung aCenturybeforehimisthefocalpointofhismeditations,justashewastobelaterthepivotof Iqbal’sprophetology.TheArabic characterof Islam in itspristinepurity and simplicity is clearly contrasted by Waliullah with the confusingplethoraoftheIndianreligioustradition.InthiscontexttheIndianMuslimsaregivenaveryspecialplaceintheworld:amongtheHindu“idol-worshipers”theyarecalledtobearwitnesstotheDivineUnity.According to Shah Waliullah, every prophet bears in himself the different

grades of perfection: the perfection of proximity that is reached by theperformanceofsupererogatoryworksofpiety,qurban-nawāfil(thiscom-prisestheStationof the saints); of proximity toGod that is attainedby thepunctualfulfillment of religious duties, qurb al-farāʽiḍ (this is the Station of theprophets);andofproximitytotheangelicworld,malakūt.TheProphetofIslamhasaveryspecial relation to theangelicplanefromwhicheventsonearthareguidedandarranged,forhisheartisamirroroftheSphereofHoliness,ḥażīratal-quds. This is that sphere inwhich the events from the highest level of theheavenlyrealmsarereflected.ThesoulofMuhammadiscomparedtoapolishedstone,ḥaarbaḥt—anideafoundmuchearlierinIbnArabi’sphilosophy.15Onlysuch a perfectly polished heart was able to receive and reflect all divineIllumination and Inspiration. After God had entrusted to the Prophet the ruleovertheworldandthecareofhiscommunity,itwasnecessarythathissoul,thepolishedstone,shouldparticipateinthegreatactionsoftheHighestAssembly,al-mal’a al-aʽlā, and be endowed with knowledge of past and future events.Thus this prophetic soul reflected the stories of generations past and knew ofthings that were important for the welfare of the community; likewise theProphet was granted knowledge of the events that will соте to pass atDoomsday.SoShahWaliullahexplainedtheProphet’sknowledgeofeventspastandfuture,aknowledgethatcannotbeunderstoodandexplainedbyreferencetonaturalcauses.One of Shah Waliullah’s passages seems quite mysterious: he sees

Muhammaddevelop in three circles thatwax, like crescentmoons, into a fullmoonuntil the full completion, that is, his position asSeal of theProphets, isachieved. In another passage the Prophet appears to him as someone who isdistinguished by complete inner harmony and supported by the Sphere ofHoliness. However, even more important is his active role in creating аsuccessfulcommunity.Again,inadifferentconnection,Muhammadappearsin

the traditional Islamic way, as the Seal of Prophethood, who was sent tohumankind and djinn, who is going to intercede for the sinners of hiscommunity, and who admonishes the faithful to busy their tongues withoutInterruptioninrecitinghisvirtues.Iqbal,whopraisedShahWaliullahasthefirstMuslimwhofeittheneedfora

new spirit in Islam, took up in his own works the latter’s remark that everyProphethaseducatedonespecialpeople,whothencouldbeusedasthenucleusforbuildinganall-embracinglaw.ItseemsthatthisideagoesbacktoaquotationfromShahWaliullah’scomprehensiveArabicworkHujjatAllāhal-bāligha,andit is interesting tonote that theeighteenth-century reformervoices theopinionthatthenatureofthepropheticmes-sageisrelatedtothecharacterofthepeopletowhomtherespectiveprophetissent:

Prophethood is something like refining and polishing something to таке it asbeautiful as possible, whether this thing be a lamp or а lump of clay.… Theinnatecharacterofanationiscomparabletothematerial,beitalamporclay.16

This explains why the prophets preach on different levels. Their messages,whichwereaddressedtoonepeopleafteranother,becameincreasinglyrefineduntilthemessagebecameall-comprehensiveinMuhammad.Onlyhecomprisesallaspectsoftherevelation;themessengersthatworkedbeforehimhadtogeartheirwordstowardthespecificгасеtowhomtheyweresent,orhadtoadaptittomoreorlesselevatedlevelsofconscious-ness.Shah Waliullah sometimes surprises his readers with amazingly modem-

sounding remarks, particularly when he tries to explain the miracles of theProphet.Thus theSplittingof theMoon, aswe sawearlier, appears to himasperfectlyintelligibleinthelightofnaturalcauses.HeevenexplainsthedetailsofMuhammad’sheavenlyjoumeyinanovelway:allthehumanperfectionsoftheProphetweremanifestedinhispurebody,whilehis“animalperfections”werematerializedintheshapeofBuraq.AndyetthissamescholarwhoattemptedtorationalizemiraclesliketheSplittingoftheMoon,whichpeoplelovedsodearly,also praised the signs and miracles performed by the Prophet in a long,traditionalpoemthat takesupexactly thesameimagery thathadbeenusedbyhundredsofpiouspoetsinthePersianateworld.OneproblemthatwasalwaysstressedinthelaterNaqshbandiyya,andwhich

thereforeplaysanimportantroleinthetheologyoftheṭarīqamuḥammadiyya,isthe difference between the two types of proximityman can attain, that is, thequrb an-nawāfil and qurb al-farā’id. The first term, “proximity reached bysupererogatory works,” is derived from a well-known extra-Koranic Divine

Word,theso-calledḥadīthan-nawāfil,inwhichtheLordsays:“Myservantdoesnotceasetoсотеclosertomebymeansofsupererogatoryworks,andwhenheapproachesmeaspan,Iapproachhimacubit,andifhecomeswalkingІсотеrunning,andthenIlovehimuntilIbecomehiseyebywhichhesees,hisearbywhich he hears, and his hand by which he grasps.” This ḥadīth qudsī wasinterpreted by the mystics as pointing to a transformation of man, who byconstantServicereachesdivineproximityandislostinGod.Thisisatthesametimethefinalpointonthe“wayofintoxication”forthosewhoaresocompletelycarriedawaythattheylosethemselvesinGodanddonotwanttoretumtothisworld.17The“proximityachievedbytheperformanceofreligiousduties,”ontheotherhand, is regardedas thewayof theprophets,whoexperience theDivineUnityasaresultofpunctualfulfillmentofallreligiousduties.Thisideaisbasedon another ḥadīth qudsī, which is elabo-rated by Razi Daya, a typicalrepresentativeof“sober”Sufism:“Godsays:ThereisnaughtthatbringsmensonighuntoMeasperforming thatwhich Ihavemade incumbentupon them.’ ”ForaccordingtothismedievalSufileader,“eachcommandmentoftheLawisakeytooneofthelocksofthesupremetalisman.”18ThosewhopursuethispathwillretumintotheworldsoberandinspiredtoworktherefortherealizationofthekingdomofGod.Thiswas,fortheNaqshbandis,thehighestpossibleStation,and it fits perfectly with the Interpretation of Muhammad’s return from themiʽrājinOrdertoguidehiscommunity.Thesetwotypesofpossibleresponsetothe experience of proximity to God show with perfect clarity the differencebetweenwhat historians of religion (sinceNathan Söderblom) have called the“prophetic”and“mystic”typesofexperience.One of the three mystical theologians of Delhi, Mir Dard, devoted many

chaptersinhisPersianworkstothisveryproblem.BeingasayyidonbothsidesofhisfamilyandhencecloselyrelatedtotheProphet,hefeitthatbyfollowingtheexampleofhisnobleancestoreamestlyandbyperformingunceasingly theduties laid down in the sharīʽa he could further enhance his relation toMuhammad.Atlasthereachedastagewhereheexperiencedhimselfasthetmesuccessor of the Prophet charged with calling mankind to the tme“Muhammadan”faith:

He[God]spoketome:“…0VicegerentofGodandSign(āya)ofGod!VerilyIhavewitnessedyourstateofservanthood;nowwitnessMyDivinity,foryouareMyservantandhewhomIhaveacceptedandwhomMyProphethasaccepted.…”

And afterDard has acknowledged that he is “the descendant ofYour beloved

andpartofYournightingale[Andalib],”Godaddresseshim:“IhavecalledyoutothefinalsumtotalandtheMuhammadansumtotal;whoeverobeysyouobeysGodandtheProphet.”19Thus,around1750–60notonlydidShahWaliullahconsiderhimselftobethe

“vicegerent of the Prophet in blaming,” but Mir Dard experienced his owninvestitureastheProphet’svicegerentinallhisaspects.Thismaybeonereasonfor the fact that neither of the twomystics,who lived not very far from eachotherinDelhi,evermentionstheother’snameinhisworks(thoughWaliullah’ssonsstudiedUrdupoetrywithDard).Onemay surmise that thenew importancegiven to thehistoricalor at least

semihistoricalMuhammadinIndiaduringtheeighteenthCenturycanbelargelyexplainedfromthepoliticalSituation:thesufferingcommunityneededastrong,radiant model for their survival. One can also sense in this movement anostalgia,alongingfortheGoldenAge.DidnottheProphetcreatethe“bestofallnations,”onethatwascalledtobethebearerofthefinalDivinelaw?Andyetthisnation,despite its formergloryandpower,hadnownothing tocounteracttheincursionsoftheSikhs,Hindus,andEuropeansintheirareaexcept,atbest,theirprideintheirpast.Suchnostalgiahasbeenanimportantingredientoftheveneration of the Prophet up to the present, for the ideal of theMuslims hasremainedthetimewhenMuhammadledthemfromvictorytovictory.TheonlywayopentothebeleagueredMuslimsinIndiawas,theyfeit,togobacktohiminthehopethatinthiswaythecommunitymightprosperagain.Evenso,theirSituationdeterioratedalmostfromyeartoyear.After1806,the

lastMoghul rulersweremore or less puppets in the hands of theBritishEastIndia Company. But the ṭarīqa muḥammadiyya was alive under the surface.Some thirty-five years afterMirDard’s death in 1785, the nameof the ṭarīqamuḥammadiyyaservedtodesignateapoliticalmovementthatwastheologicallysupportedby thedescendantsofShahWaliullah.The leaderof thismovement,SayyidAhmadofRaiBareilly,tried,alongwithhisfollowers,todrivetheSikhsout of the northwestem areas of the subcontinent, which were inhabited by aMuslim majority.20 As in early Islam, the personality of the Prophet wasregarded by the freedom fighters as the axis around which the true believersgather, and the remem-brance of his life inspired them to believe in the finalvictory of Islam over all its enemies. Even when Sayyid Ahmad and histheologicaladviser,ShahWaliullah’sgrandsonIsma’il,werekilledbytheSikhoin 1831, and the community apparently then dissolved, the enthusiasm of theremaining fighters remainedunshaken;on thecontrary, fordecades afterwardstheyfought for their ideals,nowno longeragainst theSikhsbut ratheragainst

theBritish,stillhopingtoreinstateatrulyIslamicruleinIndia.ApoliticalmovementcenteredupontheProphetwasnot,however,peculiarto

India.AtalmostthesametimethatIndo-MuslimfightersroseupinthenameoftheProphet,similarfratemitiesappearedinNorthAfricaandthecentralIslamiclands.Both theSanusiyyaand theTijaniyyaaremystical fratemities that fromtheir inception have placed the figure of the Prophet in the center of theirreligious life; on the basis of his role as leader of the victorious armies, theybegantofighttheFrenchandItaliancolonialpowers“inthenameofGodandHisProphet.”IntheSanusiyyatheIdentificationofthemysticwiththeProphet,uponwhose

essence he must concentrate, is the pivot of piety. In yet another order, theMirghaniyya,whichbegantoblossomataboutthesametimeinMeccaandthenexpanded intoEgyptand theSudan,constant remembranceof theProphetandunflinchingloveforhimare,evenmorethaninotherOrders,thetruebadgeofidentity,asonecanseefromthelitaniesandinvocationsusedbythemembersofthesereligiousgroupstothepresentday.ConstanceE.Padwickmentions thebasicexperienceof the leadersof these

movements.ItissaidofAhmadat-Tijani:

AmongthegraceswithwhichGodhonouredhimwasthewakingVisionoftheProphet, continuously and ever, so that it was never absent from him for thetwinklingofaneye.And(anothergracewas)hisquestioningoftheProphetoneverything and asking his counsel in small things and great, and undergoingtrainingathishands.21

Similarly, the founderof theSanusiyya (and theMirghaniyya)was inconstantcontactwiththebelovedProphet:

This order is founded on the absorption of the inner life of its founder in thespectacleoftheVerySeifoftheProphet,withthebuildingupofhisouterlifeonthefollowingofhiminwordanddeed,andtheoc-cupationofhistonguewiththecallingdownofblessinguponhimandhisperseverance in thisduring thegreater part of his solitary andhis public devotions, tili themagnifyingof theProphetdominatedhisheartandwasmingledwithhisinmostbeing,sothathewasmovedattheverymentionofhim.AndthevisionoftheProphet’sessentialbeingreignedinhisheartsothatnocreatedbeingotherthantheProphethadanyweightwithhim.22

Aswe saw (p. ioo), the Tijaniyya recommends the prayer calledAl-Fātihiyya

morethananyotherprayertoitsfollowers.TheSanusiyyapreferstheso-calledʽAżīmiyyaprayer:

MyGod,IaskTheebythatlightoftheFaceofthegreatGodwhichfilledthebasesoftheGreatThrone,andbywhichuprosetheworldsoftheGreatGod,tocalldownblessingonourLordMuhammad,thegreatinrank,andonthefamilyoftheProphetofthegreatGod.23

In theMirghaniyya,whichhas produced a vast literature of prayer poetry andblessingsfortheProphet,thefaithfulmaypray:

OGod,bytherankofThyProphet,byThylovetohimandhislovetoTheeIask…:Double,OLord,mylovetohim;adommyhear-ingwiththeearringsofthejoyofhisspeech!24

The nineteenth Century, when such prayers were populār in both East andWestamongthefaithful,wasatimeofincreasingpoliticaltensionfortheentireIslamicworld.ItthusmayсотеassomewhatofasurprisethatevenduringthisperiodsomeIndianMuslimscoulddevotetheirtimetoseem-inglyhairsplittingproblemsconcemingtheroleoftheProphet,butsoitwas.ThetheologianFazl-iHaqqKhairabadi,whowaslaterbanishedtotheAndamanIslandsforhisactiveparticipationintheunsuccessfulmilitaryrevoltagainsttheBritishin1857,hadadispute with the leader of the ṭarīqa muḥammadiyya, Isnrail Shahid. TheproblematstākewaswhetherGodcouldcreateanotherMuhammadincasethenecessitytodososhouldemerge.Fazl-iHaqqheldthatGodcouldbynomeanscreateanotherMuhammad,whereasIsnrailShahidbelievedthatHecoulddosobutwouldnotdoit.MirzaGhalib,whosoonafterwardscomposedhisgrandiosenaʽtof101verses,wasaskedhisopinion,andtothedisappointmentofhisfriendFazl-i Haqq he sided with Isma’il, though couching his thought in carefullychosenPersianverses:

Whereveratumultofaworldarises,There“Mercyfortheworlds”isalsofound.25

Thatmeans that shouldGod create otherworldswith intelligent creatures,Hewouldnotdeprivethemofpropheticguidance.ACenturylaterIqbaltookupthisidea in his Jāvīdnāma; for the problem, which was really insignificant in theearlynineteenthCentury,hadgainedimportancewiththeprogressofScience—forinstance,withtheastronomers’discoveriesofmoreandlargergalaxies, the

structureofwhichseemedtoallowthepossibleexistenceoforganiclifeofsomekindortheotherelsewhere.Whatwouldhappentotheseextraterrestrialbeings?Would they not also need spiritual guidance by prophets? But if so, how tocombineGhalib’sanswerwiththecentraldogmaofIslam,thatofthefinalityofProphethood? Iqbal,wisely enough, averted further discussion of this delicatepointthroughаskillfultumofhispoem;weleamfromhiscorrespondencewithSayyidSulaimanNadwithatGhalib’sversehadcausedhimsomeanxiety.26Butduring thenineteenthCentury itwas comparatively rare that such ideas

occupiedMuslim thinkers.TheMuslims in Indiaandsomewhat later inEgypthad completely different and more pressing problems. Their British colonialoverlords had introduced them—at least a few of them—to books written byEuropeanorientalistsabouttheirbelovedProphet,andwithamazedhorrortheystudiedthebiographiesofMuhammadbyWilliamMuirandAloysSprenger.Itis thereforequitenatural thatanewtheologicalapproachshouldhaveemergedfromthefirstclashwith theEuropean“critical”approachto theProphet’s life.Thisnewtheologywas,under-standably,largelyapologetic,andcenteredmainlyuponthepersonoftheProphet.ThegreatreformerofIndianIslam,SirSayyidAhmadKhan,wasoneofthe

first, if not the first, to construct his modemist theology with regard to theProphet,whomhedeeplyloved.27Tobesure,MuslimorthodoxyattackedhimvehementlyforhisCooperationwiththeBritishandalsobecausehe,alaymanwithout the traditional theological education in аmadrasa, had arrogated tohimself the right tomodemize theOutlookof theMuslims. Inhis earlyyouthSayyid Ahmad—in this period an extremely sunna-conscious Muslim—hadcomposedakindof“reformedmaulid,”аworkinwhichheintendedtoridthefigureoftheProphetoflaterlegendsandmythicalaccretions.Hisidealwas,likethat of theNaqshbandiyya, that the trueMuslim should realize in his life theakhlāq-i muhammadī, the noble qualities of the Prophet, and imitate him inevery respect in the sphere of ethics.LikeShahWaliullah before him, SayyidAhmad recognized that the enormous mass of commentaries, scholia, andsupercommentariesontheKoranconstitutedagreatdangertotheMuslims,forthese commentaries seemed to obscure rather than illuminate the simple, clearmessageof theHolyBook.He therefore lamented thatGod’s commandments,“which that innocent, honest, simpleminded prophet of sweet character” hadbroughttotheignorant,illiteratedesertdwellersinsuchplain,clear,andsimplewords had now been changed by unnecessary additions of empty distinctions,refinedmetaphysicalpropositions,andlogicalimprovementsinsuchawaythatitwasimpossibletorecognizetheiroriginalpurityandsimplicity.28Fiftyyears

laterIqbalwastocomplaininsimilarwords:“Iamsurethat,iftheHolyProphetwouldappearoncemoreandteachIslaminthiscountry,thenthepeopleofthiscountrywould not be able to understand the Islamic truth due to the existingconditionsandmodesofbehavior.”29SirSayyidconstantlyponderedhow toтаке theProphetoncemoreа living

realityforhiscommunityandtoprovehisgreatnesstotheworld—thatgreatnesswhichcontrastedsodramaticallywiththepresentSituationofMuslimsvis-à-vistheWesternpowers.Hethereforecomposednumerousarticlesandspeechesonthis topic,30 and his Essays on the Life of Mohammed also contain quite anumberofquotationsfromWesternauthorswhohadutteredpositiveStatementsaboutMuhammad’s greatness.31 Such quotations became an important part ofapologetic literature.The favoriteauthorofall Islamicmodemists in IndiahasbeenThomasCarlyle,whose admiring remarks aboutMuhammad in his bookOnHeroesandHeroWorshiphavebeenrepeatedsooftenbyMuslimsthathiscritical words about the Prophet are completely overlooked or negated.32Washington Irving was also cited with approval.33 Unfortunately none of thereformers could read German to see Goethe’s positive evaluation of theProphetie spirit as expressed in “Mahomet’s Gesang” and theWest-ÖstlicherDivan (one ofCarlyle’s sources of Inspiration), and itwas another fifty yearsbeforeIqbalremediedthisregrettableomission.Italsoseemsthatthereformers—even inareasunderFrenchcolonial ruleorat leastcultural influence—werenotawareofthebookswritteninFrenchduringandfollowingtheperiodoftheEnlightenment, inwhich several authors (begin-ningwith Boulainvilliers) hadapproachedthelifeoftheProphetinaratheradmiringway.ShahWaliullahhadmadethefirstshyattemptsatdemythologizingonelegend

ortheother;SirSayyidfollowedhiminthisrespectandquotedhimextensivelyeventhoughhisownearlyworkcontainsaspecialsectiononthe“thousandsandthousands of miracles of the Prophet.”34 He did not, for instance, deem itnecessary to believe that during the battle of Badr angels had supported theProphet;hepreferredtothinkthatDivinegracealonewasatwork,andthatGoddid not really būrden the angels (whatever they are!) with accomplishing thetask.35 Sir Sayyid also believed that prophethood is an innate human quality;here, his part-time collaborator Maulana Shibli followed him closely:prophethood is “the last andmostperfect stage in thedevelopmentofnatural,inbomqualities;itisa‘spiritualfaculty,’i.e.,thequwwat-iqudsiyya,‘facultyofsanctity,’ormalika-inubuwwat,‘habitusofprophethood.’“36As for the verbal Inspiration of theKoran, Sir Sayyid took a stance almost

moreorthodoxthanevenShahWaliullah,refusingtoacceptthepossibilitythat

onlythemeaningoftheKoranwasinspiredtotheProphet,whothenexpressedit in human language. For him, every word is Divinely inspired, hence sopowerful.Muhammad is to hismind “the uniquely qualified guide for givingtauhld (theOnenessofGod)adequateexpres-sioninpractical life.”37Andthissame man, who was harshly attacked for his modemism, also composed atouching prayer that is as ardent as any prayer uttered by a mystic in thecenturiesbeforehim:

OmyGod,givemeabumingbreast!OmyGod,bestowonmeweepingeyes!OmyGod,keepmeutterlyintoxicatedwiththeloveofAhmad!OmyGod,theonewhoisillofloveforhim—heisforgiven.OmyGod,givemethepainofthepassionateloveofMustafaandgivemethen

thebalmofcommunionwithhim.OmyGod,такеmethedustofMedina,fastenmyboattoitsghāt[landing

place]!OmyGod,freemefromthenegligenceoftimeintotheplaceofal-Mustafa,the

lordoftheUniverse.Grantmetorestinfaithinhiscityinagraveinal-Baqiʽ[Medina’sgraveyard].

…Mysoulislaidoutonyourfootsteps,OAhmad;ThisStationithasaskedforfromGod.38

OneofSirSayyid’scollaboratorsinhiseducationaljoumalTahdhibal-akhlāq(ThePolishingofMorals)wasChiraghAlifromHyderabad/Deccan.IncriticalradicalismhebyfarsurpassedSirSayyidandrejectedthemajorityoftraditionalḥadīth, claiming that the traditions formed “a chaotic sea.”39 He acceptedMuhammad’s authority only insofar as reli-gious—in the widest sense of theword—problems were at stāke: “That, in which he Supports them in theirreligion,wehavetoaccept,butwhenheexpresseshisownopinion,hetoowasonly a human being.” In other words, the Prophet possessed a kind ofinfallibilityas longashespokeas itwereexcathedra, that is,whenhe taughtreligious matters—but not when speaking of affairs of this world. He shouldtherefore not be regarded as a teacher of agriculture or medicine. Thisconviction, aswe saw, canbe found in classical Islamaswell, for instance inBaqillani’s theology,butChiraghAli’scriticismofḥadīth surpassedbyfar thehitherto valid Standards (and was almost as radical as, if not more so than,Goldziher’scritique,pub-lishedinGermanyinhisMuhammedanischeStudiena

fewyearsafterChiraghAli’sdeath; the twomenwereneveracquainted).Thisovercritical attitude of Chiragh Ali’s may well have been one reason for thedeeplyfeitaversionoftheAhl-ihadithinIndiatoSirSayyidandhismodemistideas.ButneitherSirSayyidnoranyofhisnumerousfriendswhotriedtointerpret

Prophetie tradition in a modern way and to show that Islam is absolutelycompatiblewithprogresswasabletoofferasimpressiveаpictureoftheProphetandthecultureheinauguratedaswasSyedAmeerAli.HisbookTheLifeandTeachings ofMuhammad, or The Spirit of Islam, published shortly before SirSayyid’s death, became themodel of a com-pletely new genre of literature inIslamic lands: books, as Wilfred Cant well Smith puts it, “which show theMuslimsaProphetofwhomtheymaywellbeproud.”40InthemtheProphetisdepicted as the embodiment of all good qualities that a human being canimagine.Itisnot,however,somuchtheextemalaspectsofMuhammad’slife—thewayhetiedhisturban,orwhichfruitshewasfondof—thatformthemaintopicofthesebooks,butratherhisspiritualattitude,hisWeltanschauung,andhismorals. The Prophet’s modesty and humility are duly emphasized, as is hisloving care for all those who are part of his community. His patience andperseverance under duress and difficult conditions serve as a model for theMuslims. Thus Muhammad appears no longer as the Perfect Man on themystical plane but as themost perfect human being ever bom on earth.41 ToSyedAmeerAliandallthosewhofollowedhimMuhammadisthetrulymodernman; theywere convinced that onceMuslimsunderstood this theywould alsounderstandthatIslamisnotonlycompatiblewithprogressbutratherisprogressinitself.Themodemistswereinterestedprimarilyineducationalproblems,muchmore

than in scholastic hairsplitting and theological niceties. They there-fore askedthemselves why children should leam all those charming but unnecessarylegends about the Prophet, or memorize poems about his mystical qualities.Woulditnotbemuchmoreusefultogivethemarationalimageofthefounderoftheirreligion,first,sothattheymightbepreparedtofightagainsttheWesternscholarswiththeirderogatoryInterpretationoftheProphet—andsecond,sothattheymightalsoredirect theirownlivesaccording to thepracticalmodelgivenonceforallbytheProphet?Much as Protestant theology of the late nineteenth and early twentieth

centuriesgravitated toan interest in theLeben-Jesu-Forschungat theex-penseof devotion to the mythical Christ, in the Islamic world the so-called siratmovementsetin,resultinginafloodofnew,moreorlessscholarly,biographies

oftheProphet.(Interestingly,MuhammadAbduh,theEgyp-tianreformerofthelatenineteenthCentury,hadacopyofDavidFriedrichStrauss’sLifeofJesusinhis library; it would be worth while to follow the influence of this book onMuslimbiographicalliterature.)42ThesiratmovementbeganinIndiainthefirsthalfofthepresentCentury.Thebookshopsofthesubcontinentweresoonfilledwith an immense variety of biographies, ranging from the important scholarlyevaluationoftheProphet’slife,Siratan-nabi,writteninUrdubyMaulanaShibliNumani(com-pletedbyhisdiscipleSayyidSulaimanNadwi),43toinnumerablepopulār treatisesand tractsabout“OurBelovedProphet”or“TheDearLifeoftheSweetProphet.”ThenewinterestinthehistoricalMuhammadwassointensethatin1911aHinduschoolmasterinSind,LalchandJagtiani,publishedaSindhiworkaboutthelifeoftheProphetbecausehefeitembarrassedthathisMuslimpupilsdidnotknowanythingaboutthehistoricalrootsoftheirreligionandthebiography of the Prophet, but rather clung to the purely legendary talespreserved in populār poems.44 It was threemore years before the first Sindhibiography written by aMuslim appeared in Hyderabad/Sind, and the modernreader cannot but admire the unbiased attitude of the Hindu biographer, whoreliedonbothEuropeanandPersiansources.45NumerousotherworksinUrdu,Panjabi,Sindhi,andotherlanguagesfollowedinbothpoetryandprose,oneofthe latest vemacular products being aSindhiMathnawīMuhammadi (1958), alongpoemabouttheProphet’slifebyHafizAbdullahBismilofThikur.Asinglelook at the Publishing lists of Shaikh Mohd. Ashraf in Lahore and, morerecently, of Ferozsons in the same city suffices to give an impression of thevarious works on Muhammad, the number of which has lately again beengrowing.Yeteveninthe1960smyquestionsabouttheageofsomemausoleumsin an East Bengali village were answered by the innocent Statement of thevillage elder: “Very, very old,Mem,many thousand years old, like our HolyProphet.” Despite the sīrat movement, historical awareness was (and still is)largelylackingamongtheIndianMuslims.Nevertheless, theattempt to teachhistorical factshaschanged theMuslims’

Outlook on the Prophet’s miracles to some extent. As early as 1906 ShaikhQidwai (Kidwai), speaking about themiracleswrought byMuhammad, statedthathisgreatestmiraclewasnot,asthemassestendedtobelieve,theSplittingoftheMoon,theSighingPalmTrunk,ortheSpeakingSheepbutratherthesocial,spiritual, moral, and religious transformation of Arabia. This attitude was toform the focal point ofMuslim apologetic literature in the following decades.Was not Muhammad’s true miracle, as Sir Sayyid had put it, that he tumed“marauding Bedouins” into civilized human beings? Or, seen from anotherviewpoint,thathe,ahumanbeing,couldreachsuchunsurpassableperfection?

The Prophet’s character and his personal achievements became central toMuslimmodemisttheology.46Hisexemplaryqualitiesaresometimescolorfullydepicted in anecdotal style, sometimes simply enumerated. As formerly inpoetry,theProphetnowappearsinproseasthemodelofeverythingpositiveandbeautiful; he is the paragon of kindness, generosity, politeness, friendliness,purity, and patience; his love of children, so charmingly described in manypopulārpoems,ishighlighted,for,asSarwarwrites,

What was the keynote of his life? It was nothing but love of God, love ofmankind… love of children; love of the gentler sex; love of friends, love offoe.47

Wilfred Cantwell Smith has called such descriptions manifestations of the“idealsofbourgeoisie,”48and itmaybe true that, asheClaims,manymodernMuslimsfinditeasiertorevereMuhammadasapersonthantoponderdogmaticStatements or mystical speculations, not to mention com-plicated theologicalreasoning,abouthisnature:

Thosewhoaretoomodern,toointelligent,ortoobusy,toadheretothesunnaoreventheQuran;toolaxtodevotethemselvestoGod,ortosocialism;canderivegreatemotionalandreligioussatisfactionfromtheir“loveoftheProphet.”49

TheliteratureaboutMuhammadgrewsteadily,andmorebookswerewrittenabouthislifeinthefiftyyearsbetweenSirSayyid’sdeathandtheendofWorldWar II than in all previous centuries.Mystical or devotional books, however,whichhadformedthelargerpartofreligiousliteratureintheMiddleAgesandpremodemtimes,were(andstillare)nolongersoprominent.Thenewinterestinthe energetic, politically active and socially responsible Prophet foundexpressioneveninpoetry.ThusanUrdupoetofthebeginningofthisCentury,Safi Lakhnawi, describes the Prophet in new terms derived fromSir Sayyid’sreformisttheology:

He,whohascausedtobendtheheadsoftheheadstrongArabs,He,whohastransformedanimalsintohumanbeings,He,whohasbroughttheteachingoffratemityAndtreated[humanbeings]with

equality,Thereformerofcapitalism,Theprotectorofthosewhoaremarkedbylabor…50

Such language prefigures the idea ofMuhammad as the “imamof socialism,”whichhasbeenputforthmorethanonceinourage.Thenewinterest inthepersonoftheProphetwasofcoursenotrestrictedto

India,forotherMuslimcountrieswerefacedwithsimilarproblems.AmongtheArab countries itwas particularly inEgypt that reformist theolo-gians such asMuhammadAbduhstrovetoreachanewunderstandingoftheKoranandoftheroleoftheProphet.Theresultsoftheirstudieswereinmanyrespectsthesameas those achieved by their Indian colleagues, and generally it seems that the“task of dishing up the biography [of Muhammad] to suit the taste of theChristianWest upset some Islamicists beyondmeasure”—or soW.H.TempleGairdnerremarkedinanunusuallybitingarticleaboutaninternationalgatheringofMuslims at theWokingMosque in London that sought to show “the idealMuhammadduringthecelebra-tionsofhisbirthdayin1917.”51It isremarkablethat theimageofMuhammadinthethoughtofJamal-uddin

Afghani—whomercilesslycondemnedSirSayyid’s“naturalism”—wasinmanyrespectssimilartothatofhisIndianContemporary.Yethetooshiftedemphasis,realizing (as Albert Hourani puts it) that “the center of attention is no longerIslamasareligion:itisratherIslamasacivilisa-tion,”52andthattheummahadbeen “great as long as it followed the teachingof theProphet.”53MuhammadAbduh took up these ideas and—again like Sir Sayyid and his followers—claimed that “Muhammad was sent not only to preach a way of individualsalvationbuttofoundavirtuoussociety.”54This very issue of Muhammad’s role as the founder of a Community also

formed the center of the intense discussion about the caliphate (khilāfat) thataroseafterAtaturkhadabolished thatoffice inMarch1924. In thisdiscussionʽAli ʽAbdurRaziqheld that “Muhammadcreated a community, but not of thetype we normally call a ‘state’; it was a community which had no essentialrelationshipwithonegovemment rather thananotheroronenation rather thananother.”55 However, his theological adversary, Shaikh Bakhit, stressed thenecessity of the implementation of the sharīʽa and hence an “IslamicGovemment,”for“toexecutethelawwasanessentialpartofhis[Muhammad’s]mission;butthisimpliesthathehadpoliticalpower,andthatfromtheStarttheIslamic community was a political community.”56 This problem, nevercompletely resolved, still looms large wherever a truly “Islamic” state isenvisaged.Howeverasidefromin-depthdiscussionofMuhammad’sroleintheformation

of his community, major biographical works about his life ap-peared in theArabic-speakingworldonlyfromthemid-1930sonward.Theytriedtodojustice

to thepersonof theProphetbyapplying tohisbiography the toolsofmodernhistoricalresearch.Modem Western critics have nevertheless sensed a lack of historical

concretenessintheimageoftheperfectProphet,whoisthe“beautifulmodel”ofallvirtues.RotrautWielandt,forexample,ClaimsthattheimageoftheProphetas it appears in Muhammad Abduh’s theology “radiates а strānge, colorlesslight.”57TheProphetembodiesanddoeseverythinggood,noble,lofty,andwise,andinthelightofthisabsoluteperfectionallthosecontoursthatcouldgivereallifetohispersonseemtofadeaway.Thatis,despiteAbduh’sattempttoofferapicture of the historical Muhammad, there yet remains (as Arthur JefferycorrectlyStates)aclear-cutSeparationbetween theMuhammadofhistoryandtheMuhammadoffaith,between“thehistoricalpreacherandthemysticalfigureoftheProphetwhichlivesinthefaith.”58ʽAbduh’sspiritualsuccessor,MuhammadRashidRida,wroteaKhulāsatas-

slra al-muḥammadiyya, a quintessence of the Prophet’s biography in rhymedprose, in which, however, as little “modern” approach is visible as in at-Tahtawi’sNihāyat al-iʽjāz fi sīra sākin al-Hijāz (The Outmost Marvel in theBiographyof theDwellerof theHijaz;published1868–74),oneof theearliestbooksintheEgyptiansira-movement(ifonecanspeakofsuchamovementatall).ButinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethCenturypoetstootookupthepraiseofthe Prophet in a more or less modemized style. The poet laureate of Egypt,Ahmad Shauqi,wrote naʽtiyya poetry “in the style of theBurda” (fi nahj al-burda).HisContemporaryMahmud Sami al-Barudi composed a biography oftheProphetinverse,basedonIbnHisham’sSira;publishedin1909,itisnotofgreat poetical or historical value, and certainly does not таке very excitingreading.Much later,AhmadMuharram tookup a similar task in his historicalpoem Dīwān majd al-Islām au al-Iliyād al-islāmiyya.59 Ahmad Amin, theindefatigable Egyp-tian apologist for Islam, wrote numerous articles between1937and1950inwhichheportrayedMuhammadnotonlyasasocialreformerbut also as а perfectSufi, so that he appears as the exemplar of humanityparexcel-lence:60thisissimplyalogicaldevelopmentoftheKoranicuswahasana.In theArabic-speaking countries one of themost important Steps toward a

newevaluationoftheProphetasahistoricalpersonalitywasMuhammadHusainHaikal’sworkḤayātMuḥammad,whichappeared in1935withа forewordbyMustafa al-Maraghi, then rectorof al-Azhar. InhisGeschichte der arabischenLiteraturCarlBrockelmannwritesthatHaikal“succeededinbringingthepersonof his hero close to his readers in the human sphere and yet preserved hisreligiousposition.”61LikesomeIndianreformersbeforehim,Haikalalso tried

to explain in a somewhat rationalistic way thosemiracles of the Prophet thatseemed to contradict themodern scientific world view. The harmonization ofreasonandrevelationisthepivotofhiswork;hismostinterestingventureinthisrespectishisInterpretationoftheheavenlyjoumeyinpsychologicalterms,inanefforttogivethismiracleameaningthatcouldbeeasilyacceptedbyamodernmind.Butwithallhismodemist attitude,Haikal too shows theProphet as thegreatleaderofhispeople,asaman“whohadapowerwhichcanuplifthumanityto the heights of the spirit, where life consists of fratemity and love, and anambitiontoknoweverythingthatexistsintheworld.”Muhammadre-mains,asisnatural, theonlyguideon the road toward spiritual, scientific, and religiousprogress. Haikal’s book certainly responded to a deeply feit longing amongEgyptian readers: in threemonths, the first ten thousandcopieshadbeensold,andal-Azharhonored theauthor,whosework sawnumerouseditionsandwassoontranslatedintoChinese,Turkish,Persian,andUrdu.Of course,Haikal’smodern analysis of legends andmiracleswasnot found

acceptable in more orthodox circles. Shortly after his book was published arefutation appeared from the pen of an orthodoxWahhabi critic, inwhich therealityofalltheProphetiemiracleswasmaintained.Theauthorlikewisepointsout,withsomeright,thatHaikalhaddonefulljusticetoMuhammadtheleaderofthearmyandMuhammadthepoliticianbutnottoMuhammadtheProphet.62HetoucheshereonaproblemcommontoalargenumberofmodernbiographiesoftheProphet: that theirauthorsoftenoverlookthegenuinelyreligiousqualityof the Prophet, which does not fit with the tightly rationalistic image untilrecentlyinfavor,inwhichfilterestin“true”detailseemstosupersedethatinthespecial Charisma of the biographical subject himself. Improved historicalaccuracy is certainly a laudable goal; but the secret of the great founders ofreligionsliesbeyondtheanalyticalapproachof“pure”scholarship.A few years after Haikal’s study, another very important work appeared in

Egypt, ʽAbbasMahmud al-ʽAqqad’sĀbqariyyatMuḥammmad (TheGenius ofMuhammad;publishedin1942).63In thisbook,ʽAqqadexplains the ingeniousachievements of the Prophet, whose ʽiṣma is defined as “being free of moraldefects.”

Heenteredaworldthathadlostitsfaith,andhencehadlostthesecretofinternalpeace and extemal order, aworld that waswaiting for the liberating voice ofIslam.Muhammadwastheexemplarofvirtues,virtuesbothofthepreacherandof the soldier; he had the eloquence, convincing power, and intensity of thepreacher,and thecourage,gal-lantry,andsuccessof thewarrior.Superb inhistalentsandhischar-acterheruledhistimeashedominatedlatertimes.N0event

that has since taken place has been the same as it would have been withoutMuhammad.Historybeforehimandafterhimiscompletelydifferent.64

Muhammad appears here as the axis of history—an idea that is, as itwere, аsecularizedexpressionofthesamefeelingthatthemysticshadrevealedintheirsuperbhymnsthroughpoeticalimages.It isworthmentioning in thiscontext that thegreat literarycriticofmodern

Arabic,TahaHusain,producedin1933akindofhistoricalnovel,ʽAlāhāmishas-sīra (At theMarginof theSira), inwhichheelaboratedmost fancifullyontraditional topics of the early life of theProphet; this he continued, somewhatlater, with a second volume, Rāi al-ghanam (The Shepherd), which teils ofMuhammad’s lifeup to the timeofhismarriagewithKhadija; a thirdvolumeappeared in1943.Brockelmann—probablycorrectly—suspects that theauthor,trainedinFrance,usedEmestRenan’sromanticizingViedeJésusashismodel.65ModemistbiographiesandmysticallyheightenedpicturesoftheProphet(asin

the work of S. H. Nasr) are equally common today. But there are also otherimagesofhim,forthelightinwhichheisseenvarieswiththevantagepointofeachauthor.66Labibar-Riyashi,forinstance,publishedin1934аbookentitledAs-sūbarmān al-ʽālamial-awwal (The First Universal Superman); by contrast,thefounderoftheBaathparty,MichelAflaq,seesintheProphet“thesummaryoftheArabspirit.”67Thislattercharacterizationisinteresting,foritremindsusof theemphasison theArabicelement thatwassocommonamong theearlierMuslims in India. But Aflaq certainly intended a purely political Statement.Quite a few scholars of our age have striven hard to prove the truly socialistcharacteroftheteachingsofIslam,andtheEgyptianprimeministerGamalʽAbdan-Nasir(Nasser)calledtheProphetin1964“theimamofsocialism.”Tenyearsearlier,FathiRidwan,ministerinNasser’sfirstcabinet,hadpraisedMuhammadas“thegreatest revolutionary,”ath-thāʽiral-azam, and at about the same timeMahmud Shalabi had written for Nasser his book Ishtirākiyya Muḥammad(Muhammad’sSocialism).AlsoduringNasser’stenurethenotednovelistAbdurRahmanash-SharqawipublishedhisoutrightleftistworkMuḥammmadrasūlal-ḥurriyya (Muhammad, the Messenger of Freedom), in which he shows theProphet as “a kind ofMarx beforeMarx.”68 Such ideas can easily be derivedfromsomeearlierworksconcemingtheProphet.In India, F. K. Durrani, who wrote for some time under Iqbal’s influence,

depictedtheProphetin1931asthefounderofthenewera,thegreatleaderwhohadproclaimedfreedomfromimperialismandthedestructionofslavery.Partofthisnewevaluationof theProphet inmodern terms is“hismonisticmorality,”whichdoesnotpermitanyoppressionofthebodyasdoesChristianity,withits

divisionbetweenthespiritualandtheworldly.Anotherelementwithadefinitemodernappeal ishisconstantstruggleagainstpoverty.69EvenM.Hamidullah,whosebiographyof theProphet isprobably thebest introduction to the lifeoftheProphetasseenbyadevoutmodernMuslimscholar,hasdevotedanarticleto theproblemofLenin’sperceptionof theProphet, inwhichhequotes somepositiveremarksbytheRussianleader.70Oneshouldnotforgettheconsiderableamountofnewmaterialforthestudy

of the Prophet’s life, or eulogies of him, that were published in Turkey after1950,whenthetrendtowardIslamcouldagainbeprofessedopenlyandpublicly,and the Ministry of Religious Affairs in Ankara began to print numerouseducational books and treatises. One also encountered during that timepublicationsbypiousindividuals,andIstillrememberthestirwhenoneauthorpublished,in1958,abookentitledHazrat-iMuhammadTūrkтіidi?—WastheNobleMuhammadaTurk?71Oneshouldnotridiculethisattemptbutunderstandthat theauthordesiredtoshowthathisbelovedProphetwasalsoamemberofhis belovedTurkish people, and thus combined every possible good and loftyqualityintheworld.It was in light of such modemist interpretations that an Indian scholar of

Persiancouldpraisenaʽtiyyapoetryasa“characterbuildingforce”andconsiderpoetry in honor of the Prophet as “a branch of literature which plays animportantpartinbuildingupthetypeofcharacter[aimed]atbreakingtheracial,geographicalanddassbarriers.”72TherehaveevenbeensomeattemptstodramatizeMuhammad’slife.In1936

the noted Egyptian author Taufiq al-Hakim composed a drama designed tocounteract Voltaire’s pemicious description of the Prophet in his dramaMahomet,oulefanatisme;inthismoderndrama,theauthormainlyreliesonIhnIshaq’s Sira for the dialogues, which gives the drama great power.73 Yet,althoughpublishedinprint,Taufiqal-Hakim’splaywasneverstaged.74Aversionto dramatic portrayal of the Prophet is still very strong (and may even beincreasing among Muslims in some areas), as was evident from the public’sreaction toamotionpictureabouthimafewyearsback,even though thefilmdidnotshowtheProphet’sfaceandhadbeenclearedbytheauthorities.EverymodernwriterseesinthebelovedProphettheidealrealizationofthose

qualities thathehimself considershighest andmostneeded in theworld—andthemulticolored imageof theProphetwhich thus emerges drawson themostdivergent Strands of the centuries-old tradition and translates the praise of the“bestofmankind”intomodernidiom.AnexcellentsurveyofthedifferenttrendsininterpretinghisroleinthemodernMuslimworldcanbeseenintheprotocol

of the International Seerat Conference, held in Karachi in 1976. Its subjectsrāngefromthe“mysticallightofMuhammad”to“therelevanceofhisthoughtfor business management.” Whatever happens in terms of reform anddevelopment in the Islamic world will inevitably be related to the “beautifulmodel”oftheveneratedandbelovedProphet.

