African Aromatherapy: Past, Present and Future Applications By Stephanie Rose Bird

Most of what we regard as new discoveries has ancient roots,

including aromatherapy. Within some of the earliest

civilizations in Africa, there were vibrant cultures that

revered aromatic plants.

“Since the most ancient of times, African priests and priestesses and the

common people believed in and used magic, medicine and religions to

protect themselves from evil forces and to attract good ones.”

Camille Yarbrough, (Sertima, I.V. 2002)

Early Egyptian priests practiced enfleurage, an extraction

process for obtaining aromatic oils from flowers.

Hippocrates, known as the Father of modern medicine,

acquired most of his knowledge from Egyptians. (Manniche, L.

1999) Dioscorides, the Greek physician who created De

Materia Medica, a document that set the standard for herbal

knowledge, transcribed numerous African remedies and

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formulae. (Edwards, V. 1999) Ancient Greco-Romans Pliny and

Galens were fascinated by healing techniques utilizing

fragrant plants practiced by Egyptians and other early

African cultures. The three, as well as lesser-known

physicians, archived, experimented with and most

importantly, passed down, African aromatic healing formulas,

developed later in Europe. (Manniche, L. 1999) In this way,

African plant wisdom influenced Western herbalism and

aromatherapy as they exist today.

Fragrance historian, Lise Manniche’s interpretation of

aromatherapy is less fixated on the use of essential oils as

the primary aromatherapy tools and more broad, a definition

shared by many African people.

“In order to define the area as far as ancient Egypt is concerned we shall here

loosely classify aromatherapeutic remedies as substances applied as treatment

where the scent of the remedy is emphasized by its being used in massage and

other external applications such as poultices, by it being inhaled, or similar, and

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in particular such substances which are endowed with a pronounced scent.”

(Manniche, L, 1999.)

Manniche also states, Egyptians noticed acacia possessed

aromatherapeutic benefits because of its penetrating affect,

even thought its aroma is faint. Acacia oil massage was

used to help heal heart ailments as an infused oil and

poultice. It is of further interest that Manniche cites

Coptic Africans as using this practice. (Manniche, L., 1999

P.114) Copts are concentrated in Ethiopia not Egypt,

attesting to a collective knowledge, rather than herbalism

as an isolated Ancient Egyptian phenomenon.

Africa’s aromatic past is intriguing, so is the continued

engagement and unique applications of aromatherapy on the

continent and within the African diaspora. In some cases

engagement with aromatherapy is through the commonly

accepted form, essential oils, yet other parts of my

discussion encompass the use of aromatic herbs in incense,

rubs, pomades, solid perfumes, washes, baths, scented waters

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and spirituality, as these are common African aromatherapy

applications.

Our Lady of Fragrance: Makeda, Queen of Sheba

You may have heard of the Makeda, Queen of Sheba through

biblical references, the Kebra Negast or the Koran. The

romance between Makeda and Solomon, the third king of

Israel, is legendary. Their romance provides a view of

early African traditions, rituals, ceremonies and even

geographic boundaries.

Sheba was an empire centered in Ethiopia. The word

“Ethiopia” in early Greek means “land of the sunburnt

faces.” The term Ethiopia then, is quite generic; it refers

to Brown and Black people. In ancient times, Ethiopia

referred to a wide geographical area, encompassing Upper

Egypt and the African continent generally. Current day

southern Saudi Arabia, Yemen, southern Iran (Persia) and

parts of India where considered Ethiopia. (Williams, L;

Finch, C, 2002)

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Some scholars draw tighter boundaries. In “The Great Queen

of Ethiopia.” (Williams, L; Finch, C, 2002) define Ethiopia

as below Aswan, Egypt; the Sudan and present day Ethiopia.

The Queen of Sheba’s empire included parts of Upper Egypt,

all of Ethiopia, segments of Arabia, Syria, Armenia, India

and the region between the Mediterranean and the Erythraean

Sea (Baldwin, J.D; 2002, P. 61)

The Kebra Negast (The Glory of Kings) a holy book written in

Ge’ez language, says Queen of Sheba’s empire was established

in 1370 BC and lasted 350 years. This book also

demonstrates a relationship between southern Arabia and

Abyssinia (which it calls Ethiopia) in language, religion

and racial composition. This is supported by writing in

Latin by Strabo and Pliny, as well as a host of Egyptian

hieroglyphics (Williams, L; Finch, C. 2002, P. 13)

The merchants of Sheba and Raamah were they merchants; they traded in thy

fairs with the best of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold.

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Ezekiel 27:22-24

The relationship between Solomon and Makeda was one of power

and perhaps of love. Makeda brought gifts to persuade King

Solomon to enter a trade agreement. Solomon became smitten

with Makeda and had a crystal palace built for her visits;

washed down completely in fragrant floral waters (probably

rose water, as it was commonly used).

Various sources list the gifts given for Makeda and

Solomon’s weddings as: cinnamon, cassia, attar of roses and

neroli (orange blossom oil or water); sandalwood; aloe vera,

olive oil, sweet almond oil; fragrant trees—an array of

fragrant healing gifts. The gifts demonstrate international

trade and cooperation. Persian, Indian, Arabian and West

African botanicals used by Shabaeans, are enjoyed in

contemporary Africa and the international community.

The marriage between Makeda and Solomon was one of many for

the king—he is thought to have had over 100 wives. In the

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end, Makeda left Israel, pregnant with their only son.

Makeda raised their son, Menelik alone. Imagining how the

Shabaeans looked isn’t difficult. Menelik was the first

king of the Solomonid line in Ethiopia--a line that ended

with the deposition of Haille Selasie in 1974.

Carthage was another Ancient African empire involved with

fragrant botanicals. (Rashidi, R. 2002, page 72.) Carthage

included present day Ghana, Mali, Songhay and Kanem-Bornu.

Punt, also called Pwenet (sacred land or incense land) was prized

for both incense and ebony. Punt was on the coast of

Eritrea and Somalia (Montet, P. Eternal Egypt). Because of

its geography and climate, Somalia remains the primary

producer of quality frankincense and myrrh. (See side bar

1).

Ancient Egypt

Egypt (Khamet) remains the most renowned ancient African

culture. Egyptians used fragrant plants medicinally and

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spiritually. Fumigation, (smudging) with smoldering herbs,

was used during prayer, meditation, clearing and healing—

particularly in the treatment of women’s reproductive

ailments. Many of the botanical oils aromatherapists, use

today continue to come from Egypt and nearby countries.

Plant essences were released into fixed oils through

maceration, pulverization, soaking, burning, fermentation,

water based infusion, decoction and unguents. Applications

used by Ancient Egyptians still popular today, include

baths, rubs, massage, tinctures, poultices, body wraps, teas

and what I would venture to call hot toddy’s (alcoholic

herbal drinks).

“In the black seeds (cumin) is the medicine for every disease except death.”

-Arab proverb

Papyrus Ebers lists over 800 herbal remedies. Here are a few

aromatic herbs used in Africa and the diaspora.

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Acacia: used to treat wounds, chest rub and in 9th century

AD as an internal treatment of the uterus. (Manniche, L.

2002 P. 115)

Angelica Root: cited in the bible, its botanical name

(Angelica archangelica) bears Christian overtones. Angelica

root, also called archangel root, is thought to be a gift

from Archangel Michael to empower women and protect

children. (Illes, J. 2000). Called the root of the Holy

Ghost, angelica is chewed in North America, to keep evil

away and to prolong life. (Riva, A. 1974.) Author Judika

Illes lists angelica in a spiritual floor wash recipe.

(Illes, J. 2000, P. 126) Women and children carry the root

as a protection amulet in mojo bags. (Bird, S. R. 2004)

Asafoetida: because it is so acrid, it is thought of as an

aid to dark forces in the Americas.

Castor bean (Ricinus commnis L) used in oil lamps, for

headaches and hair conditioning by Egyptians 6,000 years

ago. (Duke, J. A. 2000) African Americans use castor oil as

a laxative, emollient, lotion and hair growth aid. This

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sacred ceremonial oil is called ewe lara by Yoruban Ifa and

Afro-Brazilian Candomble devotees. (Voeks, R. 1997 P. 27-28)

Chamomile: (Matricaria or Anthemis spp) was discovered through

scientific analysis as an anointing ingredient and embalming

substance for the body of King Ramesses II in 1976

(Manniche, L. 2002 p 115-116) In Hoodoo, chamomile tea is

lucky hand wash. (Riva, A. 1974 P. 19)

Cinnamon: a preservative with moringa oil in embalming

techniques, to soothe the living and souls of the departed

(Manniche, L. 2002, P. 116) Cinnamon is added to magical

powders and incense throughout the diaspora and it continues

to be used as a preservative.