TWELVE:THEPROPHETMUHAMMADINMUHAMMADIQBAL’SWORK

AllthedifferentaspectsofthevenerationoftheProphetseemtoconvergeintheworkofMuhammadIqbal, the Indo-Muslimphilosopher-poetwhofor thefirsttimeexpressedtheideaofanindependentMuslimstateinthenorthwestoftheIndiansubcontinentandwho is thereforeacclaimedas the“spiritual father”ofPakistan. That nation came into existence nine years after his death (21April1938),on14August1947.Iqbal’swork isa fascinatingwebofdiverseStrands that rāngefromIslamic

fundamentalismtothemostrecentscientifictheoriesoftheWest,frommysticalflightsintotheDivinepresencetorationalanalysesofspiritualphenomena.ThismultifariousnessisevidentinhismajorEnglishprosework,TheReconstructionofReligiousThoughtinIslam(whichalmostcertainlyowesitstitletoGhazzali’sIḥyā‘ulūmad-dīn,TheRevivificationoftheSciencesofReligion)andinsomeEnglisharticles;butitisalso,andindeedpredominantly,expressedinUrduandPersian verse.Old images,withwhichMuslim readers have been familiār forcenturies, are taken up in this poetry and given new content. The Prophet ofIslamappearsinIqbal’sworkasinthatofthousandsofearlierpoetsandthinkersas the central figure ofMuslim spiritual life, a figure who reveals himself inconstantly changing facets and whose description by Iqbal culminates in thedaringremarkintheJāvidnāma(whichteilsofthepoet’sownmi’rāj):

YoucandenyGod,butyoucannotdenytheProphet!1

AftercompletinghisstudiesinphilosophyandlawatCambridge,Iqbalspentabout six months in Germany in 1907; there he tumed into an enthusiasticadmirerofGoethe,whoseworkconstitutesforhimthehighestmani-festationofCreativepoetry.ItisthereforeunderstandablethathefeltaparticularattractiontothefigureofFaust,theever-strivingmaninsearchofself-realization,andtotheWest-Östlicher Divan. In 1923 he composed the Payām-i Mashriq (TheMessage of the East) as a Persian reply to theWest-ÖstlicherDivan, and hepointsoutinhisforewordthatGoethehadshowninterestinthingsIslamicfromhis early days. Goethe’s poem “Mahomets Gesang,” written when the youngauthorwasplanningadramaabouttheProphetofIslamin1772,inspiredIqbalto such a degree that he offered his readers a PersianVersion in thePayām-i

Mashriq,whichhehimselfcharacterizesinafootnote:

It isanextremely free translationofGoethe’s famous“MahometsGesang.” Inthis poem,whichwaswritten long, long before theWest-ÖstlicherDivan, theGermanpoethasshowntheIslamicideaoflifeextremelybeautifully.Originallyit was part of an Islamic drama which he intended [to write] but could notcomplete. The intention of this translation is nothing but to show Goethe’sviewpoint.2

Iqbalbeginshistranslationwiththelines

Lookatthestreamofwater,howitruns,intoxicated,Likeagalaxyinthemiddleofthemeadows!

andhefinishestheratherlongpoemwithamatchingcouplet:

Owonderful!Theoceanwithoutshore—howitruns,intoxicated,Uniqueinitself,alientoeverythingeise,itruns!

Thisimageoftheriverasametaphorforpropheticactivityisindeedquitecloseto Islamic mystical thought. The medieval Shiite theologian al-Kulini evenquotesasayingattributedtoʽAliibnAbiTalib,thefirstimamoftheShia:“Whois the great river? The messenger of God and the knowledge that has beengranted to him.”3 And when Iqbal, nine years after the Payām-i Mashriq,describeshisownheavenly joumey in theJāvidnāmahe isgiven theheavenlynameZindarud,“LivingStream.”ThisnameclearlypointstohisrelationtotheProphet, whom he ardently strove to follow in all walks of life, and whosedynamicmessagehewantedtorenewintheworld.Iqbal’spraiseoftheProphetisoftentraditional.InanearlyUrdupoem,which

he excluded from publication and which is therefore presented only in acollection published long after his death, he even uses an allusion to thetraditionalḥadīthqudsi“IamAhmadwithoutm,Aḥad,One,”claimingthatthe“veil of them is lifted for the lover’s sight,” that is, that the lover sees GodthroughtheProphet.4Laterhecarefullyavoidedthisḥadīthbecauseitseemstolead to pantheistic consequences, which he, in his mature years, thoroughlydisliked.WithhundredsofpoetsthroughoutthehistoryofIslamIqbalalsosings:

ThedustofMadinaandNajafiscollyriumformyeyes!5

Therefore, as he States, the glittering and seductive charms of Europeanknowledgecannotconfusehimormakehiseyesdeviatefromtherightdirection.It is remarkable how clearly Iqbal’s love for and trust in the Prophet is

manifest in his private correspondence with friends, in which he generallytoucheduponnumerousmatters of personal and scholarly interest.His friendsteilthatheoftenshedtearswhentheProphetwasmentioned,“[at]thenameofwhom—ashiveringofexcitementfillseveryStrandofmysoulwhenIthinkofthat elevated name!—at the name of himwho has broughtmankind the finalmessageoffreedomandequality,”ashewroteinanarticlein1909.6Thesīratmovement, which strove to impart a deeper knowledge of the Prophet’sbiography and of the historical person of the Prophet in general, had all hissympathies.During1929hereceiveditsthenleaderinhishomeinLahore,andinthesameyearhementionedinoneofhisletterswithgreatsatisfactionthattheProphet’s birthday had been recently celebrated in Southern India in a festivestyle,sayingthat“toconnecttheIslamicnationsofIndia,themostholypersonofourveneratedProphetcanconstitutethegreatestandmosteffectivepower.”7Eventhoughhewroteintrulyclassicalstyleonlytheaforementionednatthat

was excluded from publication, Iqbal’s poetry contains numerous verses inhonorof theProphet.Oneof themostobvious themesofhisverse isabsolutetrustintheProphet,expressionsofwhichpermeatehisworkfrombeginningtoend.

Yourloveisgreaterforrebels—Inforgivingsinsitislikeamother’slove.8

Thus he wrote around 1936 to express a feeling that, as we have seen, wascentralinIslamicpiety.Itis,however,remarkablethatIqbalspeaksratherrarelyofMuhammad’sroleas theshafīʽ, the intercessoratDoomsday, for itwas thisroleoftheProphetthatbothclassicalurbanand,moreespecially,folkpoetshademphasizedintheirprayerpoems.Tobesure,intheAsrār-ikhudī(TheSecretsof the Seif), which he published in 1915 in Persian, and which is the firstmanifestationofhisnewdynamicphilosophyoftheSeif,hedoessay:

WetrustinhimattheDayofJudgment,Andinthisworldtooheisourprotection.9

But the remark is rarely, ifever, repeated,probablybecause Iqbal’sconceptofdeath,resurrection,andLastJudgmentduringhislateryearswasfundamentallydifferentfromthetraditionaleschatologyoftheologiansandpopulārpreachers.

For him, the Prophetwasmuchmore a Support in this life: at the end of hissecond Persian mathnawi, Rumūz-i bēkhudī (The Mysteries of Selflessness),composedin1917toconveyhisideasabouttheroleoftheperfectedindividualinanidealIslamicstate,heaskstheProphet,typically,togranthimthestrengthforactivity.10Still, his faith in the supematural powers of the Prophet was apparently as

strongasthatofmillionsoffaithfulbeforehim.WhilehewasstayinginBhopalin1936,afflictedwithseriousillness,hesawinadreamthereformerSirSayyidAhmadKhan,thegrandfatherofhishost,SirRossMasood.11SirSayyidadvisedhimtotumtotheProphetandaskhimtohealhim.Iqbalimmediatelycomposeda rather long poem; in it he first describes the sad political Situation of theMuslimsandthenimplorestheProphet’shelpforhisillness.12EvidentlyhewasinfluencedbyBusiri’sBurdaandthebeliefinitshealingpower,ashementionsthispoemalsoinotherconnections.13Oneyearearlierhehadwrittentoasayyid:“Interiormedicineformeisonly

that I recite blessings (durūd) for your ancestor [the Prophet].”14 But like thepoets of earlier centuries he too feit at times that he was not evenworthy topronounceMuhammad’ssacredname:

IrecitedtheblessingfortheProphet—Fromshamemybodybecamelikewater.Lovesaid:“Oyouwhoaresubmittedtoothers—AslongasyouhavenotreceivedcolorandscentfromMuhammad,Donotsullyhisnamewithyourblessings!”15

Muhammadwas for Iqbal, as he had been for the theologians andmysticsbeforehim,thevisibleaspectofGod’sactivity.Godcannotbeseenwithhumaneyes,astheKoranStates(Sura7:139),buttheProphetisvisibleandpalpable:

OMessengerofGod,withGodIspeakthroughveils,withyouopenly—Heismyhiddenone,youaremyevidentone!16

ThereforeIqbaltumstoMuhammadbothtoimplorehimforhelpandtopraisehim, as is particularly evident in his last verses, which were posthu-mouslypublishedasArmaghān-iḤijāz(TheGiftoftheHijaz).17The Muslim knows that he can experience God’s presence best when he

recites theKoran, for thenGod’sownwordsbecomeaudible tohim.Likewisegenerations of pious Muslims have feit that the study of themes from the

Prophet’slife,ofḥadīthorofjuridicaltopicsbasedonhiswords,grantsthemacertain proximity to the Prophet. Iqbal feit the samewaywhen heworked onsubjects connected with Islamic history and Islamic jurisprudence, as he didmainlytowardtheendofhislife:

The differentiation of juridical problems and the argumentation of Islamicjurisconsults,inwhichtheloveoftheSealofProphethoodishidden—thestudyofallthesethingsgivesmeendlessspiritualjoy!18

Thus he wrote in 1936. And how much greater was his joy when he sawsomething that belonged to the Prophet! The experience of visitingQandahar,whereacloakoftheProphet,khirqa-isharīf,ispreserved,duringhissojouminAfghanistaninthefallof1932ledhimtocomposeafinePersianhymn—justasin former times the sight of theProphet’s sandals or evenof their picture hadinspirednumerouspoetstoglowingverse.Inhispoemaboutthekhirqa-isharīfIqbal compareshisheart toGabriel,whohas seen theProphet in the flesh;healsoteilshowhebegantodance,tosing,andtorecitepoetryinthepresenceofthesacredrelic:

Thatcoatofthe“barzakhwhichthetwocannottransgress”(Sura55:20)Isawitinthelightoftheḥadīth“Ihavetwocoats.”Toseehim,isourheavenlynightjoumey,Hisreligionandhisritualarethecommentaryoftheuniverse,Onhisforeheadthedestinyofallthingsiswritten.19

TheInterpretationofMuhammadasthebarzakh,theborderlinebetweenthetwoworlds,hadbeenappliedtotheProphetmuchearlier:inJami’sverse,heStandsbetweentheoceanofpre-etemityandthatofcontingency;thatis,heformsthemeetingpointbetweentheDivineandthehumanspheres.20The“twocoats”arePoverty and the Holy War; the tradition that Muhammad saw the “coat ofpoverty”duringhismi’rājliesintheback-groundofthesecondandthirdlinesofIqbal’sencomium.ItisnaturalthatIqbalardentlyaspiredtovisittheProphet’sRaudainMedina,

togetherwith fulfilling thedutyof pilgrimage toMecca, andhementions thishoperepeatedlyinhislettersandpoems.21Asearlyas1908hewrotepraisesofYathrib (Medina), where “the prince of laulāka” rests and which thereforeconstitutestheverkablecenterofthelifeofthehumanrace.DuringtheBalkanWarhedreamedofdyinginMedina,thehopeofmanypioussoulswholongtobe buried close to the beloved Prophet.22 It was for this reason that his

posthumousCollectionofpoetrywascalledArmaghān-iḤijāz(TheGiftoftheHijaz),fortheolderthepoetgrew,thestrongerwaxedhislongingtovisitthelastresting place of the Prophet. He feit sure that such a joumeywould result inimmensespiritualbenefits.23Hadhenotspokeninoneofhisearlypoemsoftheshifakhāna-iḤijāz, “the healing place ofHijaz,”where theweary soulwouldfindnewhope?24Once,onhisretumfromaRoundTableConferenceinLondon,Iqbalstopped

in Jerusalem to attend aMuslimConference.At this point he contemplated ajoumeytoMedinabutthenconsidereditbadmannerstocombineapilgrimagewith a joumey undertaken for political reasons.25 Itwas in those days that hecomposedthegreatUrduhymntotheProphet,whichcloseswiththeline:

YouaretheWell-preservedTablet,andyouarethePen!26

Inthehymn,hetakesoverthestyleofearliermysticalpoetsandevenseekstosurpasstheirpraisebyapplyingthemosthigh-flowncomparisonstotheProphet.Like many writers, especially in the mystical and poetical tradition, Iqbal

preferred to call the Prophet by the name Mustafa, “The Chosen One.”MuhammadMustafawas for him the sourceof everythinggood anduseful inhumanlife,andlikethereformistpoetsofthenineteenthCenturyhetoosawonecauseofthepresentmiserableSituationoftheMuslimsinthesadfactthattheyhadbeenalienatedfrom“theProphet’sbeauty.”Theyshouldknowthathispathis theonlypath that shouldandmustbechosen!27This thoughtpermeates thequatrains inIqbal’s lastpoeticalwork;buthehadalreadyexpressed itdecadesearlier in one of his great Urdu poems, Jawāb-i Shikwā (The Answer to theComplaint).Inthispoemof1912GodaddressestheMuslims,towhoseShikwā(Complaint)hegivesalong,powerfulanswerthatendswiththecommand:

BefaithfultoMuhammad,thenWetoobelongtoyou,NotonlythisworldbutTabletandPenbelongtoyou!28

Afewyearsafterwritingtheselines,IqbalcontinuedthisthoughtinhisAsrār-ikhudī.Thereheteachesnolonger,asthemajorityofSufipoetsbeforehimhaddone, the submersion of the human seif in the ocean of the Divine Essence,where it would disappear like a raindrop, but rather the strengthening of thehuman personality (or individuality), which grows in increasing proximity toGod,finallytoreachaperson-to-personencounterwithHim,theGreatestSeif.The human seif, however, can be strengthened only by love, and this love isinseparablyconnectedwithMuhammad.Therefore,IqbaltumstotheProphet:

Abelovedishiddeninyourheart…IntheMuslim’sheart,thereisMuhammad’shome,AllourgloryisfromMuhammad’sname.29

ThissameblessingpowerofthenameofMuhammad,whichaswehaveseenisa traditional topic of Islamic literature, had beenmentioned in the end of theJawāb-iShikwā,whenIqbalhearsGod’scommand:

Makehigheverythinglowwiththestrengthoflove,IlluminatetheworldbyMuhammad’sname!30

IntheenthusiasticdescriptionoftheProphetinthethirdchapteroftheAsrār-ikhudī,Iqbalgoesevenfarther:

Etemityislessthanamomentofhistime,Etemityreceivesincreasefromhisessence.Hesleptonamatofrushes,ButthecrownofKhosroeswasunderhispeople’sfeet.31

IntheselinesIqbal,followingmanynaʽtpoetsandinparticular,itseems,Naziri,juxtaposes poverty and power, a contrast that serves him again and again incharacterizingtheProphet’scomprehensivecharacter.Wefinditinversewrittentwentyyearslater:

PovertyandkingdomareMustafa’sinspirations;TheyarethemanifestationsofMustafa’sessence.32

ThisisanallusiontooneofthefavoriteḥadīthintheSufitradition:“Povertyismypride.”33Thispovertyisnot,however,destitution,orevenlesstheneedinessofthebeggar;itisratherthestateofsomeonewhocompletelyrestsinGod,theEtemally Rieh (al-ghani), and therefore does not need secondary causes anymore.Inthistwofoldqualityas“poor”and“powerful”theProphetbecomesthelocusofmanifestationofGod’sbeauty,jamāl,andHismajesty,jalāl,thosetwocomplementaryDivineattributeswhoseinterplayalonecanmaintaintheflowofcreatedlife.34AndthecombinationofthesetwoaspectsmakesMuhammadtheidealprophetwho(asisimpliedinthisdescription)surpassesboththemildnessof Jesusand the lawboundstemnessofMoses, thusproviding theexemplarofmostperfecthumanity.

Inthehourofbattle,ironmeltedbeforetheradianceofhissword;Inthehourofprayertearsdroppedfromhiseyeslikeraindrops.35

ThiscomprehensivegreatnessoftheProphetinspiredIqbal’spoetrythroughouthis life. In his last years he retumed to old mystical imagery to express thismysteryoftheProphet’spersonality:

HeisthemeaningofGabrielandtheKoran;HeisthewatchmanofthewisdomofGod;Hiswisdomishigherthanreason…36

Iqbal’smorepracticalviewsonprophetology—which,however,stillpreserveastronglymysticalflavor—arelaidbeforethereadermostclearlyintheRumūz-ibēkhudī, the poem inwhich he discusses his social and political ideals. Here,Muhammad iscompared, in theclassicalmetaphorof light, to the lamp in thedarknessofcreation,alampthatalreadyexistedwhenAdamwasstill“betweenwaterandclay.”37Iqbal’spurelymystical Interpretationof theessenceof theProphethasbeen

expressedmost impressively in theJāvidnāma.Here, in an ingenious tum, thepoetputsahymninhonoroftheProphetinthemouthofthemartyr-mystical-Hallaj, who, more than a thousand years before him, had composed the firstgranddescriptionoftheprimordialProphet,thesourceoflightandofwisdom.In the poem Iqbal takes up once more the classical idea that ʽabduhu, “Hisservant,” is the highest possible rank man can strive to reach, for during hisheavenlyjoumeytheProphetwasgiventhissameepithet(Sura17:1).Moreover,Sura 53:10, which as we saw earlier is often interpreted as pertaining to themirāj,Statesthat“GodrevealedtoHisservantwhatHerevealed.”IntheSphereof Jupiter in theJāvidnāmaHallaj is askedabout themysteriesof theProphetandanswersinalongpoem:

“Hisservant”ishigherthanyourunderstanding,Sinceheisbothmanandessence.HisessenceisneitherArabicnorPersian,Heisaman,andyetprevioustoAdam.“Hisservant”isthepainterofdestinations,Inhimliestherepairofruins.“Hisservant”isbothsoul-givingandsoul-taking;“Hisservant”isbothglassandhardstone.

“Servant”issomething,and“Hisservant”issomethingeise—Weallarewaiting;heistheawaitedone.“Hisservant”iswithoutbeginning,withoutend,“Hisservant”—whereforhimismomingandevening?Nobodyisacquaintedwiththesecretsof“Hisservant”—“Hisservant”isnothingbutthesecretof“butGod.”38

The last linehereoncemore takesup the idea that theProphet,asGod’smostperfectservant,isthemanifestationofGod’sactivity,andtheonlywaythroughwhichonecanfindthesecretoftheprofessionoffaith:“ThereisnodeitysaveGod.”In Iqbal’s thought this role of Muhammad as “His servant” is of special

importance, for his ideal man, the mard-i mōmin, is quite different fromNietzsche’s Superman, with whom he has sometimes been confounded. Thelatter appears “when God is dead,” but the mard-i mōmin, emulating theProphet’sexample,isthemostperfectservantofGodandcanreachthegreatestpossible approximation to God by assuming that role. This is basically theconcept of the “sober”mysticalOrders of qurb al-farāʼiḍ, “proximity toGodbrought about by sincerely following the Prophet’s example” and doing one’sdutyinthisworld.For Iqbal, the Prophet is much more than a luminous mystical figure who

mediatesthetruefaithto“thishandfulofdust,”man;heisevenmorethanthe“servant of God” who Stands beyond time and space and yet never becomesdeified.Heisalsotheleaderofhiscommunity, the“beautifulmodel”notonlyforpersonalbutalsoforpoliticalandsocialconduct,he“whoopensthedoorofthisworldwiththekeyofreligion.”39One should read such verses—they occur frequently, for instance, in the

Asrār-i khudī and even more in the Rumūz-i bekhudī—in light of thecorrespondencethatIqbalconductedmuchlater,in1933,withSayyidSulaimanNadwi.Hehadaskedhisscholarlyfriendabouttheproblemofijtihād-inabawī,that is, thecapacityandpoweroftheProphettodecideindependentlyjuridicalandotherproblemsthatarenotdiscussedintheKoran.SayyidSulaimanNadwirepliedthat“thepropheticintelligenceishigherthannormalhumanintelligence”andthattheprophetisguidedinallhisdecisionsontheabsolutelyrightpath.40It is in fact thisverycapacity thatmadehim thedivinelyguided leaderof thecommunity.ThispoliticalandsocialroleoftheProphetbecomesattimesmorecentralto

Iqbal than his mystical aspects; and here he Stands in the succes-sion of the

modemists.HespeaksupmostdaringlyinhispoemNubuwwat(Prophethood),writtenlateinhislife,whenheassertsthatthoughhecannotdiscusstheessenceofnubuwwatasdotheologiansandmystics,

ThatkindofprophethoodishashishfortheMuslimInwhichthereisnotthemessageofpowerandenergy!41

The poet-philosopher never tired of comparing the prophetwhoworks in thisworld to themysticwho, ashe says in theJāvidnāma, is seducedbySatan todevotehimselfentirely toa retired lifeofasceticismand toclaimthatonlybysuchanotherworldlyoccupationcanhereachhisgoal.42AtthebeginningofthefifthlectureinhisReconstructionofReligiousThoughtinIslamIqbalhasstatedthisproblemwithunusualclaritywhileinterpretingtheexperienceofthemiʽrāy.

“Muhammad ofArabia ascended the highest heaven and retumed. I swear byGodthatifIhadreachedthatpoint,Ishouldhaveneverretumed.”ThesearethewordsofagreatMuslimsaint,AbdulQuddusofGangoh.InthewholerāngeofSufi literature it will probably be difficult to find words which, in a singlesentence, disclose such an acute perception of the psychological differencebetween thepropheticand themystic typesofconsciousness.Themysticdoesnotwishtoretumfromthereposeof“unitarianexperience,”andevenwhenhedoesretum,ashemust,hisretumdoesnotmeanmuchformankindatlarge.Theprophet’sretumisCreative.Heretumstoinserthimselfintothesweepoftimewithaviewtocontroltheforcesofhistory,andtherebytocreateafreshworldofideals.Forthemysticthereposeof“unitaryexperience”issomethingfinal;forthe prophet it is the awakening, within him, of world-shaking psychologicalforces, calculated to completely transform thehumanworld.Thedesire to seehisreligiousexperiencetransformedintoalivingworld-forceissupremeintheprophet.Thushisretumamountstoakindofpragmatictestofthevalueofhisreligiousexperience.43

Certainly, such a unitive experience during themi’rāj can be attained only bythosewith“highambition”(himmat).Yetforthem,itisonlyamomentaway:

Forhighambition,itisjustoneSteptothehighestThrone!44

For Iqbal, as for the other Indo-Muslim reformist theologians, the way inwhich the Prophet of Islam was depicted in European books was utterlyrepellent. Among the biographies available to him he selected for a special

attackthatofAloysSprenger,theAustrianOrientalistwhohadworkedforyearsinIndiaandwas,onthewhole,moresympathetictoIslamandespeciallytotheIslamic revival in India thanmost otherEuropeans.ButSprengerhad claimedthattheProphethadbeenapsychopath,andthisremarkspurredIqbaltoabitingreplyinoneofhisessaysinTheReconstructionofReligiousThoughtinIslam:

Well, if a psychopath has the power to give a fresh direction to the course ofhuman history, it is a point of the highest psychological interest to search hisoriginalexperiencewhichhastumedslavesintoleadersofmenandhasinspiredtheconductandshapedthecareerofwholeracesofmankind.Judgingfromthevarious types of activity that emanated from the movement initiated by theProphet of Islam, his spiritual tension and thekindof behaviourwhich issuedfromit,cannotberegardedasaresponsetoamerefantasyinsidethebrain.Itisimpossible to understand it except as a response to an objective Situationgenerative of new enthusiasms, new organisations, new starting-points. If welook at the matter from the standpoint of anthropology it appears that apsychopath is an important factor in the economy of humanity’s socialOrganization.45

Iqbalrightlysawthatthetmepeculiarityofthepropheticmessageconsistedinits power to free a people from traditional world views, to lead them fromVolksreligion toWeltreligion, and“tooppose,withenergeticconsistency, thosetenets in the Arabian philosophy of life” (as Goldziher wrote) that wereentrenched in the old structures of family and clan.46 By destroying them theProphetcouldformaspiritualCommunitythatwasnolongerbaseduponblood,race,ornation.Thephilosopher-poetexpressedthisideainafascinatingchapterof theJāvidnāma inwhichhemakes thereader listen to thecomplaintofAbuJahl, one of the bitterest adversaries of the Prophet among the Meccanaristocracy.47 This representative of pre-Islamic ideals of conduct curses therevolutionary activities of Muhammad, which run counter to all that wasacceptedbyBedouinandMeccansociety:

WeareutterlyheartsickbecauseofMuhammad!Histeachinghasputoutthelightsofthekaʽba!Hisreligionabolishesthedistinctionsofraceandblood—ThoughhimselffromQuraish,hedisownsthesuperiorityoftheArabs.Inhisreligionthehighandlowareone,Heateoutofthesamedishwithhisslave!

And after enumerating a number of other “crimes” of the Prophet, the oldMeccan chieftain concludes his long poetical sermon with a curse uponMuhammad.Iqbaliscertainlyrightinhighlightingthesupemationalaspectsofthe Prophet; but he himself, like many other poets of Muslim India, alsoemphasizesthe“Arabic”characteroftheProphetandtheArabicrootsofIslam.Onthewhole,thenegativeportrayalofAbuJahlfitswellwithIqbal’sgeneral

attitude.Likemostmodemists,hestressestheantiracist,“democratic”teachingsof Islam, particularlywhen contrasting themwith theHindu casteSystem.Asearly as 1910 he had interpreted the meaning of Muhammad’s Hegira fromMeccatoMedinainanew,politicalsense.MysticssuchasMaulanaRumihadlongusedthesameeventasaparadigmforman’spilgrimagefromthisworldtothespiritualrealms.ButIqbalnotesinhisdiarytheinterestingremark:

Islamappearedasaprotestagainstidolatry.Andwhatispatriotismbutasubtleform of idolatry; a deification of a material object? … What was to bedemolishedby Islamcouldnotbemade theveryprincipleof its structureasapoliticalcommunity.ThefactthattheProphetprosperedanddiedinaplacenothisbirthplaceisperhapsamystichinttothesameeffect.48

ThechoiceoftheHegiraasthebeginningoftheMuslimcalendarwasforIqbaldeeply meaningful: had the Meccans immediately accepted Muhammad’smessagethecourseofhistorywouldhavebeendifferent;byseveringthebondsoffamilyandclantheProphetwantedtogiveanexampletofuturegenerations.That is why Iqbal wrote (at about the same time that he jotted down similarthoughts in English prose as Stray Reflections) an Urdu poem, Wataniyyat(Patriotism),inwhichheStates:

Toleaveone’snativecountryisthesunnaofthebelovedofGod!49

The growing nationalist tensions that he had witnessed as a Student inEngland andGermany from1905 to 1908, and that became such a dangerousfactorinNearEastempoliticsaftertheFirstWorldWar,hadincitedIqbalratherearly on to develop an attitude that is incompatible with narrow politicalnationalism:

Nativecountry(waṭan)issomethingdifferentintherightteachingsoftheProphet,

Andnativecountryissomethingdifferentinthewordsofthepoliticians.50

HethereforeneverceasedrepeatingthatIslamisopposedtoracism;indeed,“thegreatestmiraclewhichtheProphetperformedwastheformationofa(spirituallyunited)nation.”51OnemayseeinthisremarkanechoofSirSayyid’sStatementthat the greatest miracle of Islam was the formation of a true community ofbelievers out of gangs of “marauding Bedouins.” The entire argument of theRumūz-ibēkhudī is based upon the nation-building power of the Prophet, andtwodecadesafterPublishingthatdidacticpoemIqbalstillwasmovedtorepeathispoint:

TheProphetwasabletoperformthemiracleofrestorationbyhiswordQum,“Rise!”

Byawakeningthecall“Godisgreater[thananythingeise]”intheheartofanation.52

Thisconvictionmadehimbelievethathumanitycouldbeginacompletelynewlife if theywouldonly tumback to thesimple,plain,andpracticalmessageoftheProphet.ToadheretothesamerevelationsbroughtbyaGod-sentmessengerwillcreatethegreatestpossiblefeelingofsolidarityinagroupofindividuals,afeelingthatwillthenspurtheemerginggrouptounexpectedheightsofactivity.Iqbal’sargumenthereremindsonesome-whatoftheteachingsofthemedievalNorth African philosopher of history, Ibn Khaldun, for whom the concept ofʽaṣabiyya, “esprit de corps, solidarity,” formed thepivot of his philosophy; hetoo believed that this esprit de corps is strongest in a group motivated byreligiousfervor.53AccordingtoIqbal,Muhammadhasnotonlyprovidedanexamplefortheway

suchasupemationalcommunityofthefaithfulcanandshouldbebuilt;heisatthesametimetheSymboloftheunshakableunityofthatcommunity.AsearlyasintheAsrār-ikhudīthepoetStates,inhisgreatencomiumontheProphet:

Wearelikearosewithmanypetalsbutwithoneperfume:Heisthesoulofthesociety,andheisone.54

TheProphet“istheheartinthishandfulofdust”ofwhichmankindconsists.55That is, he is the life-giving power that transforms humanity into a livingorganism.Therefore allmanifestations of singulār, politically basednationalistmovements are for Iqbal nothing but new idols, nationalism being a modernbrandofBaal-worship.TheidealMuslimnation,however,willnotsuccumbtothe temptation of Baal and the idols, as described in the Jāmdnāma (in theSphereofVenus),butwillbekeptalivebyitsheart,theProphet.

From this vantage point Iqbal directed his hard criticism against variousnationalistmovements in theMiddleEast, among them Iran underReza ShahPahlaviandTurkeyunderMustafaKemalAtaturk(muchthoughhehadpraisedAtaturk after his victory over the Greeks in 1922).56 In the 1920s and early1930s,AfghanistanseemedtohimtheonlycountryinwhichtheteachingsoftheProphetwerepreservedinpurity;thatiswhythiscountryisspeciallymentionedin “Iblis’sAdvice tohisPoliticalChildren” inZarb-ikalīm,, apoem inwhichIqbal addresses the Spirit of Muhammad to inquire where his Muslims havegone, and where the camel driver, who leads the caravan with his song, hasgone.57TheJāvidnāmacontainsintheSphereofMercuryalongdiscussionaboutthe

conceptofnationhoodasconceivedby theProphet;andat theveryendofhislifeIqbalwrote,inamoreprosaicstyle:

It isapeculiargreatnessof theHolyProphet that theself-inventeddistinctionsand superiority complexes of the nations of theworld are destroyed and therecomes intobeingacommunitywhichcanbestyledummatanmuslimatan laka[“as a Muslim community for thee,” Sura 2:122], and to whose thought theDivinedictateshuhadāalāʼn-nās[“witnessesforthepeople,”Sura22:78]justlyapplies.58

The ideal community, millat, of which Iqbal dreamed should become therealization of all-embracing tauhid, the confession of Divine Unity that theProphet had preached in his lifetime, and this community would follow theProphet, who had shaped and realized by his example the ideals of universalfreedom,equality,andfratemity.ThereforeIqbalsaidintheRumūz-ibēkhudī.

FromProphethoodisourfoundationintheworldFromProphethoodhasourreligionitsritual,

FromProphethoodarehundredsofthousandsofusone,Partfrompartcannotbeseparated.FromProphethoodweallhavethesamemelody,Thesamebreath,thesameaim.59

ThemostimportantfactorthatcancontributetotheformationoftheseidealsisglowinglovefortheProphet,whichwouldenableboththeindividualandthecommunity to live in harmony, according to the exigencies of Divine love.Indeed,Iqbalmaintainsthatdynamiclove,thecenterofhispoeticaltheology,is“all Mustafa”; analytical intellect can be equated with the archenemy of the

Prophet,AbuLahab.60(ThetendencyofmedievalSufistocontrastMuhammad,theembodimentoflove,tothephilosophers,immediatelycomestomind.)Iqbalalsodevelopsanotherimportantidea:asMuhammadwastheleaderand

thecompletionofalonglineofGod-sentmessengers,sotooshouldthenationcreated by him be the leader of nations and the final, hence most perfect,exemplarofacommunitybasedexclusivelyuponGod.

HeistheSealoftheProphets,wethatofthenations!61

Andas theProphetwassentrahmatan lil-’ālamin, “asMercy for theworlds,”theMuslimswhobelongtohimshouldalsobeamanifestationofmercyforthepeopleoftheworld.IqbalwentevenfartherinhisanalogybetweentheProphetand the community. That God addressed the Prophet with the word Laulākaimplies that every believer who strives to emulate the Prophet’s exampleparticipatesinthiswordaswell.62Theworldhasbeencreatedforhissakeandhehas toact in it;and if thisholds trueof theMuslimindividual italsoholdstruefortheidealcommunityofthefaithful,which,insuccessiontotheProphet,is expected to rule the world supreme. This leading role necessarily includespower:heretootheindividualMuslimaswellasthecommunityshouldrealizeinthemselvestheProphet’spower,asmuchastheyseekhispoverty,whichrestsinGod’s absolute richness. But Iqbal was certainly aware of the dangers thatwouldopposetherealizationof thisProphetie ideal,andheknewwell thathisdreamof a retum to theGoldenAge of the first four caliphs could not reallymaterialize; forhesawclearly that the Islamicpeoplesofhisdaywereall tooeager to forget the Prophet’s “poverty” and confuse “power” with mundaneadvantages.Iqbal’s Interpretation of the Prophet in themystical, religious, and political

realmsisgenerallysimilar to thatofearliermysticalpoetsontheonehand,ofmodemistreformersontheother.Buthisingeniouswayofcombiningthesetwomajoraspectsofthetraditionalmostwithoutaseammakeshisworkfascinating.Besides,thepoet-philosopheralsohadspecificcontributionstooffertothefieldofprophetology,primarilyinhisInterpretationofthedoctrineofthefinalityofMuhammad’sprophetship.BecausetheKoranStates(Sura5:5)that“TodayWehave perfected for you your religion,” it had always been accepted that therevelationwasindeedfinishedwithMuhammad,theSealoftheProphets.IqbalhimselfexpressedthisconvictionpoeticallyintheRumūz-ibekhudi:

NowGodhascompletedforustheDivinelaw,AndhascompletedprophethoodforourProphet.

Nowtheofficeofcupbearerisgiventous:HegaveusthelastgobletHehad.63

But what does the finality of prophethoodmean for Iqbal?Would not a newprophetbe required to translate themessageof theKoran into the languageofourtime?Iqbal’sreplytothisrhetoricalquestionisverythoughtprovoking:

TheProphetofIslamseemstostandbetweentheancientandthemodernworld.Inso faras thesourceofhis revelation isconcemedhebelongs to theancientworld; in so far as the spirit of his revelation is concemed he belongs to themodernworld.Inhimlifediscoversothersourcesofknowledge,suitabletoitsnewdirection.ThebirthofIslam…isthebirthofinductiveintellect.InIslamprophecyreachesitsperfectionindiscoveringtheneedofitsownabolition.Thisinvolvesthekeenperceptionthatlifecannotforeverbekeptinleadingstrings;thatinordertoachievefullself-consciousnessmanmustfinallybethrownbackonhisownresources.64

TheKoranhasopenedformankindtheendlessfieldofscientificknowledgeandmethodsbecause it teaches the importanceofexactObservationofnaturalandpsychological phenomena; the admonition to observe God’s signs “in thehorizons and in themselves” (Sura 41:53) appears as the beginning of truescholarlyresearch.Likewise theProphet is, forIqbal, thefirstcriticalobserverofpsychicphenomena,asheconcludesfromaḥadīththatteilsofMuhammad’sinterest in observing a mentally deranged Jewish boy. It was this thirst forknowledge that led the Prophet to encourage studies and research.65 ThisInterpretation of theProphet’s attitude is of-fered at the very beginning of theReconstructionofReligiousThoughtinIslam:

ThesearchforrationalfoundationsinIslammayberegardedtohavebegunwiththeProphethimself.Hisconstantprayerwas:“Godgrantmeknowledgeoftheultimatenatureofthings!”66

In poetical language, Iqbal had expressed this same conviction some yearsearlierinthededicatorypoemofthePayām-iMashriq:

EventhoughhehadseentheEssenceoftheEssencewithoutveil,Yetthewords“OGod,increasemeinknowledge!”camefromhislips.67

This verse was written to kindle the interest of Amanullah, then king of

Afghanistan, in scholarly research and scientific activities. Iqbal’s response totheproblemof education is all themore remarkablewhenone remembers thetraditionalattitudeofmanymullahsinmostIslamiclands,whowereabsolutelyopposed to “worldly” knowledge and saw nothing but satanic insinuations inacquaintance with Western scientific methods. Iqbal how-ever, following theearlier modemists, sought to prove that Science had been brought to Europeduring theMiddleAgesbyMuslimphilosophers,physicians,andastronomers;inEuropeitwasdevelopedtoitspresentStandards;andsinceitisalegitimateheirloomoftheMuslims,itshouldbetakenupagainwithouthesitationforthebenefitofthecommunity.ThefinalityofMuhammad’spropheticofficemeantforIqbalatthesametime

theopeningofnewwaysinscientificresearchandascientificworldview.Forthis reason one of Iqbal’smore radical Interpreters, TnayatullahMashriqi, thefounder of the militant Islamic faction of the Khaksar in the NorthwesternFrontier,wentsofarastodeclarethatmodernscientistsarethetruesuccessorsoftheProphet.68SomewhatlateranotherInterpreterofIqbal’sthought,GhulamParvez, claimed that only the door of nubuwwa, the “personal” aspect ofMuhammad’swork,wasclosed,whereas therisāla, the“ideology,”was left totheMuslimstoactuponandelaborate.69ThusIqbal’sunusualInterpretationofthefinalityofProphethoodledtounexpectedconclusionsincertainprogressivecircles. Some leftists in India have drawn evenmore far-reaching conclusionsfromtheparagraphquotedabove,whichhasbeenmisunderstoodascondoningapurelyscientificapproachtolifewithoutthenecessityofanypropheticguidance—whichmeant, for suchauthors, the introductionofaplainMarxist scientificworldview.70IqbalwouldhavebeenhorrifiedbysuchanatheisticInterpretationof his words, for he had defined his viewpoint conceming the finality ofMuhammad’smessageinanotherpassageverylucidly:

Nospiritualsurrender[ispossible] toanyhumanbeingafterMuhammad,whoemancipatedhis followers bygiving thema lawwhich is realizable as arisingfromtheverycoreofhumanconscience.Theologically thedoctrine is that thesocio-politicalOrganisationcalledIslamisperfectandetemal.Norevelation,thedenialofwhichentailsheresy,ispossibleafterMuhammad.

Thesewords are directed against themodemistmovement of theQa-dianis,which had emerged in the late nineteenth Century in the Panjab and whosefounder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, had uttered certain remarks that could beinterpretedasarrogationofpropheticor,perhaps,messianicClaims.Iqbalfoughtagainstthismovementwithallhisstrength,forhebelievedthattheacceptance

ofthefinalityofMuhammad’smessage

is really the factor which accurately draws the line of demarcation be-tweenMuslims and non-Muslims and enables one to decide whether a certainindividualorgroupispartofthecommunityornot.…Ac-cordingtoourbeliefIslamasareligionwasrevealedbyGod,buttheexistenceofIslamasasocietydependsentirelyonthepersonalityoftheHolyProphet.71

This is probably the most categorical definition of the political role of theProphetinIqbal’swork.Iqbal’saversiontotheQadianisandtheAhmadiyya(asthemoreliberalgroupiscalled,whichsplitoff in1914) isalsoexpressedinapoeminwhichhevoiceshisangeraboutthosewhorefutetheconceptof“holywar”andinsteaddiscussuselessproblemsconnectedwiththeMessiahandtheMahdi.Forhewasdeeplycommittedtotheunquestioningtrustthat

Forus,Mustafaisenough!72

Oneshouldaddhere,outoffaimess,thatthechapterentitled“Muhammad,theExcellentExemplar”inthebookIslambySirZafrullaKhan,aprominentjuristandmember of theAhmadiyya, iswrittenwith such heartfelt devotion that itwouldbedifficulttoseewhyitshouldbeunacceptabletoanorthodoxMuslim.Iqbal, however, would have been happy to know that the Ahmadiyya wasdeclaredanon-Muslimreligionin1975.WhenonerecognizesthecentralpositionthattheProphetoccupiesinIqbal’s

thought and poetry,many of hismetaphors, images, and Symbols appear in anewlight.Thustheword“love”inhisverseoftendenotesloveoftheProphetorloveinspiredbyhimbecauseheisthetrueembodimentofDivineLove,asIqbalsingsinthesuccessionofRumiandothermystics:thegreatode“TheMosqueofCordoba,”likenumerousotherversesinthecollectionofhismostmatureUrdupoems,Bāl-iJibrīl,repeatedlyequates“Love”with“Mustafa.”73Likewise, Iqbal’s constant allusions to Arabia, to the Najd and Hijaz, gain

theirrealvalueinthelightofhisdeepvenerationofthe“Arabianfriend,”asheloved to call the Prophet, following the example ofmany Indian poets beforehim.A key to Iqbal’sway of thinking in this context is the final verse of hisTarāna-imilli,the“NationalSong,”composedintheearlyyearsofthisCentury:

ThecaravanleaderforusistheprinceofHijaz,Byhisnameoursoulacquirespeace!

Thislineisfollowedbytherevealingwords:

Iqbal’ssongisasitwerethesoundofthecaravanbell!74

Thesewords,whichgavehisfirstUrdubookitstitle,Bāng-iDarā(TheCalloftheCaravanBell), especially reveal the poet’s close relationwith theProphet:acting as the bell onMuhammad’s camel’s leg, he guides with his sound theerringMuslimsbacktothecentralsanctuaryofMecca,andcallsthemtoretum,under his guidance, on the Prophet’s way, leaving behind them the glitteringstreetsofEuropeanlifeaswellasthefragrantrosegardensofPersianmysticaldreams.Iqbal’s work comprises theological and political, mystical and sociological

interpretationsoftheProphet.Buttowardtheendofhislifehetumedoncemoreto theProphet as the faithful, loving, and consoling friend and sang in simplewords,almostlikeoneofthefolkpoetsofhisnativePanjab,ofhislongingforthelastrestingplaceoftheProphet:

Justlikeabirdwho,inthedesertnight,Spreadsouthiswingswhenthinkingofhisnest.75

And in an unforgettable image Iqbal sums up what millions and millions ofpiousMuslimshavefeitoverthecenturiesandstillfeelabouttheProphet:

LoveoftheProphetrunslikebloodintheveinsofhiscommunity.76

APPENDIXTHENOBLENAMESOFTHEPROPHET

Muḥammad(Suras3:144,33:40,47:2,48:29)Aḥmad(Sura61:6)Ḥāmid,PraisingMaḥmūd,PraisedQāsim,Divider(itshouldratherbeAbūl-Qāsim,Fatherofal-Qasim,whichis

thenormalkunyaoftheProphet)Āqib,Following,theLastFātih,Opener,ConquerorShāhid,Witness(Sura33:45)Ḥāshir,WhoGathersPeople(atDoomsday)Rashīd,WellGuided(Sura11:78)Mashhūd,WitnessedBashīr,BringerofGoodTidings(Sura7:88)Nadhīr,Warner(Sura33:45andoften)Dā‘ī,Caller(Sura33:46)Shāfī,HealerHādī,HeWhoGuidesRight(Sura13:7)Mahdī,HeWhoIsWellGuidedMāḥī,HeWhoWipesOut(Infidelity)Munjī,HeWhoSaves,DeliversNājī,SafeRasūl,Messenger(frequentlyintheKoran)Nabī,Prophet(frequentlyintheKoran)Ummī,Unlettered(Sura21:107)Tihāmī,FromtheTihamaHāshimī,FromtheFamilyofHashimAbṫaḥī,Belongingtoal-Batha(theareaaroundMecca)Azīz,Noble,Dear(Sura9:128).AlsoaDivineNameHarīṣ‘alaikum,FullofConcernforYou(Sura9:128)Rd’ūf,Mild(Sura9:128).AlsoaDivineName

Raḥim,Merciful(Sura9:128).AlsoaDivineNameṬāhā(Sura20:1)Mujtabā,ElectṬāsīn(Sura27:1)Murtaḋī,ContentḤā-mīm(beginningofSuras40–46)Muṣṫafa,ChosenYā-sīn(Sura36:1)Aulā,Worthier,MostWorthy(Sura33:6)Muzammil,Wrapped(Sura74:1)Walī,Friend.AlsoaDivineNameMudaththir,Covered(Sura73:1)Matīn,FirmMuṣaddiq,WhoDeclaresforTrue(Sura2:101)Ṭayyib,GoodNāṣir,Helper.AlsoaDivineNameManṣūr,Helped(byGod),Victoriousmiṣbāḥ,Lamp(Sura24:35)Amīr,Prince,CommanderḤijāzī,FromtheHijazTarāzī(?)Quraishī,FromtheClanQuraishMuḍarī,FromtheTribeMudarNabīat-tauba,TheProphetofRepentanceḤāfiẓ,Preserver.AlsoaDivineNameKāmil,PerfectSādiq,Sincere(Sura19:54,usedforIsma’il)Amīn,Trustworthy(Suras26:107,81:21)‘Abdallāh,God’sServantKalīmAllāh,HetoWhomGodHasTalked(usuallyepithetofMoses)HabibAllāh,God’sBelovedFriendNajiAllāh,God’sIntimateFriend(usuallyepithetofMoses)ṢafīAllāh,God’sSincereFriend(usuallyepithetofAdam)Khātamal-anbiyāSealoftheProphets(Sura33:40)Ḥasīb,Respected.AlsoaDivineNameMujīb,Complying,Replying.AlsoaDivineName

Shakūr,MostGrateful.AlsoaDivineNameMuqtaṣid,AdoptingaMiddleCourse(Sura35:32)Rasūlar-raḥma,TheMessengerofMercyQawī,Strong.AlsoaDivineNameḤafī,Well-informed(Sura7:187)Ma’mūn,TrustedMa‘lūm,Well-KnownḤaqq,Truth(Sura3:86).AlsoaDivineNameMubīn,Clear,Evident(Sura15:89)Muṭī’,ObedientAwwal,First.AlsoaDivineNameĀkhir,Last.AlsoaDivineNameẒāhir,Outward,External.AlsoaDivineNameBāṭin,Internal,Inner.AlsoaDivineNameYatīm,Orphan(Sura93:6)Karīm,Generous(Sura81:19).AlsoaDivineNameḤakīm,Wise,Judicious.AlsoaDivineNameSayyid,Lord(Sura3:39)Sirāj,Lamp(Sura33:46)Munīr,Radiant(Sura33:46)Muḥarram,Forbidden,ImmuneMukarram,Honored,VeneratedMubashshir,BringerofGoodNews(Sura33:45)Mudhakkir,WhoMakesRemember,PreacherMuṭahhar,PurifiedQarīb,Near.AlsoaDivineNameKhalīl,GoodFriend(usuallyepithetofAbraham)Mad‘ū,WhoIsCalledJawwād,Generous,MagnanimousKhātim,Seal(Sura33:40)‘Ādil,JustShahīr,Weil-KnownShahīd,Witnessing,Martyr.AlsoaDivineNameRasūlal-malāḥim,TheMessengeroftheBattlesoftheLastDays

Oneofthemostfrequentlymentionednamesisnotfoundinthisparticularlist:

Abduhu,His(i.e.,God’s)Servant,whichappearsinSuras17:1and53:10andiscommon as a proper name (Muḥammad ‘Abduh). Likewise,Muṭā’, Obeyed(Sura81:21)ismissing.