Cumin oil: called tepenen, believed to be an indigenous

Egyptian herb, used for a host of ailments, applied as a

lotion or unguent. Ethiopians mix black cumin seeds (Nigella

sativa L) with butter, then wrap the body in cloth or sniff

for headaches. Strewn among linens, it serves as a moth

repellent. Cumin remains an important African herb. (Duke,

J. A. 2000)

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Dill: called arakhou by Egyptians, this herb was found

posthumously on Amenhotep II. Dill was mentioned in an

ancient text from about1500 BC that cites arakhou as having

analgesic qualities. (Manniche, L. 2002)

Fir (sefet) according to the Papyrus Eber, it was used as a

hair growth unguent (pomade). (Ibid)

Henna Cyprinum has very fragrant flowers, sweet perfume;

seeds and flowers were macerated in olive oil. (Manniche, L.

2002, P. 71) Henna plant treated nervous conditions, broken

bones, improved circulation and was a general tonic.

(Manniche, L. 2002, P. 118) Use of henna continues,

particularly in the Sudan and Northern Africa as a hair

treatment, perfume, beauty aid and tattoo. Reseda, the name

for henna in Haiti’s “Medsin fey,” (Botanical Medicine) is used

medicinally. (Beauvoir, M. G. 2003)

Iris (orrisroot) oil is used to anoint the nostrils as a

styptic and near the heart for murmurs and other ailments.

Perfume from flowers (Irenium) was an unguent and medicine

base. (Manniche, L. 2002, Press, P. 68) Orrisroot powder

continues to function in African American healing medicine,

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enhancing the powers of other herbs and stones (same ability

recognized in Egypt). Called Queen Elizabeth root

colloquially orrisroot enhances physical and psychological

comfort. (Bird, S.R. 2004)

Lemon Verbena: dried leaves burned, during invocations

attract good influences and assist divination. (Riva,

A.1974, P. 46)

Lotus-used in perfumery, for funerary rites as an unguent,

anointment for fever, as it was believed to have a cooling

effect. (Manniche, L, 2002 P. 121) Carrying a lotus amulet

encourages focus and good spirits. (Riva, A.1974. P. 62)

Today, lotus is an aphrodisiac associated with the angelic

loving spirit, orisha Oshun. (Karade, B. I. 1997)

Mandrake Oil-used to anoint the Maya, treasurer of

Tutankhamun, as it was found in her tomb. A cooling

ointment was made, as an analgesic, to induce sleep or act

as a narcotic. (Manniche, L, 2002, P. 121)

Myrtle (Khet-des) used for skin disorders and sinus

infections in early Egypt. (Manniche, L. 2002, P. 122)

Myrtle is used to inspire peace, invite blessings and

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generosity. Grown since early times for the fragrant

flowers and leaves as well as the aromatic bark, myrtle

contains antibacterial phenols. Spiritually, myrtle

symbolizes Venus and other love goddesses. Myrtle is used

medicinally to treat tumors, breasts, and genitals.

Iranians make a hot poultice for boils. Algerians use it to

relieve asthma. North Africans use dry flower to treat

small pox. (J. A. Duke, 1999) The Gullah people use an

indigenous form of myrtle (Myrica cerifera) an aromatic

evergreen that grows in wet, sandy, pinelands and bogs in

the Carolina Lowlands and Sea Coast Islands for diarrhea,

dysentery, uterine hemorrhage and as a gargle. (Mitchell, F.

1999 P. 75.) African Americans use myrtle by inhaling warm

vapors from the tea or a poultice, to relieve head pains

caused by a severe cold or flu. (Riva, A. 1974, P. 27)

Rose used for headache, toothache, ointment for disease in

the uterus. (Manniche, L. 2002 P. 122) Rose has been used

since ancient times as a nervine, systemic tonic,

refrigerant and aphrodisiac. African Americans (among

others) burn dried petals alone or in an incense blend to

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attract good luck. (Riva, A. 1974, P. 27) Roses are

associated with the Queen of Sheba, Neferteti and Cleopatra.

Rue-massaged directly on the body to reduce fever (Manniche,

L. 2002, P.123) Practitioners of Candomble in Brazil and

Lucumi in Cuba, wear rue in their hair with other herbs to

deter negative spirits. (Voeks, R. 1997 P. 24)

Sage—found on the body of Ramesses II, (probably clary

sage). Incense smoke was inhaled sometimes through a straw

called profomo. (Manniche, L. 2002) Sage was used for

magico-spiritual benefits in Ancient Egypt, a belief that

persists today with smudge sticks in the diaspora.