Source: The list is taken from the author’s copy of the Koran (Lahore: TajCompany),which contains 17 x 6= 102 names, among them twiceRasūl ar-raḥmat, plus nabī ar-raḥmat, while the Prophet’s kunya Abū’l-Qasim is notmentioned.

ABBREVIATIONS

ARWArchivfürReligionswissenschaft

BEABulletindesétudesarabes

BIFAOBulletindeVlnstitutFrançaisd’ArchéologieOrientale

BSOASBulletinoftheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies

ElEncyclopaediaofIslam,2nded.(unlessstatedotherwise)

GMSGibbMemorialSeries

IBLAInstitutdesBellesLettresArabes

ICIslamicCulture

JRASJournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety

MWTheMoslem(laterMuslim)World

RHRRevuedeVhistoiredesreligions

RMMRevuedumondemusulman

SEERSlavonicandEastEuropeanReview

SIStudiaIslamica

WIDieWeltdesIslams

WZKMWienerZeitschriftfürdieKundedesMorgenlandes

ZDMGZeitschriftderdeutschenMorgenländischenGesellschaft

NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1.TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,no.40.164.2a.2.Jeffery,“Ibnal-ʽArabi’sShajaratal-kawn”p.2(Lahoreed.).3. On this topic see especially Haas, Das Bild Muhammads; Chew, The

Crescent and the Rose; Kritzek, Peter the Venerable and Islam; Saunders,“Mohammed in Europe”; and Daniel, Islam and the West. The very usefuldissertationbyHamadeh, “Muhammad theProphet:ASelectedBibliography,”whichcontains1,548titles,dealswiththeinteractionofIslamandtheWest,pp.23–27,43–59.4.W.C.Smith,ModernIslaminIndia,pp.69–70.Thisfeelingisverytypical

ofMuslims’attitudetowardtheProphetandisreflectedeveninpopularstories.Paret,Die legenddreMaghāzī-Literatur, p. 178, writes: “Mag derMuslim imNotfallseinenGlaubenverleugnen,sowirdersichdochniedazubereitfinden,eineSchmähunggegenMuhammadauszusprechenundsichvonihmloszusagen,selbstwennihmimWeigerungsfallederToddroht.”(Incaseofemergency,theMuslimmightdenyhisfaith,buthewouldneverbewilling toutterawordofslander against Muḥammad or to renounce him, even though he were facingdeathincaseofrefusaltodoso.)5.DawnOverseas (Karachi),November 1978.The closing hemistich of our

extract is frequentlyquoted in India, asbyMufti ‘Abdul ‘AzizDihlawi in theearlynineteenthcentury(seeMuslimDigest,Jan.-Feb.1982,p.54).SirSayyidAḥmadKhanalludedtoitinhis“Credo,”Maqālāt-iSirSayyid,13:52;seealsoTroll,SayyidAḥmadKhan,p.324.ItalsooccursinpopularsongsintheregionallanguagesofPakistan;seeBaloch,ṬihAkharyūñ,2:304–7.6. Boulainvilliers, La vie de Mahomet (first published 1730), is called by

ArthurJeffery,“TheQuestfortheHistoricalMuḥammad,”p.392,“abombasticlaudationofMuḥammadin the interestofbelittlingChristianity.”On theotherhand,Voltaireuses the figureof theProphet inhisMahomet,ou leFanatismenotsomuchasacaricatureofIslambutratherasapolemicaldeviceaimedattheCatholicchurchanditsclergy.7.ThisfeelingstillprevailsamongMuslims.WhenImentionedinmyclassat

the Ilâhiyat Fakültesi (Faculty of Islamic Theology) in Ankara that severalChristiansectsandgroupsdonotbelieveintheimmaculateconceptionorvirgin

birth,oneofmystudentsangrilyexclaimed,“ButthenwearebetterChristiansthanyou!”The respect shown toHazrat ʽIsa (Jesus)byMuslims is integral totheir faith. This is reflected even inGermanRomantic literature; Novalis, theauthorofHeinrichvonOfterdingen,hastheimprisonedSaracenwomanZulimacomplain that she does not understand why the Christians fight against theMuslims,who“havealwayshonoredthegraveofJesus,whomwetoorevereasaprophet.”8.Muir,TheLifeofMohamet,appeared in fourvolumesfrom1858 to1861.

Healsoedited(in1887),formissionarypurposes,TheApologyofal-Kindi, theanti-MuslimRisālaoftheninth-centuryArabChristianwriteral-Kindi.9.Rodinson,“ACriticalSurveyofModernStudiesonMuḥammad.”10. It happens frequently that youngPakistani childrenwrite charming little

poems inEnglishorUrdu inhonorof theProphet,andchildren’s songs inhishonorarearegularfeatureoftheSindhichildren’smagazineGulPhul(issuedinHyder-abad/Sind).11.Royster,“TheStudyofMuhammad.”

CHAPTERONE

1. An attempt to understand Muḥammad’s personality on the basis of theKoranaloneisFoster,“AnAutobiographyofMuḥammad.”Asimilarattemptinthe Arab world, which, of course, does not ascribe the Koranic words to theProphet,buttodivinerevelation,isDarwazah,Sīratar-Rasul.2.Jeffery,“TheSīra,”inReaderonIslam,pp.283–338;IbnIshaq,Sīratrasul

Allāh:DasLebenMuḥammads;Guillaume,TheLifeofMuḥammad;Horovitz,“TheEarliestBiographiesoftheProphet”;LevidellaVida,“Sīra.”3. An interesting Turkish narrative, interspersed with Turkish and Arabic

versesandillustratedwithnumerousminiatures,isDarir,Sīrat-inabi,originallywrittenin1388.ThisSīrat-inabi,orSiyaran-nabī,consistedofsixvolumesinaspecial,illustratededitionpreparedfortheart-lovingOttomansultanMuradIII.Volumes1,2,and6areintheTopkapu(H1221–1223),volume3isintheNewYork Public Library (SpencerCollection no. 157), volume 4 is in theChesterBeatty Library (Minorsky, Catalogue of the Turkish Manuscripts andMiniatures,T no. 419), and the fifth volume seems lost. Four pages from thismanuscript,with gloriousminiatures depicting theProphet performingvariousmiracles,wereauctionedinParison23March1984.ThescribewasMuṣṫafabinVali;thepaintingswereexecutedintheatelierofLutfiAbdullahandcompletedin1595.

4. The Turkish poet Necip Fazil Kisakiirek presented in his bookEs-selâmsixty-three(notverygood)poems,eachcorrespondingtoayearoftheProphet’slife.Written in jail, thepoetrywascompleted in1972. Interestingly,amodernPersian elaboration of the sira, Rahnema’s Payambar: The Messenger, waswrittenwhile theauthorwas inexile. It seems that inpressuredcircumstancestheMuslim author feels particularly close to the Prophet, and probably takesMuḥammad’s steadfastness in tribulations as a model. The same feeling—theProphet as helper for those inneed, or suffering inprison—is expressed, on alower level, in the song of the Indian motion pictureMoghul-i aʽẓam, whereAnarkali, imprisoned by Akbar for her alleged love affair with Prince Salim,sings: Bēkaspe karam kijiyē, “O Prophet of Medina! Have mercy on thehelpless!Myworldisinruins,andyoualonecansaveit!”(informationsuppliedbyAliS.Asani).5.Jeffery,“TheQuestfortheHistoricalMohammad,”givesagoodsurveyof

variousapproachestotheProphet’sbiography:historical,critical,psychological,apologetic,mystical,etc.6.Hamidullah,“LadatedenaissanceduProphèteMuḥammad.”7. Abū Nuaim,Dalāʽil an-nubuwwa, p. 100. The elephant “who performed

prostration”aswellastheabābīlbirdsofSura105occurfrequentlyinpopularpoetryasthefirstmiracletoportendMuḥammad’sfutureroleinMecca,andintheworld.8. About her, see the romanticized account by Bint ash-Shaṭi’, Āmina bint

Wahb.9.IbnIshaq,Sīra,1:104;seeMeier,AbūSaʽid-iAbūl-Ḫayr,p.46,n.32.10.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.4,line976.11.SeeAbuNuʽaim,Dalailan-nubuwwa,pp.120–21,n.2.12.Watt,Muḥammad,ProphetandStatesman, p. 1,where themeetingwith

Bahira’istoldinextenso.13. Abu Nuʽaim,Dalāʽil an-nubuwwa, pp. 125–31, with variants; Baihaqi,

Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.32–88.14.Bbārānāgītā,p.10.15. Jurji, “Khadīja, Mohammad’s First Wife”; Karahan, “Un nouveau

mathnawī de la litterature turque-ottomane”; Littmann, Mohammad imVolksepos.AmodernArabicbookinpraiseofKhadijaisAlayili,Mathaluhunnaal-aʽlā.16.Kĭsakürek,Es-selâm,p.41.17.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.5,lines3535ff.

18.Bukhari,Ṣaḥīḥ,“Bad’al-waḥy,”1:no.2.19.Lüling,DieWiederentdeckungdesProphetenMuhammad.20.LehmannandPedersen,“DerBeweisfürdieAuferstehungimKoran.”21. “The Sufi clings to the Prophet likeAbūBakr,” saysRumi,Dīwān, no.

2275.22.IbnIshaq,Sīra,1:341ff.;Hamidullah,TheFirstWrittenConstitutioninthe

World.23.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.6,line3197,concludesfromthisKoranicstatement

(asdidmanyotherSufis)thatToseehimistoseetheCreator;ToservehimistoserveGod,[You]seetheday[whenyou]lookthroughthiswindow.24.ThusJami,“SalamānuAbāal,”inHaftAurang,p.454;hisnAʽtiyyapoetry

contains numerous allusions to this event. But even as early as the twelfthcentury,Nizami speaks in his verse of the “teeth and stones”; see “KhusrauuShīrīn,”inKulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.128.25.ForanewinterpretationofMuHammad’soft-discussedattitudetowardthe

JewsseeBarakatAḥmad,MuḥammadandtheJews.26.ThetopicofMuḥammad’spatienceinadversitiesisalludedtointhetitle

ofoneofhisbiographies,TheBookof“WhoPerseveresWillOvercome”; seeNicholson,“AnUnknownBiographyofMuḥammadEntitledKitdbumanṣabaraẓafira”27.The problemwhetheral-ʽālamīn “theworlds” or “the inhabitants of the

worlds,”originallymeant“allofhumanity”hasbeendiscussedtimeandagain.A good survey of the earlier studies is Buhl, “Fasste Muḥammad seineVerkündigungalseineuniverselle…Religionauf?”28.ThefirstmajorbookinthelonglineofstudiesonthistopicwasGeiger’s

WashatMohammedausdemJudentumaufgenommen?(Bonn,1833).29.Fück,“DieOriginalitatdesarabischenPropheten,”p.145.30.The“farewellsermon”istranslatedinJeffery,ReaderonIslam,pp.306–8.31.BedilRohriwaro,Dīwīn, p.348,gives thechronogram forhisdeath, the

year11oftheHegira,ashū,“He”(h=5,w=6,h+w=11):“he[theProphet]becameunitedwithHE[God].”32.Fück,“Muḥammad—PersonlichkeitundReligionsstiftung,”p.175.33.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.137,fromMuḥammadHasanainMakhluf,

Dalilal-ḥajj.34.AbouttheProphet’sdaughtersseeBintash-Shati’,Bandtan-nabī;shehas

alsodevotedabooktotheProphet’swives,Nisā’an-nabī.35.AccordingtotheShiatheologianMuḥammadBaqirMajlisiinhisJalā’al-

ʽ’uyūn, Fatima was conceived when the Prophet returned from his heavenlyjourney,and thereforecarrieda fragranceofParadise; seeMcAuliffe,“ChosenofallWomen,”p.26.Anexcellentsurveyisthearticle“Fātima”inEl,2nded.,3:841–50.OneshouldcomparethebitingsarcasmofLammens’sbookFatimaetlesfillesdeMahometwiththeinterpretationgivenofherrolebyadevoutShiamodernist such as ʽAli Schariʽati,Fatima ist Fatima. For her role in popularpietyseealsoAyoub,RedemptiveSufferinginIslam.36.IbnIshaq,Sīra,4:305–6.37.FamilieswiththesurnameSiddiqi(orSiddiqui)claimdescentfromhim.38. ʽumar was the father of Hafsa, one of the Prophet’s wives; hence the

frequentcombinationofthenameofʽumarwiththekunya(agnomen)AbūHafs.FamilieswiththesurnameFaruqiclaimdescentfromhim.39.MostrecentlybyLazarus-Yafeh, inSomeReligiousAspectsof Islam,pp.

1–16.40. The fātiḥa is recited at a great number of occasions. “To have fātiḥa”

means in common parlance, at least in the non-Arab countries, to have areligious gathering, either in memory of deceased persons or for purposes ofblessing.41.Schuon,IslamandthePerennialPhilosophy,p.100,explainsthedifferent

loyaltiesof the “proto-Sunnite”and“proto-Shiite” attitudeswith the followinginteresting comparison: “The spiritual ancestors of the Shiites were thosecompanionswhocouldnotlivewithoutthepresenceoftheProphet”(hencetheirlove for his descendants); theSunnites “were thosewho could not accept anysubstitutewhateverforthispresenceandwho,thus,hadnochoicebuttolivebyhismemoryandinhissunna.”42. Ayoub, Redemptive Suffering in Islam; a good survey of the later

developmentappearsinChelkowski,Taʽziya:RitualandDramainIran.43.Hallaj,“Riwāyāt,”quotedinBaqli,Sharḥ-ishaṭḥiyāt,para.639.44.ForthishighregardforthedescendantsoftheProphetasexpressedbyMir

Dard,asayyidhimself,seeSchimmel,PainandGrace,p.38:they“wereelectedbeforeallpeopleandpossessedthespecialgracewhichGodhadbestowedupontheir ancestorMuḥammad.”Braune,Die Futūh al-Ġaib des ʽAbd ul-Qādir, p.12;Meier,AbūSaʽīd-iAbūl-Ḫayr,p.67,speaksofthevenerationinwhichtheSufimasterAbūSa’id(d.1049)heldthedescendantsoftheProphetandhowhesupported those who were impoverished. Islamic history is full of suchexamples. See Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali,Observations on the Musulmauns, 1:6:

“Syads … are the first to be considered, when the rich have determined ondispensarygiftsincharity.Thesyads,however,areunderpeculiarrestrictions,asregards thenatureof thosegiftswhich they arepermitted to accept.”Onehasalso to think of the political role played by the sayyid or sharīf families asfounders of dynasties (as in Morocco and Libya), or more recently in partypoliticsinsomeIslamicstates.45.Rumi,Dīwān,no.169.46.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.48;Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.6,lines888

ff.47.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.363.48.ExamplesfrommodernArabicwriting:ʽAqqad,Dāʽīas-samā’; Ibrahim,

BilālibnRabāh;Sahhar,Bilalmuʽadhdhinar-rasūl.49.Iqbal,Bāng-iDarā,pp.78,272.50.ForhimseeCameron,AbūDharral-Ghifārī.51.AbūNuʽaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.213–19,devotesalengthychapter

to his strange career. Paret, Die legendäre Maghazi-Literatur, pp. 189–90,speaksof the important roleofSalmanin thecyclesof legends thatdevelopedaroundtheProphetandhighlightshisrelationtoʽAliandhisfamily.Laterpoets,uptoIqbal,liketocontrastthepovertyofSalmanandthegloryofSulaiman(thebiblicalSolomon,grammatically,adiminutiveofSalman):thepoorPersianandthemightyprophet-kingrepresentthecomplementaryaspectsofIslam.52. See Donaldson, “Salmān the Persian”; Horovitz, “Salmān al-Fārisā”;

Huart,“SelmândeFârs”;Massignon,“Lesoriginesde laméditationShiitesurSâlman et Fâtima” and “Salmân-i Pâk et les prémices spirituelles de 1’Islamiranien.”53. InTurkishbarbershops,onemightfind, informerdays,aplatewith the

verse:Everymorningourshopopenswiththebasmala;Hazret-iSalman-iPakisourpirandourmaster.In some Turkish dervish orders, the expression selman etmek, “to make

someoneSalman,”meanttosendhimouttobegandlearnhumility.Gölpĭnarlĭ,Tasavvuftandilimizegeçendeyimler,pp.288–89.54.Furuzanfar,Aḥādṭth-iMathnawī,no.195.Uwaishasbeenpraisedbypoets

especially in thefolktradition.See,forexample, theversesofYunusEmre(d.1321,Anatolia),Divan,p.572,no.CCXLVI:55.The“tenwhowerepromisedParadise”are,accordingtothemostcommon

tradition,AbuBakr, ʽUmar, ʽUthman, ʽAli,Talha,Zubair, ʽAbdurRahman ibn

ʽAuf, Saʽd ibn AbiWaqqas, Saʽid ibn Zaid, and Abū ʽUbaida ibn Jarrah. Incalligraphy the names of God and the Prophet are added so as to form adecorativeoctagon;anexampleofthisdevicemaybefoundonthedustcoverofMartinLings’sMohammad.PiousSufiswereoftenblessedwiththecompanyoftenparticularlydearfriendsandthusfollowedeveninthisrespecttheProphet’sexample.SeeMeier,AbūSaʽd-iAbūl-Ḫayr,pp.364–66.

CHAPTERTWO

1.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifln,p.666,chap.4,para.67.2.Cf. Schuon’s interpretation of theMuslim ideal (Islam and the Perennial

Philosophy, p. 96): “Love of God is not the point of departure; it is a gracewhichGodmaybestowuponhimwhofearsHim.”For“ifyouwishGodtoloveyou,youmustloveHismessengerbyfollowinghissunna.”3.W.C.Smith,TheFaithofOtherMen,pp.60–62,discusses thisaspectof

Islamicprophetology.4.Söderblom,TheLivingGod,p.224.5.SeeAndrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.182.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.

242,chap.3,para.152,quotesRumi:“TofollowthemessengerofGod,belongstothedutiesoftheahl-imānā[thosewhohavereachedtheinteriormeaningoflife].”6. Goldziher, “Chatm al-Buchârâ.” See Schimmel, “Sufismus und Heiligen-

verehrung,” p. 275, formedieval Egypt: according to IbnTaghribirdi,Annals,Entitled An-nujum az-zāhira, 6:376, Sultan Muayyad Shaikh had learned thiscustomin1417inJerusalemandthenintroduceditinCairo.7.Badaoni,Muntakhabat-tawārīkh,3:154(trans,p.215).8.Sprenger,Catalogue of the Arabic, Persian andHindustanyManuscripts,

i:xiii.9. A good example is ʽAbdul Haqq Muhaddith Dihlawi (d. 1642), who

collected, among other works, forty ḥadīth concerning the good or badproprieties of the days of the week (Al-aʽmāl al-maʽthūra fi’l-ayyām al-mashhūra, Urdu trans., Delhi, 1891). See Brockelmann, GAL 2:416, 82:603.People collected “Fortyḥadīth about arrow shooting” (thusAl-Qarrab), aboutwriting(Mustaqimzade),aboutprayers,orwhateverappearedmostimportanttothem.ForthetopicingeneralseeKarahan,Islam-TürkedebiyatĭndaKĭrkhadis,andhisarticle“Aperçugénéralsurles‘quarantehadith.’”10.InthePersiantradition,Jami’sArbaʽīnintheirArabictextwithhisPersian

verse translations were often copied by the masters of calligraphy. For two

exquisiteexamplesseeArberryetal.,CatalogueofthePersianManuscripts,no.172,bySultan-ʽAliMashhadiin1495;andno.227,byShah-MaḥmūdNishaburiin1557.11. SeeGoldziher,MuslimStudies, 2:164–80, about ṭalab al-ḥadīth, “search

for ḥadīth.” However, Ibn al-Jauzi (Talbīs Iblīs, p. 113) attacks even thosescholarswhotravelsearchingforḤadīthinordertoshowoff,whileneglectingmoreessentialduties;theyareconsideredtobemisguidedbySatan.12. Hamidullah, Ṣaḥīfa Hammdm ibn Munabbih. There are numerous

traditions according to which ʽUmar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph, wasstrictly against the reporting of Ḥadīth and even had people flogged fordivulgingwords—orallegedwords—of theProphet, forhewasafraid that theProphet’s example might supersede the clear words of the Koran, or thatignorant listeners might forget the distinction between the two categories ofwords,DivineandProphetic.13. The Sufis sometimes objected to collecting Ḥadīth and stressed the

importanceof following theProphet’sexamplebyone’sactions rather thanby“blackening books” bywriting down the traditions.Awell-known example isthatoftheilliteratePersianmysticKharaqani;seeJami,Nafaḥātal-uns,p.299.14. Mez, Die Renaissance des Islam, p. 183; see also Goldziher, Muslim

Studies,2:366–68,aboutwomeninḤadīthstudies.15.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.182–83.16.Rahman,Islam;thewholeofhisthirdchapterdealswiththeseproblemsin

amasterlyway.17. See Handwörterbuch des Islam (Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam), s.v.

“sunna”fordefinitions.18.Schuon,IslamandthePerennialPhilosophy,p.29.19.Nasr,IdealsandRealitiesofIslam,pp.80ff.20.Troll,SayyidAḥmadKhan,p.45.21. For excerpts from his writing see Azīz Aḥmad and von Grunebaum,

MuslimSelf-StatementinIndiaandPakistan,p.52.22. Azīz Aḥmad, Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, gives a good

survey of the different trends. For Pakistan see also Baljon,Modern MuslimKoranInterpretation,esp.pp.18–19,73;forEgypt,Juynboll,TheAuthenticityofTraditionLiterature.23.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.192,afterQadiʽIyad,Shifā,2:14.24.ThusRumiinAflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.196,chap.3,para.105.25.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.228.

26.Typical for thesunna-boxmd attitude is thequotationat thebeginningofIbnal-Jauzi’sTalbīsIblīs,whichreferstothesayingoftheleadingSufimasterofBaghdadintheformativeperiod,Junaid:“Alltheroadsareclosedforpeople,with the exception of him that picks out the works of the holy Prophet andfollows his sunna and keeps always to his path, for to him all ways of goodactionsareopen.”27.Ghazzali,Iḥyāʽulūmad-dīn,2:300–344,trans,byZolondekasBookXXof

Ghazzali’sIhya’ʽulumad-dīn.28.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifān,p.219,chap.3,para.128.29.Meier,AbūSaʽīd-iAbū’lḪayr, pp.364–65, showshow thegreatmystic

AbūSa’idarrangedhiswholelifeaccordingtotheProphet’sexample:theSufiswere even keener to form their lives according to the pattern of his life thanMuslimsingeneral.30.Schuon,IslamandthePerennialPhilosophy,p.29.31.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.12.32.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.140.33. Thus M. Khaqani,Ḥilya., p. 33; according to Tirmidhi, shamā’il, with

commentary of Bajuri, pp. 11, 65, 66, it was either twenty or fourteen whitehairs.Cf.alsoBurton,Sindh,andtheRacesThatInhabittheValleyoftheIndus,p. 135, where he tells that schoolboys in Sind about 1850 learned that theProphethadexactly104,472hairsonhisbody.34.MakhdumMuḥammad Hashim was a Naqshbandi mystic in the city of

Thatta,Sind;seeBrockelmann,GALS2:612–21.AcompleteenumerationofhisworksappearsinIbrahimTattawi,TakmilatMaqālātash-shuʽarā,pp.43ff.35.Averycomprehensive,thoughratherlate(seventeenth-century)Indo-Per-

siansourceisʽAbdulHaqqMuhaddithDihlawi’sMadārijan-nubuwwa.36. It forms thebasisofa lectureby theSwissProfessorGoergens in1878:

Mohammad, ein Charakterbild. Auf Grund der Darstellung Termidî’s. ThemanuscriptofTirmidhi’sShamād’ilwasgiventotheauthorbyAloysSprenger.A good English translation by Hidayet Hosain was published in the journalIslamicCulture,1933and1934.37.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.60.Theeditionof theShifā’usedby

Andraewasnotavailabletothepresentwriter.38.Khafaji,Nasīmar-riyād(commentaryontheShifāʼ),1:4.39. Yusuf an-Nabhani has summed up Qastallani’s work as Al-anwār al-

muḥammadiyya.Amonghisnumerousothercompilationsofsayings,verse,andtheological works in honor of the Prophet, one may mention Al-faḍāʽil al-muḥammadiyya (Beirut,1900)and theanthology in fourvolumes,Jawāhiral-

bihārfīfādlan-nabīal-mukhtār(Beirut,1909).40. Zolondek, Book XX, pp. 74–76, from Tirmidhi’s Shamā’il (with

commentary of Bajuri, pp. 29–35). Unfortunately the translator consistentlyrendersthe“fullmoon,”badr,as“themooninthenightofBadr.”41.AbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,p.38.42.Rumi,Dīwīn,no.1348.Cf.ʽAttar,Muṣibatnāma,p.28.43.Enevoldsen,OMåne! no. 188.This sayingmaybebasedonverses like

thatofJami,“SalamānuAbāal,”inHaftAurang,p.452:A lovely rosepoem isalso found inSindhi (Baloch,Maulūd,p.151,no.3),

withtherefrain:Thepoetgoeson tostate that theProphetand therosewereequal inbeauty

andfragrance.44.AbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,p.380.45.SaghirNizami,inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghdn-inaʽt,p.216.46. Horten,Die religiöse Vorstellungswelt des Volkes, p. 38, with an exact

description.47.Dagh,inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.102.48.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-Mathnawī,no.49.49.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.106.50. The idea that the Muslims worshiped golden effigies of Muḥammad

remainedaliveinEuropeanliterarytradition;evenintheworksoftheGermanromanticssuchasNovalis,thegoldnenMahomsbilderoccurnowandthen.51.TheProphetwasoftenrepresentedinIslamicminiaturesduringtheMiddle

Ages,evenwithhisfaceunveiled.AtypicalexampleisRashiduddin’sJāmiʽat-tawārīkh,especiallytheEdinburghmanuscript,whichillustratesalleventsofhislife; see Rice, The Illustrations to the “World History” of Rashīd al-Dīn.Miniatures are often found in the Turkish tradition; see the examples in Esin,Mecca the Blessed, Medinah the Radiant. But the publication of theserepresentationswasrecentlycriticizedbyanumberofPakistanis,andagrowingaversiontothemisalsofeltinEgypt,nottomention,ofcourse,inSaudiArabia,whereanyrepresentationofpersonsisoutofthequestion.52.M.Khaqani,Ḥilya.,p.13.53.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,pp.225–27.54.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,p.229.55.Mustaqimzade,Tuḥfa-ikhaṭṭāṭān,p.606,speaksatlengthoftheblessings

involvedinwritingtheḥilya.56.Inal,SonHattatlar,p.802.

57. InUrdu, an equivalent of thepoeticalḥilya is the sardpd, “[description]fromheadtofoot”;afamousexampleisLuṭf’sSarāpāsarwaral-anbiyā,ofthemid-nineteenthcentury.58.M.Khaqani,Ḥilya.,p.12.59.M.Khaqani,Ḥilya.,p.22.60.M.Khaqani,Ḥilya., p.23.Cf. also Jami,whoseencomiaevidently form

the model for Khaqani (as for many other post-fifteenth-century Persian andTurkishpoets);hesaysin“SalamānuAbsāl,”inHaftAurang,p.454:61.Darmesteter,ChantspopulairesdesAfghans,no.no,lines8–10.62.Cachia,“TheProphet’sShirt,”withtextsandtranslations.63.Baloch,Munāqibā,p.37.64.Margoliouth, “Relics of the ProphetMohammad,” mentions somemore

relics,andgivesalsothepricesthatwereofferedforsomeofthem.Goldziher,MuslimStudies, 2:322–32,mentions that Indiawas aparticularlygoodmarketforsuchrelics.65.Iqbal,Musāfir,pp.64–71.66. Tirmidhi, Shamā’il, with commentary of Bajuri, pp. 93–99, devotes a

whole chapter to the sandals. See also St. Elie, “Le culte rendu par lesMusulmansauxsandalesdeMahomet,”whichismainlyatranslationofasmalltreatise by the indefatigableYusuf an-Nabhani; a footnotementions that therearealsoTurkishworksonthebashmaq-isharīf(printedinKazan).67.Jami,“LailāuMajnūn,”inHaftAurang,p.756;cf.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhir

al-auliyā, pp.233 ff.But alreadyNizami inhis “KhusrauuShirin,”Kulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.128,hadaddressedtheProphet:“YoursandalsarethecrownfortheThrone’s seat.” Khaqani then sings in hisḤilya., p. 11: “The Divine Thronegainedhonorfromkissinghissandals.”68. Jami, “Tarjīʽband,”Dīwān, p. 95; see also his “Silsilat adh-dhahab,” in

HaftAurang,p.11.69.Jami,Dīwān,no.48,p.74.70. Jami, “Silsilat adh-dhahab,” in Haft Aurang, p. 10, and “Yūsuf u Zu-

laikhā,” ibid., p. 587. The sandals arementioned also byAflaki,Manāqib al-ʽārifīn,p.364,chap.3,para.269.It isbelievedthat theAbbasidcaliphMahdīreceivedasagiftapairofsandalsattributedtotheProphet,andpaidthepersonwhobroughtithandsomelyeventhoughhedidnotbelieveintheirauthenticity.Horten,DiereligioseVorstellungsweltdesVolkes,p.149.71.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,2:398.72.Maqqari,Fath al-mutaʽāl fī madh an-niʽāl, with numerous drawings. A

different use of the term “shoe of the Prophet” is apparently current in EastAfrica.SeeKnappert,SwahiliReligiousPoetry,1:40:“ShoeoftheProphet”isa“formidable talisman which lends its wearer good luck.… One writes on thesoles the profession of faith and the Arabic phrase tawajjah haithu shiʽta fa’innakamanṣūr,‘Turnwhereveryouwant,youarevictorious(or,“supportedbyGod”).’”ClassicalIslamwouldhaverefusedtosanctionsuchacustom:howcanone steponArabic letters, especiallywhen theycontain thenameofGodandHisprophet,asisthecaseintheshahādal73.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,3:386–416.74.Goldziher,MuslimStudies,2:397.75.Memon,IbnTaimiyyasStruggleagainstPopularReligion,p.362n.301.

ThebookcontainsmanyotherexamplesofthevenerationofrelicstowhichIbnTaimiyyaobjected.76.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,p.222.77.Nath,MonumentsofDelhi,p.39.78.Badaoni,Muntakhabat-tawārīkh,,2:310(trans.2:320).79.Tapish,Gulzẓr-inaʽt,fol.7b.80.Tapish,Gulzẓr-inaʽt,fol.8b.81.M.Khaqani,Ḥilya., p.44, compares theProphet’sbeard to theNightof

Might(Sura97)andthesura“BytheNight!”(92:1).82.AbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.381–82.83.For“hairsoftheProphet”inTurkeyseeKrissandKriss-Heinrich,Volks-

glaubeimBereichdesIslam,1:330–31;inBursathehairisshownandparadedduringthelailatal-qadr,theNightofMight,on27Ramadan.Goldziher,MuslimStudies,2:329–31,quotesfromAbdulGhanian-Nabulusi(d.1728)thatthelatterhadmetanIndianwhoclaimedthatthesehairsgrowandincreaseontheirown.SeealsoZwemer,“HairsoftheProphet.”84.ʽAndalib,Nāla-iʽAndalīb,i:446ff.85.Juynboll,“DyeingtheHairandBeard.”86.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:204–87.87.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads, p.192 (forMalik ibnAnasread Anas

ibn Malik). Abū Nuʽaim, Dalāʽil an-nubuwwa, pp. 375–76, tells how theProphet, invited toameal,enjoyedeating the lamb’sforelegs;aftereating twoheaskedforanotherone,whereuponhishostremarked:“Butasheephasonlytwoforelegs!”TheProphetrebukedhim:“Ifyouhadkeptquiet,thenyouwouldhave givenmewhat I had asked for!“—that is, probably, another piecemighthavemysteriouslyappearedinthepot.

88.Troll,“SayyidAḥmadKhanandIslamicJurisprudence,”p.2.89.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.628,chap.4,para.22.Thisstorywassowell

knownthatIqbalalludedtoitintheAsrār-ikhudī,lines422–24.90.IbnQayyimal-Jauziyya,Aṭ-ṭibban-nabawī,p.223.91.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.134;IbnQayyimal-Jauziyya,Aṭ-ṭibb

an-nabawī,p.12.92. There areḤadīth about taḥnīk, rubbing a child’s gumswith saliva. The

storythatʽAli’seyewascuredinthiswayismentionedbyIbnHishamandhassincebeenrepeatedfrequently,asinthelegendarymaghāzītales.93.HealingmiraclesarefoundinAbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.390

ff.; medical explanations of the Prophet’s sayings and actions appear in IbnQayyimal-Jauziyya,Aṭ-ṭibban-nabawī.94.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1335.95. M. Khaqani, ḥilya., pp. 17, 22. Khaṭṭ, “down on the cheeks,” means

primarily “line, script,” hence the pun with the “text of the revelation.” Forfurther puns on the double meaning of khaṭṭ, as they were commonplace inmystical and profane poetry, see Schimmel,Calligraphy and Islamic Culture,esp.pp.128–34.96.AbuNuʽaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,p.139:khulquhuʽl-Qurʽāan.97.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.261,according toQadi ʽIyāḍ,Shifā’

1:9.98.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.157.99. Zolondek, Book XX, pp. 28–30; cf. Sellheim, “Das Lächeln des Pro-

pheten.”100.Tirmidhi,shamā’il,withcommentarybyBajuri,p.193;trans.H.Hosain,

IslamicCulture8:288–89;retoldinZafrullaKhan,Islam,pp.69–70,andoften.101.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.680.102. Tirmidhi, shamā’il, with commentary by Bajuri, p. 176; Andrae, Die

personMuḥammads,pp.200–201.103.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.20.104. Furuzanfar, Aḥādīth-i Mathnawī, no. 338. For similar traditions see

Goldziher,“Influenceschretiennesdanslalitteraturereligieusede1’Islam.”105.Rumievencallshim“lordofabasa[hefrowned],”Mathnawī,vol.4,line

282.106.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.201,citingTirmidhi,shamā’il,with

commentaryofBajuri,pp.275–77.107.Rumi,Mathnawl,vol.5,lines64ff.SeeFuruzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,

no.449.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.216–18,374,haspointedouthowSufiidealshavecoloredthispictureoftheProphet.Hismildnessandhiscaringfor people is alsowell attested in the legendarymaghāzī tales; see Paret,DielegenddreMaghdzl-Literatur,p.177.108.Tirmidhi,Shamd’il,withcommentaryofBajuri,pp.289–91.109. For the elaboration of such themes see Jami, “Silsilat adh-dhahab,” in

HaftAurang,p.9,andotherinstancesinhisepics.110.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.89.111.Thetraditionisnotpartoftheclassicalcollectionsofhadlth.112.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.320.113.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.217.114.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifin,p.407,chap.3,para.344:Rumiadmonishes

his daughterMalikaKhatunwith thishadlth,whichhe transforms into a littlepoem.115.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.54.116.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.3.117.ThusBaloch,Munāqibā,p.343.118.YunusEmre,Divan, p. 569, no. CCXLIII; this expressionwas apparently

wellknownat least inTurkey, for it isusedstill inourdaybyKĭsakŠrek,Es-selâm,p.in,no.51.119. Abū Nu’aim,Dalāʽil an-nubuwwa, p. 485. Folk poetry often uses the

theme of Gabriel announcing to the Prophet the death of his little grandsons,eventhoughtheiractualdemisewasnottooccuruntilsomethirtyor,inHusain’scase, almost fifty years after the Prophet’s own death. For examples see alsoParet,Die legenādreMaghāzī-Literatur; p. 210. The theme of course plays acentralroleintheShiatradition;seeAyoub,RedemptiveSufferinginIslam.Inaladies’mourningsession,majlis, that Iattended lastMuharram(October1983)inLahore,thepreachingwomandweltextensivelyonthislegend.120.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.15.121.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽarifīn, p. 478, chap. 3, para. 453,with the closing

remark“Showlove,andbeittoacat,”taʽashshaqūwalaubiʽl-hirra.122.Darmesteter,ChantspopulairesdesAfghans,p.104,no.42.123.Quotedasmotto inGraham,DivineWordandPropheticWord; cf. also

the Turkish saying kedi sevenin imanĭ gürdür, “Who loves cats has a strongfaith.”FormoreexamplesseeSchimmel,DieorientalischeKatze.124. Dailami, Sīrat Ibn al-Khafīf, introduction, p. 20; Aflaki,Manāqib al-

ʽārifīn,p.8,chap.2,para.1.

125.Altogether1,210Ḥadīthgobacktoher,butonlyabout300ofthemhavebeenincorporatedintotheṢaḥīḥān.126.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.118.127.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.47.128.ThisḤadīth is found frequently; itsmost complete form is reported in

Muslim,Ṣaḥīḥ,“bābar-raḍāʽ,”no.59.129.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.205.130.Nasr,IdealsandRealitiesofIslam,p.76.131. Andrae,Die person Muḥammads, p. 220, after al-Hakim at-Tirmidhi,

Nawādiral-uṣūl,p.201.132.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.480.133. See, for example, Furuzanfar, Aāādīth-i Mathnawī, the ḥadīth stating

shāwirūhunnawakhālifūhunna,“Asktheiropinionandthenactcontrarytoit,”which is very often quoted.A collection ofKoranic injunctions andPropheticsayingsaboutwomenwaspublishedbyNawwabSiddiqHasanKhan,theprinceconsortoftherulingprincessofBhopal;seeSiddiqHasan,Husnal-uswabimdthubitaminAllāhwarasūlihifī’n-niswa.134.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī, no. 182. IbnArabi devoted thewhole

lastchapterofhisFuṣūṣal-ḥikamtothisḥadīthanditsesotericmeaning;seeforthetranslationAustin,TheBezelsofWisdom.135.Nasr,IdealsandRealitiesofIslam,p.77.136.Nasr,IdealsandRealitiesofIslam,p.74.137.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.34.138.Söderblom,TheLivingGod,p.298:“WithoutNotherewillbenoproper

Yes.Forthenallthatdeniesanddestroys,degradesanddelayswhatisrightandgoodwouldbeallowedtoremainunattackedandunabolished.ThatiswhyaNoisnecessaryin themoralwarfareof the individual, in theevolutionofreligionandinthehistoryoftherace.”139.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.85.140. Razi, The Path of God’s Bondsmen, p. 320, explains this ḥadīth as

follows:“‘TemptationcomestomyheartandIseekforgivenessofGodseventytimes a day’ means that ‘through intercourse with men, the conveying of themessage,andthepracticeofsocialrelationships,eachmomentanewexistenceisbornwithinmeandcomes in frontof the true sun likea cloud.By seekingforgivenessInegatethatexistenceseventytimesaday.’”141.Furuzanfar,Aāādīth-iMathnawī,no.597.142.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.40.

143.Fück,“DieOriginalitätdesarabischenPropheten,”p.152.144.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.212.

CHAPTERTHREE

1. For this topic see Andrae, Die person Muḥammads, chap. 3: “DieUnfehlbar-keitdesPropheten.”SeealsoHorten,DiereligiöseGedankenweltdergebildetenMuslime,pp.109–10.2. See Bell, “Muḥammad and Previous Messengers,” about the role of the

stories of the prophets in the Koran; and Jeffery, “Muḥammad among theProphets,”inReaderonIslam,pp.333–36.3.Gätje,KoranundKoranexegese,p.78,citingZamakhshari,TafslradSura

22:52,which dealswith the prophets precedingMuḥammad. See alsoHorten,DiereligioseGedankenweltdergebildetenMuslime,p.111.4.Bell,LoveTheoriesinLaterHanbaliteIslam,p.161.5.SeeSchimmel,AsThroughaVeil,p.39.6.TheSanūsiyyaistranslatedinHorten,MuhammedanischeGlaubenslehren,

pp.45–53,andHartmann,DieReligiondesIslam,pp.43–50.7.SeeBravmann,‘TheOriginofthePrincipleof’iṣmah’8.Jeffery,“WasMuḥammadaProphetfromHisInfancy?”dealscriticallywith

thematerial.9. Ab Nuʽaim, Dalāʽil an-nubuwwa, pp. 143–47. It is remarkable that he

extendstheconceptsofʽiṣma,towhichhedevotesalongchapter(pp.143–70),also to Muḥammad’s being protected from the evil intentions of his fellowcreaturesandofanimals.10.Gätje,KoranundKoranexegese,citingZamakhshari’sTafsīr adSura93:

6–8.11.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.192.12. Ibn Hazm, Al-faṣl fī’ll-milal…wa’n-niḥal, 4:29; see also Andrae, Die

personMuḥammads,p.134.13.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.138–39,citingTabari,TafsūradSura

48:1.InterestingistheattacklaunchedinMuslimDigest,March-April1982,p.3,againstanewtranslationoftheKoraninwhichthetranslatorhadwritten“sothat God might forgive thee all that is past of sins and all that is yet tocome”—“andinthismanner,”saystheoutragedreviewer,“contradictsthefirmbeliefofMuslimsthatEVERYPROPHETOFALLĀHISMA’SOOM[innocent].”14. Andrae,Die person Muḥammads, p. 149, based on Qadi ʽIyad, Shifā’,

2:115.15.SeeEl,s.v.Bakillānī;McCarthy,Al-Bāqillāni…:MiracleandMagic.16.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.149–50.17.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.169,basedon‘AbdulQadiral-Gilani,

Futūḥal-ghaib,p.18;seechapter2n.140above.18. Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī, no. 459. Rumi, who loves this ḥadīth,

saysintheDīwān,no.82:19.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.169,chap.4,para.8.20.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.600,chap.3,para.592.21.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.245,citingQadiʽIyad,Shifā’,1:102.

Rumi,Mathnawī,3: line451,explains thisaspertaining to theProphet’snightjourney: his journey was into the height, Jonah’s into the depth, but theproximityofGodisbeyondreckoning.ThesameideaisalsoelaboratedinFöhimāfīhi (trans.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.114).SeeFuruzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.298.Butcf.Graham,DivineWordandPropheticWord, p. 167,whereaDivinesaying (no.44)admonishesman ingeneral:“MyservantmustnotsaythatheisbetterthanYunusibnMatta.”22.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.246.SeealsoRazi,ThePathofGod’s

Bondsmen,p.153.23.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.155.24.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.168.25.Bell,LoveTheoriesinLaterHanbaliteIslam,p.176.26.ʽUrfi,Kulliyāt,p.100(qaṣīda);p.469(mathnawī).27.Khaqani,Dīwān,p.99:qaṣīdaḥirzal-ḥijāz.28.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1700.29.ʽIraqi,Kulliyāt,p.74.30. Jami, “Lailā u Majnūn,” in Haft Aurang, p. 754. That becomes a

commonplaceinlaterPersianpoetry;seeNaziri,Dlwdn,p.472,qaṣīdano.32.31.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.170.32.AlamMuzaffarnagari,inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghdn-inat,p.170.33.AmirMina’i,inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.104.34.IsmaʽilMeeruthi(Mirathi),inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.108.35.Robson,“DoestheBibleSpeakofMohammad?”callsthisidea“crooked

thinking.”AgoodsurveyofthesetraditionsappearsinAbdulHaqqMuhaddithDihlawi,Madārijan-nubuwwa,pp.111–26.Anumberofbooksonthissubjecthave been published, mainly by Indian Muslims, such as Vidyarti and Ali,MuḥammadinParsi,HindooandBuddhistScriptures;Jairazbhoy,Muḥammad:

AMercytoAlltheNations,discussesthetopicinanappendix.36.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.266–68.37.Wagner,AbūNuwās,p.132.Cf.alsoAnwari,Dīwān,p.190.38.Atypicalinstancefromearlysixteenth-centuryEgyptistoldbyIbnIyas;it

happenedon26Ramadan918(NovemberA.D.1512).39.Hamadeh,Muḥammad,no.1452,mentionstheworkofAlvareofCordova,

Iudiculus luminosus, written in ninth-century Spain “to justify the wave ofmartyrdomwhichtookplaceinMuslimSpain.”Alvare“callsupontheChurchtoveneratethepeoplewhosacrificedthemselvesasmartyrswhentheyinsultedMuḥammad.”40.SeeW.C.Smith,ModernIslaminIndia,p.69;Ikramullah,FromPurdah

toParliament,p.46.41.Iqbālnāma1:189;seeSchimmel,Gabriel’sWing,p.170.