Sidebar #1: Frankincense and Myrrh

Frankincense and myrrh have been revered for their healing

properties from ancient times to the present. These resins

are extracted from sap of members of the Burseraceae family;

each has a distinct aroma, color, medicine and spiritual

attribute.

Frankincense (Boswellia sacra) (Boswellia carterii) called Beyo

locally, used for dysentery, gonorrhea, fever, polyps. The

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three Wiseman honored the divinity of Jesus Christ, with

frankincense, at the time it was more valuable than gold.

Frank means free, incense means lightning. The Arabic word

for frankincense luban means milk of the Arabs. The earliest use

is inscribed on the tomb of Queen Hatsheput in 15 century

BC. (Celestial Tides, 2003) Somalia’s commercial history

began with incense. (Northern Somalia, gained significance

through incense trade) Beyo referred to as olibanum, is the

classical frankincense distilled into essential oil. Beyo

is used locally as a fire starter, to deter snakes and

scorpions for purification; to perfume hair and clothing;

incense; holy ointments; even cola soft drink. Beyo is

still imported primarily from Somalia (Ancient Punt) East

Africa. (Duke, J. A. 1999) it also grows around the horn of

Africa, the Hadhramaut region of Yemen and Oman (Celestial

Tides, 2003).

Maydi is the top grade medicinal frankincense. Used as a

chewing product in Saudi Arabia, maydi comes in seven

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grades. The highest two are preferred: Mushaad and

Mujaarwal, numbers one and two respectively are close to

transparent, sold as quite large, unbroken pieces. The

Maydi that survives shipment abroad is usually the smaller,

opaque, lower grade types.

Swahili speakers use frankincense as a diuretic. East

Africans use it to treat syphilis. Tanzanians boil it with

sesame oil to treat a parasitic disease called

scistomosomiasis. The bark of the resin is used as a tonic

in East Africa. (J. A. Duke,1999). Heavily used in the

African diaspora, particularly in the United States as an

incense and anointment oil. British herbalist Anne McIntyre

suggest frankincense to heal many conditions, including,

respiratory infections, catarrh, laryngitis, asthma, fevers,

scars, sores and wounds. (McIntyre, A. 1995).

Myrrh-is used as an analgesic, astringent, for bronchitis

and as an expectorant. There are 135 species of myrrh

growing in Africa and the Middle East, just as with

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frankincense, the highest grades still come from the area

known as ancient Punt, modern day Somalia. Myrrh foretold

the passion and suffering of Jesus Christ. A salve made

from it was a stimulant. Heliopolis myrrh was burned at

noon as an incense for the ancient Egyptian sun god, Ra.

Myrrh is widely enjoyed. It is a dentifrice. Africans chew

myrrh stems to clean their teeth. Kenyans chew myrrh as

gum. Ghanaians fumigate clothing with fragrant smoke of

burning myrrh wood. Nigerians decoct myrrh and give as a

drink for mental illness and tapeworm. A mouthwash is made

from it to help topical ulcers. Bronchial inflammations,

vaginal infections, astringent, fixative, lotions,

potpourri, perfumery, soap, food (approved by FDA)

preservative of scents.

Today modern Egyptian women carry pearls (small chunks) of

myrrh in their purse for perfume and status. (Duke, J. A.

1999. P. 172-173). Practitioners of Hoodoo, Ifa and

Santeria, Moslems, Catholics, Jews and Christians, use myrrh

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spiritually. African Americans use myrrh blessing and

anointment oils. (Riva, A. 1974, P. 46) Myrrh is burned to

honor the Egyptian moon goddess Isis. (Illes, J. 2000. P.

38) The corresponding ewe (herb) of the angelic spirit

Oshun, of the Ifa tradition from Nigeria is myrrh. (Karade,

B. I. 1997 P.32) Ann McIntyre recommends it medicinally in

Women’s Herbal, citing it as a stimulant, carminative,

vulnerary, expectorant, antiseptic, antiviral, detoxifier;

useful for bronchitis, asthma, colds, indigestion,

inflammation. (McIntyre, A. 1995)

Myrrh is a hard resin; powdering it finely and then

infusing, releases its medicine as does tincturing.