CHAPTERFOUR

1.FortheearlydevelopmentofthistraditionseeHorovitz,“ZurMuḥammad-legende” (The Growth of the Mohammad Legend); Mez, “Die WunderMuḥammads”; Jeffery, “TheMiracles of the Prophet” (based on Ibn Saʽd), inReaderonIslam,pp.309–30.2.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.160.3. For the early period see Antes, Das Prophetenwunder in derfrühen

Ās’arīya;forthelaternineteenthcenturyseeTroll,“TheFundamentalNatureofProphet-hoodandMiracle”;andtheinterestingdiscussionbySirSayyidAḥmadKhan, “Kiyā muʽjiza dalill-i nubuwwat hai? Is the Miracle Proof forProphethood?”inAhmadKhan,Maqālāt-iSirSayyid,13:92-103.4. For this event seeBirkeland,TheOpening ofMuḥammad’s Breast; Guil-

laume,TheLifeofMuḥammad,p.72.Aninterestingvariantofthestorywastoldin medieval Bengal, where it was said that the young Muḥammad, “whiletending goats with other boys, hit an intransigent goat with a stick. Allāh,disapprovingofsuchangerintheProphet,sentJibriltoripopenMuḥammad’sbody,”andthenhisheartwascleansedfromall lowlytendencies.Roy,IslamicSyncretisticTradition,p.101.5.Baihaqi,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,1:12.6. Abū Nu’aim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa, from which this account is taken, has

different versions (p. 117): the opening of the breast may have happened inMuḥammad’sfourthyear,or in the tenth.Healsomentionstheweighing;both

events are signs for the beginning ofMuḥammad’s prophetic office (pp. 175–76).7.AbūNu’aim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.233–36.Thevariouscommentaries

onSura54:1giveasurveyofpossibleinterpretations.8.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.107,citingQadiIʽyad,Shifā,1:239.9.Friedmann,“QiṣṣatShakarāatīFarmād.”Işĭk,“ShockingWritings,”pp.34–

35,andhisSouthAfricaneditors repeat the storyof the Indianking,althoughwith a different name, but they add that Neil Armstrong saw on the moon astraight lineestimatedatsome240kminlength,whichclearlyproves that themoonwassplitinhistoricaltime.10.IntheJagdishandKamalaMittalMuseum,Hyderabad/Deccan,published

inSchimmel,UndMuḥammadistSeinProphet,plateiv.11.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.377.12.Baljon,AMysticalInterpretationofPropheticTales,p.60.13.Rumi,Dīwān,no.48.14.Rumi,Dīwān,no.463.Cf.Naziri,Dīwān,p.498:15.Jami,“YūsufuZulaikhā,”inHaftAurang,p.585.16.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1989.17.TheGermantranslationheidnischerProphet,the“heathenProphet,”which

waslatelyusedforummī,soundsabsurdandconveysawrongmeaning.18. On this problem see Zwemer, “The ‘Illiterate’ Prophet,” with an

enumerationoforientalists(p.352)who,upto1921,hadvoicedtheiropinions,pro and con, of the illiteracy of the Prophet. A fine story concerning theProphet’s “illiteracy” is found in the legendary maghāzī tales: Paret, DielegenddreMaghāzī-Literatur, p. 175 n.a, quotes from the story ofMuqaffaʽ:“WhenalettercametotheProphetandtherewasnobodytoreadit,heusedtoputhisindexfingeronthewriting,andthenitspoketohim.”Interestingly,thevizierRashiduddinattheIlkhanidcourtofTabrizcomposedatreatiseaboutthevirtueoftheProphet’silliteracy(Tauḍīḥātno.13;ParisMs.no.2324,ff.I37a-i38a)—perhaps,asJosefvanEssspeculates(DerWesirundseineGelehrten,p.15),inordertoflatterhisking,ÖOljäitu,whohimselfwasilliterate.19.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1135.20.Hallaj,Kitābaṭ-ṭāwāsīn,“Tāsīnal-azalwa’1-iltibās.”21.Nizami,“Makhzanal-asrār,”inKulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.16.22.Jami,“Silsilatadh-dhahab,”inHaftAurang,pp.8–9.23.Rumi,Mathnawī, vol. 1, line 529; cf. also Jami, “Yūsuf uZulaikhā,” in

HaftAurang,p.583,andM.Khaqani,Ḥilya.,p.9.

24.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.151.25.Saʽdi,Būstān, p. 5. The poemwas imitated bymany other poets in the

Persiantradition.26.Ikram,Armaghān-iPāk,p.174.27. Naziri, Dīwān, p. 11, ghazal no. 15. The formulation is somewhat

reminiscentof the—moremodest—claimof theSalimiyya,accordingtowhich“Muḥammadknewthe textof theKoranbyheartbeforehewascalled tobeaprophet”(Hallaj,Kitābaṭ-ṭawāsīn,commentaryp.159).28.Aslah,Tadhkirat-ishuʽard-iKashmīr,suppl.,1:135:BulbulKashmiri.29.Jami,“Silsilatadh-dhahab,”inHaftAurang,p.9,and“YūsufuZulaikhā,”

HaftAurang,p.585.30.Jami,Dīwān,p.147,ghazalno.37.31.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.86.32. Darmesteter, Chants populaires des Afghans, no. 41, “L’oiseau du

Prophète”;similarlyinBaloch,Muʽjizā,p.209,withthedifferencethatthebirdisfromsilver,gold,andambergris;inanotherSindhipoem(Muʽjizā,p.212),abirdofpearlcomestolife.33.AbuNuaim,Dalā’ilan-nubuwwa,pp.383–85,istisqā’,watermiracles,pp.

345–53-34. Köprülüzade, Eski Şairlerimiz, pp. 201–2. This poem is not found in

Fuzuli’sDivan, ed.Gölpĭnarlĭ, but there one of the lastghazals endswith theline(p.310):35.AbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.353–68,dealswithfoodmiracles.36.Baihaqi,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,1:196.37.AbuNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,p.155.38. A green lizard greeted the Prophet with As-salām ‘alaika yā nabī

Muḥammad,yārasūlAllāh!ThereforethegreenlizardiscalledinSwahilimjusimuumini,“theMuslimlizard.”Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,1:35.39.AbuNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.331–37,“Thegreetingofthetrees”;

pp.318–20, the talkingwolf;p.321, the lizard;pp.324–31, theprostrationofsheep,camels,etc.,wherethefamousstoryoccurs:WhentheMeccanssawthata camel prostrated itself before the Prophet they thought itwould be better iftheytoowoulddoso,buttheProphetremarked:“Ifitwereallowedthatanyoneprostrate himself before another human being, I would say that wives shouldprostrate themselvesbefore theirhusbands”—a tradition repeatedbyGhazzali,andstillwellknown,particularlyinMuslimIndia.40.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.1,lines2154ff.

41.Jami,“Silsilatadh-dhahab,”inHaftAurang,p.9.42.AbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,p.370.43.SeeAndrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.48;it isalsooftenmentionedin

thelegendarymaghāzītales.44.Braune,DieFutuhal-gaib,p.14,citingShattanaufi,Bahjatal-asrdr,p.26.45. Baloch,Muʽjizā, introduction p. 6. For this reason one finds a great

number of popular books on the Prophet’s miracles in all Islamic languages.Among the most recent, one may mention Mehmet Öten’s Turkish workPeygamberimizinmucizeleri,andṪayyibHashmi’sUrdupublicationMuʽjizāt-isarwar-i kā’ināt, which bears on the title page the sentence “If you wish thekindnessandloveofHisHighness[theProphet],thenreadthisbook!”46.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,pp.477–79.47.AbūNu’aim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.340–45.48.Rumi,Dīwān,nos.1649,427;Mathnawl,vol.1,lines2115ff.49. Abū Nuaim, Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa, p. 320. A Hadrami poem (Snouck

Hurgronje,“ZurDichtkunstderBaAtwahinHadhramaut,”p.107)ends:50. Thus Darmesteter, Chants populaires des Afghans, no. 40. Cf. also

Serjeant,ProseandPoetryfromHadramaut,p.70,textno.11.51.Baloch,Muʽjizā,pp.130ff.52.Baloch,Muʽjizā,p.146.53.AbūNuaim,Dald’ilan-nubuwwa,p.154.54.Rumi,Mathnawl,vol.3,lines3110ff.55.ThefinestexamplesarefoundinJami,as in the thirdnaʽt in“Tuhfatal-

ahrar,”Haft Aurang, pp. 379–80; “Salaman uAbsāl,” ibid., p. 453; “Yūsuf uZulaikhā,” ibid., p. 583; and a longqaṣīda inDīwān, pp. 82–84, inwhich thepoetenumeratesall theProphet’smiracles.Theqaṣīdabeginsinclassicalstylewiththedescriptionofthepoet’sjourneytoMedinaandthentellsofthesighingpalmtrunkandtheadvancingtrees,ofthepoisonedsheepandthewitnessofthewolf,oftheprostrationofthelionandtheappearanceofthespiderandthedovetoprotectthecavewheretheProphetandAbūBakrwerehiding;foodmiracles,watermiracles, and the like arenot lacking either,and Jami also tells that theProphetdidnotcastashade.Hecloseswiththelines:56.Baloch,Muʽjizā,p.176.57.This is clearly expressedbyBodley,TheMessenger, p. 4: “The nomads

withwhomIlivedonthedesertdidnotspeakofMohammedassomeoneremoteandmystic,asChristiansdoofJesus…[they]spokeofthefounderoftheirfaithas someone theyknew.”And this experience, he says, inducedhim towrite a

bookaboutthelifeoftheProphet.58. Goldziher, “The Appearance of the Prophet in Dreams,” gives many

examples of dreams in which theological and political issues were settledthrough theProphet’s interference.The instancescited inhistoryand literaturearemuch toonumerous to be quotedhere, butwemaymention somenotableexamples. One of the earliest works on dreams of the Prophet is Ibn Abi’d-Dunya’sKitābal-manyam; seeKienberg,“TheBookofDreamsbyIbnAbī’d-Dunya,” introduction and text, where numerous examples are given. S. A.Krenkow,“TheTārīkhBaghdād,”Appendix:“TheAppearanceoftheProphetinDreams,”pp.77–79.TheProphetmightappeartoapoetinhisdreambecausehehad composed a particularly touching threnody, marthiya, on the events ofKerbela (see Azad,Khizāna-yi ʽamir a, p. 22), and Shah Waliullah of DelhidevotedaspecialtreatisetoḤadīthtaughtbytheProphettoadreamingscholar:Ad-durr ath-thamīn fī mubashsharāt an-nabī al-amiln. A dream of specialinterestistoldabouttheKubrawimysticAlauddaulaas-Simnani,who“ate”theProphet,which is interpreted asmeaning that he incorporated into himself thesunna of the Prophet; his feeling that his feet were heavy after this kind of“communion”isanindicationofhisbeingstraightandwithoutdeviationontheProphet’s path. Cordt,Die Sitzungen des ‘Alā’ ad-dawla as-Simnānī, p. 126.Numerous instances of guiding dreams of the Prophet in the circles of thefounders of the theological school of Deoband in the last decades of thenineteenthcenturyareattestedinMetcalf,MuslimRevival inBritishIndia,pp.43 (ShahWaliullah), 79, 80, 175, 177 ff., 272; someone’s identity as a sayyidwas ascertained by such a dream, p. 247. The medieval Persian panegyristAnwari—certainlynotaparagonofpiety—mentionssuchdreamsseveraltimesin his verse (Diwdn, pp. 342, 345), and the Ilkhanid vizier Rashiduddin wasintroduced in a dream to the Prophet by Abū Bakr, ʽUmar, and ʽUthman todiscusstheproblemofhisummiyya,“illiteracy,”withhim(VanEss,DerWesirund seineGelehrten, pp. 19–20). Even in our day such appearances are quitecommon; in December 1982 a Turkish woman told me that the Prophet hadappearedtohermotherandpersuadedherthatshe,thedaughter,mightmarryaGermannon-Muslim(wholaterconvertedtoIslam).59.Dailami,Sīrat‘AbīʽAbdillḥhIbnal-Khqfīf,chap.2,para.6,astoryoften

retold,as in ʽAttar,Tadhkiratal-auliyā’ 2:127.For the same legendapplied toAbūSa’id(d.1049)seeMeier,AbūSaʽld-iAbūIḪayr,p.69.60.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽdrifīn,p.326,chap.3,para.252.61.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽdrifīn,p.334,chap.3,para.260.62.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽarifin,p.767,chap.6,para.19.

63.Jami,Nafaḥātal-uns,p.373,adreambyShadhili.64.Meier,AbūSa’ld-iAbūIḪayr,p.257,andsimilarlyAndrae,Dieperson

Muḥammads,p.377.65.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,p.310.66.Hamadhani,Maqāmāt, no. 10, inRotter,Vernunft istnichtsalsNarretei,

pp.61–62.67.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,pp.292–93.68. Padwick,Muslim Devotions, pp. 149–50. The idea that the Prophet’s

fragranceisfelteveninadreamappearanceseemstohavebeenrathercommon,forIbnal-Faridsaysinoneofhisodes:69.Mustaqimzade,Tuḥfa-ikhaṭṭdīn,p.105.Similarly,aTurkishauthorofthe

sixteenthcentury,Thana’i,wasinducedbyadreamofFariduddinAttartowriteabookShawdhidan-nubuwwa,“Testimoniesfor theProphethood,”because,asAttar suggested, this was the “subject which would eventually secure him aplace in Paradise.” Thana’i dedicated his work to Sultan Suleyman theMagnificent.Minorsky,CatalogueoftheTurkishManuscripts,p.15,no.T410.

CHAPTERFIVE

1.SeeJairazbhoy(publishedin1937withanintroductionbytheAgaKhan);review by Arthur Jeffery,MW 28 (1938): 180–86. The book by Q.M. S. S.Mansoorpuri,RahmatunUValamin:MercyfortheWorlds,wasnotaccessibletomealthoughtherearetwotranslations,one(inthreevolumes)byA.J.Siddiqui,with introduction by S. S. Nadvi (1978), and one with the titleMuḥammad,MercyfortheUniverse,translatedbyA.Rauf(1979).2.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.325.3.AbūNuʽaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,chap.1.4.Jami,Dīwān,p.67,no.43;cf.his“YūsufuZulaikhā,”inHaftAurang,p.

587.5.SeeSchimmel,“DerRegenalsSymbolinderReligionsgeschichte.”6.Nwyia,Exégèsecoraniqueetlangagemystique,pp.326ff.7.InSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,pp.71,74.8.Rumi,Dīwān,no.2443.9.AbdulLatif,Shāh jöRisālō;, “Sur Sārāng,” cantos 7, 10, 29, 30, 33, 34,

wāy.10.ForthewholeproblemseeAndrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.234–44;

Huitema,Devoorspraak{shafaa)indenIslam.

11.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.130,verse9.12. Andrae,Die personMuḥammads, pp. 236–38. A very old collection of

ḥadīth, Asad ibn Musa’s Kitāb az-zuhd, pp. 73–76, contains this tradition inslightly differentwording. See alsoLeszynski,Mohammedanische TraditionenüiberdasJüngsteGericht.13. The nafsī nafsī of all prophets and, contrasting with it, Muḥammad’s

ummatī ummatī is a favorite topic of folk poetry. See Baloch, Ṭih akharyūñ,1:37.14.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.225.15.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.285,chap.3,para.197.16.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,afteral-Hakimat-Tirmidhi,Nawādiral-

uṣūl,p.294.17.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.41.18.FromDalāʽil al-khairātwa shawāriqal-anwār fī dhikraṣ-ṣalāt ʽalāan-

nabīal-mukhtār,trans,inPadwick,MuslimDevotions,p.42.19.Graham,DivineWord and PropheticWord, Saying no. 59; Andrae,Die

personMuḥammads,p.243.20. Furuzanfar, Aḥādīth-i Mathnawī, no. 331. “There is no prophet from

amongthechildrenofAdamuptoMuḥammadwhoisnotunderMuḥammad’sbanner.”21.Goethe,West-ÖstlicherDivan,NotenundAbhandlungen.22.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.44;cf.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.202,

chap.3,para.in.23.IbnDaqiqal-ʽId,quotedinA.S.Husain,Al-adabaṣ-ṣufi,p.235.24.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.79.25.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.229.26.MuslimDigest,January-February1981,pp.55–80.27. ThusMenghi Faqir Shar (d. 1895) in his Sindhi Sīḥarfī, in Baloch,Ṭih

akharyūñ,1:150.28.Jami,“SalamānuAbsāl,”inHaftAurang,p.451.29.Abūn-Nasr,TheTijaniyya,p.43.30.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:457.31.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:437.32.ʽAbdulLatif,Risālō.“SurKalyān,”canto1:2.33.Mir,Kulliyāt,p.354.34.Buddruss,Khowar-Texte,p.72.ForPashtoseeEnevoldsen,OMåne!no.

197:“GodismyLord,theKoranmyPir[mysticalguide],theMessengerofGod

willintercedeforme.”LikewiseNasir-iKhusrau,thegreatIsmailimissionaryoftheeleventhcentury,expressesinoneofhisPersianpoemsthe“hopethatbythegraceofGodImaybeoneofthelowestmembersofthecommunity(umma)ofMuḥammad.”Dīwānasʽār-iHakīmNāṣir-iKhusrau,p.151.35.Zajçzkowski,“Poezjestrofniczne…sultanQansuhGavri,”p.4.36.Brunel,Lemonachismeerrantdansl’Islam,p.150.37.YunusEmre,Divan,p.557,no.ccxxv.38.Tuḥfa-iRaḥīmYārKhān,pp.13–17.39.Baloch,Madāḥuñainmunājātūñ,pp.121–32.40.Baloch,Madāḥuñainmunājātūñ,p.313.41.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-ina’t,p.140.42.YunusEmre,Divan,p.560,no.ccxxx.43. Yunus Emre, Divan, p. 559, no. ccxxix. Is not Muḥammad’s role as

intercessorindicativeofhisproximitytoGod?NajmRaziexpressesthemysteryof the Prophet’s exclamation “My community!” in a strange but fascinatingimage:“Muḥammad…hasimmolated,mothlike,theentiretyofhisbeinginthecandle of the glory of the unity of the Essence, and sacrificed all of hisMuḥammadanbeingtothefierytongueoflovethatleapsforthfromthatcandle.Hecriesoutinstinctively‘Mypeople!Mypeople!’andthetongueofthecandlehasbecomehistongue.”Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.177.44.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,1:37.45.Qaniʽ,Maqālātash-shuʽarā,p.468.46.Darmesteter,ChantspopulairesdesAfghans,p.88,no.32;cf.alsono.31.

Rumisaid,muchearlier{Diwdn,no.1245):47.Naziri,Dīwān,p.472,qaṣīdano.32;cf.p.491,qaṣīdano.36.48.InKulliyāt-inaʽt-MaulwīMuḥammadMuḥsin,pp.95–123.49.Naziri,Dīwān,p.450,qaṣīdano.24.50.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,p.229.51.ThusinatouchingverseinaSindhiSīḥarfībyGulMuḥammad,inBaloch,

ṫihakharyūñ,1:45,undertheletterv:52.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.79.53. Robson, “Blessings on the Prophet,” dwells upon this development and

quotes fortyḤadīth pertaining to the blessings upon the Prophet, taken fromIbshihi’sMustaṭraf54. Ghazzali, Iḥyā’ ʽulūm ad-dīn, 1:278–79. See also Andrae, Die person

Muḥammads, pp. 276 ff., andGraham,DivineWord and PropheticWord, pp.176–77,Sayingno.52.

55.Ghazzali,Iḥya’ʽulūmad-dīn,1:278–80.56. Sindhi, Inbāʽ al-anbā, p. 13, according to Nasa’i and Ibn Maja. The

Prophetadmonishedthecompanions toutter theformulaofblessinguponhimonFriday“becauseitisbroughtbeforeme.”Theyasked:“OMessengerofGod,how that, when you are already decayed?” He said: “God has prohibited theearth toeat theprophets’bodies.”Another traditionclaims that“Whosays theblessings upon me in my grave, I hear him.” See Andrae, Die personMuḥammads, pp. 285–87. According to some traditions the bodies of theprophetsstayintheirtombsasfreshasthedaythattheywereburied;Suyuti,thegreatpolymathofEgyptinthelatefifteenthcentury,whowasoftenblessedwiththevisionof theProphet,went so faras todeclare thateven indireneed“theeating of the dead body of a prophet is not permitted” (lā yajuzu li’l-muḍṭarraklumaitatinabiyyin), forheisstillalive(quotedinSindhi,Inbāʼal-anbāʼ,p.15).57.Andrae,DiepersonMhammads,p.279.58.Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.280,fromQadiʽIyad,Shifā,2:56.59.ThatMuḥammadduringhisnightjourneymetallthepreviousprophetsin

Jerusalemisexplainedbyassumingthattheirbodiesarestillintheirgravesbuttheirspiritshavebeenpersonified(Sindhi,Inbā’al-anbā’,p.32),butaccordingto another tradition (ibid., p. 35) the bodies of the prophets donot stay in thetombmorethanfortydays.60.IbnHazm,Al-faṣlfi’l-milal…wa’n-nihal,1:88-89.61.Horten,DiereligiöseGedankenweltdergebildetenMuslime,p.107.62.Waliullah,Tafhīmāt,1:15.63.Rumi,Dīwān, no. 301: “I bring the blessings on you, so that proximity

maygrow.”64.Baloch,ṫihakharyūñ,1:28(Sahibdina).65.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.109.66.MakhdumMuḥammadHashim,Dharīʽatal-wuṣūl ilā janābar-rasūl isa

verygoodcollectionofdurūdasusedineighteenth-centurySind.67.Jeffery,“LitanyofBlessingsontheProphet,”inReaderonIslam,pp.530–

36.Cf.Minorsky,CatalogueofTurkishManuscripts,p.96,aboutamanuscriptoftheDalāʽilal-khairāt(T459):“AnEnglishtranslationofitwaspublishedforprivate circulation: ‘Guide toHappiness; amanual of prayer.’Translated fromtheArabicofal-JazulibytheRev.J.B.Pearson.Withthelifeofal-Jazuli,anddirectionsforusingthebook,fromtheArabicbyA.G.Ellis.1907,76pages.”68.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.146.

69.El,2:527–28,s.v.Djazuli.70.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.257.71.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.154.72.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.154.73.Mirghani,An-nūral-barrāq,p.44;cf.pp.60ff.74.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.155.75.Ghawwasi,SaifulMulūkwaBadīulJamāl,p.179.76. Kriss and Kriss-Heinrich,Volksglaube im Bereich des Islam, 2:13, after

Lane,MannersandCustomsoftheModernEgyptians,2:52.77.AgoodexampleisBurney,Mishkaatus-salawaat:ABouquetofBlessings.78. Gramlich, Die Gaben der Erkenntnisse des ‘Umar as-Suhrawardī, pp.

260–61;theArabictextappearsatthemarginofGhazzali’sIḥyāʽulūmad-dīn.79.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.412,chap.3,para.354.80.Maḥmūd,Al-fikraṣ-ṣufīfī’s-Sūdān,p.65.81.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,p.388.82.Gilsenan,SaintandSufiinModernEgypt,p.14,seealsop.19.83.Abūn-Nasr,TheTijaniyya,pp.51–52,textoftheprayerp.182,Appendix

I.84.Abūn-Nasr,TheTijaniyya,pp.52–53,textofprayerp.187,AppendixI.85.Abūn-Nasr,TheTijaniyya,p.31.86.Abūn-Nasr,TheTijaniyya,p.180.87. Littmann,Mohammad im Volksepos (the first line of the poem is not

translatedquitecorrectlythere).88.Kahle,DerLeuchtturmvonAlexandrien,Germantextp.50,Arabicp.14.89.Zajaçzkowski,PoezjestroficzneʽAšïq-paša,p.8.90.Baloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,2:222(ThanaullahThana).91.Baloch,Munāqibā,p.235.92.Baloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,1:55(GulMuḥammad,1861).93.YunusEmre,Divan,p.524,no.CLXXV.94.ʽAliibnAbiTalibisconnectedinamysteriouswaywiththebees,andis

sometimesevencalled“amīrof thebees”becausehewas thecommanderofaswarm of believing bees; a number of unbelievers, seeing such a miracle,embracedIslam.Paret,DielegendareMaghāzī-Literatur,pp.195–96.95. Baloch,Munāqibā, pp. 196–98. One also remembers here the line in

anotherSindhiSlharfi(Baloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,1:51),byGulMuḥammad(1869),thattheremembrance,dhikr,oftheProphetis“muchsweeterthanbutter,honey,

andsugar.”

CHAPTERSIX

1.ForthewholesubjectseeAndrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.272–74,andFischer, “Vergöttlichung und Tabuisierung der NamenMuḥammads.” Badaonitells inMuntakhab at-tawārīkh, 2:314 (trans. 2:324), that the emperor Akbar,after introducing thedīn-i ilāhī, forbadepeople tousenames likeMuhammad,Ahmad,andothernamesrelatedto theProphet.Thatseemstobeexaggerated,but it shows that these names were considered to express a proximity to theProphet.2.YunusEmre,Divan,p.562,no.CCXXXIII;cf.alsono.CCXXIV.3.Hassan ibnThabit,Dīwān,no.152;AbuNuʽaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa, p.

11.4. Grimme, “Der NameMuhammad,” thinks thatMuhammad, like Ahmad,

waspreviouslyatheophoricname,abbreviatedfromMuḥammadʼīl,“PraisedbeGod.” He also mentions (p. 26) that on some early Kufic tombstones fromFustat, even the feminine form Muḥammada is found. The form itself isperfectly sound, but it seems that it was no longer possible to use it in latertimes,whentherespectfortheProphet’snamehadbecomeamajorconcernofthefaithfulMuslims.SeealsoJurji,“Pre-IslamicUseoftheNameMuḥammad.”5.Tapish,Gulzār-inaʽt,fol.13b.6.Naziri,Dīwān,p.484.7.Naziri,Dīwān,p.486,qaṣīdano.36.8. Padwick, Muslim Devotions, p. 75; see also Razi, The Path of God’s

Bondsmen,p.91,aboutthe“laud”connectedwiththeProphet.9.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.363.10.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.43.11.Baihaqi,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,pp.121ff.12.Baihaqi,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa,p.121.13.Baihaqi,Dalāʽil an-nubuwwa, p. 122; cf. Tirmidhi, shamā’il al-Muṣṭafā

withcommentaryofBajuri,pp.286–88.14.Baihaqi,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa, 69;AbūNuaim,Dalāʽilan-nubuwwa, pp.

26–27.15.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.1,lines726ff.;Watt,“HisNameisAḥmad,”states

bymeansofstatisticsthatAḥmadasapropernameoccursveryrarelyinearlyIslam, and discusses the problem of the Paraclete, refuting an article by A.

GuthrieandE.EEBishop,“TheParaclete,AlmunhamamaandAḥmad,”whichappearedinMW41(1951).16.Goldziher,“HimmlischeundirdischeNamen.”17.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.249.18.Canteins,Lavoiedeslettres,chap,v:“Ṭânâ.”19.Massignon,“Laphilosophieorientaled’Avicenne,”p.11,aboutYdsln.20.M.Khaqani,ḥilya.,p.7.InʽUthmanal-Mirghani’sdevotionalpoetry,the

nameTanaisveryfrequentlyused;itseemstoappearofteninconnectionwithMuḥammad’sroleasintercessorandisanimportantingredientofpopularsongsin honor of the Prophet; it is then also combined with Yasin. See Bannerth,“Liederägyptischermeddâḥîn”:VerysimilarversesoccurinSindhifolkpoetry;seeBaloch,Maulūd,pp.151

ff.A charming expression of a popular poet’s love forTaha is a poemby theHausapoet IbrahimNiass,quoted inHiskett,“The ‘CommunityofGrace,’”p.117:Onewonderswhetherline332inIbnal-Farid’sTāʼiyyacontainsanallusionto

theProphet’snameTaha.Itreads:Nicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,p.231,refersthistoSura20,“Taha,”

verse7,butadoublemeaningcannotbeexcluded.21.AmirKhusrau,MajnūnLailā,p.10;hecombinesthelettersyā-sīnwiththe

teeth,becausesīnstandsmetaphorically—becauseofitsshape, —for“teeth.”22.MycolleagueGeorgBuddruss,oftheUniversityofMainz,kindlysentme

thisnaʽt in Shinawith his explanations; hementions that it is sung to a verysweetmelody.ItwaspublishedinRawalpindiin1974.23.Tapish,Gulzẓr-inaʽt, fol. 12b, changes theparticiplesmuṣṭafā,murtaḍā,

andmujtabā into the related verbal nouns: the Prophet, as Muṣṫafa, is “thecypressof thegardenof iṣṭifā,selection”;asMurtaḍāhe is“theboxtreeof theorchardofirtiḍā,ofbeingpleased”;andasMujtabā,“therootofthebranchofijtibā,election”;andonthewhole,heis“theoriginofthetwigsofthePanjtan,”thatis,Muhammad,ʽAli,Fatima,Hasan,andHusain.(TapishwasaShiapoet.)24.Baljon,ModernMuslimKoranInterpretation,p.99,mentionsthewaythe

PakistanimodernistGhulamParvezexplainsthedivineaddresstotheProphetYamudaththir!Hederivesthewordfromdaththara,tadthīr,inthespecialmeaning“to arrange one’s nest,” which he then interprets as “setting one’s house inorder,”sothatmudaththirwouldbe,inmodernterms,the“worldreformer,”whoisaddressedbyGod:Qum,“Rise!”Thatis,heiscalledtostartpreachingworldrevolution.25. Fischer, “Vergottlichung und Tabuisierung der NamenMuḥammads,” p.

328. Becker, Islamstudien, 2:104, speaks of the tendency for “the names ofMuḥammad[tobe] treated in theDalāʽilal-khairātanalogous to thenamesofGod,”whentheDalāʽilandrelatedworkswereusedinEastAfrica.26. One says therefore, when introducing a ḥadīth without mentioning

Muḥammad’sname:“He—mayGodblesshimandgivehimpeace!—said.…”AKoranicquotationbeginswith“He—GreatisHisMajesty[or,MostHigh]—said27.Jami,Dīwān,p.73,no.47, inaSaldm,“Greeting,” for theProphet.The

saldmbecameaverycommonpoeticforminthelaterPersianandespeciallytheUrdutraditions.Seethesmall,moderncollectionbySiddiqiandAsi,Muntakhabsaldm,inUrdu.28.ThelististakenfrommycopyoftheKoran(Lahore:TajCompany),which

contains17×6=102names,amongthemtwiceRasūlar-raḥmat,plusnabīar-raḥmat,whilehiskunyaAbū’l-Qasimisnotmentioned.29.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,pp.221ff.30. Staples, “Muhammad, A Talismanic Force,” describes a golden amulet

withtheninety-ninenamesoftheProphet(without,however,realizingthatTahaandYasinareherehisnamesandnot,ashethinks, thenamesofSuras20and36).31.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,pp.223–24.32.EdierandYoung,“AListoftheAppellationsoftheProphetMuḥammad,”

lists201names,foundinanArabicmanuscriptdated1268 (A.D.1851–2),nowpreservedinLeeds.33. Horten, Die religiöse Vorstellungswelt des Volkes, p. 15. ʽAbdul Haqq

MuhaddithDihlawi,Madārijan-nubuwwa,pp.293–308,enumeratesmorethanfourhundrednames.34. Nizami, “Makhzan al-asrār,” naʽt no. 3, in Kulliyāt-i Khamsa, p. 23.

YemenitestripedclothwashighlyprizedamongtheArabs.Jami,Dīwān,p.177,no. 117. In folk poetry, the appellations connected with the Prophet’s Arabbackgroundappearfrequently;thusinSīḥarfītheletterqcanstandforQuraishi,theʽainforʽarab;thiswordissometimeslengthened,’ārab,forthesakeofthemeter. A good example of such distortions appears in Baloch, Ṭih akharyūñ,2:190.35.Jami,“SalamānuAbsāl,”inHaftAurang,p.454.36.Jami,“Iskandarnama,”inHaftAurang,p.915.Muḥammadis,astheUrdu

poetTapishsangintheearlynineteenthcentury(Gulzār-inaʽt,fol.lib),notonly“the sweet-singing nightingale of the rosegarden ofDivinemanifestation” butalso“thetwigoftheroseoftheroseparterreofBathaandMedina.”

37.Jami,“Tuhfatal-ahrar,”fifthnāʽt,inHaftAurang,p.381.38.Agoodsurveyofmysticalepithetsof theProphet is the indexofBaqli’s

Abhar al-’āshiqīn; among the dozens of poetical addresses and attributes onefinds,forexample,“thelordofthelovers,”“thefalconofthegardenofReality,”“thesunoftheprophetsandfullmoonofthesaints,”“thelionofthemeadowoftheparadiseofIntellect,”“thebrideofthepalaceofUnity,”“thetravelerinthedesertsofisolation,tajrīd,”etc.39.Fischer,“VergottlichungundTabuisierungderNamenMuḥammads,”deals

indetailwiththesetopics.40.Busiri,DieBurda,ed.Ralfs,line146.41. Nabhani,Al-majmūʽa an-nabhāniyya, 3:232–35. For other poems of al-

Burʽi(d.1058)seeAndrae,DiepersonMuhammads,pp.337,389.42.Fischer,“VergöttlichungundTabuisierungderNamenMuhammads,”pp.

332ff.43.Birge,TheBektashiOrderofDervishes,p.268.44.Nicholson,Studies in IslamicMysticism,p.105, fromJili’sPerfectMan:

“His original name is Muḥammad, his name of honor Abū’l-Qasim, hisdescriptionAbdallah,andhistitleShamsuddin.”45.Eaton,SufisofBijapur,p.171.46.QuotedinSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.49.47. Ghalib,Kulliydt-i far si, 5:16-27, naʽt no. 3; see Schimmel, “Ghalib’s

qaṣīdainHonoroftheProphet.”48.Hallaj,“Ṭāsīnas-sirāj,”inKitābaṭ-ṭawāsīn,p.14.49.Jurji,IlluminationinIslamicMysticism,pp.84ff.50.Deladriere,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʽArabī,p.128.51.Jurji,IlluminationinIslamicMysticism,p.86.52.Baloch,Maulūd,p.12,no.23.53.Cachia,“TheProphet’sShirt.”54.Nizami,“Makhzanal-asrār,”inKulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.16.55.Attar,Muṣībatnāma,p.20.56.Jami,“Tuhfatal-ahrar,”inHaftAurang,p.376,ndtno.1.57.Miskin,“Risāla-isulūk,”inLadhdhat-iMiskīn,2:84.58.ʽAttar,Manṭiquṭ-ṭair,p.24;cf.Muṣībatnāma,p.22.59.ʽAttar,Ushturnāma,p.95,chap.12,para.7.60.SeeKarahan,Islam-TürkedebiyatĭndaKĭrkhadis.61.Jami,“Iskandarnama,”inHaftAurang,p.915.

62.Ramakrishna,Panjabi SufiPoets, p. 99.The speculationswith them goback toearly Islamic times:asectcalledMuḥammadiyyaorMimiyyaclaimeddivinityforMuḥammad;theirleaderwasexecutedbetween892and902(Hand-wörterbuch des Islam, s.v. Muḥammadiyya). At the same time, attempts atgivingMuhammad’snameacabalistic interpretationarefoundinHallaj,Kitābaṭ-ṭawāsīn,“Ṭāsīnas-sirāj,”p.14.63.AmirKhusrau,Dīwān,p.596.64.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1578.65.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.226.66.FurtherexamplesaregiveninSchimmel,“Ghalib’sqaṣīdainPraiseofthe

Prophet,”p.209n.32:Shabistari,Gulshan-iRāz,usestheḥadīthqudsī,asdoesNaziri,Dīwān,p.11,ghazalno.15(incombinationwithqābaqausain).SeealsoBaloch, Ṭih akharyūñ, 1:41. A little Urdu poem from the Deccan by QaziMahmudofGogiplaysskillfullywiththisḥadīthqudsī:Interestingly, the poem consists exclusively of undotted letters, for the real

namesof theProphet are not “blackened”by the use of diacriticalmarks (seechapter7below).Sayed,“DīwānQaziMaḥmūdBaḥrīofGogi,”no.5,stanza5.Theimportanceofthelettermīm intherelationbetweenAḥmadandAḥadalsoplays a role in Bengali Muslim creation epics. See Roy, Islamic SyncretisticTradition,p.124:onemīmgavebirthtothreenamesinthethreeworlds:“ThenameAḥmadwasrememberedinheaven,thatofMuḥammadonearth,andthatofMaḥmūdby thesnakes inhell.”The traditionAnāAḥmadbilāmīm isevenfound in some of the Ismaili gināns, thus in the Būjh Niranjan (informationkindlysuppliedbyAliS.Asani).67. Jami,“YūsufuZulaikhā,” inHaftAurang,p.583.According to Jili, the

floorof the eighthparadise is the roofof theDivineThrone; it is the “laudedstation,”al-maqāmal-maḥmūd,whichispromisedtoMuhammad(Sura17:79).SeeNicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,p.136.68.Jami,“Silsilatadh-dhahab,”inHaftAurang,p.9.69.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʽArabi,pp.136–37.70.Jami,“Silsilatadh-dhahab,”inHaftAurang,p.9.71.Miskin,“Ramzal-maḥbūb,”inLadhdhat-iMiskīn,2:86,combinesthealif-

lām-mīm at the beginning of Sura 2with the three groups of seekers:alif arethose,youngandold,whoworshipGodinHisOneness(waḥdāniyya)accordingtoHafiz’sverse:Lāmarethosewho,althoughtheyacceptthewaḥdāniyya,thatis,thestateof

absoluteUnity,yetaccepttheprophetsaswell,“forthesheeracceptanceofthewaḥdāniyyawithouttheacceptanceoftheofficesofprophethooddoesnotlead

to salvation.”Butmīm are “thosebelovedoneswhoacceptMuhammad inhisbeingGod’sbeloved,”maḥbūbiyyat-ikhudā.TheIndianNaqshbandimystichereclearly points to the high rank of those who believe in Muḥammad’s uniqueposition,andranksthemhigherthanthepure“believersinGod’sUnity,”whichcategoryalsocomprisesnon-Muslims.72.Aninterestingmodernexplanationofthelettermīm isgiveninCanteins,

Lavoiedes lettres, pp. 35 ff.,where he describes them,which in its isolatedform looks somewhat like a bell, as “la chute vers l’abîme”; it is the letterconnectedwith the revelation that reachedMuḥammad“likeabell,”while theuprightalifpointstohismi’rāj,theupwardwaytotheDivineUnity.Theideaistaken over from Schuon, Le Soufisme, p. 144, where the word rasūl,“Messenger,” is explainedaspertaining toGod’sdescent into theworld in theNight of Might (lailat al-qadr), which corresponds to man’s being elevatedtowardGodinthenightoftheHeavenlyJourney,miʼrāj.73.Friedmann,ShaykhAḥmadSirhindī,p.15.74.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʼArabī,p.14.75.Mustaqimzade,Tuḥfa-ikhaṭṭāṭīn,p.4.76.Ghalib,Kulliyāt-iFārsī,vol.5,naʽtno.3;Schimmel,“Ghalib’sqaṣīdain

PraiseoftheProphet.”77.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʽArabī,p.136.78.Iqbal,Bāng-iDarā,p.231.79.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.64.80. ʽAbd Rabb an-nabī in Egypt (d. 1397), mentioned by Mustaqimzade,

Tuḥfa-ikhaṭṭātīn,p.64.81.Ghawwasi,SaifulMulūkwaBadfīʽulJamāl,pp.4–5.

CHAPTERSEVEN

1.For the conceptof light in thehistoryof religion seeAndrae,Die personMuḥammads,pp.319–21.2.Allusionstothe“light”occurveryfrequentlyintitlesofbooksdealingwith

the Prophet orwithḥadīth, from the collection ofḤadīth entitledMishkāt al-maṣābīh, “The Niche for Lamps,” to Aqqad’s Maṭāliʽ an-nūr; “The PlacesWhere the Light Rises”; from Busiri’sAl-kawākib ad-durriyya, “The RadiantPlanets…,”toKĭsakürek’smodernTurkishpoetrywiththetitle£öle inennur,“TheLightThatDescendedintotheDesert.”3.Ikram,Armaghān-iPāk,p.128.

4.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.5,line18.5.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.34,line8:cf.alsono.9,line21.IbnʽArabi

attributes to Muḥammad’s companion Ibn ʽAbbas an ode which, however,containsthewholetheosophicalterminologyoflatertimes;theauthor—whoeverhemaybe—describes the lightof theProphet that illuminated theearthathisbirth, etc. See Deladrière,La Profession de Foi d’Ibn ʽArabī, p. 125. Ibn al-Farid,too,singsinhispoem“Ṭinḍalālan”:CitedbyArberry,AspectsofIslamicCivilization,p.66,andNicholson,Studies

inIslamicMysticism,p.174.6.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.131,line9.7.Cf.also the interpretationgiven to theLightverse inAflaki,Manāqibal-

ʽārifīn,p.287,chap.3,para.200.8.SeeHallaj,“Ṭāsīnas-sirāj,”inKitābaṭ-ṭāwāsīn,p.12,whoalsocombines

this epithet with the appellation Makkī, “because he is steadfast in Hisproximity,”andḥaramī,“belongingtothe[Meccan]sanctuary,”“becauseofhisimmensebounty.”9.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.212;M.Smith,ReadingsfromtheMysticsof

Islam,no.47.Thoughithassurvivedonlythroughaweakchainoftransmission,theprayer nevertheless occurs inmostmysticalworks, particularly fittingly inDard, “Shamʽ-i maḥfil,” in Chahār Risāla, no. 341, where it forms the lastchapterandalsoDard’slastwords;hediedshortlyafterrepeatingtheProphet’sfavoriteprayer.10.Böwering,“TheProphetofIslam,”pp.49–50.11.Böwering,“TheProphetofIslam,”pp.51–52.12.Böwering,“TheProphetofIslam,”p.54.13.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoidʼIbnʽArabī,p.130.14.Hallaj, “ṭāsīnas-sirāj,” inKitābaṭ-ṭāwāsīn, pp.9,11.Seealsohispoem

(Shaibi,Sharḥ Dīwān al-Ḥallāj, p. 188, no. 24), with the beginning ʽIla an-nubuwwamiṣbāḥunminan-nūr,“Theknowledgeofprophethoodisalampfromlight.…”15.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.342.16.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,nos.44,87.17.Sarraj,Kitābal-lumaʽ,p.209.18.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʽArabī,pp.122,124–25.19.Jili,quotedinNicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,p.122.20. According to Thaʽlabi, Muḥammad’s essence was blended from

paradisiacal clay andwater from theparadisiacal fountainTasnim, and looked

like a white pearl which, overawed by God’s loving gaze, began perspiring.Fromhere,theconnectionwiththeepithetdurrayatīma,the“orphaned,”thatis,unique, pearl could easily be made, which became even more meaningfulbecause Muḥammad was an orphan, yatīm. For Thalabi see Goldziher,“NeuplatonischeundgnostischeElementeimḥadīth.”Roy,IslamicSyncretisticTradition,pp.121ff.,esp.127ff.dwellsextensivelyonthesestories,whichheapparentlyregardsasanindigenousBengalitradition.Seealsoibid.,p.176:nūrMuḥammad is hidden in awhite pearl in a lotus in theamrit-kunda (water oflife) located in the second-highest area, the ʽālam-i jabarūt. See further Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.61. Interestingly,amodernversionof theoldSufi myth is found in ʽAbd ar-Rahim, Islamic Book of the Dead, pp. 20–22.There, not only the “white pearl like the peacock” and the creation from thesweatof theprimordialmessenger ismentionedbutalso theranksofmenthatdifferaccordingtothepartofthepreexistentformofMuḥammadonwhichtheireyes fell:whoever saw his head became a caliph and sultan among creatures,whoeversawhislefthandbecameascribe,whoeversawhisshadowbecameasinger,andsoforth;thosewhosawnothingbecameJews,Christians,Magians,orsimplyunbelievers.21. M. Khaqani, ḥilya., pp. 5–6, gives an almost identical description in

Turkishverse.22.ʽAttar,Manṭiquṭ-ṭair,p.18.SeealsoAmirKhusrau,MathnawīNuhSipihr,

naʽt,pp.13–18.23.YunusEmre,Divan,p.577,no.CCLHI.24.EnamulHaq,SufiisminBengal,p.94.25.Baloch,Madāḥūñ,p.2,line10.26.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1137;Mathnawī,vol.4,line1861.27.Jami,Dīwān,p.56,no.35(shouldbe34).28.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1705.29.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.134.30.Paret,DielegendāreMaghāzī-Literatur,p.174.31.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.156.32.Mustaqimzade,Tuḥfa-ikhaṭṭāṭīn,pp.614–15.33.QaziAbdalMannan,HeritageofBangladesh,p.11.34.ForthewholedevelopmentseeGoldziher,“Neuplatonischeundgnostische

Elemente im ḥadīth,” as well as the second half of Andrae, Die personMuhammads.SeealsoNyberg,Ibnal-ʽArabī,andNicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism.

35.ʽAttar,Tadhkiratal-auliyāʼ,1:67;cf.Nicholson,TheIdeaofPersonality,pp.86–87.36.Qushairi,“Bābal-maḥabba,”inRisāla,p.147;formoreexamplesofthis

attitudeseeMeier,AbūSaʽīd-iAbūʽlḪayr,pp.314ff.37.Qushairi,Risāla,p.17.38.Hujwiri,Kashfal-maḥjūb,p.283.39. Furuzanfar, Aḥādīth-i Mathnawī, no. 301; Abū Nuʽaim, Dalāʼil an-

nubuwwa, pp. 16 ff.;Goldziher, “Neuplatonische und gnostische Elemente imḥadīth,” pp. 324 ff. In the Shiite tradition, this includes the luminouspreexistenceofʽAli,Fatima,Hasan,andHusain.40.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.78.41.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.546.42.Baloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,1:30,36offersparticularlygoodexamples.43.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.70.44.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī, no. 163, fromBukhari andMuslim. In

Suyuti’sAl-Jāmiʽaṣ-ṣaghīr, quoted byFuruzanfar, theḤadīth occurswith theadditionlayatazayyābī,“forSatandoesnotputonmyform”;thatis,toseetheProphetinadreamoravisionisreallytoseehim.However,theinterpretationofḥaqq,“truth,”asDivineTruthbecamecommonat least fromHallaj’sdays:heinterprets this saying as referring toMuhammad in the stateof absoluteunionwith God, ʽain al-jamʽ (Kitāb aṭ-ṭawāsīn, p. 80, commentary on “Ṭāsīn as-sirāj”).RumihastheProphetsay“WhenyouhaveseenmeyouhaveseenGod,”and Iqbal takes up the idea in his late verse,Armaghān-iḤijāz, p. 71. It waswidelyacceptedinthismeaningamongtheSufis.45.TheshorttreatisesoftheIndianNaqshbandiSufiMiskininthenineteenth

century contain long paragraphs about the jamāl-i Muḥammadī, “theMuhammadanbeauty,”suchas:“TheTrueBeloved[God]hastakenthemirrorof the Muhammadan Essence before His face and said ‘I was a hiddentreasure… (“Risāla-i sulūk,” inLadhdhat-iMiskīn, 2:74; cf. ibid., 2:88, 96 andthe“Ṭarīq-imaḥbūb,”ibid.,2:100;and“Dīdar-iyār,”ibid.,2:104).46.M.Khaqani,ḥilya.,p.11.47.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.78.48.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.379,chap.3,para.311.49. For the idea of the Muhammadan Tree see Jeffery, “Ibn al-ʽArabīʼs

Shajaratal-kawn”;Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,pp.92,159,390.50.White,“SufisminMedievalHindiLiterature,”pp.128–29.51.Miskin,“Shān-imaḥbūb,”inLadhdhat-iMiskīn,2:91-93.

52. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism, pp. 253–54; Ibn al-Farid’sTāʼiyya,line616.SeealsoAndrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.353.53.Jami,“SalamānuAbsāl,”inHaftAurang,p.452.54. According to Aflaki,Manāqib al-ʽārifīn, p. 614, chap. 4, para. 3, even

Rumiremarked:“Theexternalscholarsknowthestories,akhbār,oftheProphet;MaulanaShamsuddinknowsthemysteries,asrār,oftheProphet,andIamthelocusofmanifestationsofthelights,anwār,oftheProphet.”55.A.S.Husain,Al-adabaṣ-ṣūfī,pp.230ff.56.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoidʼIbnʽArabī,Introduction,pp.16–18.57.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.676,chap.4,para.77.58.Deladrière,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʽArabī,p.49.SeealsoNicholson,

Studies in Islamic Mysticism, chap. 2, about Muḥammad’s “single nature,”fardiyya.SeealsoS.Q.A.Husain,ThePantheisticMonismofIbnal-ʽArabī,p.58.59.Dard,ʽIlmul-kitdb,p.505;forafulltranslationofthepassageseeSchim-

mel,MysticalDimensionsofIslam,pp.377–78.60. Gätje,Koran und Koranexegese, p. 306, according to the tafsīr of Ibn

ʽArabi’s commentator, Kashani. See also Aflaki,Manāqib al-ʽārifīn, p. 665,chap.4,para.67.61.Schuon,LeSoufisme,p.113.62.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1793.Cf.alsoNizami’swell-knownline in“Makhzan

al-asrar”(Kulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.2):63.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.7,commentary,p.87.64.Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,pp.338–39,citingShattanaufi’sBahjat

al-asrār, p. 36.Nāmūs is theGreeknomos, but is used here as an angelic orspiritualpower.SeeEl,1sted.,vol.3,s.v.nāmūs.65.Nasr,IdealsandRealitiesofIslam,p.88.66.Ghalib,Kulliyāt-iFārsī,naʽtno.3,line52.67.Hallaj,Kitābaṭ-ṭawāsīn,commentary,p.160,basedonSulami’sTafsīr.68.Jami,“Iskandarnāma,”inHaftAurang,p.915.69.Gairdner,Al-Ghazzālīʼs “Mishkāt al-anwār,” translates and analyzes the

treatise. See also Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism, p. III; Nyberg,KleinereSchriftendesIbnal-ʽArabī,p.106;Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.335.70.TranslatedinNicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,pp.86–87.71. For this development see Schaeder, “Die islamische Lehre vom

VollkommenenMenschen.”

72.Gurbaxshani,Luñwāriajālāl,p.96.73. Daudpota, Kalām-i Girhīrī; see Schimmel, “Sindhi Translations and

CommentariesoftheQurʽān.”74.Alltheseideasareofcoursenotnew;thenoveltyistheiruseintheSindhi

language.SeeforinstanceJami,Dīwān,p.195,ghazalno.157:IntheSindhi tradition,amodernSīḥarfībyKamalFaqir (d.1927)expresses

the same ideas very clearly: not only do the prophets appear asMuḥammad’sdisciples, but the Torah and Gospels as his commentary; in Baloch, Ṭihakharyūñ,1:294–303.75.EnamulHaq,SufiisminBengal,p.94n.2. InDecember1982aTurkish

ladywhousedtofrequentaSufimasterinIstanbultoldme,fullofhorror,thathisdiscipleshadclaimedthatMuḥammadwasindeedidenticalwithAllāh—howcouldsheasasharīʽa-imndedMuslimdealwithsuchpeople?76. Qazi Abdal Mannan, “Sufi Literature in Bengal,” p. 11. The idea is

reminiscentofthePuruṣaṣaktaintheVedictradition,thoughsomemaypreferto see influences of theGnosticAdamQadmōnmyths.But inBengal, IndianinfluenceismorelikelythanthatofNearEasternmythology.77.SeeNicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,pp.115–16.78.S.B.Bukhari,Jawāhiral-auliyā,pp.474–91;thelitany“BytheHonorof

Muhammad” occupies pp. 485–86. Butmuch earlier, Qadi ʽIyadwrote in hisShifāʼ(1:137,quotedbyAndrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.274)that“AdaminParadiseaskedforforgivenessbi-ḥaqqMuḥammad,“forMuhammad’ssake.”79.ExamplesinMiskin,Ladhdhat-iMiskīn,3:65-74.Onthefollowingpages,

the same formulations occur with the names of the leaders of the great Sufiorders,alwaysinterruptedbytheinvocationoftheProphet.80.Watanmal,LifeofShahAbdulLatif,pp.37–38.

CHAPTEREIGHT

1. Kocatürk, Tekke Şiiri Antolojisi, p. 375; the poet is Vali (d. 1697). ForliteratureonthemīlādseeHamadeh,“MuhammadtheProphet,”nos.1313–34.2.Hadj-Sadok,“Lemawlidd’aprèslemufti-poèted’Alger,IbnʽAmmārʼ.’3.AbūNuʽaim,Dalāʼilan-nubuwwa,p.no, tells that theProphet’sbirth,his

entrance into Mecca, and his date of death happened all on a Monday, 12Rabīʽal-awwal.SeealsoZayyat,“TheMonthofRabīʽal-awwalintheLifeoftheProphet.” Mittwoch, “Muhammads Geburts-und Todestag,” claims Jewishinfluences for the combination of the Prophet’s birthday with the day of his

death.4. Snouck Hurgronje, Verspreide Geschriften, 5:406, about the customs in

TeriminHadramaut.5.Maqrizi,Kitābal-mawāʽiẓ…al-khiṭaṭ,1:433,466.6. Ibn Khallikan,Wafāyāt al-aʽyān, 1:525–32: Hafiz ibn Dihya (trans, de

Slane),2:539–41.7. Memon, Ibn Taimiyya’s Struggle against Popular Religion, p. 243 and

Introduction.8.EnamulHaq,SufiisminBengal,p.345.9. It is called Ḥusn al-maqṣid fī ʽamal al-maulid, “The good intention in

celebratingthemaulid;”seeBrockelmann,GAL,2:157.10.Koelle,MohammadandMohammadanism,p.242.11. Nowaihi, “Towards a Re-evaluation of Muhammad.” I lately heard the

sameargumentfromhigh-rankingArabdiplomatsanddevoutTurkishMuslims.12.Paret,DielegendäreMaghāzī-Literatur,p.146n.a,mentions(1930)that

one Dr. Fuchs was working on the history of themaulid, using the materialcollectedbyErichGraefe,whowaskilledin1914duringWorldWarI(seehisobituary in Becker, Islamstudien, 2:466–69). To my knowledge, he neverpublishedacomprehensivestudyofthesubject,onlythearticle“Mawlid”intheShorterEncyclopediaofIslam.13.Shinar, “Traditional andReformistmaulidCelebrations in theMaghrib.”

Paquignon,“LeMouloudauMaroc,”alsoemphasizes theHamadshaand Issa-wiyyapresence.ForsomecustomsinEastAfricaintheearlytwentiethcenturysee Becker, “Materialien zur Kenntnis des Islam in Deutsch-Ostafrika,” inIslamstudien,2:101ff.14. Schimmel, “Sufismus und Heiligenverehrung im spätmittelalterlichen

Ägypten,” p. 276. Once, in 1462, themaulid was celebrated on 13 Rabīʽal-awwal.15. Qalqashandi, Ṣubḥ al-aʽshā, 1:160, a model for such a letter of

congratulation.16.Lane,MannersandCustomsoftheModernEgyptians,pp.436ff.17. The following informationwas kindly supplied byDr. ZiauddinAḥmad

Shakeb,ofHyderabadandLondon,fromhisforthcomingbookonGolconda.18.Badaoni,Muntakhabat-tawārīkh,2:368(trans.2:380),mentions thatone

ofAkbar’samīrshadcookedfoodfordistributionon12Rabiʽal-awwal.19. Dawn Overseas, Karachi, 6 January 1983, p. 2, with numerous

photographsshowinggarlandedpeoplecarryingbanners.

20.MuslimDigest,RamadanAnnual32,no.12–33,no.1(July-August1982),pp.185–93.Thetopicofthemīlādan-nabīwastreatedextensivelyinanearlierissue(32,nos.6–7).TheRamadanissuecontainsaninquirybyaSouthAfricanindustrialist,HajeeA.M.Kalla,whichisansweredbyalongfatwābyMuftiM.A.Awwary.Questions1–4pertainespecially to themaulūd:first,whetherit ispermissible tohold it at all; secondly,whether it is permissible to standwhilesending salutations upon the holy Prophet during themaulid gatherings; then,importantly, whether it is permissible to address the Prophet in the familiarsecondperson;andwhether it ispermissible topreparefoodformīlādan-nabīand feedMuslimsordistribute foodamong them.Themufti judges that “fromtheenlightenedperiodofthefourcaliphsthereissufficientandstrongproofthatthe esteemed companions of the holy ProphetMuhammad had established intheirhomesandintheirgatheringmīlādan-nabī.”Infact“ifsomeonerejectstheabovementionedactions,thendoubtlesssuchaperson,intheviewoftheahl-e-sunnatwaʽl-jamaatislost,astray,leadsastray,andthereisfearofdisbelief”(p.9). The mufti brings seventy-one proofs for the necessity of celebrating themīlād,andofstandingup,andforthenormalpracticeofaddressingtheProphetin the second person. His proofs are taken from classical Arabic works,especiallythoseusedintheDeobandschool,butalsolargelyfromPersianand,especially,Urdudevotionalpoetry.The fatwā isafinecompendiumofmodernprophetology and contrasts sharply with the attitude of the Saudi authorities,whofollowtheverdictofIbnTaimiyyaagainstsuchcelebrations.21.EnamulHaq,SufiisminBengal,pp.344–45.22.Mubarak,Al-madāʽiḥan-nabawiyya,p.206.23.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.131,line9.24.YunusEmre,Divan,p.574,no.CCXLIX.25. Andrae, Die person Muhammads, p. 64; Abu Nuʽaim, Dalāʽil an-

nubuwwa,pp.88–100.26.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:480.27. Andrae,Die personMuḥammads, pp. 62–63; Abu Nuʽaim,Dalāʼil an-

nubuwwa,pp.221ff.28.Knappert,Swahili IslamicPoetry,1:45.Mostof the thirdvolumeof this

usefulpublicationisdevotedtomaulids.29. Baihaqi,Dalāʼil an-nubuwwa, p. 103; Sanaʼi,Dīwān, p. 363, and then

generallyinPersianpoetry.30.Bajuri,Ḥāshiyaʽalāmaulid…ad-Dardīr,p.3.31. The oldest manuscript is preserved in the Aya Sofya Library; it was

published,inRomanletters,asYaşayanmevlidişerif(TheLivingNoblemaulid)

inIstanbulin1964.Fortranslations,seeMacCallum,TheMevlidiSherif,andE.J.W.Gibb,HistoryofOttomanPoetry,pp.241–48.SeealsoEngelke,SülejmanTschelebisLobgedichtaufdieGeburtdesPropheten.32.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,1:107(maulidrhymingin-da,line21).33.Shinar,“TraditionalandReformistmaulidCelebrationsintheMaghrib,”p.

387.34.Aboutthecelebrationsinvariouscountriessee£ağatay,“TheTraditionof

maulid Recitations in Islam, Particularly in Turkey”; Cerbella, “II natale delProfeta”;Nakhli,“LemoulidenTunisie”;Paquignon,“LemouloudauMaroc.”35.Asmothsflyaroundthecandle thus thesun itself resemblesa tinymoth

comparedtotheDivinelight.36.Algar, “SomeNoteson theNaqshbandi ṭarīqat inBosnia,”mentions the

Serbo-CroatiantranslationbyHafizSalihGašovič.37. My own copy, printed in Istanbul ca. 1912, contains a prayer for the

OttomansultanReshad.38.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,1:107.39.Kocatürk,TekkeŞiiriAntolojisi,p.375.40.YunusEmre,Divan,p.575,no.CCL.41.Knappert,Swahili IslamicPoetry, 1:100–131, 3:276 ff. ForBarzanji see

Brockelmann,GAL2:384,82:517.42.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,1:43;theAlgerianmuftiIbnʽAmmar,in

hisNikhatal-lablbbi-akhbārar-riḥlailāʽl-ḥabīb(anaccountofhispilgrimage)describes the festivitiesof themaulid inAlgiers in1756andquotesnumerouspoemsbyNorthAfricanpoets,includingamaulidmuwashshaḥ(strophicpoem)of217verses;seeHadj-Sadok,“Lemawlidd’aprèslemuftipoèted’Alger.”43.Serjeant,PoetryandProsefromHadramaut,p.36,no.13.44.QaziAbdalMannan,“SufiLiterature inBengal,”pp.11–12.Dr.Ghulam

Muṣṫafa,anauthorityonandauthorofreligiouspoetry,toldmeinDaccain1962thatgoodBengalimaulidswereaninnovation.45. Baloch,Maulūd: the work contains poems by 175 poets from the early

eighteenth century to our day. See Schimmel, “Neue Veröffentlichungen zurVolkskundevonSind.”46.Baloch,Munāqibā, alongwith thecompanionvolumeMuʽjizā, gives the

bestsurveyofpopularSindhiexpressionsofthevariouseventsofthesīra,fromtheProphet’sbirthtohisfirstmiracles.47.ThusʽAbdalʽAli,Guldasta-iḤāfiẓJhāndā,pp.7–9.48.Dar,“Gujarat’sContributiontoGujariandUrdu,”p.33.

49.Baloch,Munāqibā,pp.47–50.50.ItisquotedearlierinAflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.530,chap.3,para.519.51.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.107.

CHAPTERNINE

1.Baloch,Maulūd,p.10,no.18(ʽAbdurRaʼufBhatti).2. Horovitz, “Miʽrāj”; for the literature on the subject see Hamadeh,

“Muḥammad theProphet,”nos. 1145–80, towhichquite a fewarticles canbeadded.3. Thus the sixteenth-century Egyptianmystical writer Najmuddin al-Ghaiti

elaborated the story of themiʽrāj in hisKitāb al-isrāʼ waʼl-miʼrāj, which haslargely influenced the Swahili versions of the legend. See Knappert, SwahiliIslamicPoetry,3:241.Ghaiti’sworkistranslatedinJeffery,ReaderonIslam,pp.621ff.;Waugh,inhisarticle“FollowingtheBeloved,”largelyreliesonJeffery’stranslation.For a traditionalist account see ʽAbdulHaqqDihlawi,Madārijan-nubuwwa,1:179–98.4.Guillaume,“WhereWasal-masjidal-aqṣā?”5.Andrae,DiepersonMuḥammads,pp.41ff.,citingIbnHisham,Sīra,1.200

ff.McKane,“AManuscriptonthemiʽrājintheBodleian,”speaksofanArabicversionof themiʽrāj legendwith someunusual features; the unknown author,whoemphasizestheelementoflight,seemstorelyonSufisources.6.Bukhari,Ṣaḥīḥ,8:1:1.7.SeeAffifi,“TheStoryoftheProphet’sAscent(miʽrāj)inSufiThoughtand

Literature”;Azma,“SomeNotesontheImpactoftheStoryofthemiʽrājonSufiLiterature”;Bevan,“Muhammad’sAscensiontoHeaven”;Blochet,“Étudessurl’histoire religieuse de l’Iran, II”; Hartmann, “Die HimmelsreiseMuhammadsund ihre Bedeutung in der Religion des Islam”; Horovitz, “MuhammadsHimmelfahrt”; Schrieke, “Die Himmelsreise Muhammads”; Porter,“Muhammad’s Journey to Heaven”; Waugh, “Following the Beloved”;Widengren, Muhammad: The Apostle and His Ascension. Archer, MysticalElements in Muhammad, discusses the subject rather extensively. As early as1785, one J. Morder published in Frankfurt a “Fragment” under the title“MohammedsReise insParadies.”As itwasnotunusual in the latenineteenthcentury to regard Muhammad as an epileptic, one even finds an attempt toexplain themiʽrāj asa trueexperienceofanepileptic.Dostoevskiwrites:“Allyoucleverfoolsareconvincedthathewassimplyaliarandimpostor.Butno!HereallywasinParadiseinthefitofepilepsy,whichhesufferedfrom,likeIdo.

I don’t know whether that bliss lasts for seconds, or hours, or months, butbelieve me, I wouldn’t take all the joys that life can offer for it.” Futrell,“DostoyevskyandIslam,”p.22.8.Cf.Scholem,MajorTrends inJewishMysticism,pp.44 ff.Themerkabah

mysticism offers interesting parallels with themiʽrāj legend, for instance, thewayfarer’s examination at the gate; the “staying upright”; the idea that theangels, contrary to the perfected seeker, are not allowed into the DivinePresence; and the symbolism of the Divine Throne, which appears soprominently in poetical descriptions of themiʽrāj, especially in the Persianatetradition.9.Baihaqi,Dalāʼilan-nubuwwa,p.118.10.Zimmer,Maya, pp. 27 ff. The storywas applied to one Shaikh Shihab-

uddin,inPetisdelaCroix,Milleetunjours(Paris1710–12);ithasbeenusedbyAmir Khusrau of Delhi in the Ayina-i Iskandarī, and in Egypt folk traditionclaims thatShaikhʽAbdulQadirad-Dashtuti (d.1523)convinced thedoubtingMamluksultanof therealityof themiʽrājby immersinghisheadinabowlofwater (Kriss and Kriss-Heinrich,Volksglaube im Bereich des Islam, 1:78). InSindhi folktales, it forms the subject of the storyofEflatun theMagician; seeSchimmel, Märchen aus Pakistan, pp. 133–39. It has also appeared in theGerman poetical tradition in Agnes Miegel’s ballad “Die Mär vom RitterManuel.”11. Gätje, Koran und-Koranexegese, pp. 105–8, citing Zamakhshari’s

commentaryonSura17:1.12.Tabari, tafsīronSura17:1.TheTurkishcritic Işīk,“ShockingWritings,”

pp. 36–37, and his SouthAfrican commentators violently attackHamidullah’sremarkthat“themiʽrājisastateofmood.Itwasdonewhenheforgotabouthisbodyandwhenhissoulwasdominant.”QuotingMuhaddithDihlawi,accordingtowhom“hewhodoes not believe that [Rasulallahwas taken fromMecca toMasjid-iAqsa]becomesanunbeliever,”IşīkstatesthatHamidullahmightevenbea“BatiniorIsmaili,”“fortheBatinisbelieveinspiritualmiʽrājandthiswordoftheirsiskufranddeviation.”13. Aḥmad Khan, Maqdldt-i Sir Sayyid, 13:593–804: “Wāqiʽa-i miʽrāj kī

ḥaqīqātuaṣliyyat”(TheTruthandOriginofthemi’rdj).Seealsoibid.,11:711—65,hisremarksagainsttheacceptanceofabodilyascension,whichculminateinthesentence:“WeMuslimsdonotwant tomakeourProphet ‘God’sson,’andwearenotdesiroustomakehim‘sitatGod’srighthand.’”14.Archer,MysticalElementsinMohammad,p.50.Hisentirechapterabout

theheavenlyjourneydeservescarefulstudy.

15. For the interpretation of “him” in Sura 53:13 by Sahl at-Tustari seeDeladrière,LaProfessiondeFoid’IbnʽArabi,p.124.16. SeeAndrae,Die personMuhammads, pp. 80–81, citingQastallani’sAl-

mawāhibal-laduniyya,6:137.17.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1758.18.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.376.19.Icram,Armaghān-iPāk,p.158.20. Hujwiri, Kashf al-maḥjūb, trans. Nicholson, p. 186: “Our apostle was

sober; he beheld the same glory continuously, with ever increasingconsciousness,allthewayfromMecca,untilhestoodatthespaceoftwobows’lengthfromthedivinepresence.”21.J.N.Bell,LoveTheoriesinLaterHanbaliteIslam,p.176.22.Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.70,citingTabari,tafsīr,32:26.23.ForthiswholeproblemseeRitter,DasMeerderSeele,pp.445ff.24.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,pp.211,78.25.Iqbal,SixLectures,p.124.26.Ibnal-Farid,Tāʼiyya,line454,inNicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,

p.239.27.Qushairi,“Bābal-ʽubūdiyya,”inRisāla,p.92.28.Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.84.29.B.A.Hashmi,“Sarmad,”IslamicCulture7(1933):670.30.Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.83,citingQastallani,Al-mawāhibal-

laduniyya,6:10.31.ThusTuḥfa-iRaḥimYār,pp.7–8; themunkir-imiʽrāj, “thedenierof the

heavenlyjourney,”isoftenattackedinSindhiandPashtoversetoo.32.ʽAttar,Ilāhīnāma,pp.14–19.33. In Rumi’s version of this story, it is seventy thousand mysteries (thus

Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.599,chap.3,para.589).TheProphetalsorecitedtheKoranseventytimesintheDivinePresence,ibid.,p.490,chap.3,para.474.34.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,nos.26,445.35. Ghanizade, in Köprülüzade, Eski Şairlerimiz, p. 356. Cf. also Thabit’s

Miʽrājiyye,inE.J.W.Gibb,HistoryofOttomanPoetry,4:22-23.36.UsuallyitissaidthatGabrielresembledthehandsomeMeccanDihyaal-

Kalbi. Paret, Die legenddre Maghāzī-Literatur, p. 175, shows that in laterlegendsGabrielappearsgenerallyasamessengertotheProphet,notsomuchinhis heavenly glory. This remark is corroborated by the manner in which themighty angel is depicted in popular poetry, where he clearly appears to be

subordinatetotheProphet(seechapter10n.83).37.YunusEmre,Divan,p.303,no.CLIX.38.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.100.39.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.48.40.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.24.SeeSchimmel,TheTriumphalSun,pp.

352–66.41.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.4,lines3755ff.,esp.3805;andvol.1,line1066:42.LongworthDames,PopularPoetryoftheBaloches,1:158.Thisideaalso

occurs in a Panjabi poem in honor of Pir Piran Abdul Qadir, the “wonderfulflowerintheProphet’sgarden”on“whosenecktheProphetputhisfoot.”Ireadthis in a manuscript (ca. late nineteenth-century) in the possession of SyedZulfiqarAliBokhari,Jhang.43.Aflaki,Manāqibalʽārifīn,p.365,chap.3,para.299.44. Nizami, “Makhzan al-asrār,” in Kulliyāt-i Khamsa, pp. 17–20; “Lailā

Majnūn,”ibid.,pp.433–36;“HaftPaikar,”ibid.,p.606.45. Jami,“YūsufuZulaikhā,” inHaftAurang,pp.584–85;cf. “Silsilat adh-

dhahab,”ibid.,p.10.46.MollaNusrati(d.1684),thecourtpoetofʽAliʽAdilshahofBijapurandhis

successors,wroteamiʽrājnāma,andsodidSayyidBulaqiintheDeccanin1694.SeeSyedNaimuddin,“SayyidBulaqi’sMirājnāma,”withsomeexamples.47.Jami,Dīwān,p.289,no.307;cf.Naziri,Dīwān,p.47,qaṣīdano.32.The

sky “used the dust of theProphet’s road as antimony for its eyes and becameradiant.”Antimony not only embellishes the eyes but also enhances the sight;but the term chashm raushan, “may your eye be brightened” also means“Congratulations!”Thatmeans, theskies,whichusedthedustof theProphet’sroadfortheireyes,aretobecongratulatedthattheywereblessedbythetouchofhisfeet.ThisideaoccursfrequentlyinlaterPersianandTurkishpoetry.48.Ghanizade,inKöprülüzade,EskiŞairlerimiz,pp.353–57.49.The rafraf as the last vehicle for theProphet appears inNizami’smiʽrāj

poems and, following his example, also in the chapter onmiʽrāj inSüleymanChelebi’smevlût.Similarly,Nazirisingsinhisnaʽt(Dīwān,p.486):50. Buraq—sometimes, as in Bulaqi’s Miʽrājnāma, called Barrāq, “very

radiant,lightning-like”—issometimesconfusedbyfolkpoetswithʽAli’sfamouswhite mule Duldul; see Darmesteter,Chants populaires des Afghans, no. no,stanza10.Foramedieval Jewishdistortionof themiʽrāj legend in connectionwithBuraqseeAltmann,“TheLadderofAscension.”51. First published by Pavet de Courteille in 1882 as Mirâḍj-nâme; the

facsimile edition by Sèguy, The Miraculous Journey of Mahomet, containsexcellentreproductions,althoughthetextisnotfullysatisfying.ForthetopicseeEtting-hausen,“PersianAscensionMiniaturesoftheFourteenthCentury.”52.Baloch,Maulüd,p.334.53. S. C. Welch,Wonders of the Age, plate 63. A good postcard of this

miniatureisavailableintheBritishMuseum.54. Now and then, in popular paintings, one sees the Prophet mounting

Gabriel,notBuraq.55.YunusEmre,Divan,p.575,no.ecuv.56.Sarraj,Kitābal-lumaʽ,pp.382–87;ʽAttar,Tadhkiratal-auliyāʼ,1:172–76;

see Nicholson, “An Early Arabic Version of the miʽrāj of Abū Yazld al-Bisṭāmī”;andRitter,“DieAussprüchedesBāyezīdBisṭāmī.”57.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽārifīn,p.666,chap.4,para.67.58.SeeCorbin,AvicennaandtheVisionaryRecital,Meier,“DerGeistmensch

beidempersischenDichterʽAṭṭār”;IbnʽArabidealswiththemysticalmiʽrājinhisbookKitābal-isrāʼilamaqāmal-asrāʼ,analyzedbyAzma,“SomeNotesontheImpactoftheStoryofthemi’rāj”59.Gölpĭnarlĭ,Tasavvuftandilimizegeçendeyimler,p.235.60.Buraq as an equivalent ofLove occurs inRumi’swork in the following

places:Dīwān,nos.3,288,1313,1426,1595,1741,1997;inMathnawī,vol.5,line 4133, the gallows on which the lovers are killed is compared to Buraqbecause death leads the lover into the Divine presence. Folk poetry liked therhymeḤallāj-mi’rāj,forHallajperformedhis“ascension”whileonthegallows.61. Rumi,Dīwān, nos. 1295, 1296; see Schimmel, The Triumphal Sun, pp.

289–90,formoreexamplesofthe“ladder.”62.AsīnPalaćios,IslamandtheDivineComedy.63.Cerulli, Il “Libro della Scala” e la questione dellefonte arabo-spagnole

della“DivinaCommedia.”64.Nicholson,“The‘Risālatal-Ghufrān’byAbū’l-ʽAlā’al-Maʽarrī.”65. Brockelmann,GAL, S3487, first published in 1931 in themagazinead-

Duhūr.66. Iqbal,Jāvīdnāma; trans, in English (Arberry;Aḥmad), French (Meyero-

vitch),German(Schimmel), Italian (Bausani),Turkish (Schimmel).For Iqbal’suseoftheimageryofthemiʽrājseeSchimmel,GabrielsWing,pp.301–6.67.HemayhavethoughtofIqbal’sverse(Bāl-iJibrīl,p.44):

CHAPTERTEN

1.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.365.2.GhulamImamShahid,inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt.3.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.127.4.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:8.5.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:4;cf.Tapish,Gulzār-inaʽt,fol.2b.6.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:8.7.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:7,quotesBusiri’sHamziyya.8.Tapish,Gulzār-inaʽt,fol.11b.9.Baloch,Madāḥūñ,introductionp.14.10.Rasheed,“TheDevelopmentofnaʽtiaPoetry,”p.56.11.Rasheed,“TheDevelopmentofnaʽtiaPoetry,”p.58.12. In a lecture in the Arabic Seminar of Columbia University, 27 January

1983,ProfessorAbdulKarimRafeqdiscussedthedifferentṭā’ifa,“professionalorganisations,” in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century Syria and mentioned theṭā’ifamaddāḥīnar-rasūlwaḥakkāʼīnas-sīraan-nabawiyya.13.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.89.14.Kister,“ANewEditionoftheDīwānofḤassānibnThābit,”p.285.15.HassanibnThabit,Dīwān,no.19.16.Utas,Ṭarīqat-taḥqīq,line375.17.ForthisdevelopmentseeSchimmel,AsThroughaVeil,pp.14,216–17nn.

11–12. Grunebaum, “The EarlyDevelopment of Islamic Religious Poetry,” p.24, has pointed out that the religious element is not among the recognizedmotivesinArabicliterarytheory.18.Ed.Lette (Leiden, 1748).An excellentGermanversion of this poemby

Friedrich Rückert was published in the 1830s, but unfortunately there is noequallyartisticrenderingof theBānatSuʽād inEnglish; foran impressiononemayturntoHidayatHosain,“BānatSuʽād,”whichis,however,averypedestriantranslation.19.Paret,“DieLegendevonderVerleihungdesProphetenmantels.”20.Baloch,Madāḥūñ,introductionp.8.21.Jami,“YūsufuZulaikhā,”inHaftAurang,p.587,andofteninhiswork.22.QuotedinMubarak,Al-madāʽiḥan-nabawiyya,p.50.23.Brockelmann,GAL1:264,S1:467,withextensivebibliography.Nicholson,

inhisLiteraryHistoryoftheArabs,mentionsBusirionlyinpassing.24.Baloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,1:200,quotesaSindhipoetwhosings:25.SeeBasset,LaBordahduCheikhal-Bousiri,introduction.

26.Becker,Islamstudien,2:105,mentions that inEastAfricacertain linesoftheDalāʽilal-khairātandtheBurda“arenextinsanctitytocertainversesoftheKoran.” Badaoni, Muntakhab at-tawārīkh, 2:384 (trans. 2:397), tells that intimesofutterdistressheusedtorepeattheBurda.27. Most libraries own beautifully calligraphed copies of the Bur da. A

particularlyfinecopywiththeinterlinearPersiantranslationbyJami,writtenin1477 by Sultan-ʽAliMashhadi in Herat, is in the Chester Beatty Library; seeArberry, Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts, no. 154. For other PersianparaphrasesseeAhlwardt,VerzeichnisderarabischenHandschriften,nos.7804–6;Ethè,CatalogueofPersianManuscripts,nos.170,2647,2650.Astudyofthemanuscripts from the viewpoint of calligraphy and illumination would beworthwhile.SeeSchimmel,CalligraphyandIslamicCulture,pp.59,86,118.28.Kokan,ArabicandPersianinCarnatic,pp.64–65.29.Muhammadad-DinNaqshbandi,Qaṣīda-iBurda,maʽsharḥPanjābī,isa

skillful Panjabi verse rendering of the poem, which maintains the originalrhymingletterm,addingtoitthegenitiveending-dl.30.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,vol.2,contains“TheTwoBurdas.”31.Drewes,EenzestiendeeeuwseMaleisevertalingvandeBurda.32.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,2:223.33.S.S.KhusroHusainikindlyarrangedsucharecitationoftheBurdaforme

athishouseinHyderabad/Deccan.34. S. B. Bukhari, Jawāhir al-auliyā, pp. 444–45. One should repeat the

taṣliya whenever the Prophet ismentioned in this poem; that can be done 41times,144times,or,ifpossible,1,001timesforeachoccurrenceofhisname.35. J.W.Redhouse, inW.A.Clouston,ArabianPoetry forEnglishReaders

(Glasgow:privatelyprinted,1881),pp.310–41.36.Jeffery,ReaderonIslam,pp.605–20.37.Mustaqimzade,Tuḥfa-ikhaṭṭātīn,mentions thatBusiriwas also a callig-

rapherandhadsomedisciplesincalligraphy,pp.411–12.38.ForSafiuddinal-HilliseeBrockelmann,GAL2:194,82:199:Nabhani,Al-

majmūʽa an-nabhāniyya, 1:16 ff., discusses the badiʽiyya, the complicated“novel”styleoflatermedievalpoets.39.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:564;cf.ibid.,1:173,thepoemby

ʽAbdul ʽAzīz az-Zamzami al-Makki (d. 1556), which elaborates this form inevenmorecomplicatedstyle.40.InWitri’snaʽtsthelinesofeachpoembeginwiththerhymingletter,thus

theTāiyyawitht,theKhāiyyawithkh,andsoon.SeeNabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-

nabhāniyya,1:11,510,589,612,andothers.41.Kokan,ArabicandPersianinCarnatic,pp.61–63:theQadiriSufi,Shaikh

Sadaqatallah(d.1703)wroteatakhmīsandtadhyīlofal-qaṣīdaal-witriyya,thatis,cinquainsinalphabeticalorderpluseightmukhammasforeachletter.42. Nabhani,Al-majmūʽa an-nabhāniyya, 1:156, Shamsuddin an-Nawaji (d.

1455). Cf. Mustaqimzade, Tuhfa-i khattdtin, pp. 720–21, about MuhammadHilali ibnNajmuddinad-Dimashqi (d.1603): “hehaseulogies for theProphetarrangedaccordingtotheletters.”43.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,3:321–23,Al-Hazimal-Andalusial-

Qartajani;pp.324–26,ash-Shihabal-Mansuri.44.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:34.45.Nabulusi,Dīwānal-ḥaqāʽiq; forexample,1:50,52,withthemetaphorof

light,2:72,asakindofgreeting,salām,whereoneversereads:A.S.Husain,Al-adabaṣ-ṣūfī,pp.282 ff.,discusseshow the ideasabout the

haqlqa muhammadiyya were reflected in popular poetry from the thirteenthcentury,especiallywiththegrowthoftheSufiorders.46.MuidKhan,TheArabianPoetsofGolconda,pp.102–8,aboutthenaʽtof

SayyidʽAliattheQutbshahicourtinGolconda.47. Kokan, Arabic and Persian in Carnatic, p. 66: Shaikh Muhyiddin ibn

ShaikhʽUmarKayalpatam,Al-qaṣīdaal-muḥammadiyya,composedca.1815.48.AreproductionofthebeginningoftheSīraPurānamappearsinSchimmel,

IslaminIndiaandPakistan,pl.xxxb.49.Nicholson,StudiesinIslamicMysticism,p.181.50.Andrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.256;cf.p.286.51.IbnTaimiyyaconsideredthatapilgrimagewhosepurposewasexclusively

the visit of the Prophet’s tomb was “rebellion,” maʽṣiya. See Memon, IbnTaimiyya’sStruggleagainstPopularReligion,pp.15,286,292,andpassim.52.A.S.Husain,Al-adabaṣ-ṣūfī,pp.218ff.53.ThusJami,Dīwān,p.289,no.307.54.ʽAbdulLatif,Risālō,“SurKhanbhāt,”canto2,stanza5.55.FineexamplesareJami,Dīwān,p.73,no.47;p.83,no.56.Thetopicis

verycommoninUrdunaʽtiyya.56. Her book also contains good photographs of the Rauda and the entire

sacredprecincts; seeplates73–74,79–83.Thearticle “Madīna” inEl, 1st ed.,vol.3,givesanextensivedescriptionoftheareaoftheProphet’stombandthehistoryofthebuilding.57.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.223.

58.YunusEmre,Divan,p.567,no.cxxxix;cf.p.565,no.ccxxvi.59.Jami,Dīwān,pp.88–89,no.61;cf.“Silsilatadh-dhahab,”inHaftAurang,

p.11.60.ʽAbdulLatif,Risālō,“SurḌahar,”canto2,stanzas1–3.61.Baloch,Maulūd,p.23,no.54.62.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.132.63.MīlādAḥmad,p.2.64.MīlādAḥmad,p.12.65.MīlādAḥmad,p.63.66.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.140.67.Jami,“SalamānuAbsāl,”inHaftAurang,p.454.68.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:487.69. Schimmel, Zeitgenōssische arabische Lyrik, p. 95. Faituri’s poem is

printedin’ĀshiqminIfrīqīya(Beirut:Dāral-adab,1964).70.Cf.Baloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,2:338–43:“MayIseeMedina’stowers,”avery

repetitiouspoemwithnumerousalliterationsineachverse.71.Spies,“SechstunesischeArbeitslieder,”p.288.72.GhiyathMatin,Zīnazīnarākh,p.11.73.“Tokiss theProphet’s tombwithone’seyes”andrelatedexpressionsare

standardformulasinIndo-Muslimpoetry.SeeBaloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,1:206.74. S. B. Bukhari, Jawāhir al-auliyā, p. 222. The same story is told about

Sayyid āAliShirazi,who is buriedonMakliHill nearThatta, Sind, inAʽzamTattawi,Tuḥfat aṭ-ṭāhirīn, pp. 17–20. Similarly, Aḥmad ar-Rifaʽi tells that hewasconcentratingupontheProphetinthehopethathewouldextendhishandsothat hemight kiss it, and “at thatmoment his noble hand appeared [from thetomb]andIkissedit.”Sindhi,Inbāʼal-anbāʽp.40.75.MīlādAḥmad,p.25.76.Qaniʽ,Maqālātash-shuʽarā,p.592.77.Sana’i,Dīwān,pp.34ff.78.Nizami,“Sharafnāma-i Iskandarī,” inKulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.845:“Inone

handhehadapearl,intheotherhandthesword.”Thisjuxtapositioncontinuesinnaʽtiyyapoetrytoourday,andIqbal’sdescriptionofthetruebeliever,themard-imomin, is influenced by it, for the true believer should follow the Prophet ineveryrespect.Seealsonote138below.79.Gesudaraz,DīwānAnīsal-ʽushshāq,p.17.80.Zajaçzkowski,PoezjestroficzneʽAšϊq-paša,p.13,stanza6.Therefrainof

thepoemisVerṣalāwatMuḥammad’a,“GiveblessingsforMuḥammad.”

81.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.96.82.SeeRazi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.433:“Ihave twoministers in

heaven and twoupon earth; they areGabriel andMichael, andAbūBakr andʽUmar.” Nizami, in the naʽt of “Lailā uMajnūn,”Kulliyāt-i Khamsa, p. 432,usesthesameḥadīthasbasis.83.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.364;seealsop.167.InSindhisīḥarfīs,theenumeration

ofthefourarchangelsastheProphet’sservantsisacommontopic;seeBaloch,Ṭihakharyūñ,1:34,55(1869),207(1918):“Gabrielisalwaysthedoorkeeperatyourdoor,Michaelisattachedtoyouandsweepsyourfloor;ʽAzra’ilispresent,and Israfil is your special servant,” and similar formulations. Ghalib, in hismathnawīinhonoroftheProphet,“Abr-iGauharbār,”evensaysthat“Gabriel’swingisaflywhiskfortheProphet’stable”{Kulliyāt-iFārsī,5:96).84.Darmesteter,ChantspopulairesdesAfghans’,no.30.85.ThusBulaqiinhisMiʽrājnāma;SyedNaimuddin,whodiscusseshispoem,

ascribes the existence of some verse with special praise for ʽAli to the(unknown) Persian model on which Bulaqi based his poem. That seemsfarfetched.86.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.167;cf.Jami,Dīwān,p.74,no.48.87.Sana’i,Dīwān,pp.374,363.TheoathisSura15:72,whereGodaddresses

theProphet, la-ʽumrik, “By your life!” This idea, towhichRazi,The Path ofGod’sBondsmen,p.406,alsoalludes,wasoften takenupby theSufipoets tohighlightMuḥammad’sveryspecialplace.88.Sana’i,Ḥadīqatal-ḥaqīqa,chap.3,p.209.89.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.44.90.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.363.91.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.374.92.Nabhani,Al-majmūʽaan-nabhāniyya,1:584.93.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.36;cf.thesimilarargument,p.374.94.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.43.95. ForAvicenna’smystical aspects seeCorbin,Avicenna and theVisionary

Recital.96. Jami,Nafaḥāt al-uns, p. 427; see also the unfriendly remarks about the

philosophersintheworkofMajduddin’sdisciple,NajmRaziDaya,passim.SeefurtherJami,Dīwān,p.140,no.35.97.ʽAttar,Muṣībatnāma,p.54.TheDivineorderqul,“Speak!”inaddressing

the Prophet occurs more than three hundred times in the Koran. ShamsuddinTabrizi, attacking those who believe that they can reach God without

acknowledging the Prophet (as the philosophers allegedly do) made thestatement: “You say, ‘I do not needMuhammad anymore, for I have reachedGod!’ But God azMuḥammadmustaghnī nīst [cannot do without him]. HowcouldHe?Hehassaid,‘IfWehadwilledWewouldhavesentawarnerineveryvillage’[Sura25:51];nowHedidnotdothatandHedidnotwantlaushiʽnā[IfWe had willed].” Aflaki,Manāqib al-ʽārifln, p. 665, chap. 4, para. 67. ThemeaningseemstobethatifGodhadreallyhadneedforanyothermessenger,Hewouldhavesenthim,butMuhammadwasenoughforhispurposes.98.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.1,line3280.99.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1793.100. Iqbal, Payām-i Mashriq, pp. 119, 122, juxtaposes the bookworm that

livesinamanuscriptofAvicenna’sworks,andthemoththatexperiencesthefireoflove.InẒarb-iKalīm,p.11,hesaysinclassicalstyle:101.ʽAttar,Muṣībatnāma,p.20.102.ʽAttar,Manṭiquṭ-ṭair,p.18.103.ʽAttar,Ilāhīnāma,p.11;seeSchimmel,AsThroughaVeil,p.193.104.ʽAttar,Muṣībatnāma,p.20.105.Rumi,Dīwān,no.792.106.Rumi,Dīwān,no.409.107.Rumi,Dīwān,no.2010.108.Rumi,Dīwān,no.462.109. Rumi, Mathnawī, vol. 5, line 2734; in Dīwān, no. 2400, Love is

“Mutaafa’scominginthemidstoftheinfidels.”110.Rumi,Dīwān,no.2.111.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1142.112.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1732.113.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1966.114.Rumi,Dīwān,no.1135.115.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.4,lines990–91.116.Rumi,Dīwān,no.2118.117.Rumi,Mathnawī,vol.6,lines165–71.118.Rumi,Dīwān,no.490.119.Aflaki,Manāqibal-ʽdrifīn,p.281,chap.3,para.193.120.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.232.121.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.117.122.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,pp.211–12.

123.Arberry,DiscoursesofRumi,p.78.124.Heper,MevleviAyĭnleri,pp.1–4,textandmelodyofthenaʽt-isharīf125. ʽIraqi,Kulliyāt, p. 74.Another, extremelyhigh-soaringodeby ʽIraqi is

foundinacalligraphyintheFreerGalleryofArt(48.20B),reproducedhereonp.136.ItaboundsinallusionstoMuhammad’sprimordial lightandhisroleasthe“mirroroftheDivineTruth[God]MostHigh.”126.Khaqani,“Tuḥfatal-haramain,”inDīwān,pp.368ff.127.HadiHasan,“Qāsim-iKāhī,”p.185.128.Saʽdi,Būstān,p.5.129.AmirKhusrau,MajnūnLailā,p.14;seechapter6n.21above.130.AmirKhusrau,MajnūnLailā,p.15.Later,JamiinhisSalām(Dīwān,p.

73,no.47)comparestheProphettotheoceanofmercyoutofwhosegenerositytheocean(ofthisworld)isbutadewdrop.131.AmirKhusrau,Dīwān,p.601.132.AmirKhusrau,Dīwān,p.596.133.SeeforinstanceNizami,“KhusrauuShīrīn,”Kulliyāt-iKhamsa,p.127.

The combination occurs then inmany of themajornaʽt poems in the Persiantradition.134.Iqbal,Asrār-ikhudī,lines415–17.135.Jami,Dīwān,pp.95–100.136.Saʽdi,Qaṣāʽid,p.17.137. ʽUrfi,Kulliyāt,qaṣīda no. 10.Also published inAbdulGhani,Persian

LanguageandLiteratureattheMoghulCourt,3:119,butthattranslationmissessomeessentialpoints.138.Naziri,Dīwān,p.487,qaṣīdano.36.Bedil,intheintroductorynaʽtofhis

Chahār ʽunṣur (Kulliyāt, 4:4-5), similarly confronts the two aspects of theProphet:hiskindremark“Iamahumanbeinglikeyou!”giveshimthecouragetocalltheProphet,whilethegloryofAnāAḥmadbilāmīmmakeshimfeelthatitwouldbebadmannerstodrawclosetothisluminousspiritualbeing.Cf.n.78above.139.Ikram,Armaghān-iPāk,p.219.140.Waliullah,At-Tafhīmāt,2:246.Onemaymentioninthisconnectionthatin

theIndianenvironmentaḥadīthqudsīwasknowninwhich theLordsaysAnāʽarabbilāʽain,“IamtheArab(i.e.,Muhammad),without the(letter)ʽain”or“withouttheessence”or“theeye,”thatis,Rabb,“Lord.”ThissayingoccursinSindhifolkpoetry,buthasneverbeenpopularinotherIslamiccountries,asfarasIknow.

141.Baloch,Maulūd,p.2,no.2,refrain.142.Ramakrishna,PanjabiSufiPoets,p.73:ʽAliHaidar inhissīḥarfīunder

theletterm.143.ʽAndalīb,Nāla-iʽAndalīb,2:104.144.A typical example isNefʽi’snaʽt inKöprülüzade,Eski Şairlerimiz, pp.