The Yoruba of Nigeria

The Yoruba are an additional culture of interest to this

conversation, as they are a link from our past to present

day herbal practices. Yoruban history begins with the

migration of an East African population across the trans-

African route leading from the mid-Nile river area to the

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mid-Niger. Migrating peoples undoubtedly used this route

from times that were exceeding remote. (Basil, D, 1959)

Michael Omoleya takes us back further. “The Nigerian region

was inhabited more than forty thousand years ago, or as far

back as 65,000 BC.” (Omoleya, M. 1986 P. 15) Olumede Luceus

illustrates the point of connection between Egypt and sub-

Saharan Nigeria. “The Yoruba lived in ancient Egypt during

antiquity before migrating to the Atlantic coast. Luceus

cites, “similar languages, religions, beliefs, customs,

names of persons, places and things.” This is of interest

to the discussion of African diasporic aromatic traditions

since the greatest percentage of Africans enslaved in the

new world came from the Yoruba nation. (Karade, B. I. 1994

P. 3)

In the Metu Neter Vol.1 by Ra Un Nefer Amen, clear

correlations are drawn between the Yoruba traditional

practice called Ifa and Khametic (Egyptian) spirituality.

For example, Ra Un Nefer connects Ifa gods and goddess

(orisha) and Khametian beings with the same attributes.

Each deity has spiritual baths, incenses and herbal

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medicines that are used to both pay spiritual homage and for

healing. In Ifa, each orisha has a corresponding herb

called ewe. This unique application of aromatic healing is

not limited to the Yoruban-based Ifa faith; it is prevalent

in most African diasporic practices. Here are a few

examples of the Khametic and Ifa continuum.1 Baths brings

devotees closer to the deity as do oils. Incense is used

for invocation and prayer.

Shango (Ifa) Heru (Khametic) are gods of action and will.

Baths: geranium, bay leaf; oils olibanum (frankincense) and

geranium. Incense is olibanum. (Nefer, R. U. 1990, P. 285)

Shango is also associated with cayenne, sarsaparilla, cedar

and lightning. (Karade, B. I. 1994, P. 37)

Oshun (Ifa) Het-Heru (Khametic) the goddesses (orisha) of

life and sexuality. Baths: yellow roses, honeysuckle,

vetiver, spearmint, sandalwood; Oils: rose, sandalwood,

honeysuckle, cinnamon. (Nefer, R. U. 1990, P. 287) Oshun is

associated with lotus, chamomile and myrrh. (Karade, B. I.

1994, P. 32)

1 Numerous herbs are associated with each deity. This is an abbreviatedlisting highlighting fragrant herbs used magically and spiritually.

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Elegba (Ifa) Sebek (Khametic) gods of wisdom and divinity;

human and godly. Baths: lavender, oregano, larkspur; Oils

and Incense: lavender and lily of the valley. (Nefer, R. U.

1990, P. 290) (Karade, B. I. 1994, P. 24-37)

Yemaya (Ifa) Auset (Khametic) goddesses of humanities,

creation and nurturing. Baths: spearmint Oils and Incense:

jasmine, spearmint. (Karade, B. I. 1994, P. 24-37) (Nefer,

R. U. 1990, P. 293)

Ogun (Ifa) Herukhuti (Kahametic) gods of war, justice and

metal Bath: pine Oils: pine, cedarwood; Incense: Pine,

tobacco and cedarwood. Ogun is associated with eucalyptus.

(Karade, B. I. 1994, P. 24-37) (Nefer, R. U. 1990, P. 280)

As we travel to the diaspora it is interesting to keep in

mind, creator and elder orisha, Obatala, as he is associated

with kola nut, basil, sage, hyssop and tobacco.

Fragrant Cures from Trinidad

Aromatic herbs thought of as irritants, skin sensitizers,

photo sensitizers, even toxic because of high concentrations

of ketones, phenols and other constituents, are used

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traditionally in Africa cultures. Successful use of strong

herbs demonstrates a different cultural perception in some

cases and suggests that alternative approaches in processing

and application render them useful.

Harold Courlander cites remedies collected from Trinidad

(Simpson, G.E. 1959) in A Treasury of Afro-American

Folklore.

Head Cold

Make paste of soft candle [wax], mustard powder and black

pepper. Cut [part] hair in the middle of the head, apply

paste, cover spot with thyme leaves. This preparation

breaks fever by causing perspiration. (Courlander, H. P.

1996, 164)

Stomach ache, stomach gas, dyspepsia

1) Chew guinea pepper (cayenne) with obi seed (Cola

acuminate)i and swallow

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2) Boil together some guava leaf and black sage leaves,

add spirits of asafetida [presumably tincture of

asafetida]

3) Make a bush tea of lemongrass, guava, soursopii and

avocado. (Courlander, H. P. 1996, P.164).

Cuts

Put ground balsam leaves and young coca pods on cut and

place piece of a rotten banana stump on top. (Don’t wash

cut first) Banana stump will drop off within 2-3 days.

Mixture stays on until cut heals. (Courlander, H. 1996 P.

166)

Asthma

i Kola Nut is a sacred African plant employed in divination,traded as early as 12-16th century by through African-Arabian routes. Kola is revered as a stimulant, native to West Africa used today in African American hair products. (Voeks, R. 1997, P. 26-27) ii Wild Soursop (A. muricata L.) is an aromatic, acidic fruit sold in open-air markets in Africa. Most people consider soursop too acidic to eat fresh (Mowry et al., 1941) The fruit contains a variety of constituents, aliphatic ketone, alkanes, alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, sterols, monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids (Langason et al., 1994; You et al., 1995) Aporphine and (-) roemerine, with cytotoxic activity (Cassady, 1990)

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1) Put yon tasso root, sarsaparilla root, young calabash,iii

(Crescentia cujete) wild thyme, petit baume leaves, mango bark,

guava bark, cedar bark, coconut roots, coconut bark, green

lime, lemon glassia leaves and lemongrass in a large jar.

Cover jar, bury underground. After two weeks, unearth,

strain, bottle. Use as needed. (Courlander, H. 1996, P.

167)

2) Boil Bahama grassiv (Cynodon dactylon) and coconut fiber;

infuse green rock sage; set aside. Roast rosemary bush and

wild okra seeds; grind into powder. Put in corked bottle.

Add menthol— inhale this brew between sips of the bahama

grass/coconut fiber tea. (Courlander, H. 1996 P. 167)

Jamaican Folk Medicine

In Jamaican Culture and International Folklore: Claudette V

Copney shares a variety of herbal remedies, from her

culture, featuring bay rum. Bay rum is created from Jamaicaniii Calabash are containers of herbal wisdom and strong medicine.

iv Bahama grass is a tenacious perennial grass used for astringent, styptic and healing properties.

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Pimento (Pimenta dioica) a tree in the family of myratacaea,

closely related to Bay trees and cloves. (Rodriquez, D. W.

1969) Jamaican pimento contains about 4% volatile oil and

eugenol content varies from 30-90% (Lancashire, R. J. 2003)

Bayberryv (Myrica cerifera) another myratacaea plant is also

included in Bay Rum. Myrica cerifera is also beloved in the

United States by Gullah healers.

Headache

Soak white cloth in bay rum—affix to forehead with safety

pin, facing each side of head. (Copney, C. V.1998 P. 86-88)

The white is symbolic of purity and cleansing; silver-colored pin is believed to

have magical protective abilities. The aroma calms the nerves, thereby relieving

the headache (Bird, S. R. 2004).

Flu

Rub down client with bay rum, to draw out fever, put under a

cover. For headache, pour bay rum on face cloth and inhale.

v Bay berries contain essential oils, triterpenes, flavonoids, (myricitrin) phenols, myrica wax and tannins. Used as an astringent and antibiotic, also for dystentery; to build immunity, drain lymphatic system and heal mucus membranes. (Viable Herbal Solutions, 2003)

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For nose bleeds

Soak cloth in bay rum, pin around head, inhale vapors.

Heart Burn

Dampen chest with rum

Tone Internal Organs (cure-all)

Add 1 shot bay rum to coffee or tea.

African American Remedies

Fragrant baths, floor washes, powders, bath crystals,

incense, anointing and blessing oils, as well as fresh

aromatic flowers are employed in our folk medicines and

magic.

Pomades

Unguents, which we now call pomades were used approximately

5,000 years ago according to cave walls on the Tassili

plateau, in the Sahara and Algiers. Women, with what

appears to be corn-rowed hair, are having a substance

(assumed to be unguent) applied to their braids and scalp.