397–99.145.Kokan,Khānwāda-iQdāzīBadruddaula,pp.191–94.146. Furuzanfar, Aḥādīth-i Mathnawī, no. 228. Horten, Die religiöse Vor-

stellungswelt des Volkes, p. 150, calls the chapter about Muḥammad’spersonality“DermystischlebendeMuhammadalsVaterseinerGemeinde.”147.Seechapter11n.25below.148.Miʽrāj al-ʽāshiqīn is attributed to Gesudaraz, but the authorship is not

undisputed. There are various editions: byMaulvi Abdul Haq (1922); KhaliqAnjum(Delhi,1956);GopichandNarang(1967).149.Shefta,inSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.97.150.MahabbatKhaninSiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt.151.Darmesteter,ChantspopulairesdesAfghans,p.104,no.42.152.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.106.153.NumerousexamplesinBaloch,Maulīd.Themiṭṭāmīroccurs frequently

and is often expanded: for example, mujtabā mukhtār mursal—māṙṙ kar yāMuḥammad, “Elect, chosen, messenger—give support, O Muhammad!” andsimilaralliterationswithm.154.Sana’i,Dīwān,p.35.155.Jami,Dīwān,p.289,no.307.156.Knappert,SwahiliIslamicPoetry,1:40.157.Mirghani,An-nūr al-harrāq, pp. 1–31.Abjad is the traditional Semitic

sequenceofthealphabetinArabic,asitisusedforcounting.158.FortheformseeVaudeville,Bārahmāsa,leschansonsdesdouzemois.159.Baloch,Maulūd,p.6,no.3.Comparealso theverseby theeighteenth-

centuryDeccanipoetFiraqiBijapuri,whoemphasizestheloveoftheProphet:160.Baloch,Maulūd,p.334.161.Hussaini,“Bund-samāʽ.”162.YunusEmre,Divan,p.568,no.CCXLI.163.Hickman,EshrefoghluRūmī:ReconstitutionofHisDivan,letterM7.164.Kocatürk,TekkeŞiiriAntolojisi,p.402;thepoetisSezayi(d.1738).165.Bannerth,“Liederägyptischermeddâhîn,”p.12,no.1.

166.Baloch,Madāḥūñ,p.279,byYusufAthar.167.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.157.168.Rumi,Dīwān,no.463.Jami,in“LailāuMajnūn,”HaftAurang,p.754,

goes so far as to state that even Muḥammad’s “red-haired camel made bothworlds‘red-faced,’”thatis,“honored.”169.Iqbal,“Tarāna-imillī,”inBāng-iDarā,p.172:“Ourcaravanleaderisthe

PrinceofHijaz.”170.Muhammad isnotonly theboatmanbutcanalsobe seenas the saving

ark,asRumimakeshimsay(Mathnawīvol.4,line3358):“Iamthearkinthisoceanoftheuniverse.”

CHAPTERELEVEN

1.Schimmel,“TheGoldenChainof‘SincereMuhammadans,’”discussesthedevelopment in Indo-Pakistan in greater detail and gives the relevant sourcematerialinthenotes.2. Peacock, Purifying the Faith: The Muḥammadiyyah Movement in

IndonesianIslam.3.AbouthimseeFriedmann,ShaykhAḥmadSirhindī.4.Cf.chapter2nn.3–4.5.Jahangir,Tuzuk-iJahāngīrī,2:93.6.Thetermqayyūm(absolutelyusedforGodasTheOneSubsistingthrough

Himself) is interpreted by Shah Waliullah, Lamaḥāt, p. 5, as (among otherthings)“theonewhoupholds(al-qayyūmbi-) thecontingent realities,’’or“thebreathoftheMerciful,”or“thesealoftheDivinenames.”7.ForthedevelopmentseeSchimmel,PainandGrace,part1.8.Dard,ʽIlmul-kitāb,p.432.9.Dard, ʽIlmul-kitāb, p.504; full translation inSchimmel,PainandGrace,

pp.78–80.10.Mazhar,“At-tanbīhātal-khamsa,”inMakātīb-iMirzāMaẓhar,p.214.11.Baljon,AMysticalInterpretationofPropheticTalesbyanIndianMuslim,

p.58.12.Iqbal,SixLecturesontheReconstructionofReligiousThoughtinIslam,p.

124.Themainpartofchapter5ofIqbal’sbookdealswiththisproblem.13.ShahWaliullah,At-Tafhīmāt,2:19.14.ShahWaliullah,Alṭāfal-quds,p.95,quotedinJalbani,ShāhWalūullāhain

hunajōfalsafō,p.114.

15.Nyberg,KleinereSchriftendes Ibnal-ʽArabī,Arabic text of “Al-tadbīratal-ilāhiyya,”p.216,lines133ff.16.At-Tafhīmāt, 1:28. More than nine centuries before ShahWaliullah, the

Mu’tazilite al-Jahiz inBaghdadhaddeveloped a theory about the character ofthe prophets’ message that resembles, in a certain way, Waliullah’s idea thateveryprophetissentwiththeequipmentthatfitshis“material.”JahizsaysinhisKitābḥujajan-nubuwwathatGodsentMosesatatimewhenPharaohbelievedinthepowerofmagic;hencehismiraclewastoovercomethemagicians.Jesuswassentwhentheartofhealingwashighlyappreciated,andexcelledthereforeinhealingmiracles.Muhammadwassentwhenhighestimportancewasgiventobeautiful language, andsohis truemiracle is the inimitableKoran.SeePellat,ArabischeGeisteswelt,p.80.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,theIndianmodernistShibliNuʽmānīalsoexpressedsimilarideas;seeMurad,IntellectualModernismofShibliNuʽmānī,pp.44,70–72.17. Furuzanfar, Aḥādīth-i Mathnawī, no. 42. For the history of this ḥadīth

qudsī,afavoritewiththeSufis,seeGraham,DivineWordandPropheticWord,pp.98,173,sayingno.49.18.Razi,ThePathofGod’sBondsmen,p.151.19.Dard,ʽIimul-kitāb,p.61.20.ForthisdevelopmentseeHistoryoftheFreedomMovement,preparedbya

boardofeditors,vols.1–2(Karachi,1957).ThemostextensivestudyofAḥmadBrelwi isMehr,Sayyid Aḥmad Shahid. For the later development seeHunter,OurIndianMusulmans.21.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.150.22.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,pp.150–51.23.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,pp.164–65.24.Padwick,MuslimDevotions,p.147.25. Ghalib, Kulliyāt-i Fārsī, 5:49-59, esp. 57; see Rahbar, “Ghālib and a

DebatablePointofTheology.”26.Iqbālnāma,1:117(1922).27. Troll, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, is the best modern study; see also Baljon,

TheReformsandReligiousIdeasofSayyidAḥmadKhan.28.H.A.R.Gibb,WhitherIslam?,p.199.29.Iqbal,letterof20January1925;seeSchimmel,Gabriel’sWing,p.74.30. Troll, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, pp. 322–24, translates his most important

statement:“ThebeliefintheprophethoodofMuhammad.”31. Being the first book of its kind, Sayyid Ahmad’sEssays aroused some

comment inEngland;seeMountfort,“Mohammad:AMohammadanApologistinLondon.”32.Watt,“CarlyleandMuhammad.”Thechapter“TheHeroasProphet”was

translatedintoArabicbyMuhammadSiba’iin1934.33. Irving’sLifeofMuhammadwas soon translated into themajorEuropean

languages,andasearlyas1892alsointoUrdu.34.Troll,SayyidAhmadKhan,p.43.35.AḥmadKhan,Maqālāt-iSirSayyid,vol.13,dealslargelywiththeproblem

ofmiracles;seeesp.pp.92–103.36. Troll, “Reason and Revelation in the Theology of Mawlānā Shiblī

Nuʽmānī,”p.25.37.Troll,“SayyidAhmadKhanandIslamicJurisprudence,”p.9.38.Troll,SayyidAhmadKhan,p.235,atranslationofthepassage.39.Seechapter2,n.21.40.W.C.Smith,ModernIslaminIndia,p.52(1969ed.).41. Professor Nowaihi’s speech to the Harvard Islamic Society in 1968,

“TowardsaReevaluationofMuḥammad:ProphetandMan,”emphasizesexactlythe same viewpoint.Almost identicalwordswere used by the officials of thePakistanEmbassy inBonn,when Iasked themabout thearrangements for themaulidcelebrationsintheembassiesofIslamiccountriesinDecember1982.42.Hourani,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge,p.135.43.SeeRahman,“Sīratan-nabīofAllamahShibli.”TheSīrawas translated

intoSindhibyLutfullahBadawiin1935.44. Jagtiani,MuḥammadRasūl Allāh. Hamadeh, “Muḥammad the Prophet,”

no. 730, mentions with approval a Hindustani work on the Sir a by PanditSundar-lal,whichwastranslatedintoGujarati.Thiscontrastswiththedisgustingpicture of the Prophet as given in a highly debated “purāṇa”’, see Meyer,“Moses und Zarathustra, Jesus und Muhammad in einem Purana.” ThisBhavishyapurāna was declared “a literary fraud” in 1903 by the Germanindologist Theodor Aufrecht because it contains information about the greatWestern religions, mentions the names of the Moghul emperors, and gives amostviciousdescriptionofMahā-mada(Muḥammad).Theageofthispurāṇaisdifficulttoassess,buttoanon-specialistitlooksindeedquiterecent.45.IntheforewordtohisSīratan-nabī(LifeoftheProphet)FathMuhammad

Sehwaniin1914attackedhiscolleaguesinSind:“BywritingnovelsandplaystheyhavemadeashamedtheSindhilanguageandspoiledthetasteofmen;theyhavewrittenexaggeratedanduntruestoriesabout thehonoredsaints,butalas!

they have not thought of writing about the benign state of the lord of theprophets!”46. Thus the West African Sufi master Shaikh Ibrahim Niass sings in his

collectionofpraisepoems(Nuzhatal-asmāʼwaʼl-afkārfīmadīḥal-amīn,Zaria,n.d.):Hiskell,“The‘CommunityofGrace,’“p.116.Seealsotherelevantstatement

inSchuon,LeSoufisme,p.55.On16December1982thePakistanipaperDawnOverseas published in its weekly column “Islam—Religion of Man” acontributionbyProfessorQamaruddinKhan,theregularcolumnistforthisfield,entitled“ProphetaHumanBeing,”whichcloseswiththefollowingparagraph:“There, however, exists a strong tendency in Islamic literature to portray theProphetasasuperhuman,todeifyhim,andinpopularthinking,preachingandsongsheispaintedasanincarnationofGod,andisshowntopossessahigherdivinity than Christ. This tendency has done great harm to Islam and to thepersonalityoftheProphet.Therefore,aneweffortmustbemadetogivethetrueimageoftheProphettotheworld,andshowhimasthetruestservantofGodonearth.”Itissurprisingthattheauthorusestheword“incarnation”;itseemstomethat this danger has been avoided in Islam despite the high-soaring mysticaldescriptionsoftheProphet.47.W.C.Smith,ModernIslaminIndia,p.70.48.W.C.Smith,ModernIslaminIndia,p.71.49.W.C.Smith,Modern Islam in India, p. 75.Good examples of the deep

venerationoftheProphetinthetheologicalschoolofʽAliRizaBarelwiinIndo-PakistanappearinMetcalf,IslamicRevivalinBritishIndia,pp.303–5.50.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.133.51.Gairdner,“MuhammadwithoutCamouflage,”pp.53,57.Cf.W.C.Smith,

Modern Islam in India, p. 75 (1969 ed.), the quotation fromW.WilsonCash,TheMoslemWorldinRevolution,thatMuhammad“hasbeenpaintedincoloursdrawnfromaChristianpaintbox.”Thefeelingthatmanytrendsinmysticalandpopular Islam were influenced by Christian customs and thought had beenclearlyexpressedasearlyastheMiddleAgesbycriticslikeIbnTaimiyya;seeMemon,IbnTaimiyya’sStruggleagainstPopularReligion,introduction.52.Hourani,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge,p.114.53.Hourani,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge,p.129.54.Hourani,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge,p.136.55.Hourani,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge,pp.186–87.56.Hourani,ArabicThoughtintheLiberalAge,p.190.57.Wielandt,OffenbarungundGeschichte,p.53.

58.Jeffery,MuḥammadandHisReligion,p.3.59.For thesemoreor lesspoeticalattemptssee thecritique inKhurshidand

Zaki,Muḥammadfiʼl-adabal-muʽāṣir,part2.60.Thevery titles ofAḥmadAmin’sgreat trilogy about Islamic civilization

onceagainevokethetraditionalimageryoflight:Fajral-Islām;Ḍuḥāal-Islām;Ẓuhral-Islām—theDawn,MorningLight,andNoonofIslam.61.Brockelmann,GAL,83:209–10.Johansen,MuḥammadḤusainHaikal,pp.

16–70. Hamadeh, “Muḥammad the Prophet,” p. 84, thinks that Haikal’sbiographywasinfluencedbyDermenghem’sLaViedeMahomet.62.Qasimi,NaqdkitābHayātMuḥammad.63. ʽAqqad alsowrotemany books about the ʽabqariyya, “genius,” of early

Muslims.64.Aqqad,’AbqariyyatMuḥammad,introduction.65.Brockelmann,GAL83:299–301.KhurshidandZaki,Muḥammadfiʼl-adab

al-muʽāṣir,pp.17–34.66. Thus one finds books by one Muhammad Faraj: Al-ʽAbqariyyat al-

ʽaskariyya fī ghazawāt ar-rasūl (The Military Genius in the Wars of theProphet), andMuḥammad al-Muhdrib (Muḥammad theWarrior), published inCairo,1958,n.d.(ca.1956),respectively.67.Wielandt,OffenbarungundGeschichte,p.89.68.Wessels, “ModernBiographies of theLife of the Prophet inArabic,” p.

102.69.W.C.Smith,ModernIslaminIndia,pp.136–37.70.InPenseeChiite,no.5(i960).71.Samancigil,HazretiMuhammadTürkmiidi?72.Rasheed,“TheDevelopmentofnaʽtiaPoetry,”p.68.73.Brockelmann,GAL,83:244–45.74.SeeKhurshidandZaki,Muḥammadfiʼl-adabal-muʽāṣir,pp.37–51.

CHAPTERTWELVE

1.Jāvīdnāma,line608.2.Payādm-iMashriq,pp.151–52.3.QuotedinAndrae,DiepersonMuhammads,p.187.4.SiddiqiandAsi,Armaghān-inaʽt,p.124.5.Bāl-iJibrīl,p.61.

6. “Islam as a Moral and Political Ideal,” Hindustan Review 20 (July-December1909);reprintedinSpeechesandStatements.7.Iqbālnāma,2:93.8.Paschebāyadkard,p.69.9.Asrār-ikhudī,line383.10.Rumūz-ibekhudī,pp.193–94.11.Cf.Iqbālnāma,1:414.12.Paschebāyadkard,pp.64ff.13.AllusionstotheBurdainRumūz-ibekhudī,pp.116,118,195;Bāl-iJibrīl,

p.151.14.Iqbālnāma,1:248,lettertoSayyidMahfuzʽAliBadayuni.15.Paschebāyadkard,p.49;cf.Bāl-iJibrīl,p.130.16.Payām-iMashriq,p.221.17.Cf.Armaghān-iHijāz,p.71.18.Iqbālnāma,1:404.19.Musāfir,pp.29ff.20.Jami,Dīwān,p.83,no.56.21.Cf.Iqādlnāma,2:36(1911).22.Bāng-iDarā,p.156.23.Cf.Iqbālnāma,1:222(1937),382(1937),232(1938).24.Bāng-iDarā,p.219.25.Iqbālnāma,2:397.26.Bāl-iJibrīl,p.151.27.Paschebāyadhard,p.29.28.Bāng-iDarā,p.232.29.Asrār-ikhudī,lines343,350.30.Bāng-iDarā,p.231.31.Asrār-ikhudī,lines355–58.32.Goodexamples inBdl-iJibril, pp.110–11,213;Paschebāyadkard, pp.

23–31-33.Furuzanfar,Aḥādīth-iMathnawī,no.54.34.Cf.Musāfir,p.3;Paschebāyadhard,pp.23ff.35.Asrār-ikhudī,lines362–63x.36.Paschebāyadhard,pp.12ff.37.Rumūz-ibekhudī,p.130.38.Jāvīdnāma,“SphereofJupiter.”

39.Asrār-ikhudī,line189.40.Iqbālnāma,1:153(1922toSayyidSulaimanNadwi).41.Zarb-iKalīm,p.53.42.Jāvīdnāma,“SphereoftheMoon,”ṮāsīnofZarathustra.43.Bāng-iDarā,p.281.44.SixLectureson theReconstructionofReligiousThought in Islam,p.124

(hereafterReconstruction).45.Reconstruction,p.190.46.Goldziher,MuhammedanischeStudien,1:23.47.Jāvīdnāma,“SphereoftheMoon,”ṮāsīnofMuhammad.48.StrayReflections,no.19;cf.Reconstruction,p.146.49.Bāng-iDarā,p.173.50.Bāng-iDarā,p.174.51.SpeechesandStatements,p.120.52.Paschebāyadkard,p.66.53.IbnKhaldun,Muqaddima,book1,part3.54.Asrār-ikhudī,lines395–96;cf.Payām-iMashriq,“Lāla-iṬūr,”p.83.55.Musāfir,p.32.56.Payām-iMashriq,p.161;abouthisattitudetowardTurkeyandAtaturksee

Schimmel,GabrielsWing,pp.240ff.57.Zarb-iKalīm,p.44.58.SpeechesandStatements,p.238.59.Rumūz-ibekhudī,pp.116–17.60.Bāng-iDarā,p.155.61.Rumūz-ibekhudī,p.116.62.Bāl-iJibril,p.97;cf.pp.117,119.63.Rumūz-ibekhudī,p.163.64.Reconstruction,p.126.65. Reconstruction, p. 17; Iqbal regrets that the interpreters have never

properlyassessedtheimportanceofthisstory.66.Reconstruction,p.3.67.Payām-iMashriq,p.6.68.Baljon,ModernMuslimKoranInterpretation,p.73.69.Baljon,ModernMuslimKoranInterpretation,p.73.70.Khalid,“ATerroristLooksatIslam.”71.“OpenLetter toPanditNehru,” inSpeechesandStatements, pp. 111–44,

thisquotationpp.108,120.72.Armaghān-iḤijāz,p.81.73.Bāl-iJibrīl,p.155.74.Bāng-iDarā,p.172.75.Armaghān-iḤijāz,p.29.76.Rumūz-ibekhudī,p.190.

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INDEXOFKORANICQUOTATIONS

Sura1,al-Fātiha,19,266(n.40)1:1,107,118

Sura22:1,a-l-m,118,290(n.71)2:30,25,1052:74,71(ummī)2:122,2512:130,612:134–35,142:256(Throneverse),83

Sura33:29,26,313:74,71(ummī)3:84,613:144,108

Sura44:80,16

Sura5,“TheTable,”635:5,17,134,2535:15,124

Sura66:37.246:50,25,736:162–63,17

Sura77:54,1347:139,163,2427:157–58,71(ummī)

Sura88:17,14,52

Sura99:40,13

Sura1010:48,56

Sura1414:8,56

Sura1515:72,305(n.87)15:87,63(sab’mathānī)

Sura1616:68–69,102(thebees)

Sura1717:1,108,139,149,165,203,246.Seealso‘abduhu;isrā’;Muḥammad,

heavenlyjoumey17:79,83,107,289(n.67)(al-maqāmal-maḥmūd)17:88,2517:90,24

Sura1818:17–21,209(theSevenSleepers)

18:65,73(‘ilmladunī)

Sura2020:1,108,287(n.20),288(n.30),294(n.74).SeealsoṬāhā20:15,25

Sura2121:107,16,25,81.Seealsoraḥmatan;Muḥammad,asMercy

Sura2222:78,251

Sura24,an-Nūr,“TheLight,”193,209.SeealsonūrMuḥammad;Muḥammad,hislight

24:35(Lightverse),27,124,137,291(n-7)

Sura2525:51,306(11.97)

Sura2828:56,2528:86,25

Sura292949,25

Sura3333:1,5633:6,16(“themothersofthebelievers”)33:21,8,16,26.Seealsouswahasancr,Muhammad,as(beautiful)model33:33,19(ahial-bait)33:40,34.Seealsokhātaman-nubuwwa;Muhammad,asSealoftheProphets33:45,15,109(inadhīr)

33:46,109,124(sirājmunīr).SeealsoMuhammad,ascandle;hislight33:53.1633:56,16,25,92.Seealsosalawāt;durūd;Muhammad,blessingsuponhim

Sura3535:16,48

Sura3636:1,108,288(n.30),294(n.74).SeealsoYāsln

Sura37374,25

Suras40–46,109(hā-mīm)

Sura4040:7,83

Sura4141:5,2441:53,253

Sura4646:34,56(ūlū‘l-‘azm)

Sura4848:1,59

Sura53,125,139,162,16353:6,164(istawā)53:8,164,21053:9,39,163,210,212(qābaqausain)53:10,108,165,203,246.Seealso‘abduhu53:13,125,299(n.15)53:14,125,161,168(sidra)

53:17,163,212(māzāgha)

Sura5454:1,69,139,278(n.7).SeealsoMuhammad,splitsthemoon

Sura5555:20,243(barzakh)55:76,171(rafraf)

Sura5959:7,31

Sura6161:5,108.SeealsoParaclete;Ahmad

Sura6262:2,71(ummī)

Sura6868:4,2568:51–52,109(inyakādu)

Sura7373:I,110(muzammil)

Sura7474:I,110(mudaththir)74:30,201

Sura7878:41,193

Sura79

79:42,25

Sura8080:1,47,273(n.105)(‘abasa)

Sura8181:21,137,205(muṭā)

Sura92,“BytheNight”92:1,196,272(n.81),294(n.74)

Sura93,“BytheMomingLight,”10,58,139,195,196,203,294(n.74)93:7,58

Sura94,67.SeealsoMuḥammad,OpeningoftheBreast

Sura97,144,197,272(n.81).Seealsolailatal-qadr(NightofMight)

Sura105,10,265(n.7)

Sura108,78,139(kauthar)

Sura111,21

Sura112,3,19,54

Suras113–14,al-mu‘awwidhatān,19,54

INDEXOFPROPHETICTRADITIONS

ḤADĪTH

Asktheiropinion,shāwirūhunna,275(n.133)Askyourheartforafatwā,55aslamashaiṭānī,Myshaitanhassurrendered,61,276(n.18)Bilāl,refreshus,21DonotplacemeaboveYūnus,62DoyounotwonderhowGodaverts,107Firsttetheryourcamel,i’qilhā,47Forhimwhoseesmyḥilya.,36Goddoesnotsendanyillness,45Godhascreatedwomanfromacrookedrib,50Godhasmadedeartome,51Godhasprohibitedtheearth,284(n.56)God,increasemeinknowledge,47,254Hewhodoesnotshowmercy,49IamthemessengerofGod,62IaskforgivenessfromGod,54Icannotaccountthepraise,48Ieatasaslaveeats,48IhaveatimewithGod,līma‘aAllāhwaqt,,169Ihavebeengrantedexcellence,62IhavebeensenttotheRedandtheBlack,52,62Ihavecometoperfectthenoblehabits,55Ihavetwocoats,243IsawmyLordinthemostbeautifulshape,164;likeanunbeardedyouth,164IstaywithmyLord,48IwasaprophetwhileAdamwasstillbetweenwaterandclay,130,246Ifitwereallowedthatanyoneprostratehimself,279(n.39)IfyouknewwhatIknow,46

InTheeItum,72Kallimīnī,Talktome,50Letthemwearwhatyouwear,48Loveofcatsispartoffaith,49Love,andbeitacat,274(n.121)Mycompanionsarelikethestars,126Myeyesareasleep,50Myheartdoesnotsleep,qalbīlāyanām,212Myintercessionisforthose,85Mypovertyismypride,faqrīfakhrī,48,62,245Nobodyisabeliever,210OGod,placelightinmyheart,125OLord,keepmehungry,48Omyson,theonewhohascherishedmysunna,30Overcloudingsoftheheart,60Paradiseliesbeneaththefeetofthemothers,51Revelationsometimescomes,11Satanfliesfromtheshadowof‘Umar,61ThebestIslamis,55ThefirstthingthatGodcreatedwasmylight,126;wasmyspirit,130;wasthe

Pen,130;wastheIntellect,130Thegreatestjihād,53ThereisnomonkeryinIslam,50Thereisnoprophetafterme,208Theyhavethisworld,48Thisworldisaseedbed,47Thosemostafflictedaretheprophets,48ThouartmyLord,58ThusIshallgoandcomebeforetheThrone,84Tomarryismysunna,50VerilyGodisbeautiful,35VerilyIamlikeafathertoyou,31VerilyIfeelthenafasar-raḥmān,22Visitrarely,46

WedonotknowYou,61WhileIwasthusforsometimewithmyfriends,68Whofollowsme,26Whohasseenme,131,292(n.44)Whosays(utters)theblessinguponme,93,284(n.56)WouldthattheLordofMuḥammadhadnotcreatedMuḥammad,202Yūsufwasbeautiful,35

ḤADĪTHQUDSĪ

AnāAḥmadbilāmīm,IamAḥmadwithoutthem,Aḥad,“One,”116,117,200,202,205,212,217,240,289(n.66),307(n.138)

Anā‘Arabbilā‘ain,IamtheArabwithoutthe‘ain,i.e.,rab(b),Lord,307(n.140)

Doyouapprove,OMuḥammad,92FromtheThronetothatwhichisbeneaththedust,131Iwasahiddentreasure,kuntukanzanmakhfiyyan,13,293(n.45)Laulākamakhalaqtul-aflāka,Ifyouwerenot(butforyou)Iwouldnothave

createdthespheres,131,135,201MyMercyprecedesMywrath,86Myservantmustnotsaythatheisbetter,276

(n.21)

ḤADĪTHAN-NAWĀFIL

Myservantdoesnotcease,224

INDEXOFPROPERNAMES

‘Abbasiddynasty(r.750–1258),36,65,272(n.70)‘Abdallāh,oneofMuhammad’snames,108,288(n.44).SeealsoMuhammad

ĀbdallāhibnRawāha,poet(d.629),179‘AbdallāhQutbshāhofGolconda(r.1626-72),147

‘Abdallāhsonof‘AbdulMuttalib,Muhammad’sfather(d.ca.569),10,108,150,153

‘AbdRabban-nabl(d.1397),290(n.80)‘AbdulAzlzDihlawl,Mufti(d.1824),263(n.5)

AbdulGhaffar,nameofMuhammad,112‘AbdulHaqqMuhaddithDihlawl(d.1642),268(n.9),270(n.35),277(n.35),288(n.33),298(n.12)

‘AbdulLatīfBhitāl,Shāh(d.1752),82,83,88,117,142,190,192,215‘AbdulMuttalib,Muhammad’sgrandfa-ther(d.ca.577),10,112,151‘AbdulQādirGflānT(d.1166),76,110,135,169,276(n.17),300(n.42)‘AbdulQahhār,nameofMuhammad,112‘AbdulQuddūs,nameofMuhammad,112‘AbdulQuddūsGangöhl(d.1538),164,247‘AbdurRahmānibnAuf(d.652),268(n.55)‘AbdurRaūfBhattī(d.1752),192,213,297(n.i)‘AbdurRāziq,All,234‘AbdusSalām,nameofMuhammad,112Abel,Armand,32’’Abharal-’āshiqin(Baqll),288(n.38)’Abqariyyatal-’askariyya,al-(Faraj),312(n.66)’AbqariyyatMuhammad(Aqqād),236Abraham,12,14,17,56,57,64,92,102,107,133;intheseventhheaven,160Abr-igauharbār(Ghālib),81,305(n.83)Abtahl,“belongingtoal-Bathā,”nick-nameofMuhammad,121AbūBakras-Siddlq(r.632–34),13,15,18,21,31,91,197,265(n.21),268(n.

55),280(n.55),281(n.58),305(n.82)AbūDharral-Ghifari(d.653),22AbūHafs.SeeOmarAbūHanīfa(d.767),65,280(n.49)

AbūHuraira(d.678),26,46;hiscat,49,78AbūJahl(d.624),249;hisson,77;hisdaughter,211AbūLahab(d.624),21,252Abūl-Qāsim,Muhammad’s,114,287(η.28),288(η.44)AbūMa‘bad,75AbūNu’aimal-Isfahānī(d.1037),33,58,76,150AbūNuwās,‘Abbasidpoet(d.between806and814),65AbūSaīd,transmitterofthemi’rājstory,160AbūSaīdAbū1-Khair(d.1049),267(n.44),270(n.29),281(n.59)AbūSīr,181AbūTālib,Muhammad’suncle(d.619),10,13Abū‘UbaidaibnJarrāh(d.639),268(n.55)Abyssinia,13;Abyssinian,19,21,22Adam,4,17,56,62–64,72,84,105–7,126,130,139,160,167;createdfrom

Muhammad’slightoressence,101,115,125,128,133,246,294(n.78);haqīqamuhammadiyyamanifestedinhim,132,198;childrenof,282(n.20)

Afghānī,Jamāluddīn(d.1897),233Afghānīstan,39,172,195,217,243,251,254Afīfuddīnat-Tilimsānī(d.1291),88Aflākī,ShamsuddīnAḥmad(d.1356),202Aflaq,Michel,founderofBaathParty,236Africa(n),4,90,156,190;North,20,40,88,89,99,102,146,147,150,153,

188,216,225,250,297(n.42);Black,22;South,87,148,278(n.9),296(n.20),298(n.12);West,114,310(n.46);East,152,155,183,272(n.72),287(n.25),295(n.13),302(n.26)

AgaKhan,20AgaKhan,SultānMuhammad(d.1958),282(n.1)Ahl-ihadīth,30,230Aḥmadal-‘Arūsī(fl.ca.1500),76Aḥmad,heavenlynameofMuhammad,63–65,71,96,101,107,108,116,121,

139,150,165,167,192,197,201,204,229,230,279(n.34),286(nn.4,15),293(n.62),300(n.41);andlight,128,129,133;andAḥad,116–18,200,217,289(n.66);beforeAdam,198

AḥmadKhān,SīrSayyid(d.1898),31,44,60,158,228–30,232–34,242,250,263(n.5),277(n.3),310(n.31)

AḥmadofRaiBareilly,Sayyid(d.1831),225,309(n.20)Aḥmadiyya,255AhmetKāmilEfendi(19dlcent.),38ĀibekAbdallāhas-Saifl(d.after1346),182Ā’ishabintAbī,Muhammad’swife(d.678),15,17,28,35,43.45-50,51,54.

161Akbar,Jalāluddīn,Moghulemperor(r.1556–1605),42,106,217,264(n.4),

285(n.I),295(n.18)Alaettin(‘Alāuddīn)MosqueinKonya,43Ālāhāmishas-sīra(TāhāHusain),236AlamMuzaffamāgari,277(n.32)Alā’uddaulaas-Simnānī(d.1336),281(n.58)Algerian,297(n.42)Algiers,144,297(n.42)‘AlīĀdilshāhIIofBijāpūr(r.1656–72),300(n.46)‘Alīal-Muttaqlal-Hindl(d.1568),27‘AlīHaidar,Panjabipoet(i8thcent.),307(n.142)‘AlīibnAbiTālib,Muhammad’scousinandson-in-law,firstimāmoftheShia

(r.656–61),10,18,19,21,34,118,120,197,240,267(n.51),268(n.55),287(n.23),292(n.39),305(n.85);hisvic-toryoverKhaibar,15;hisfootprint,42;hiseyecuredbyMuhammad,45,273(n.92);connectedwithbees,102,103,285(n.94);duringmi’rāj,170;hiswhitemuleDuldul,300(n.50)

‘Alī,SayyidofGolconda(d.1705),303(n.46)‘AlīShlrāzl,Sayyid,ofThatta(d.1572),304(n.74)AlvareofCordova,277(n.39)Amānullāh,kingofAfghānīstan(r.1919-29,d.i960),254AmeerAli(AmīrAlī),Syed(d.1928),6,230,231Amin,al-,“theTrustworthy,”nicknameofMuhammad,11,78,108,114Amin,Aḥmad(d.1954),235,311(n.60)Amlna,Muhammad’smother(d.ca.

575),10,149–54AmīrKhusrauDihlawl(d.1325),109,117,123,205,298(n.10)

AmīrMlnālofLucknow(d.1900),64,277(n.33)Anārkall,264(n.4)AnāsibnMālik(d.ca.711),44Anatolia,43,81,102,172,213,215,267(n.54);Anatolian,105‘Andalīb,NāsirMuhammad(d.1758),43,219,224andalusia(n),40,150,152AndamanIslands,327Andrae,Tor,7,55,189,270(n.37)Angel(s),36,44,93,100,113,135,139,191;ofrevelation,ii,118,299(n.36);

bless,praisetheProphet,16,25,176;openMuhammad’sbreast,68;duringhisheavenlyjoumey,69,159,166,170–72,298(n.8);whocarrytheThrone,83,115;oftheMountains,107;ofDeath,107;likemothsaroundMuhammad’slight,122;bowbeforeAdam,133;cre-atedfromMuhammad’sspiritualpowers,140;Muhammadsuperiorto,144,205;atMuhammad’sbirth,150,153,157;atBadr,229

—angelicplane,222—archangel(s),168,305(n.83).SeealsoAzrātl;Gabriel;Isrāfil;Michael

Ankara,237,263(n.7)Ansār,Muhammad’s“helper”inMedina,13Anwāral-muhammadiyya,al-(Nabhānī),270(n.39)Anwarī,Auhaduddīn(d.ca.1190),281(n.58)Apologyofal-Kindī,264(n.8)Āqib,al-,“thelast,”nameofMuhammad,108‘Aqqād,‘AbbāsMahmūdal-(d.1964),236,290(n.2),312(n.63)‘Arab,nicknameofMuhammad,112,208,209,213,288(n.34),307(n.140)Arabs,4,10,12,24,52,89,92,105,112–14,156,160,178,185,194,233,234,

236,249,264(nn.8,1),288(n.34),294(n.11);non-Arab,67,112,121,179,183,185,187,190,204,266(n.4)

Arabia,10,15,71,164,208,232,247,255;SouthernArabia,156;Arabian,12,190,249,256

ArabianPeninsula,9,12,52Arabic,13,45,78,132,178,208,222,236,246,249,268(n.10),272(n.72),

285(nn.67,78),288(n.32),309(n.15),310(n.32);sources,literature,5–7,35,36,70,101,102,149,174;language,literature,7,24,94,98,138,146,151,152,156,157,177,180,183,185,187–90,195,202,205–7,209,211,212,221,223,235,236,264(n.3),265(n.15),267(n.48),296

(n.20),298(n.5),302(n.17);letters,71,118,129,308(n.157)‘Arā’isal-bayān(Thaʽlabī),127Arba’īn(Jāml),268(n.10)Arbela,145,152ArdaVirafNāmak,161Armaghān-iḥijāz(Iqbal),194,242,243,293(n.44)Armstrong,Neil,278(n.9)AsadibnMūsā(d.827),282(n.12)Asani,AliS.,264(n.4),289(n.66)Aṣḥābad-dalā’il,inMarrakesh,96Ash’arite(school),31,60ĀshiqminIfrīqiyya(Faitūrī),304(n.69)ĀshiqPāshā(d.ca.1333),101,196Ashraf,SheikhMohammad,232AsínPalacios,Miguel,174Āsiya,Pharaoh’sbelievingwife,151,154Asrār-ikhudī(Iqbāl),241,244,245,247,251,273(n.89)Assassins,20Āsūrām,Sūf!Bhāī(d.1941),90Ataturk,MustafaKemal(d.1938),234,251,313(n.56)ĀthārMahalinBljāpūr,43‘Aṭṭār,Fariduddln(d.1220),116,117,127,138,152,166,168,170,199–202,

215,217,221,282(n.69)Aufrecht,Theodor,310(n.44)Aurangābād/Deccan,189AurangzēbĀlamgīr,Moghulemperor(r.1658–1707),218Austrian,248Avicenna(‘AlīIbnSīnā,d.1037),173,199,200,305(n.95),306(n.100)Awārifal-ma‘ārif(Suhrawardī),98Awwary,MuftiΜ.A.,296(n.20)Āyīna-iIskandarī(AmīrKhusrau),298(n.10)ĀzādBilgrāmī,GhulāmḤusain(d.1786),189Azhar,al-,235Aẓīmiyyaprayer,226

‘Azrāīl,angelofdeath,140,305(n.83)Āzurda,Mufti(d.1868),44

Baal,251Bābal,90Badāönl,‘AbdulQādir(d.after1600),42,285(η.i),295(n.18),302(n.26)Badawī,Luṭfullāh,310(n.43)Badāyūnī,SayyidMahfūẓAlī,312(n.14)Badr,14,52,124,229,270(n.40),291(n.5)Baghawīal-Farrā’,AbūMuḥammadal-(d.1117),27Baghdad,42,187,269(n.26),309(n.16)BahādurShāhẒafar,lastMoghulemperor(r.1839–57),196Bahā’uddīnWalad(d.1231),50Bahā’uddīnZakariyāMultānī(d.ca.1266),203Baḥirā’themonk,11,34,265(n.12)Baihaqī,AbūBakrAḥmadal-(d.1066),33,76Bakhīṭ,Shaikh,234Bāl-iJibrīl(Iqbāl),255BalkanWar,243Balkh,90Baloch,NabībakhshA.,76Balochistan,169;Balochi,89BānatSuād(Ka‘b),179–80,302(n.18)Bāng-idarā(Iqbāl),256,308(n.169)Bangladesh,42Baqī,al-,230Bāql-billāh,Khwāja(d.1603),217Bāqillānī,AbūBakral-(d.1013),31,60,230Baqlī,Rūzbihān(d.1209),288(n.38)Barēlwī,AlīRizā,311(n.49)Barzanjī,Ja‘faral-(d.1766),156,297(n.41)Basset,René,185Baṭḥā,al-,112,288(n.36)

BāyezldBisṭāmī(d.ca.874),44,61;hismi’rāj,130,173Bēdil,Mirzā‘AbdulQādir(d.1721),307(n.138)Bedouins,12,47,76,232,249,250Beirut,177Bektashiorder,114,173Benares,91,211Bengal,127,277(n.4),280(n.49),294(n.76);West,42;East,232;Bengali,

129,140,146,148,156,157,215,232,289(n.66),292(n.20),297(n.44)

Bhavishyapurāṇa,310(n.44)Bhopal,242,275(n.133)Bible,17,71,101,147,162Bījāpūr,43,170,300(n.46)BilālibnRabāḥ(d.641),21–23,169;Bilalian,22Bismil,Ḥāfiẓ‘Abdullah,232BlackMuslims,22Bohoras,20Bokhari,SyedZulfiqarAli,300(n.42)Bombay,33,90Bonn,310(n.41)Bostra,150,151Boulainvilliers,HenriComte(d.1730),229,263(n.2)Böwering,Gerhard,125,126Boyle,JohnA.,166Brahma,157British,5,54,147,185,221,225,227,228;inIndia,158,255.Seealso

EnglandBritishEastIndiaCompany,225Brockelmann,Carl,235,236Buddha,53,81Buddruss,Georg,287(n.22)BūjhNiranjan,Ismailiginān,289(n.66)Bukhārā,90,216

Bukhārī,MuḥammadibnIsmā‘īl(d.870),27,29,292(n.44)Būlāqī,Sayyid(d.ca.1700),170,300(nn.46,50),305(n.85)BulbulKashmīrī(17thcent.),279(n.28)Bulghār,90Bur’a,al-.SeeBurda(Būṣiri)Burāq,159,162,169,223;inpoetry,166,170,171,174,300(n.50),301(n.

60);inpainting,171–72,301(n.54)Burda,al-(Būṣiri),94,113,118,152,181–85,187,189,235,242,302(nn.26,

27),303(n.33),312(n.13);itsblessingpower,181,183;itsrecitation,183,303(n.33);ofKa‘b(BānatSu’ād),180

Burhānpūr,27Bur’ī,‘AbdurRaḥmānal-(d.ca.1058),113,288(n.41)Bursa,152,272(n.83)Būsīrī,Sharafuddīnal-(d.1294or1298),78,113,118,177,181,183–88,198,

213,242,290(n.2),301(n.7),302(n.23),303(n.37)Būstān(Sardi),112,204Byzantium,48

Caesar,nameforrulerofByzantium,48Cairo,147,268(n.6)Carlyle,Thomas(d.1881),229Cash,W.Wilson,311(n.51)Catholic,36,263(n.6)Caucasia,204CentralAsia,216Cerulli,Enrico,174Ceuta,33,70Chahār‘unṣur(Bēdil),307(n.138)China,56;Chinese,145,235ChirāghAlī(d.1895),30,230Chishtiorder,213Chitral,88Chorbachi,Wasmaa,119Christ,12,24,32,52,133,146,151,186,231,311(n.46).SeealsoJesus

Christianity,3,6,12,18,24,57,237,263(n.6);Christian(s),3–8,12,13,16,25,34,36,49,65,71,72,105,106,108,128,142,146,158,161,162,186,187,199,233,263(n.7),264(nn.7,8),280(n.57),292(n.20),311(n.51)

£öleinennur(Kăsakūrek),290(n.2)CompanionsoftheProphet,ṣaḥāba,22,26,54,66,67,74–76,100,107,126,

141,191,296(n.20)Coptic,16CordovanPrayer,100Corinthians,SecondEpistletothe(12:1-10),162Dacca,297(n.44)Dāgh,NawābMirzā(d.1905),35,271(n.47)DakhniUrdu,98,121,197Dalā’ilal-khairāt(Jazūlī),55,80,86,94,96,188,282(n.18),284(n.67),287

(n.25),302(n.26)Dalā’ilan-nubuwwa(Baihaqī),33,76Dalā’ilan-nubuwwa(AbūNu‘aim),33,58,76,150Damascus,20,40,42,65Damīrī,Muḥammadad-(d.1405),280(n.49)DanteAlighieri(d.1321),3,174,175Dard,KhwājaMīr(d.1785),134,218,219,224,225,266(n.44),291(n.9)Dardīr,Aḥmadad-(d.1786),152Dārimī,‘Abdallāhad-(d.869),106Darīr(d.after1388),264(n.3)Darwāzah,264(n.1)Dashṭūṭī,‘AbdulQādirad-(d.1523),298(n.10)Dasūql,Ibrāhīmad-(d.ca.1274),133David,16,48,50,64Deccan,21,39,43,121,183,189,194,196,289(n.66),300(n.46),308(n.

159)Delhi,42,44,70,83,117,135,165,183,189,205,208,218,219,224,225,281

(n.58),298(n.10)Deoband,87,281(n.58),296(n.20)Dermenghem,Emile,311(n.61)

Dharī‘atal-wuṣūl(Hāshim),284(n.66)Dhūn-nūrain,nicknameof‘Uthmān,18DhūSallam,185Diḥyaal-Kalbl,299(n.36)Dīrīnī,‘AbdulAzīzad-(d.1297),63DivineComedy,3,174,175Dīwānmajdal-Islām(Muḥarram),235djinn,10,24,94,100,149,154,176,185,197,223DomeoftheRock,42Dostoevski,Fëdor,298(n.7)Ḍuḥāal-Islām(Amīn),311(n.60)Duhūr,ad-(magazine),301(n.65)Duldul,300(n.50)dūrrath-thamīn,ad-(Walīullāh),281(n.58)Durrānī,AḥmadShāh(d.1773),221Durrānī,F.K.,237Eden,150Edinburgh,271(n.51)EflāṭūntheMagician,298(n.10)Egypt,3,12,20,27,88,133,145,147,149,156,181–84,188,226,227,233,

234,236,268(n.6),269(n.22),271(n.51),277(n.38),284(n.56),290(n.80),298(n.10);Egyptian,ii,39,66,106,115,145,156,189,190,193,214,231,234,235,237,297(n.3)

Elijah,102Elisa,102England,89,250,310(n.31);English,7,98,166,185,220,238,250,264(n.

10),270(n.36),284(n.67),302(n.18).SeealsoBritishEshrefoghluRūmī(15thcent.),214Esin,Emel,6,190Ess,Josefvan,278(n.18)Es-selâm(Kĭsakūrek),264(n.4)EssaysontheLifeofMohammad(AḥmadKhān),228,310(n.31)Ethiopian,21,169Euphrates,151

Europe,4–6,174,199,254;European(s),29,71,161,185,225,228,232,241,248,256,271(n.50),310(n.33)

Eve,107Expositiondelafoimusulmane(Garcin),185Faḍāilal-muḥammadiyya,al-(Nabhānī),270(n.39)Faitūrī,Muḥammadal-,193,304(n.69)Faiżī,Abū’l-Faiz(d.1595),72Fajral-lslām(Amīn),311(n.60)Faran,areaofMecca,211Fārūq,al-,nicknameof‘Umar,18;asoriginoffamilynameFāröqī,266(n.38)Fatḥal-muta’āl(Maqarrī),40FatḥMuḥammadSehwānī(d.1942),310(n.44)FatḥīRiḋwān,237Fātiḥiyyaprayer(ṣalātal-fātiḥ),100,226Fāṭima,daughteroftheProphet(d.633),15,18–21,47,51,145,266(n.35),

287(n.23),292(n.39)Fatimids(r.969–1171inEgypt),20,145,147Faust(Goethe),240Fayyāżī,al-,156Fażl-iḤaqqKhairābādī(d.1860),227FazlurRahman,29,31Fenārī,Mollā(15thcent.),152FērözTughluq(r.1351–88),42FerozsonsPublishers,232Fez,146Fīnahjal-burda(Shauql),188,235Fīhimāfīhi(Rūmī),72,117,276(n.21)FirāqīBījāpūrī(i8thcent.),308(n.159)France,149,236;French,185,221,226,229Frankfurt,298(n.7)Fuchs,Dr.,295(n.12)Fūck,Johann,16,17,55Furūzānfar,Badī’uzzamān,292(n.44)

Fuṣūṣal-ḥikam(IbnArabī),138,275(n.134)Fusṭāṭ,286(n.34)Fużūll,Muḥammad(d.1556),74,279(n.34)Gabriel,archangel,45,91,107,108,150,157,162,163,169,197,243,277(n.