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Women had their hair and bodies anointed with fragrant

pomades and botanical oils, assured of the oils medicinal

powers. Women perfumed themselves by sitting over or near

burning pots of sandalwood or aromatic substances [similar

to smudging or smoke bath]. Fragrant flowers, among other

natural objects worn on the body, served as protection

amulets. (Yarbrough, C. 2002)

In Ancient Egypt, women are depicted wearing cone-shaped

unguents on their heads. These cones were either

representative of all of the pomade previously applied or

actual cones that melted from body heat, perfuming and

conditioning the hair (illustrated in stele, papyri and cave

art from various civilizations). (Jeffries, R. 1988)

Madame C. J. Walker became the first Black millionaire in

the United States in the early twentieth century from her

miraculous, herbal hair growth pomades and other botanical

formulas. Afro Sheen, ™ Dixie Peace, ™ Dax, ™ Bergamot ™

as well as tallow and lanolin, herbal blends, have been used

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for decades by African Americans to treat scalp disorders

and encourage hair growth. Over the years, synthetic and

petroleum products dominated the formulae and their use

dwindled. Today, there is a virtual pomade renaissance

sparked by Black-owned and other corporations. African Pride

™ and African Root Stimulator ™, prominently feature

aromatic herbs like sage, rosemary, lemon verbena, neroli,

patchouli, lemongrass and kola nuts, in a shea butter or

olive oil base. Pomade has regained popularity,

unrestricted by ethnicity or race.

Stress, Anxiety and Depression

While aromatherapy may not cure disease, it enhances

lifestyle, making it an effective preventative. Traditional

African American formulae feature aromas that address the

body, mind and spirit.

Kananga Water : Ylang Ylang (Cananga odorata) is an

uplifting nervine used in African American folk

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medicine. The sweet, floral scent of Ylang Ylang helps

ease transitions by reducing anxious feelings,

inhibitions and stress. Kananga water is a specific

treatment for bereavement, separation, longing, may

have applications for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD). Kananga Water is a readymade product that

contains low-grade ylang ylang.

Chinese Wash : contains broom straw, lemongrass and

citronella essential oil in a soapy solution. Chinese

Wash cleanses the home or business. Lemongrass has a

pleasant, energizing, citrus aroma.

Van Van , a preferred spiritual oil; used

environmentally, as a perfume and bath, made from

African ingredients: lemongrass, vetiver, castor oil

and jojoba oil with magnetic stones.

Florida water contains bergamot (Citrus bergamia) lavender

(Lavandula augustifolia) lemon (Citrus limonum) jasmine

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(Jasminium spp.), attar of roses (Rosa spp) and Neroili

bigarade). Florida water is used for blessings; placed

on altars; for spiritual cleansing; in baths and as

cologne.

Fresh flowers considered hypnotic or narcotic, as

essential oils or absolutes are used in traditional

African spiritual traditions and American folk cultures.

Flowers create a pleasant environment by inspiring a

positive atmosphere. Narcissus (paper white lily) and

hyacinth, gardenia,2 jasmine, old-fashioned roses, orange

trees, magnolias and carnations are featured. (Many

cultivars can be grown indoors)

Lemons (Citrus limonum) was brought to Africa and the

diaspora from Southeast Asia. It serves in both places

as a medicine and food. (Grime, W. E. 1979 P. 20) Lemons

are highly touted by the Gullah and Hoodoos. The Gullah

2 African American singer, Billy Holiday’s trademark is a fresh gardeniaworn in the hair. Holiday battled depression and addiction most of her life.

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use lemon in herbal teas as a natural remedy. Admired in

the Black community for the same qualities that attract

mainstream aromatherapists, lemons detoxify, are

astringent; antifungal, antiseptic, insect repelling;

refrigerant; high in vitamins A, B, C and bioflavonoids.

Lemons are a useful treatment for fever, high blood

pressure, cold and flu symptoms, sinusitis and lethargy.

(Purchon, N. 1998) Associated with positive energy, good

spirits and luck, lemons can be grown indoors.

According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, Office of the Surgeon General (SAMHSA):

Over 25% of African American youth exposed to

violence met diagnostic criteria for PTSD,

especially those in high-need populations.

Sixty percent of African American elders who need

mental health care don’t receive it.

African Americans use alternative therapies more

often than White (non-hispanic) Americans.

African Americans respond favorably to treatment.

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(SAMHSA, 2003)

A few statements from Healthy Americans.org

Diabetes is 70% higher in African Americans than in

White American populations

African American children are five times more likely to

die from asthma than White American children

Puerto Ricans had an age-adjusted annual asthma rate of

40.9 per million—the highest of all American ethnic

groups

Diabetes affects more than 1.2 million

Hispanics/Latinos living in the United States, double

the rate of White Americans

Most African Americans have Type II, noninsulin-

dependent diabetes (National Health Interview Surveys

(NHIS)

For African American women, regardless of age, Type II

diabetes is the third leading cause of death.