4),305(nn.82,83);announcesdeathofḤasanandḤusain,49,274(n.119);servesMuḥammad,63;createdfromMuḥammad’slight,140,245;duringthemi’rāj,159,160,166–68,170–72,175,215,301(n.54);comparabletotheintel-lect,169,300(n.41);intheshapeofDiḥyaal-Kalbī,299(n.36)

Gairdner,W.H.Temple,233Ganges,211Ganja(Kirovabad),90GarcindeTassy,Joseph-H.,185Gaur(Bengal),42Germany,230,239,250;German,229,278(n.17),281(n.58);scholars,

mystics,7,17,161,185,310(n.44);literature,49,240,264(n.7),271(n.50),298(n.10),302(n.18)

GeschichtederarabischenLiteratur(Brockelmann),235Gēsūdarāz,SayyidMuḥammadHusain!(d.1422),196,213,307(n.148)GhadīrKhum,19Ghaiṭī,Najmuddīnal-(d.1573),297(n.3)Ghālib,MirzāAsadullāh(d.1869),81,115,117,H8,135,227,305(n.83)GhanīTattawī(d.1723),91GhanīzādeNādirī(17thcent.),168,170GhawwāṣīofGolconda(d.after1640),98,121Ghazna,90,195Ghazzālī,AbūḤamidal-(d.1111),31,45,46,79,137,199,205,239,279(n.

39),285(n.78)Ghazzālī,Aḥmad(d.1126),32GhiyāthMatīn,Sayyid,194GhulāmAḥmad,Mirzā(d.1908),255GhulāmImāmShahīd,301(n.2)GhulāmMuṣṭafā,297(n.44)Gilgit,109

Girhörī,‘AbdurRaḥlm(d.1786),139Gimār,90Gnosticism,7,130Goergens,Dr.H.,270(n.36)Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon(d.1832),49,50,86,229,239,240Golconda,98,147,295(n.17),303(n.46)Goldziher,Ignaz,29,30,230,249Gopis,211Gospels,73,108,294(n.74);GospelofJohn,ii,34,108Graefe,Erich(d.1914),295(n.12)Granada,33Greek,199,221,251,296(n.64)Grimme,Hubert,286(n.4)Gujarat,42,157;Gujarati,310(n.44)GulMuḥammad(19dlcent.),284(n.51),285(nn.92,95)GulPhul(magazine),264(n.10)Gulbarga,196,213Gulshan-irāz(Shabistarī),289(n.66)ḤabībAllāh,“God’sbelovedFriend,”epithetofMuhammad,57Hādī,“Guiding,”epithetofMuḥammad,109Ḥadīqatal-ḥaqīqa(Sanā’ī),196,197Hadramaut,295(n.4);Hadramis,156;Hadrami,280(n.49)Ḥāfiẓ,MuḥammadShamsudīn(d.1389),290(n.71)HafizOsman,calligrapher(d.1698),36Ḥāfṣa,daughterof‘Umar(d.665),266(n.38)Haikal,MuḥammadḤusain(d.1956),235,236,311(n.61)Ḥā’iyya(Būṣīrī),198Hālī,AlṭāfḤusain(d.1914),158Ḥalima,Muḥammad’snurse,10,68,149Ḥallāj,al-ḤusainibnManṣūral-(d.922),21,72,85,115,126,130,132,137,

246,289(n.62),291(nn.8,14),293(n.44),301(n.60)Hamadhānī,Aḥmadal-(d.1021),80ḤamadshaOrder,147,295(n.13)

Ḥāmid,nameofMuhammad,129ḤāmidiyyaShādhiliyyaorder,100Ḥamīdullāh,Muḥammad,6,10,237,298(n.12)ḤammalFaqīrLaghārī(d.1872),89Ḥamza,Muḥammad’suncle(d.625),14Hamziyya(Būṣīrī),78,177,181,188Hamziyya(Nabhānī),44Ḥanbalites,62,146,150,152,163Ḥaramī,“belongingtothesanctuaryinMecca,”epithetofMuḥammad,291(n.

8)Harnack,Adolfvon(d.1930),6Hārūnar-Rashīd(r.786–809),36,65;hismother,145Hasanibn‘Alī(d.ca.669),19,20,48,49,219,287(n.23),292(n.23)al-Ḥasanain,49Hāshim,10,112Hāshim,MakhdūmMuḥammad(d.1761),32,270(n.34),284(n.66)Hāshimi,“hashimite,”epithetofMuḥammad,112,121,208,221,222Hāshmi,Ṭayyib,280(n.45)Ḥāshir,al-,“Hewhocollects,”epithetofMuhammad,108ḤassānibnThābit(d.ca.659),9,75,84,105,124,149,178,179,189,204Ḥassānal-‘ajam(Khāqānī),204Ḥassānal-Hind(Āzād),189Hausa,286(n.20)ḤayātMuḥammad(Haikal),235Ḥāzimal-Andalusīal-Qartajānī,al-(d.1285),303(n.43)Hazrat-iMuhammadTūrkmiidi,237ḤażratbālMosque,inSrinagar,43,147Heddāwaorder,89HeinrichvonOfterdingen(Novalis),264(n.7)Hellenistic,hellenized,6,7,12,130Hell(fire),36,88,155,156,157,174,199,283(n.46);Muḥammad’slight

extin-guishes,74,78,129;stenchof,99;de-pendentonMuḥammad,139,294(n.74)

Herat,139,171,191,217,302(n.27)HeroesandHeroWorship,On(Carlyle),229HidayetHosain,270(n.36),302(n.18)Ḥijāz,189,190,243,255,256;Princeof,308(n.169)HilālīibnNajmuddīnad-Dimashqī,Muḥammad(d.1603),303(n.42)Ḥillī,Ṣafīuddīnal-(d.1349),187,303(n.38)ḥilya.(KhāqānlEfendi),109,127,272(n.67)Hindi,211,213Hindu,65,66,70,90,141,142,176,192,193,211,212,217,222,225,231,

232,249Hindustani,123,310(n.44)Ḥirā’,11,70,197,198Ḥirzal-ḥijāz(Khāqānl),277(n.27)Horten,Max,7Hourani,Albert,233Ḥudhaifa(d.ca.656),73ḤujjatAllāhal-bāligha(Walīullāh),223Hujwīrī,AlīibnTJthmānal-Jullabī(d.ca.1071),130,163Hulagu(d.1265),187Hungary,30Ḥusain,AlīṢafī,189Ḥusainibn‘Alī(d.680),18–21,49,219,274(n.119),287(n.23),292(n.39)Ḥusainī,S.S.Khusrö,303(n.33)HusāmuddīnChelebī(d.1284),79Ḥusnal-maqṣid(Suyūṭī),295(n.9)Hyderabad/Deccan,20,42,147,178,183,192,193,230,278(n.10),295(n.

17),303(n.33)Hyderabad/Sind,178,231,264(n.10)Ibādis,20Iblīs,72Ibn‘Abbās,‘Abdallāh(d.ca.686),291(n.5)IbnAbī’d-Dunyā,Abdallāh(d.894),281(n.58)Ibnal-Fārid,’Umar(d.1235),132,164,189,281(n.68),287(n.20),291(n.5)

Ibnal-Jauzī,‘AbdurRaḥmān(d.1200),150,152,269(nn.11,26)Ibnal-Khaṭīb,Lisānuddīn(d.1374),177Ibn‘Ammār,Abū’l-‘Abbās(d.before1796),144,297(n.42)IbnArabī,Muḥyī’ddīn(d.1240),3,51,57,63,115,118,126,127,129–40

passim,165,173,222,275(n.134),291(n.5),301(n.58);schoolof,117,132,140,207,293(n.60)

Ibn‘Asākir,Alī(d.1176),93IbnAṭa’,Abūl-‘Abbās(d.922),93IbnAṭiyya,‘AbdulḤaqq(d.1147),150IbnDaqīqal-‘īd,Muḥammad(d.1302),189,283(n.23)IbnDiḥya,‘Umar(d.1235),145,152,295(n.6)IbnḤajaral-Haithamī,Aḥmad(d.1567),146IbnḤazm,AbūMuḥammadAlī(d.1064),59,93IbnHishām,AbūMuḥammad(d.ca.830),9,235,273(n.92),297(n.5)IbnIsḥāq,Muḥammad(d.ca.767),9,108,159,160,238IbnIyās,Muḥammad(d.ca.1521),277(n.38)IbnKathīr,Ismā‘īl(d.1372),146,152IbnKhafīf,AbūAbdallāh(d.982),50,79IbnKhaldūn,AbdurRaḥmān(d.1406),88,250IbnKhallikān,Aḥmad(d.1282),145IbnMāja,AbūAbdallāh(d.886),284(n.56)IbnMashīsh,‘AbdusSalām(d.1228),94,188IbnQayyimal-Jauziyya,AbūBakr(d.1350),62IbnSa‘t,Abū‘Abdallāh(d.845),62,149,277(n.1)IbnSīnā.SeeAvicennaIbnTaimiyya,Aḥmad(d.1328),17,42,65,66,145,146,149,189,272(n.75),

296(n.20),304(n.51),311(n.51)IbrāhīmNiass,286(n.20),310(n.46)Ibshīhī,Bahā’uddīn(d.after1466),284(n.53)IdealsandRealities(Nasr),30Idrīs,63,64Iḥyā’’ulūmad-dīn(Ghazzali),239,285(n.78)Ilāhīnāma(Aṭṭār),166

Ilkhanids,278(n.18),281(n.58)Imru’l-Qais(d.ca.530),188India,4,5,20,22,27,42,54,63–66,84,90,98,106,109,110,114,118,123,

128,138,142,147,149,156,161,183,187,190,194,204,207,208,210,216–18,221,225,227,229,231,233,236,237,241,248,254,263(n.5),271(n.64);Muslim,6,189,195,249,279(n.39);northem,189,205;Southern,70,189,210,241;Moghul,72,208—Indian,21,36,43,70,79,94,113,123,131,132,140,157,161,164,172,212,216,222,233,235,237,256,264(n.4),273(n.83),278(n.9),290(n.71),293(n.45),294(n.76),307(n.140),309(n.16);Muslims,5,30,64,66,87,145,152,178,193,194,208,213,222,227,232,277(n.35);Islam,44,228

Indiansubcontinent,101,109,147,156,172,183,208,212,239Indo-Muslim,74,81,94,102,113,131,158,208,217,225,239,248,304(n.

73)Indo-Pakistan,94,121,161,165,172,196,211,212,308(n.1),311(n.49)Indo-Persian,73,112,163,208,209,270(n.35)Indonesia,55,95,216IndusValley,91,94,101,115,159,180,213,215.SeealsoSindIngrez(England),89Iqbāl,Muḥammad(d.1938),22,40,61,66,121,123,164,165,174,194,196,

200,206,220–23,227–29,237,239–56,267(n.51),273(n.89),293(n.44),301(nn.66,67),305(n.78),309(n.12),310(n.29)

Iran,20,48,63,89,116,117,148,149,161,171,173,195,196,204,205,251;eastem,3,136,199

Iraq,20,42,65,145,146;Iraqi,125‘Irāqī,Fakhruddīn(d.1289),63,136,203,204,306(n.125)Irving,Washington,229,310(n.33)‘Īsā,107,114,263(n.7).SeealsoJesusIĭşk,H.H.,298(n.12)Ishmael(Ismā‘īl),14,92,102,160IshtirākiyyaMuḥammad(FatḥlRiḍwān),237Islam(Zafrulla),255Ismā‘īl,angel,160Ismā‘īlibnMūsā(d.760),20Ismailis,20,283(n.34),289(n.66),299(n.12)

Ismā‘īlMeeruthi(Mīraṭī)(d.1917),64,277(n.34)Ismā‘īlShahīd,Muḥammad(d.1831),222,225,227Israel,16,50,117Isrāfīl,angelofresurrection,140,305(n.83)Isrā‘īl,102Issawiyya(Isāwiyya)order,147,295(n.13)Istanbul,39,83,294(n.75),296(n.31),297(n.37)Italian,226Ithnā’’ashariyya,“Twelver”Shia,20IyāḍibnMūsā,Qāḍi(d.1149),33,46,58,60,65,70,73,105,150,276(nn.14,

21),278(n.8),284(n.58),294(n.78)Jacob,35,64Ja‘faraṣ-ṣādiq,sixthimām(d.765),113Jagtiānī,Lālchand,231Jahāngīr,Salīm,Moghulemperor(r.1605-27),217,264(n.4)Jāḥiẓ,‘AmribnBahral-(d.869),309(n.16)Jaisalmer,83Jalā’al-’uyūn(Majlisī),266(n.35)JamālīKanbōh(d.1535),163Jāml,‘AbdurRaḥmān(d.1492),28,40,63,71–73,76,78,79,81,87,IIO,112,

116–18,128,131,133,137,139,170,180,183,191,193,197,205–9,212,216,243,268(n.10),270(n.43),271(n.60),280(n.55),302(n.27),307(n.130),308(n.168)

Jāmi’aṣ-ṣaghīr,al-(Suyūṭī),292(n.44)Jāmi’at-tawārīkh(Rashīduddīn),271(n.51)Jauharatal-kamāl,prayer,100Jāvīdnāma(Iqbāl),174,227,239,240,246,247,249,251Jawāb-iShikwā(Iqbāl),121,244Jawāhiral-auliyā(SayyidBāqirBukhārī),92,IIOJawāhiral-bihār(Nabhānī),270(n.39)Jazūlī,Abū‘AbdallāhMuḥammadal-(d.ca.1465),86,95,188,285(n.67)Jeffery,Arthur,3,7,185,234,263(n.6),297(n.3)Jerusalem,14,42,159,160,244,268(n.6),284(n.59)Jesus,5,6,16,49,57,62–64,74»84,117,139,146,151,167,186,196,245,

264(n.7),280(n.57),309(n.16);infourthheaven,160.SeealsoChrist;‘IsāJews.SeeJudaism

Jhang,300(n.42)Jīlī,‘AbdulKarīmal-(d.ca.1408),127,137,140,288(n.44),289(n.67),291

(n.19)Job,48,64Jonah(Yūnus),63,276(n.21)Joseph(Yūsuf),16,35,39,63,139Judaeo-Christian,6,12,16,17,212Judaism,12,56;Jews,39,65,71,265(n.25),292(n.20);Jewish,12,16,48,

75,161,253,295(n.3),300(n.50);Settlements,12;community,14,15Junaid,Abū’l-Qāsimal-(d.910),269(n.26)Juraij,monk,51Ka’bibnMālik(d.ca.673),179Ka’bibnZuhair(d.after632),179–81Ka’ba,12,14,15,92,151,153,160,192,198,204,208,215,249Kaifī,PanditBrijmohanDatatrich(d.1954),90,193Kakörawī,Muhsin(d.1905),91,117,211Kalhoradynasty(r.1720–86overSind),128KalīmAllāh,“God’sinterlocutor,”epithetofMoses,57Kalla,HajeeA.M.,296(n.20)KamālFaqīr(d.1927),294(n.74)Kanaan,89Kanzal-’ummāl(Allal-Muttaqī),27Karachi,5,238Karīmaal-MarwaziyyaofMecca(d.1069),28Kāshānī,AbdurRazzāq(d.ca.1330),134,293(n.60)Kashmir,43,147,161,212Kathiawar,89Kauthar,al-(Sura108),78,87,139,157Kawākibad-durriyya,al-(Būṣīrī’sBurda),181,290(n.2)Kayalpatam,ShaikhMuḥyī’ddīnibn‘Umar(d.after1815),303(n.47)Kazan,272(n.66)

Kerbela,20,281(n.58)Khadīja,Muḥammad’sfirstwife(d.619),11–13,50,236,265(n.15)Khaibar,15,75Khāksār,254Khālidibnal-Walld(d.641–42),43KhalīlAllah,“God’sfriend,”epithetofAbraham,57Khalkh,90Khāqānī,Afḍaluddīn(d.1199),63,204KhāqānīEfendi(d.ca.1600),39,109,127,129,162,271(n.60),272(nn.67,

81)Kharaqānī,Abū’l-Ḥasan(d.1034),269(n.13)Kharijites,19,20Kharrāz,Aḥmadal-(d.890or899),130Khiḍr,mysteriousguideandimmortalsaint,22,102,214Khiwa,90Khorasan,90Khosroes,48,151,245Khowar,88Khulāṣatas-sīra(RashīdRiḍā),234Khuldābād/Deccan,39,109KhyberPass,49Kĭsakūrek,NecipFazĭl,264(n.4),290(n.2)KishanPrasādShād,Sir(d.1943),192,193Kisra.SeeKhosroesKitābal-ḥayawān(Damīrī),280(n.49)Kitābal-isrā’(Ghaiṭī),297(n.3)Kitābal-isrā’(Ibn‘Arabī),301(n.58)Kitābal-manām(IbnAbī’d-Dunyā),281(n.58)Kitābal-mi‘rāj,174Kitābḥujajan-nubuwwa(Jāḥiẓ),309(n.16)Kitābash-shifā’(Qāḍī‘Iyāḍ),270(n.37),294(n.78)Kitābat-tanwīr(IbnDiḥya),152Kitābaṭ-ṭawāsīn(Hallāj),126

Kitābaz-zuhd(Asad),282(n.12)Knappert,Jan,212Konya,43Koran,8–10,12,14–31passim,46–51,54»56–61,63,67,71–74,80,83,92,

94,101,102,108–10,118,124,134,135,137,139,142,144,149»152,162,165,177,194,197,199,202,204,208,209,212,228,229,233,235,242,245,247,253,264(n.10),265(n.13),269(n.12),275(nn.133,2),276(n.13),279(n.27),283(n.34),287(nn.26,28),302(n.26),305(n.97),309(n.15);manuscriptcopy,3,45;recitationof,145–47»153,183,299(n.33)

Kotah,70Krishna,211,212KubrāwiyyaOrder,281(n.58)Kūfa,20Kuficstyleincalligraphy,3,118,119,286(n.4)Kūlīnī,MuḥammadibnYaqūb(d.939),240Lahore,174,183,232,241,274(n.119),287(n.28)Lailā,207,287(n.20),308(n.159)LailāandMajnūn(Niẓāmī),305(n.82)LailāandMajnūn(Jāmī),308(n.168)Lamaḥāt(Walīullāh),308(n.6)Lammens,Henri,266(n.35)Lāt,al-,58Leeds,288(n.32)Leiden,185Lenin,V.I.,237Libya,267(n.44)LifeofJesus[LebenJesu](D.F.Strauss),231LifeofMohamet(Muir),5LifeofMuhammad(Irving),310(n.33)London,233,244,295(n.17)Lord’sPrayer,The,19Lotetree.SeeSidratLucknow,20,89,218

Lūling,Gūnther,6,17LunwāriSharif(Sind),89Luṭf,Mirzā‘Alī(19thcent.),271(n.57)Luṭfī‘Abdallāh,Turkishpainter(d.after1595),264(n.3)Ma’arrī,Abū’l-‘Alā’al-(d.1057),174Madārijan-nubuwwa(‘AbdulḤaqq),270(n·35)Madhumālati(Manjhan),131Madīnatan-nabī,13.SeealsoMedinaMadīnīorMadani,“ofMedina,”epithetofMuḥammad,112,208,211,222Magians(Zoroastrians),292(n.20)MaḥabbatKhānRöhilla(d.1808),210,307(n.150)Mahdī,al-(caliph,r.775–85),272(n.70)Māḥī,al-,“Whowipesout,”nicknameofMuḥammad,108,151Māhmūd,nameofMuḥammad,129,289(n.66)MaḥmūdIIofTurkey(r.1808–39),15MaḥmūdNaṣlruddlnBukhārī,SulṭānSayyid,110MaḥmūdofGögī,Qāzī(17thcent.),289(n.66)Mahomet(Voltaire),238,263(n.6)MahometsGesang(Goethe),229,240Mahound,5Mahratta,221Mailā,287(n.20)Mainz,287(n.22)MajduddīnBaghdādī(d.1209),199,305(n.96)Majlisī,MuḥammadBāqir(d.1700),266(n.35)Majnūn,308(n.159)MajnūnLailā(AmīrKhusrau),205MakhdūmJahāniyānofUcch(d.1384),42,110,194Makhzanal-asrār(Niẓāmī),293(n.62)Makkī,epithetofMuḥammad,112,121,208,211,222,291(n.8)MaklīHill,304(n.74)Malabar,90Malayan,183

Malaysia,95MālikibnAnās(d.795),28;Malikites,28,33,144,146,156MalikaKhātūn,Rūml’sdaughter,274(n.114)Mambay(Bombay),90Mamlūks(r.1250–1517),27,88,147,183,298(n.10)Manāqibal-’ārifin(Aflākī),170,202Manāt,58Manjhan(i6thcent.),131Manṭiquṭ-ṭair(‘Aṭṭār),127,152,200Maqāmāt(Hamadhānī),80Maqarrī,Abūl-‘AbbāsAḥmadal-(d.1624),40Maqrīzī,Abū’l-‘AbbāsAḥmadal-(d.1442),145Marāghī,Muṣṭafāal-(d.1945),3,235Marrakesh,96MarxistinterpretationsoftheProphet,237,254Mary,motherofJesus,5,12,20,36,72,151,154Maṣābiḥas-sunna(Baghawī),27Mashriqī,Ināyatullāh(d.1963),254Masjidal-aqsā,al-,159,298(n.12)Masqat,90Massignon,Louis,22Maṭāli’an-nūr(‘Aqqād),290(n.2)Mathnawī(Rūmī),47,72,79,108,152,169,202MathnawimuḥammadiSindhī(Bismil),232Mathura,91,211Maulali(Hyderabad),42Maulidal-hudā(Sharābāsī),156Mawāhibal-laduniyya,al-(Qasṭallānī),299(nn.16,30)MaẓharJānjānān(d.1781),218–20Mecca,6,10,π,13,14,27,52,53,70,89,92,98,112,145,147,148,197,201,

211,212,215,226,249,256,265(n.7),295(n.3),298(n.12),299(n.20);pil-grimageto,14,17,39,42,146,190,197,204,243;Meccans,10–18,20–22,24,25,48,58,249,279(n.39),299(n.36);Meccanperiod,161

MeccatheBlessed(Esin),7,190Medina,6,9,13–17,52–54,79,102,103,110,112,155,156,161,172,178,

189–94,197,198,201,203,204,212,213,243,244,249,264(n.4),280(n.55),288(n.36),304(n.70);dustof,191,193,230,241;Medinans,14,22;theProphetasMedinan,208

Mediterraneanworld,4,174MenghīFaqīrShar(d.1895),283(n.27)MerinidsinMorocco(mid-i3thto15ThCents.),146Mesopotamia,12Mevleviorder,169,203Mevlûd-isherif(SüleymanChelebi),152,153,155,300(n.49)MiānInāt,ShāhInāyatRizwl(d.after1700),208Miegel,Agnes,298(n.10)Michael(Mlkā’īl),archangel,140,197,305(nn.82,83)MīrTaqīMīr(d.1810),88Mi’rājal-’āshiqin(attributedtoGesödarāz),210,307(n.148)Mi’rājiyya(Ghanīzāde),168,170Mi’rājiyya(Thābit),299(n.35)Mi’rājnāma(Būlāqī),300(nn.46,50),305(n.85)Mi’rājnāma(Nuṣratī),305(n.85)Mi’rājnāma,Uygurms.,171,174Mīrghānī,‘Uthmānal-(d.1851),96,212,286(n.20);Mīrghāniyyaorder,226,

227Mishkātal-anwār(Ghazzālī),137,205Mishkātal-masābīḥ(Tabrīzī),27,290(n.2)Misir(Egypt),89Miskīn,AbūṬahirMuḥammad(19thcent.),293(n.45)Moghul,42,63,196,207,218,225,310(n.44)Moghul-ia’ẓam(motionpicture),264(n.4)MohammadIsmail,5Mongols,187Monophysites,12,16Morder,J.,298(n.7)Morocco,55,113,114,138,146,188,267(n.44);Moroccan,86,94,95

Moses,16,57,62,63,114,133,151,196,245,309(n.16);inferiortoMuḥammad,63,64,133,163;remonstratingduringmi’rāj,160

MosqueofCordoba(Iqbāl),255Mu’āwiyaibnAbiSufyān(r.661–80),20Mu’ayyadShaikh,Sultan(d.1421),268(n.6)Mudaththir(Sura74:1),epithetofMuḥammad,110,287(n.24)Muhājirūn,13,54Muḥammad,theProphet—asdefiningtheborderbetweenIslamandotherreligions,3,26,106,198,217—asMessengerofGod,3,8,17,26,86,106,130,179,181,195,203,217.See

alsorasūlAllāh—hislight,4,27,35,59,63,72,78,90,96,108,122–29,139,149–53179»

187,193195,198,200,201,203,207,209,238,245,290(n.2),291(n.5),293(n.54),298(n.5),303(n.45),306(n.125).Seealsonur

—as(beautiful)model,uswaḥasana,4,8,16,24–55,218,234,238,247—asPerfectMan,al-insānal-kāmil,4,134,137,142—asAntichrist,5—asarch-schismatic,5—asheretic,5—asrepresentativeofarationalreligion,5—biographiesof,6,9,10,67,231,235;sa-credbiography,8—asEngelsprophet,6—asintercessor,shafī’,hisintercession,6,63,74,80,81–92,107,113,141,

142,154,t55,160,166,168,179,185,189,192,195,204,209,221,223,241,283(nn.34,43),286(n.20)

—histomb,mausoleum,Rauḍa,6,17,79,82,190,194,243,256,304(nn.51,56)

—asSealoftheProphets,khātamal-anbiyā;7,56,61,62,84,87,88,132,134,138,178,185,191,202,222,243,252,253

—theOpeningoftheBreastandcleansingofhisheart,10,58,67–69,74,161,278(n.6)

—asorphan,yatīm,10,11,71,72,211,212,291(n.20)—as(unique)pearl,yatīma,10,39,63,127,135,153,211,291–92(n.20)—theSealofProphethood:onhisbody,11,34,117,205;astalisman,91,92

—hissufferingduringtherevelations,11—pigeonsnestoverthecave,13,280(n.55)—spiderspinsoverthecave,13,280(n.55)—pebblescastatBadr,14—hiswives,11–13,15,16,49–51,191,266(nn.34,38)—blessingsuponhim,16,25,79,80,92–104,155,177,192,194,206,226,

242,280(n.49),284(nn.53,56,63),302(n.24),303(n.45),305(n.80).Seealsoṣalāwāt;durūd

—asMercy,raḥmatan,16,25,36,77,81,82,85,132,154,155,198,199,201,203,220,227,252,282(n.i)

—hisfarewellpilgrimage,17—asunlettered,ummī,17,71–74,95,278(nn.17,18)—aswarner,nadhīr,17,25,109,191—hisdaughters,18,51,266(n.34)—hisfamily,descendants,19,21,219,266–67(n.44);blessingsoverthem,92,

100,226—hisblessingpower,baraka,21,28,33,45—hishair,tresses,22,34,43,147,195,196,207,266(n.33),271(n.60),272–

73(n·83)—hismiracles,24,33,46,67–80,155,177,181,185,189,221,223,229,232,

235,265(n.7),279(nn.39,45),280(n.55),297(n.46),309(n.16),310(n.35)

—asservant(humanbeing)towhomrevelationhascome,24,25,135,208—asfatherfigure,31,47,219,307(n.146)—hisbeard,32,34,43,270(n.33),272(n.81)—hiseyebrows,34,39,271(n.60)—hisfragrance,34,35,80,270(n.43),281(n.68)—hishands,34,194,304(n.74),305(n.78)—hisnose,34,39—hisperspiration:asperfume,34;rosegrowsfrom,35,165,270(n.43);

perspirationofnūrMuḥammad,127,292–93(n.20)—hisphysicalbeauty,34–45,195—histeeth:34,265(n.24);losestwo,14—doesnotcastashadow,35,139,280(n·55)

—notmolestedbyflies,35—heavenlyjoumey,mi’rāj,andnightjourney,isrā’,35,39,40,42,48,62,68,

69,74,85,108,125,138,139,141,155,159–75,186,193,200,203,206,213,223,235,243,246,266(n.35),276(n.21),284(n.59);prayerreminiscentof,21,169;asSufisymbol,130,172,J73»301(nn.58,60);whetherinthebodyorinthespirit,161,162,173,298(n.12),299(n.13);illustrationsof,171–74;representationsof,36,264(n.3),271(n.51),300(n.51),301(n.54);asvisionordream,36,50,76,79,80,85,218,226,284(n.56)

—hisclothing,39—hisburda,39,180—hiscoat,Āhirqa,39,243—hisshirt,39—likearose,39—hissandals,ni’āl,40,95,272(nn.66,70,72);touchtheThrone,40,170,

272(n.67);inpictures,40,41;poemsinhonorof,40,41,188,243—hisbirthday,maulid,42,102,144–58,233,241;customsat,152–55—hisfootprint,qadamrasūl,42,43,65—usesthemiswāk,43—dislikesgarlicandonion,44—beginseveryworkwiththerighthand,44—likescertainfoods,especiallysweets,44,273(n.87);andhoney,44,63,

102–4,145,153,190,285(n.95)—asḥabīb,friend,45,209;beloved(friend)ofGod,57,68,89,90,109,127,

155,178,181,191,203,215,224,290(n.71)—asṫabīb,physician,45,89,209—hissalivaforhealingpurposes,45,76,214,273(n.92)—hiswashingwaterusedforitsbaraka,45,76—hishumility,46,47,54,231—hiskindness,mildness,46,47,80,91,232,274(n.107)—hispoverty,faqr,47,48,208,243,245,252—hisprayers,47,48,54,58,59,160,169,245,254;forrain,74;forlight,124,

125—hisgratitude,48—hisloveofchildren,48,49,232

—hisloveofanimals,49;ofcats,49,274(nn.121,123)—hisbashfulness,ḥayā’,50—hisvenerationformothers,51—asProphetandstatesman,52—senttotheRedandtheBlack,52,62—andHolyWar,jihād,53,54,243,255—his‘iṣma,54,56–60,236,276(n.9)—asocean,39(hisheart),61,64,139,186,205,206,307(n.130)—andthe(green)banner(flag)ofpraise,liwā’,62,86,90,91,107,135,186,

282(n.20)—hisradiantface,cheek,63,127,195,196—assun,64,70,122,126,127,129,137,165,170,180,187,197,201,204,

211,214—hisname(s),65,87,96,105–22,123,141,176,186,197,198,200,208,217,

241,242,244,245,286(nn.i,4,15),287(nn.23,25,28),288(nn.30,32,33,38,44),289(nn.62,66)

—splitsthemoon,69–71,73,74,77,223,232,278(nn.9,14)—as“MomingLight,”ḍuḥā,70,181,187—asUniversal(First)Intellect,72,134,137;superiorto,73—hisfoodmiracles,74,75,279(n.35),280(n.55)—wamedbythepoisonedsheep,75,280(n.55)—praisedbyanimals,76,214—protectedbycloud,76,186—greetedbydoorsandwallswith“amen,”76—andthegazelle,76–78,95,280(n.49)—andthelizard,76,77,95,279(n.38)—praisedbypebbles,76,77—treeswalktowardhim,prostratingthem-selves,76,186,280(n.55),303(n.

45)—andthewolf,76,77,280(n.55)—andthesighingpalmtrunk,ḥannāna,77,200,232,280(n.55)—andtheeagle,78—hiskerchiefnotbumt,78—andthesnake,78,79

—asraincloud,81–83—ascandle,lamp,96,109,123,124,126,129,181,246—dreamsofhim,98,100,130,199,213,280(n.58),281(nn.63,68),293(n.

44);withhealingeffects,45,79,181,242;ḥadīthreceivedindream,79,281(n.38)

—aslord(king,prince)oflaulāka,101,131,243—hispre-existence,101,125,132,134,140,207—hisninety-ninenames,110,111,219,Appendix—as(full)moon,badr,112,124,126,155,186,187,207,270(n.40)—assuturebetweentheNecessaryandtheContingent,116,134,207,243—ascolumn(pillar)oflight,125–27,142,200—asseed:132,ofthehumanrace126,128;ofcreation,131—asPen,128,130,135,244—asGod’smirror,110,131,134,293(n.45)—astree,131,293(n.49)—asbarzakh,134,243—hisheartasDivineThrone,134,200,222—aspupilintheeyeoftheworld,135,137—likeruby,135,137—asmuṭā’,137,204,205—hisbirth,138,179,181,186,295(n.3);lightat,124,149–54,155;miracles

at,149–54,158—asdawn,138—Helldependentonhiswrath,139,294(n.74)—Paradisepartofhisglory,139,201,294(n.74)—bestofmankind,154,181,238—hisdialoguewithGodduringthemi’‘rāj,160,164—seeshisLordduringthemi’rāj:withoutfainting,163;inthemostbeautiful

shape,164—asbridegroom(ofMedina),171,192,213—asPrinceofMedina,192,209—hisfaceis“BytheMomingLight,”195,196,201,203,294(n.74)—hishairis“BytheNight,”196,294(n.74)—asLove,200,201,244,252,255,306(n.109)

—ascaravanleader,201,215,256,306(n.169)—aselixir,201—hiswine,201—hismole,204,207—histwoindividuations,217—asimamofsocialism,233,237—asgreatestrevolutionary,237—asriver,241—asWell-preservedTablet,128,244—aspsychopath,248—theelephantprostratinghimself,265(n.7)—aslordof’abasa,“hefrowned,”273(n.105)—asepileptic,298(n.7)—asark,308(n.170)Muhammad:AMercy(Jairazbhoy),81Muḥammad‘Abduh(d.1905),231,233,234Muḥammadal-Muḥārib(Faraj),312(n.66)MuḥammadAmīnibnHārūnar-Rashīd(r.809–13),65MuḥammadFaraj,312(n.66)Muḥammadibnal-Burl(11thcent.),113MuḥammadMachhl,Faqlr(fl.ca.1900),157Muhammad,ProphetandStatesman(Watt),6Muḥammadrasūlal-ḥurriyya(Sharqāwl),237MuḥammadZubair,Pīr(d.1740),218Muḥammad-QulīofGolconda(r.1580-1612),121Muḥammadiyya(Mīmiyya)movement(ca.900),289(n.62)Muḥammadiyyamovements(pre-modemtopresent),216MuhammedanischeStudien(Goldziher),230Muḥarram,Aḥmad,235Muir,William(d.1905),5,228Mu‘jizāt-isarwar-ikā’ināt(Hāshmī),280(n.45)Mujtabā,al-,“theelectedone,”epithetofMuḥammad,110,121,287(n.23)Multan,89,203

munāfiqūn,“hypocrites,”15Munājāt-ikunfa-yakūn,141Munāwī,‘AbdurRa’ūf(d.1621),156Muqaffa’,278(n.18)MuqātilibnSulaimān(d.767),124,125,130MurādIII,Ottomanruler(r.1574–95),264(n.3)Murtaḍā,al-,“theapprovedone,”nameofMuḥammad,287(n.23)Mursī,Abūl-‘Abbasal-(d.1287),181Mūsā,114.SeealsoMosesMuṣībatnāma(Aṭṭār),116,117,199,200,215Muslimibnal-Ḥajjāj(d.875),27,29,292(n.44)MuslimDevotions(Padwick),7,96,226MuslimDigest,276(n.13)Muṣṭafā,al-,“thechosenone,”nameofMuhammad,26,35,40,43,71,106,

110,114,121,127,154,163,167,176,193,196,201,202,211,213,215,230,244,245,252,255,283(n.46),287(n.23),301(n.67),306(n.109)

MuṣṭafābinValī,scribe,264(n.3)Mustaqīmzāde,Sulaimān(d.1789),268(n.9)Mustaṭraf(Ibshīhī),284(n.53)Mu’taziliteschool,60,85,162,309(n.16)Muṭṭalibi,nicknameofMuḥammad,112,208Muzammil(Sura73:1),epithetofMuhammad,IIONabhani,Yusufan-(d.1932),34,40,44,176,188,270(n.39),272(n.66)Nābulusl,‘AbdulGhanīan-(d.1731),189,272(n.83)NādirShāhofIran(d.1747),218,219Nadwī,SayyidSulaimān(d.1954),227,231,247,313(n.40)Naimuddin,Syed,305(n.85)Najaf,241Najāt,an-(Avicenna),199Najd,202,255Naqshbandiyyaorder,13,89,116,118,132,138,139,217–19,223,224,228,

270(n.34),290(n.71),293(n.45)Narayanganj,42

Nasā’ī,Abū‘AbdurRaḥmān(d.915),284(n.56)NāṣiḥEfendi(i9thcent.),97Nāṣir-iKhusrau(d.after1060),283(n.34)Nasr,SeyyedHosain,30,135,236Nasser,GamālAbdanNāṣir,237Na‘t-isharīf(Rūmī),87,203,306(n.124)Nawā’ī,MīrAlīShīr(d.1501),216Nawājī,Shamsuddīn(d.1455),303(n.42)NaẓīrīNīshāpūrī(d.1612),72,106,208,245,289(n.66),300(n.49)Nef‘ī(d.1634),307(n.144)Nestorians,12,16Netherlands,186Nicholson,ReynoldA.,302(n.23)Nietzsche,Friedrich(d.1900),246Nigeria,156Nihāyatal-i‘jāz(Ṭahṭāwl),234Nikhatal-labīb(IhnAmmār),297(n.42)Nimrod,133Niẓāmī,Ilyās(d.1209),72,112,116,170,196,205,265(n.24),272(n.67),

293(n.62),300(n.49),305(n.82);manu-script,172NiẓāmuddlnAuliyā(d.1325),205NizārīIsmailis,20Noah,57,64,133NorthwesternFrontier(oftheIndiansubcon-tinent),254Novalis,FriedrichvonHardenberg(d.1801),264(n.7),271(n.50)Nowaihī,Mohammed,310(n.41)Nubuwwat(Iqbāl),247Nūral-barrāq,an-(Mīrghānī),212Nūrī,Abūl-Ḥusainan-(d.907),81Nuṣratī(d.1684),170,300(n.46)Nuzhatal-asmā’(IbrāhīmNiass),310(n.46)Öljāitu,Ilkhanid(d.1316),278(n.18)Öten,Mehmet,280(n.45)

Ottoman,11,15,148,264(n.3),297(n.37);Turkey,9,36,208;Turkish,7,210

Padwick,ConstanceE.,7,96,226Pakistan,4–5,22,31,43,54,88,110,123,148,150,172,190,194,239,263(n.

5),269(n.22),310(n.41);Pakistani(s),173,178,264(n.10),271(n.51),287(n.24),311(n.46)

Panjab,117,188,203,213,255,256;Panjabi,70,89,142,157,165,183,209,213,232,300(n.42),302(n.29)

Panjtan,19,287(n.23)Paraclete,34,108,286(n.15)Paradise,30,40,46,49,62,85,86,88,91,99,107,110,113,150,153–56,

159–62,166,172,183,191,282(n.69),283(n.46),284(n.51),298(n.7);fragranceof,98,266(n.35);eightparadises,117;partofMuḥammad’sgloryorgrace,139,201,294(n.74);theRauḍaas,193;primordial,294(n.78)

Paris,171,174,264(n.3)Parvēz,GhulāmAḥmad,31,254,287(n.24)Pashto,35,74,91,183,211,283(n.34),299(n.31)Pathan,39,49,197,221Paul,Saint,18,162PavetdeCourteille,Abel(d.1889),300(n.51)Payām-imashriq(Iqbāl),240,254Payāmbar(Rahnemā),264(n.4)PerfectMan,The[Al-insānal-kāmil](Jīlī),288(n.44)Persian,4,7,14,18,22,28,36,89,112,151,158,165,166,200,204,246,256,

267(n.51),268(n.10),269(n.13);lan-guage,words,13,19,27,140,141,146,156,161,174,183,202,205,211,220,221,232,235,237;literature,poets,20,40,63,65,72,91,93,112,113,116,123,127,128,133,138,152,165,174,176,178–80,183,185,195,198,201,204,207–10,212,218,219,224,227,239–43,264(n.4),271(n.60),277(n.30),279(n.25),281(n.58),283(n.34),287(n.27),295(nn.20,29),300(n.47),302(n.27),305(n.85),307(n.133)

Persianate,112,113,117,151,165,170,190,195,196;literature,63,78,204,298(n.8)

personMuhammads,Die(Andrae),7

Peshawar,175Peygamberimizinmucizeleri(Öten),280(n.45)Pharaoh,151,309(n.16)Plassey,Battleof,221Plotiniantradition,171Poona,89Prophètedel’Islam,Le(Ḥamīdullāh),6Protestant,6,231Psalms,73Pulavar,Omar(fl.ca.1700),189Qadianis,255Qādiriyyaorder,135,303(n.41)Qāitbay,Mamlūksultan(r.1458–96),88QamaruddīnKhān,311(n.46)Qandahar,39,243Qāni‘,MīrAlīShīr(d.1789),195Qarrāb,al-,268(n.9)qaṣīdaal-witriyya,al-,303(n.41)QāsimKāhī,Maulānā(d.1580),204Qasṭallānī,Abūl-‘AbbāsAḥmad(d.1517),33,270(n.39),299(nn.16,30)Qidwāi(Kidwai),Shaikh,232Qifānabki(Imru’lqais),188QudsīMashhadī,JānMuḥammad(d.1656),208,209,222Quraish,10,70,107,150,249Quraishī,“oftheclanQuraish,”epithetofMuhammad,112,121,208,222,288

(n.34)Qushairī,‘AbdulKarīmal-(d.1074),165Qūtal-’āshiqīn(Hāshim),32,210QuṭubshāhīsofGolconda(1510–1687),121,147,303(n.46)Rābi’aofBasra(d.801),130Rābiṭa,148Rādhā,212Rāfeq,‘AbdulKarīm,302(n.12)

Rahnemā,Z.,264(n.4)Rā‘īal-ghanam(ṬāhāḤusain),236Rajput,70Ralfs,C.A.,185Rangēlarasūl,66RashīdRiḍā,Muḥammad(d.1935),234Rashīduddīn,Faḍlullāh(d.1317),271(n.51),278(n.18),281(n.58)Rāsikh,GhulāmAll(d.1845),82Rauḍa,inMedina,6,17,82,93,155,190,192–94,212,243,304(n.56)Rawalpindi,148,287(n.22)Rāzī,NajmuddīnDāyā(d.1256),62,67,81,108,127,129,130,215,224,283

(n.43),305(nn.87,96)ReaderonIslam(Jeffery),185RebellioninHell(Zahāwī),174ReconstructionofReligiousThought(Iqbāl),164,238,247,248,253Redhouse,J.W.,185ReligiöseVorstellungswelt(Horten),7Renan,Emest(d.1892),236ReshādMuḥammadV,OttomanSultan(r.1909–18),297(n.37)ReżāShāhPahlavī,251Riḍwān,doorkeeperofParadise,150Rifā’ī,Aḥmadar-(d.1183),304(n.74)Risāla(Qushairī),165Risālatal-ghufrān(Ma‘arrī),174Risālö(‘AbdulLaṭīf),82,88,142,192Ritter,Helmut,166Riyāshī,Labībar-,236Rodinson,Maxime,6–7Rohilla,210,221Rohrī(Sind),43Rosenzweig-Schwannau,Vincenzvon,185RossMasood,Sīr(d.1936),242Royster,JamesE.,7

Rūckert,Friedrich(d.1866),302(n.18)Rūmī,MaulānāJalāluddīn(d.1273),10,21,32,35,45,47,61,63,71–73,77,

79,82,85,87,92,94,99,108,117,128,131,134,152,163,169,170,174,175,197,199,201–3,215,221,249,255,265(nn.21,23),268(n.5),269(n.24),273(n.105),274(n.114),276(nn.18,21),283(n.46),293(nn.44,54),299(n.33),301(n.60),308(n.170);hisfather,50

Rumūz-ibēkhudī(Iqbāl),242,245,247,250,251,253Ruqayya,Muḥammad’sdaughter,18Rustam,22Sabians,65Sa’dibnAbīWaqqāṣ(d.670or675),268(n.55)Ṣadaqatullāh,Shaikh(d.1703),303(n.41)SaddharmaPundarika,81Sa’dī,Muṣliḥuddīn(d.1292),5,72,112,137,204–6Sa’dūnaUmmSa’d(d.1242),40Safadī,Ṣalāḥuddīnaṣ-(d.1363),110ṢafiLakhnawī,SayyidAlīNaqī(d.1950),233ṢaghīrNiẓāmī,271(n.45)Ṣāḥibdinā,284(n.64)Ṣaḥīḥ(Bukhārī),27,28Ṣaḥīḥān(BukhārīandMuslim),27,274(n.125)Sahlat-Tustarī(d.896),125–27,130,132,200,299(n.15)Sa‘īdibnZaid(d.ca.670),268(n.55)SaifulMulūk(Ghawwāṣī),98,121ṢālihGašoviö,Hāfiz,297(n.36)Salīm.SeeJahāngīrSālimiyyaschool,279(n.27)Salmā,207Salmānal-Fārisī(d.after656),14,22,267(nn.51,53)Sāmīal-Bārödö,Maḥmūd(d.1904),235Sanā’ī,Abū’l-MajdMajdūd(d.1131),21,70,107,118,138,174,176,195–

200,212,221Sanūsiyya,57,276(n.6)Sanūsiyyaorder,225,226

Sarāpāsarwaral-anbiyā(Lutf),271(n.57)SarfarāzKhānKalhörö(d.1775),128Sārimal-maslūl,aṣ-(IbnTaimiyya),66SarmadShahīd(d.1661),165Ṣarṣari,Ya‘qūbibnYūsufas-(d.1258),187Sarwar,232Sassui,213Satan,39,58,61,68,79,247,269(n.11),293(n.44)SaudiArabia,149,271(n.51),296(n.20)Sazāyl(d.1738),214,308(n.164)Scharī‘atī,Alī,266(n.35)Schuon,Frithjof,32Semitic,6,308(n.157)Serbo-Croatian,155,297(n.36)SevenSleepers,209Shabistarī,Maḥmūd(d.1320),289(n.66)Shādhilī,Abūl-Ḥasanash-(d.1258),281(n.63)Shādhiliyyaorder,94,181,219Shāfi‘ī,MuhammadibnIdrīsash-(d.820),280(n.49)Shāh-MaḥmūdNīshābūrī,calligrapher(d.1564orlater),269(n.10)ShaibānīKhānUzbek(r.1501–10),117ShaikhChānd(15thcent.),129,140Shakēb,ŻiāuddlnAḥmad,295(n.17)ShakīlBadāyūnī,87ShakrawatiFarmāḍ,King,70Shalabī,Mahmūd,237Sham-imahfil(Dard),291(n.1)Shamā’ilal-Muṣṭafā(Tirmidhī),33,270(n.36)Shamsuddīn,epithetofMuḥammad,288(n.44)ShamsuddīnofTabriz(d.1248),24,61,134,173,201–3,293(n.54),305(n.

97)Sharābāsī,Aḥmadash-,156Sharqāwaorder,41

Sharqāwī,AbdurRaḥmānash-,237Shauqī,Aḥmad(d.1932),188,234Shawāhidan-nubuwwa(Thanā’ī),282(n.69)Sheba,Queenof,63Shēfta,Nawāb‘Aẓīmuddaula(d.1869),210,307(n.149)Shia,18–21,42,118,170,197,219,240,266(n.35),274(n.119),287(n.23);

Shiites,ii,18,20,47,59,66,113,130,219,220,266(n.41),292(n.39)Shiblī,AbūBakrash-(d.945),126,217,130,229ShiblīNu’mānī(d.1914),94,231,309(n.16)Shifā’(Avicenna),199Shihābal-Manṣūri,ash-,303(n.43)Shihābuddīn,Shaikh,298(n.10)Shikwā(Iqbāl),244Shilha-Berber,183Shinalanguage,109,287(n.22)Shīrāz,50,79,207ShīvprasādDöhī(19thcent.),176Sibā‘ī,Muḥammadas-,310(n.32)Siberianshamans,161Sibi(Sind),89Siddīq,as-,197.SeealsoAbūBakrSiddīqḤasanKhān(d.1890),275(n.133)Siddīqī,familyname,266(n.37)Sijelmasi,Mohamed,41Sidratal-muntahā,theLoteTreeoftheBoundary,125,161,167,168,171Sikhs,221,225Sinai,Mount,42Sind,82,83,88,89,128,138,139,157,188,195,212,215,231,270(nn.33,

34),284(n.66),304(n.74),310(n.44).SeealsoIndusValley—Sindhi,11,32,39,70,77,79,82,89,90,ΙΟΙ,102,117,139,142,157,171,

177,178,192,197,208,210,211,213,214,23232,264(η.io),270(η.43),279(η.32),287(n.27),284(η.50,285(η.95),286(η.20),294(η.74),297(η.46),298(n.10),299(η.31),3°2(η.24),305(n.83),307(η.140),3™(ηη.43,45)

SindhiFolkloreSeries,76Sīra(IbnIsḥāq),159,160,238SīraPurānam(Pulavar),189,304(n.48)Sīratan-nabī(Shiblī),231,310(n.43)Sīratan-nabī(Darīr),264(n.3)Sīratan-nabī(FatḥMuḥammad),310(n.44)Sīraṭbridge,99Sirhindī,Aḥmad(d.1624),118,216–18Smith,WilfredCantwell,4,26,230,232Söderblom,Nathan(d.1931),26,53,224Sohnī,213Solomon,16,48,50,63,64,197.SeealsoSulaimānSongofSongs,147SouthAmerica,56Spain,40,65,277(n.39);Spanish,177,188;Spanish-Arabic,59,76SpiritofIslam(AmeerAli),6,230Sprenger,Aloys(d.1893),228,248,270(n.36)Srinagar,43,147Stieglecker,Hermann,7Strauss,DavidFriedrich(d.1874),231StrayReflections(Iqbāl),250Sūbarmānal-awwal,as-(Riyāshā),236Subkī,Taqīuddīnas-(d.1355),66Sudan,99,226Sufism,7,22,127,132,138,141,142,199,205,224;Sufi(s),31,33,57,60,

61,73,74,76,79,81,86,93,101,115,117,118,125,126,128,130,133,137–39,142,145,146,156,162–65,169,172,173,178,183,189,194,199,219,221,224,235,244,245,247,252,265(nn.21,23),267(n.44),268(n.55),269(nn.13,26),270(n.29),274(n.107),292(n.20),293(nn.44,45),294(n.75),303(n.41),305(n.87),309(n.17),310(n.46);SufiOrders,brotherhoods,96,99,133,135,138,141,218,219,294(n.79),303(n.45)

Suhrawardī,AbūḤafṣ‘Umaras-(d.1234),98,99Suhrawardī,ShihābuddīnAḥmadas-,shaikhal-ishrāq(d.1191),173

Suhrawardiyyaorder,42,99,110,203Sukya,211Sulaimān,114,267(n.51).SeealsoSolomonSulamī,Abū‘AbdurRaḥmānas-(d.1021),294(n.67)SūleymantheMagnificent(r.1520–66),282(n.69)SūleymanChelebi(d.1419),152,153,300(n.49)Sulṭān-‘AlīMashhadī,calligrapher(d.1519),269(n.10),302(n.27)Sulṭān-Muḥammad,painter(d.after1541),172Sundarlāl,Pandit,310(n.44)Sunni,Sunnites,ii,19–21,118,197,219,220,266(n.41)SunrisesinLaudatoryPoems,188Suyūṭī,Jalāluddīnas-(d.1505),80,106,146,190,284(n.56),292(n.44)SurKhanbath(‘AbdulLaṭīf),190SurSārang(‘AbdulLaṭīf),82,83SurSarirāg(‘AbdulLaṭīf),215Swahili,70,90,151,156,183,212,279(n.38),280(n.49),297(n.3)Swiss,270(n.36)SylvestredeSacy,A.I.(d.1838),185Syria,11,12,34,151,302(n.12)Tabarī,AbūJa’faraṭ-(d.923),59,162,276(n.13),299(n.22)Tabriz,201,278(n.18)Tabrīzī,Muḥammadal-Khaṭībal-(d.after1336),27Tafsīr(Sulamī),294(n.67)Ṭāhā,nameofMuḥammad,63,108,109,121,193,286(nn.18,20),287(n.

20),288(n.30),294(n.74)ṬāhāḤusain(d.1973),149,236Tahāfutal-falāsifa(Ghazzāll),199Tahdhībal-akhlāq(AḥmadKhān’sjoumal),230Ṭahṭāwī,Rifā‘aBeg(d.1873),234Ṭā’if(i),40Ta’iyya(Ibnal-Fāriḍ),132,287(n.20)TalbīsIblīs(Ibnal-Jauzī),269(n.26)Ṭalhaibn‘Ubaidallāh(d.656),268(n.55)

Tamil,189Tandamī,287(n.20)Ṭapish,SayyidMīrMuḥammad(d.after1814),106,287(n.23),288(n.36)Tarāna-imillī(Iqbāl),256,308(n.169)Ṭāsinas-sirāj(Ḥallāj),126,291(nn.8,14),293(n.44)Tasnīm,291(n.20)Taufiqal-Ḥaklm,237,238Telugu,147Terim(Hadramaut),295(n.4)Thābit(d.1712),299(n.35)Thaʽlabī,AḥmadibnMuhammadath-(d.1035),127,132,180,181,291(n.20)Thanā’ī(16thcent.),282(n.69)Thanā’ullāhThanāSindhī(20thcent.),285(n.90)Thatta,32,91,270(n.34),304(n.74)Thikur(Sind),232Throne,Divine,49,84,86,99,115,131,132,139,150,157,166,167,171,

172,191,226,248,289(n.67),298(n.8);touchedbyMuḥammad’ssandals,40,63,72,170,272(n.67);itsbearers,43,83,115;Muḥammad’snameon,107;heartofthePerfectManas,134;Rūml’seffigyon,170

Tigris,151Tījānī,Aḥmadat-(d.1815),88,100,101,226Tījāniyyaorder,79,100,225Timuriddynasty,171,216Tirmidhīal-Ḥakīm,Abū‘Abdallāhat-(d.ca.932),85,282(n.16)Tirmidhī,Abū‘Īsāat-(d.892),33,34,36,46Torah,14,73,108,139,294(n.74)Ṭūbātree,inParadise,40,191Tuḥfatal-aḥrār(Jāml),217Tunis(ian),194Turan,89Turkey,66,114,127,145,149,152,153,155,161,170,173,196,210,214,

237,251,272(n.83),274(n.118),313(n.56);Turks,4,152;Turkish,6,36,66,114,155,172,190,237,267(n.53),271(n.51);poetry,literature,9,39,73,74,88–90,93,101,102,109,113,117,127,144,152,153,156,

162,168,183,185,195,264(n.4),271(n.60),272(n.66),280(n.45),290(n.2),292(n.20),300(n.47);language,19,22,28,138,146,181,235,264(n.3),274(n.123),281(n.58),282(n.69),294(n.75),295(n.ii),298(n.12);calligraphy,37,38,69,80,97

‘UbaidullāhAhrār(d.1490),217Ucch,42,110,194Uḥud,14,79‘Umaribnal-Khaṭṭābal-Fāröq(r.634–44),18,48,61,197,266(n.38),268(n.

55),269(n.12),281(n.58),305(n.82)Umayyaddynasty(661–749),20UmmKulthūm,daughterofMuḥammad,18UmmMa‘bad,34,74,75,112ÜmmiKemal(17thcent.),73ÜmmiSinan(17thcent.),73UniversalIntellect,72,73,134,191UniversalSoul,200Urdu,27,81,88–91,109,138,142,183,193,194,231,232,235,264(n.10),

310(n.33);literature,poets,20,23,35,42,93,94,106,112,114,117,121,140,176,192,195,196,209–12,218,225,233,239,240,244,250,255,256,271(n.57),280(n.45),287(n.27),288(n.36),289(n.66),296(n.20),304(n.55)

‘UrfīShīrāzl,Muḥammad(d.1592),63,114,207,208‘Uthmānibn‘Affān(r.644–56),18,19,268(n.55),281(n.58)Uwaisal-Qaranā,22,23,267–68(n.54)Uyghur,171,174Uzbek,117‘Uzzā,al-,58Valī(d.1697),295(n.1)Veda,Vedic,140,294(n.76)Vedanta,Vedantic,142ViedeJèsus(Renan),236ViedeMahomet(Dermenghem),311(n.61)Virgil(d.19B.C.),175Virgin.SeeMary

Vishnu,157Voltaire(d.1778),238,263(n.6)Wahhabis,17,149,189,194,235Walīullāh,Shāh(d.1762),70,79,94,189,208,218,220–23,225,228,229,

281(n.58),308(n.6),309(n.16)WaraqaibnNaufal,12Waṭaniyyat(Iqbāl),250Watanmal,Līlarām(d.after1900),142Watt,WilliamM.,6Waugh,Earle,297(n.3)West-ÖstlicherDivan(Goethe),49,229,240WiederentdeckungdesPropheten(Lūling),6Wielandt,Rotraut,234Witrī,Muḥammadal-(d.1264),187,303(n.40)Wolfson,Harri,24Yarmuk,43Yaşayanmevlidiťerif,296(n.31)Yāsīn,nameofMuḥammad,108,109,121,286(nn.19,20),287(n.21),288

(n.30),294(n.74)Yathrib,13,112,193,197,243.SeealsoMedinaYemen,20,22;Yemeni(cloak),112,180,267–68(n.54),288(n.34)YesarizadeMuṣṭafā‘Izzat,calligrapher(d.1849),37YūnusEmre(d.ca.1321),89,90,102,105,128,149,152,156,168,172,191,

213,267(n.54)YūnusibnMattā(Jonas),62,276(n.21)Yūsuf(Joseph),133YūsufandZulaikhā(Jāmī),170YūsufAtharSindhi,308(n.166)ZafrullaKhan,Muḥammad,255Zahāwī,JamīlṢidqlaz-(d.1936),174Zahrā,az-.SeeFāṭimaZaid,Muḥammad’sadoptedson(d.630),16Zaidibnal-Ḥusain(d.740),20

Zaidites,20Zainab,Muḥammad’swife,16Zainab,Muḥammad’sdaughter,18Zamakhsharī,Abū’l-QāsimMaḥmūdaz-(d.1144),58,275(n.3),276(n.10),

298(n.II)ZamzaminMecca,69Zamzamī,‘Abdul‘Azīzaz-(d.1556),303(n.39)Żarb-iKalīm(Iqbāl),251Zoroastrians,65Zubairibnal-Awwām(d.656),268(n.55)Ẓuhral-Islām(Amin),311(n.60)Zulaikhā,139Zulima,264(n.7)

INDEXOFTECHNICALTERMSANDCONCEPTS

a,alif,firstletteroftheArabicalphabet,numericalvaluei,cipherforGod(Allāh)theOne,andforthebeloved,73,116,118,217,290(nn.71,72);ofAdam,72a-l-m(alif-lām-mīm)(Sura2:1),118,290(n.71)

abābīlbirds(Sura105),265(n.7)‘abāsa,“hefrowned”(Sura80:1),273(n.105)‘abd,“servant,slave”;itsuseshouldberestrictedinnomenclatureto“God’s

servant,”121Ābduhu,“Hisservant”(Suras17:1,53:10),epithetofMuḥammadduringhis

mostsublimeexperience,108,142,165,246abjad,theArabicalphabetintheoldSemiticOrderasusedforchronograms

andmagicalpurposes,212,308(n.157)abtar,“withoutissue”(Sura108:3),139Adamqadmon,theprimordialman,294(n.76)āfrin,“praise,”andāfrīnish,“creation,”205aḥad,“One”(cf.Sura112);Godas,116–18,200,212,217,289(n.66)ahlal-bait(Sura33:33),themembersofMuhammad’simmediatefamily,19ahlal-kisā’,themembersofMuhammad’sfamilywhoweretakenunderhis

cloak,19ahlal-kitāb,“PeopleoftheBook,”membersofthosereligiouscommunities

thathaveaDivinelyinspiredscripture,65ahlas-sunnawa’l-jamā‘a,“thefollowersoftheProphetietraditionandthe

Community,”i.e.,theSunnites,20,296(n.20)‘ainal-jam’,“absoluteunion”betweenmanandGod,293(n.44)akhbār(plur.ofkhabar),“news,stories,”293(n.54)akhlāq-imuḥammadī,thenoblequalitiesoftheProphet,whichthebelieveris

expectedtoimitate,228‘ālam,“world,”116;ālamal-malakūtal-a’lā,theworldofsupreme

sovereignty,115;‘ālamal-mulk,worldofthekingdom,115;’ālam-ijabarūt,thesecondhighestspiritualplane,292(n.20);al-eālamin,“theworlds,”265(n.27)

alif.Seeα

Allāhuakbar,“Godisgreater(thananything),”268(n.54)amāna,“trustworthiness,”qualityoftheprophet,57amrit-kunda,“Wateroflife”inHindumythology,292(n.20)‘amūd,“column(oflight),”125anā’l-ḥaqq,“IamtheTruth”:aml-haqqmuhammadi,therealizationoftrue

Mus-limhoodaccordingtoShams-iTabrīz,25anwār(plur.ofnūr),“lights,”293(n.54)‘aqlal-akbar,al-,“theGreatestIntellect,”115‘aql-ikull,“UniversalIntellect,”199‘arba‘īn,“forty”:ḥadīh,28;daysofseclusion,117.Seealsom‘arwāḥ(plur.ofrūḥ),“spirits,”127‘aṣabiyya,“espritdecorps,closeCooperationamongindividuals,strengthened

byreligion,”250‘asharaal-mubashshara,al-,“theTenwhowerepromisedParadise,”23,in,

268(n.55)’āshiq,“lover”:GodisMuḥammad’s,127;manisMuḥammad’s,210ashrāf.Seesharīf‘aṣida,sweetpuddingofferedatchildbirthandmaulidcelebrations,153asmā’al-ḥusnā,al-,God’s“mostbeautifulninety-nineNames,”110–11asmā’ash-sharīfa,al-,Muhammad’sninety-ninenames,110–11asrār(plur.ofsirr),“mysteries,”293(n.54)īaṭiyya,“giftofmercy,”85āya,“Divinesign,”also“verseoftheKoran,”224

badī‘iyya,poetryin“novel”style,303(n.38)badr,“fullmoon,”124,270(n.40)balāda,“stupidity,”impossiblefortheprophet,58banner.Seeliwā;Muḥammad,andthe(green)bannerbārahwafāt,dayofMuhammad’sdeathon12Rabī‘al-awwal,145bārahmāsa,intheIndiantradition,poemsaboutthefeelingsofalovingwoman

duringthetwelvemonthsoftheyear,212baraka,blessingpower,40,42,45,76,79;oftheProphet,21,28,33,45;ofthe

name,105,113,114;ofmaulūdcelebrations,155barzakh,separationbetweenheavenandHell(Sura55:20),suture:Muḥammad

as,134,243baṣā’ir(plur.ofbaṣīra),“intuitions,”127bashīr,“thebringerofgoodtidings”(Sura7:88),109bashmaq-isharīf(Turkish),“theProphet’ssandal,”272(n.66)basmala,theformulaBismillāh,“InthenameofGod,”whichisalwaysusedat

thebeginningofwork,209,267(n.53)batūl,“virgin,”epithetofFāṭima,18bell(inrevelation),11,290(n.72)bhān,dassofmaulūd-singersinSind,180bid‘a,“innovation,”even“heresy,”145;bid‘atā,“heretic,”87bidhr,“seed”:Muḥammadas,126bi-ḥaqqMuḥammad,“forMuḥammad’ssake,”141,294(n.78)burda,“coat,cloak,”39,180;burda-iyamānī,cloakofstripedYemenite

materialwombytheProphet,112,180burqa‘,“veil,”112

chāryār(Persian),“thefourfriends,”thefirstfourcaliphs,19,36charkhīnāma,“Spinning-wheelpoem,”gerneintheregionallanguagesofIndo-

Pakistaninwhichreligiousteachingisgiveninthesymbolismofspinning,114

chashmrauschan,“Mayyoureyebebright!”—formulaofcongratulation,300(n.47)

chilla,fortydaysofseclusion,117CompanionsoftheProphet.Seeṣaḥāba

d,fourthletteroftheArabicalphabet,numericalvalue4,infourthpositionofMuḥammad’sname,115,117,118;asbeginningofdawām,“everlastingness,”107

dalā’il(plur.ofdalīl),“proofs,”32,33,180DayofCovenant(cf.Sura7:171),194,210Day(orHour)ofJudgment,12,25,55,73,84,90,113,156,241.Seealso

Dooms-day;Resurrectiondhawāt(plur.ofdhāt),“essences,”127dhikr,“remembrance”ofGodand/ortheProphet,94,100,268(n.54),285(n.

95);dhikr-ikhafi,“silentremembrance,”13;dhikr-meeting,79,89dhimma,“covenantofprotectionfortheahlal-kitāb,”65dil(Persian),“heart,”117dīn,“religion,”192;dīn-iilāhi,“DivineReligion,”movementinstitutedbythe

MoghulemperorAkbar,42,286(n.1);dīn-imuḥammadi,“religionofMuḥammad,”31;dīnwadaula,“religionandstate,”52;dīnparwarān(Persian),“thosewhoprotectreligion,”117

dīwān,collectionofpoetry,195;ofMir,88;ofSanā’ī,196;ofFuzūlī,279(n.34)

dog,oftheProphet’sthreshold,oroftheSevenSleepers,209Doomsday,16,36,83,84,90,98,105,108,156,222.SeealsoDayof

Judgment;Muḥammad,asintercessordu‘ā,freeprayer,93,100durūd-isharīf(Persian),litaniesofblessingfortheProphet,94,101,102,147,

242,284(n.66)

faiḍal-aqdasal-a’lā,al-,“themostholysupremefluxofgrace,”134fanāfī’r-rasūl,“annihilationintheProphet,”219faqr,“poverty.”SeeMuḥammad,hispovertyfardiyya,Muhammad’s“singlenature,”293(n.58)farista(Persianfirishta),“angel,”140fatāna,“intelligence,”qualityofaprophet,57Fātiḥa,thefirstSuraoftheKoran,generalnameforreligiousgatherings,266

(n.40);fātiḥadawāzdahum,celebrationoftheProphet’sbirthday,148fatwā,“legaldecision,”55,87,148,296(n.20)fi’l,“action,”26furqān,nameoftheKoran,137

ghanī,al-,“TheRich,WhohasnoNeed,”DivineName,48,245gharānīq,heavenlybeings,allegedlymentionedbyMuhammad,58ginān,religioussongsoftheIsmailiCommunityofIndo-Pakistan,289(n.66)ghazal,briefpoemwithmonorhyme,mainlyaboutlove,91,146,147,190;by

AmīrKhusrau,123;byRūmī,201;byJāmī,206,207;byFużūll,279(n.34)

GoldenAlphabet,101,157.Seealsosīḥarfī

ḥ,letterinMuhammad’sname,numericalvalue8:115,117,n8;ofrahma,107ḥā-mīm,isolatedlettersatthebeginningofSuras40–46,109,271(n.60)ḥabīb,habībī,“friend,myfriend,be-loved,”45,109,127,209ḥadīth,26–36,47,49–51,54,58,60–62,66,79,84–86,92–94,106,107,130,

135,146,149,164,168,169,194,196,200,202,208,210,212,230,242,243,245,253,269(nn.ii,12,13,14),273(n.92),274(nn.in,114,125,128),275(nn.133,134,140),276(n.18),281(n.58),282(n.12),287(n.26),290(n.2),292(n.44),305(n.82);astradition,20,108,221;theFortyluidith(arba’in),28,268(n.9),284(n.53)

ḥadīthan-nawāfil,223ḥadīthqudsī,116,117,130,131,224,240,289(n.66),307(n.140),309(n.17)hadiyya,“giftoflove,”85ḥajarbaḥt,“polishedstone,”Muḥammad’sheart,222ḥajj,“pilgrimage”toMecca,15,17,145,190ḥalwā,“sweetmeats,”44hamaāst(Persian),“EverythingisHe,”140hamida(ḥmd),“tolaud,topraise,”106;ḥamd,“laud,praise,”107,108;al-

ḥamdulillāh,“PraisebetoGod!”(beginningofSura1),106,118ḥanīf(plur.ḥunafā’),representativeofthepure,Abrahamic,faithofpre-Islamic

times,12ḥannāna,theSighingPalmtrunk,77,200ḥaqīqa,“Reality,”219;haqīqaaḥma-diyya,“thepre-existentAḥmad,”116;

ḥaqiqamuḥammadiyya,thepre-existentMuḥammad,theArchetypalMuḥammad,64,116,127,132–34,138,201,205,219,303(n.45);ḥaqīqatal-ḥaqā’iq,“thesupremeReality,”127

ḥaqq,“Truth,”God,127,128,131,293(n.44)ḥaya,“modesty,bashfulness,”50ḥāżirunāẓir,“presentandwatching”:referringtotheProphet,87ḥażīratal-quds,“theSphereofHoliness,”222Ḥażrat,approximately“HisExcellency,HisHighness,”89,114;ḥażratbāl,“the

NobleHair”oftheProphet,43Hegira,hijra,Muḥammad’semigrationfromMeccatoMedina(A.D.622),

whencetheMuslimcalendarbegins,13,14,54,161,201,249

ḥijābal-‘aẓamah,“theVeilofMajesty”beforeGod,125ḥilya,“omament,”descriptionoftheProphet:incalligraphy,36,37,271(n.55);

inliterature,36,39,271(n.57)

himmat,“highambition,”126,248,300(n.49)honey.SeeMuḥammad,likescertainfoodshū,“he,”numericalvalue5+6=

11,chronogramforMuḥammad’sdeath(A.H.11,A.D.632),266(n.31)

ibnu’l-waqt,“thesonofthemoment,”theSufiwholivesinaccordancewiththeDivineinspirationsanddoesnotplanforthefūture,169

’Īdal-adhā,“theFeastofOfferings”duringthepilgrimagetoMeccaonthetenthdayofthelastlunarmonth,146

Idal-fitr,“theFeastofFastbreaking”atthebeginningofthemonthofShawwal,146

’Idal-milād,“Feastofthebirthday,”148ijtihād-inabawi,theProphet’scapacityforindependentdecisionofcasesnot

mentionedintheKoran,247’ilmladuni,“wisdomfromMe”(Sura18:65),inspiredwisdom,73imām,“leaderofthecommunity,”20;inShiausagethetruesuccessorofthe

Prophet,Allbeingthefirstimam,59,118,130,141;thelongbeadintheMuslimrosary,135

imitatioChristi,32imitatioMuḥammadi,32,55,61insānal-kāmil,al-,134.SeealsoPerfectManinyakādu,“[Theunbelievers]almosthad…(Sura68:51),versesrecitedagainst

theEvilEye,109’ishq,strong,dynamic“love,”210ishtiqāqkabir,gematria,developmentofseparatewordsfromeachletterofa

word,107’isma,“[theProphet’s]beingprotected(fromerrorandsin),54,56,58–60,236,

276(n.9)isnād,“chainoftransmission”ofhadith,26isrā;thenightjoumey(cf.Sura17:1),159,161.SeealsoMuḥammad,heavenly

joumeyistawā,“Hestoodupright”(Sura53:6),164

istisqa,prayerforrain,74,279(n.33)

jabr,“predestination,”195jalāl,“Majesty,”God’saspectastremendum,196,245jamā’a,“community,”21jamāl,“Beauty,”God’saspectasfascinans,196,245;jamāl-iMuḥammadi,

beautyasrevealedinMuḥammad,293(n.45)jāmi’,al-,“comprehensive,”theonewhohasbeenendowedwiththeninety-

ninenames,134jasim,“noble,”112,204jihād,“HolyWar,”53;jihād-iakbar,“theGreatestHolyWar,”againstone’s

ownevilqualities,53

k,pointstokalima,129kalima,theProfessionofFaith,129kandil(Turkish),festivedaywhenthemosquesareilluminated,161karāmāt,“miracles”ofsaints,67karim,“noble,”204katmān,“concealing”themessage,impossibleforaprophet,58khallfa,successor,caliph,18khalqanwakhulqan,“innatureandmoralqualities,”45khātamal-anbiyā;“TheSealoftheProphets,”56Khātaman-nubuwwa.SeeSealofProphethoodkhatm,“completion”:oftheKoran,84;oftheṣaḥīḥofBukhāri,27khatt,“script,”also“blackdownonthecheek,”73,273(n.95)khilāfat,officeofthecaliph,succession,234khirqa-isharīf,theProphet’scloak,39,243khiyāna,“beingtreacherous,”impossibleforaprophet,57khulafaar-rāshidūn,al-,“therightlyguidedcaliphs,”thefirstfoursuccessors

ofMuḥammad,19kidhb,“lying,”impossibleforaprophet,57kufr,“infidelity,”101,299(n.12)Kun“Be!”—God’sCreativeword,129kunyay“agnomen,”114,266(n.38),287(n.28)

kūsa,“squash,”favoritevegetableoftheProphet,44

l,connectedwithGabriel,118;symbolizesworshipers,290(n.71)lā,“110none,”incalligraphya“crooked”doubleletter,198lāilāhaillāAllah,“ThereisnogodbutGod,”firsthalfoftheprofessionof

faith,3,26,106lailatal-qadr,“TheNightofMight”(Sura97),144,272(n.83),290(n.72)LastJudgment.SeeDayofJudgment;Doomsdaylaulāka,“Ifyouhadnotbeen…God’saddresstoMuḥammad,101,131,132,

252;princeof,243Leben-Jesu-Forschung,6,231levha(Turkish;Arab.lauha),“tablet,”pagewithcalligraphy,28lightoftheimams,130liwaal-hamd,“thebannerofpraise,”86.SeealsoMuḥammad,andthe(green)

bannerlogos,142lutf,“Divinekindness,mercy,”reflectedinMuḥammad’sface,196

m,mim,numericalvalue40:71,289(n.62),307(n.142),308(n.153);ofmasih,72;ofmajd,107;ofmulk,107,117;ofMuḥammad,114,115,118,192,201,205,211,217,290(n.71);ofAḥmad,116,117,205,212,217;asSealofProphethood,205;pointingtomāzāgha,212;asveil,240;likethebellofrevelation,290(n.72)

mātaghā,“hedidnottumaway”(Sura53:i7),163māzāgha,“(theeye)didnotswerve”(Sura53:17),163,212maddāhūnar-rasūl,“thosewhoprofessionallyrecitepraisesongsforthe

Prophet,”178,302(n.12)madrasa,theologicalCollege,27,228maghāzi,theProphet’swarsandtheliteratureconnectedwiththem,9,273(n.

92),274(n.107),278(n.18),279(n.43)mahbūbiyyat-ikhudā,“(Muḥammad’s)rankasGod’sbelovedfriend,”290(n.

71)mahfil,“gathering,”148mahmūd,“praised,”105,106majd,“glory,”107mal’aal-a4ā,al-,“theSupremeCompany,”theangels,133,222

malakūt,“kingdom,”126;“angelicworld,”222malang,itinerantdervish,42malika-inubuwwat,“habitusofprophethood,”229manāqib(Sindhimunāqibā),“extraordinaryfeats,miraclestories,”67,157mantrā,“magicalformula,”115maqāmal-mahmūd,al-,“thepraiseworthyrank”(Sura17:79),107,289(n.67)maqāmal-muhammadi,al-,theProphet’slocation,133mard-imömin,“thebeliever,”inIqbal’sterminologythetrulyperfected

Muslim,246,305(n.78)marthiya,“threnody,”especiallyforthemartyrsofKerbela,20,281(n.58)masih,“Christ,”72maesiya,“rebellion,sin,”304(n.51)mathnawi,poeminrhymingCouplets:OttomanTurkish,11;ofSanā’i,195,

196;ofSaffi,204;ofIqbāl,242;ofTJrfi,277(n.26);ofGhālib,305(n.83)

maulid,birthdayoftheProphetorasaint,andthefestivitiesandpoetryconnectedwithit,79,144–48,150,152,153156,158,159,188,228,295(nn.12,14),296(n.28),297(n.44),310(n.41)

maulūd(Turkishmevlūt),birthdayoftheProphet,poetryrecitedatthisoccasionandatotherfestivities,144,147,149,152,155–57,296(n.20)

māyā,“illusion,”161merkabah,“chariot,”anearlytypeofJewishmysticism,298(n.8)mevlūtkandili,theIlluminationatMuḥammad’sbirthday,145.Seealsomaulūd

mhmd,theconsonantsofMuḥammad’sname,114,116,217mihr(Persian),“kindness;sun,”128milād,“birthday,”144,146,148,152,157,295(n.1),296(n.20).Seealso

maulid’,maulūdmillat,“nation,”251mimduasi,prayerconnectedwiththelettermintheTurkishBektashiOrder,

114mi’rāj,“ladder,”159,160,171,174;specifically,Muḥammad’sheavenly

joumey,107,141,159,161,162,164–66,169,170,172,173,175,203,224,239,243,246,247,248,290(n.72),297(n.3),298(nn.5,7,8,10,12),299(nn.12,13),300(nn.49,50),301(nn.58,60,66,67)

misbāh,“lamp”(Sura24:35),124

miswāk,thetwigforcleaningtheteeth,43muātaba,“blaming,”218mudhammam,“blameworthy,”107mufti,lawyerwhogivesalegaldecision,144muhammadi,“relatedtoMuḥammad,”24;tariqamuhammadiyya,“the

MuhammadanPath,”24Muharram,firstmonthofthelunaryear,devotedtothememoryofthemartyrs

ofKerbela,20mujaddid-ialf-ithāni,“theReformerofthesecondmillennium,”216.Seealso

Sīrhindimu’jiza,“inimitablemiracleofaprophet,”67,177mukhammas,poeminfive-linedstrophes,212mulk,“kingdom,”107,117m,min(plur.masc.muminūn,plur.fern.mumināt),“believer,”51munāqibā.Seemanāqibmunkir-imi’rāj,someonewhodeniestheheavenly

joumeyoftheProphet,299(n.31)murid,“disciple”:creationisMuhammad’s,141musaddas,poeminsix-linedstrophes,89mushaf,“copyoftheKoran,”45mutā’,“hewhoisobeyed,”designationofMuḥammad(Sura81:21),137,204,

205mutaqārib,simpleArabo-Persianmeter,mainlyusedforepicpoetry,121,204mutf,“hewhoobeys,”137muwashshah,post-classicalArabicstrophicpoem,189,297(n.42)

n,numericalvalue50:71,205;pointingtonur,“light,”129naam,“Yes,”198nabi(plur.anbiya),“prophet,”57,116nadhīr,“wamer”(Sura33:45),109nafasar-rahmān,“thebreathoftheMerciful,”cametoMuḥammadfrom

Yemen,22nafs,“seif,lowersoul,basefaculties,”53,276(n.18)nafsinafsi,“Imyself,”exclamationoftheprophetsonDoomsday,84,282(n.

13)najāt,“help,”199na’l(plur.ni’āl),“sandal,”40,42.SeealsoMuḥammad,hissandalsnam(Persian),“dew,”205nāmūs,“Nomos,”hereanangelicfigure,135,296(n.64)nardabān(Persian),“ladder,”174.Seealsomi’rājnaslm,“graceful,”112,204naskh,cursivescript;also“abolition,”28,38,73nasta’liq,“hanging”calligraphicstyleusedmainlyinthePersianateareas,37na’t,na’tiyya,poetryinpraiseoftheProphet,176,178,217,305(n.78);of

Jāim,112,189,191,205–7,265(n.24),280(n.55),288(n.37);Dakhni,121;Sindhi,177;Arabic,188,189;Persian,195,197,198,209,237,307(n.133);Urdu,196,209,211,212,304(n.55);ofTrāql,203;ofSaffi,204;ofNaziri,208,245,300(n.49);ofGhālib,227;ofShauql,234;ofIqbāl,241;inShina,287(n.22);ofal-Witri,303(n.40);ofSayyidAll,303(n.46);ofNizāml,305(n.82);ofBedil,307(n.138);ofNefi,307(n.144)

nauba,ceremonialdrummīngatthedoorsofgrandees,203NightofMight,lailatal-qadr(Sura97),144,197,271(n.60),272(nn.81,83),

290(n.72)ni’ma,“bounty,”198Ninety-nineNamesofGod.Seeasmāʼal-husnā,al-Nizām-iMustafa,4nubuwwa,“prophethood,”137,254nur,“light”:nural-hudā,“LightofRightGuidance,”32,124;nural-anwār,

“lightoflights,”129;nūrMuḥammad,“Muhammad’slight,”122–26,129,140,292(n.20).Seealsoanwār;Muḥammad,hislight

paighambargul,“theProphet’sflower,”49Pen,primordial,106,157;aspartofMuḥammad,orhisspirit,128,130,135,

244PerfectMan,al-insānal-kāmil,4,134,137,142,178,219,231pericletos,changedfromparacletos,108.SeealsoParacleteprofessionoffaith,3,8,26,84,106,128,130,141,192,208,217,246,272(n.

72);itssecondhalf,relatingtoMuḥammad,3,26,65,134,217

purusasakta,“primordialMan”intheHindutradition,294(n.76)

q,numericalvalue100:insiharfi,212,288(n.34)qābaqausain,“twobows’length”(Sura53:9),39»108,163,212,271(n.60),

289(n.66)qadamrasūl,theProphet’sfootprintinstone,42,43qadar,“freewill,”195qahr,“Divinewrath,”manifestedinMuḥammad’sblackhair,196qasida,longmonorhymepoemusuallycontaining,afteraneroticintroduction,

thedescriptionofajoumeytowardthepersonwhoistheobjectofthepoet’spraise;generally,anencomium,91,156,157,189,190;byGhālib,115;byka’sibnZuhair,179;theBurda,185;byShauql,118;byKhāqānl,204;byJāmi,206,280(n.55);byNazlri,208;byTJrfi,277(n.26)

qasim,“well-shaped,”112,204qaul,“word,”26qawwāl,“singer,”101,109,208;qawwāli,musicalsessionswithpredominantly

religiousmusic,123,126,156qayyūm,thehighestsaint,throughwhomtheworldsubsists,inSīrhindl’s

theology,218,219,308(n.6),309(n.6)qibla,“directionofprayer,”39,190;qiblaoftheUniverseisMuḥammad,73qul,“Say!”—DivineaddresstotheProphetintheKoranicrevelations,199,

305(n.97)qum,“Rise!”(Sura74:1),DivineOrdertotheProphet,250,287(n.24)qurbal-faraid,“proximitytoGodbymeansofthelegallyprescribedduties,”

thewayoftheprophets,222,223,246qurban-nawāfil,“proximitytoGodbymeansofsupererogatoryworksof

piety,”thewayofthesaints,222,223qussās(plur.ofqāss),populārpreachers,67qutb,“Pole,Axis,”thehighestmemberofthemysticalhierarchy,138quwwat-iqudsiyya,“facultyofsanctity,”229

radif,therepeatedrhyme-wordorrhymingsentenceinaghazalorqasida,74,191

rafrafiSura55:76),amysteriousheavenlyvehicleorcushion,171,300(n.49)rahim,“merciful,”nameofGodandoftheProphet,110

rahma(t),“mercy,”74,107;equivalentof“rain,”81rahmatanlil-eālamin,“asmercyfortheworlds”(Sura21:107),16,252.See

alsoMuḥammad,asMercyrasūl,“messenger,”56,134,204,290(n.72);rasūlAllāh,129,134;rasūl-i

akram,“thenoblestmessenger,”113;rasūl-irahmat,“themessengerofmercy,”287(n.28)

raūf,“mild,”nameofGodandoftheProphet,110Resurrection,12,47,62,79,91,96,101,107,156,160,210,284(n.51).See

alsoDoomsday;DayofJudgmentrisāla,theofficeoftherasūl,propheticOffice,137,254;risālatpanāh

(Persian),“shelterofthepropheticoffice,”113Rose:fromtheProphet’sperspiration,35,165,270(n.43);Muḥammad

beautifullikearose,39;hisnoselikeawhiterose,39

s,sin,109,287(n.21)sabemathāni,“thesevendoubleones”(Sura15:87),63sahāba,theCompanionsoftheProphet,22,26salām,“greeting,”literarygerne,especiallyinPersianandUrdu,93,190,194,

287(n.27),303(n.45),307(n.130)salātalāMuḥammad,“blessingsuponMuḥammad,92,93salawātsharifa,theformulasofblessingupontheProphet,92,94,98,99,102;

salawātal-mashishiyya,as-,formulasofblessingascribedtothemedievalNorthAfricanSufiIbnMashlsh,94

samāt“hearing,”mysticalconcert,oftenwithwhirlingdance,99,145,174samad,“Etemal,”oneofGod’snames,198sanam,“idol,”198sarāpā,poeticaldescriptionoftheProphet“fromheadtotoe,”271(n.57)sarwar-ikaināt,“theleaderoftheuniverse,”113sayyid(plur.sādāt),descendantofMuḥammad,especiallythroughhis

grandsonsHasanand,preferably,Husain,21,194,219,224,242,266–67(n.44),281(n.58);sayyidal-mursalin,“lordofthemessengers,”62;sayyidnā,“ourlord,”i.e.Muḥammad,114

SealofProphethood,khātaman-nubuwwa,markbetweenMuḥammad’sshoulderblades,11,34;thelettermcomparableto,117,205;astalisman,91,92

SealoftheProphets,56Sealofthesaints,133seerat.Seestraft)shab-ibarāt,thenightoffullmooninSlufbān,theeighthlunarmonth,inwhich

thedestiniesarefixedforthenextyear,197shafāa,“intercession,”84,86,91,104,141shafi,“intercessor,”84,204,241.SeealsoMuḥammad,asintercessorshahāda,

“professionoffaith,”106,272(n.72)shaitān,Satan,satanicornegativequalitiesinman,61shamā’il,“goodqualities,”32–34,180;sharmilnāma,descriptionofthe

Prophet’slooksandqualities,36sham-imahfil,“thecandleoftheassembly,”themostradiantandattractive

personinagathering,123shaqqal-qamar,“Splittingofthemoon”(Sura54:1),69.SeealsoMuḥammad,

splitsthemoonsharfa,“law,”theDivinelygivenlaw,72,141,199,219,221,224,234,294(n.

75)sharīf,“noble,”belongingtotheProphet,25;(plur.ashrāf),descendantofthe

Prophet,21,146,267(n.44)shī‘atAli,“thepartyofAli,”19.SeealsoShiashifā;“healing,”33,199;shifakhāna-iHijāz,theHijazasaplacewhereone

findsspiritualhealing,243shuhada(plur.ofshāhid),“witnesses,”251sidi,“mylord,”appellationofMuḥammad,114sidq,“truthfūlness,”qualityofaprophet,57silmrfi,“GoldenAlphabet,”157,166,212,283(n.27),284(n.51),285(n.95),

288(n.34),294(n.74),305(n.83),307(n.142)sira(t),“biography,”especiallyoftheProphet,9,264(n.4),297(n.46),310(n.

44);siratmovement,231,232,234,241sirājunmunīr,“ashininglamp”(Sura33:46),109,124,127,137,149subhāni,“Glorybetome!”—exclamationofthemysticBāyezldBistāmi,61sunna,“custom,”theProphetietradition,21,26,29–32,43,50,54,152,198,

199,216,218,228,233,250,266(n.41),268(n.2),269(n.26),281(n.58);sūnnet(Turkish),“circumcision,”152.SeealsoSunni

sunnitrāsh,“Sunnicizer,”strictadherenttothesunna,218

tabfaal-jarniyya,at-,“thetotalizingnature”oftheProphet,133ṫabīb,“physician,”42,209Tablet,thewell-preserved,107,157;fromMuḥammad’slight,128;Muḥammad

as,244tabligh,“propagatingthemessage,”qualityofaprophet,57tadhyil,Prolongationofapoem,303(n.41)tafdil,“preference,”61tāhir,“pure,”109tahnik,“rubbingsomeone’sgumswithsaliva,”273(n.92)tā’ifa,“group,branch,guild,”302(n.12)tajāhulal-’ārif,“feignedignorance,”arhetoricalplay,187tajrid,“isolation,”288(n.38)takhmis,extensionofapoemintofive-linedstanzas,183,184,303(n.41)talabal-hadith,traveling“insearchofḥadīth,”269(n.11)ta’liq,the“hanging”styleofPersianwriting,73taqrir,“silentapproval,”26tarannum,“recitation,”156tariqa(t),“themysticalPath,”141,219;at-tariqaal-muhammadiyya,“the

MuhammadanPath,”fundamentalist-mysticalmovementinIndiaintheeighteenthandnineteenthCentimes,216,219,223,225,227

tarjfband(Persian),strophicpoemwiththeconnecting,repeatedline,206tashbib,theeroticintroductionofaqasida,190,211tashtir,“Splitting”andfillingtheversesofaqasidawithadditionallines,183tasliya,theformulaofblessingupontheProphet,92–94,96–99,101,110,114,

303(n.34)tauhid,confessionthatGodisOne,monotheism,154,229,251thuluth,“one-third,”large,decorativecursivecalligraphicstyle,28tibban-nabawi,at-,“Prophetiemedicine,”45timthāl,“effigy,”170tūgh,imperialStandardmadeofyaktails,109tughrā,handsignofaruler,171,205;nowusuallyadecorativepieceof

calligraphythatformsaclosedfigure,95,120Twobows’length(Sura53:9),186,299(n.20).Seealsoqābaqausain

’ubūdiyya,“thestageofabd,”servantship,125ūlul-azm,“thosewithfirmintention”(Sura46:34),56Ummabihā,“herfather’smother,”epithetofFātima,18Ummal-kitāb,“theMotheroftheBook,”theheavenlyprototypeoftheKoran,

72umma,“community,”62,71,144,233,283(n.34);ummamarhūma,“the

communitythatwasgrantedmerey,”87,218;ummatanmuslimatanlaka,“asaMuslimcommunityforThee”(Sura2:122),251;ummatiummati,“Mycommunity!”—theProphet’sexclamationatDoomsday,85,282(n.13)

ummī,“unlettered”(Sura7:157–58),17,71–74,121,126,201,278(n.17);ummiyya,“thequalityofbeingunlettered,”281(n.58).SeealsoMuḥammad,asunlettered

’umra,“thelesserpilgrimage”toMeccaoutsidetheofficialmonthofpilgrimage,14

’uqūl(plur.ofaql),“intelligences,”127uswahasana,“beautifulmodel”(Sura33:21),8,16,26,235.Seealso

Muḥammad,as(beautiful)modeluwaisi,Sufiwhohasnotbeeninitiatedbythelivingmaster,22

Wa’d-duhā4“BytheMomingLight!”(Sura93:1),195.SeealsoMuḥammad,as“MomingLight”;hisfaceas“BytheMomingLight”wahdāniyya,Divine“unity,”290(n.71)

wali(plur.auliya),“friend,saint,”100waqty“time,”momentofraptureorInspiration,161,169wasim,“elegant,”112,204watariy“nativecountry,”250;wataniyyaty“patriotism,”250

yāqūtabaidā;“whitechrysollte,”127yār-ighār(Persian),“friendofthecave,”i.e.,AbūBakr,13yatim,“orphan,”10,211yatima,“orphan(i.e.,unique)pearl,”10,211,291(n.20)

ziyārat,“visit”ofatomborsacredplace,145