(Blackhealthcare.com, 2003)

Bantu and Maasi people enjoy good health.

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Pine

Ethnobotanist Dr. Faith Mitchell lists a variety of

conditions pine treated in Hoodoo Medicine--Gullah Herbal

Remedies: stuffy nose, fever, stomachache, whooping cough,

bacteria, parasites and fatigue. The Native Americans of

the Southeast coast used pine tar for swelling, burns,

itching, sore, throat, colds and consumption, these

applications influenced African American medicine. It is

interesting to note African uses of conifers as well. Pine

kernel oil (Pinus pinea L.) may have been an ingredient in the

complex incense kyphi, referred to in the Papyrus Ebers as

ked. Juniper unguent was used for headache in Egypt

according to medical papyri. Infused juniper oil was used

to treat tapeworm (Papyrus Ebers, 85) Juniper was used

heavily for embalming.

Infusion of pine needles alleviates cold symptoms.

Pine infusion makes a conditioning hair rinse;

mouthwash for sore throat; treatment for laryngitis.

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Chewing white pine needles releases immunity-boosting

vitamin C.

Pine products used in the Black community:

Grandpa’s ™ pine tar shampoo treats scalp disorders.

Grandpa’s ™ pine soap for dry, itchy, flaky skin.

Many people use Pinsol ™ but since it is largely

synthetic, adding pine, cedar or fir essential oil to

wash bucket is a healthy aromatic alternative.

Other coniferous herbs of interest include white spruce

(Picea glauca), balsam fir (Abies balsamae) Red cedar (Juniperus

virginiana). Fresh, infused in water or distilled as

essential oils, these evergreens are useful for house

cleansing or hydrotherapy.

Cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum annuum) African pepper is

used to treat stomachache, sore throat, rheumatism, poor

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circulation, body aches, sluggish metabolism and lack of

motivation also used spiritually by most African people.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) brewed, served hot or iced tea

with lemon or cooked with main meal; ginger is warming,

anticatarrhal, tonic, detoxifying; aids digestion; speeds

elimination; lowers cholesterol and blood pressure.

Ginger has been used for more than twenty-five centuries;

major producers include Kenya, Nigeria and Jamaica.

Wild Camphor Tree (Tarchonanthus camphorates) Wild Camphor

Tree3 offers many benefits. Khoisan people use wild

camphor for its soothing qualities. Dried leaves are

used in ceremonies to anoint the body during rituals.

The leaves and seeds are used to fumigate. Camphor smoke

treats rheumatism, headache and insomnia. The tea

relieves stomach ailments, asthma, anxiety and heartburn.

3 Several South African companies sell bush teas internationally. Bush teas are wildcrafted, organic indigenous herbs, steeped in the ethnobotanical history of their perspective regions.

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The leaves contain an insecticide used to deter lice and

external parasites. (Fine Bush, 2003)

African Carrier Oils

In addition to shea and cocoa butter, neem, coconut,

sweet almond and avocado oils, promising carrier oils,

organic and wildcrafted by women, are becoming available.

Baobab (Adansonia digitata) nutritious, has a long shelf life;

light with a faint aroma.

(from various African countries)

Cape Chestnut Oil (Calodendrum capense (L.F.) Thunb)grown in

Mt. Kenya’s forests offers natural ultra violet

protection; cold processed; contains EFA’s, antioxidants;

mild smell; ideal base for creams.

Foraha (Calophyllum inophyllum)dark green, waxy, rich, thick,

delicate smell, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic;

treats wounds, eczema, burns, insect bites, herpes,

varicose veins, scars; useful face oil.

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Kweme called Oyster nut (Telfairea pedata) from Tanzania,

used locally as a breast massage to encourage milk flow,

has EFAs, PFAs, iodine and long shelf life.

Moringa oil (Moringa stenopetala)from Egypt, the Sudan and

Arabian peninsula is a woman’s pregnant belly rub, called

ben; contains seventy three percent oleic acid, other

nutrients; used for soap, lamps, perfume and skincare.

International Cooperation: The Future of Aromatherapy

Morocco is brimming with wild, fragrant sage brush,

rosemary, thyme, verbena, henna and roses. sells a

wonderful alternative to the pricier Roman and German

Chamomile. Technically not chamomile, Chamomile Maroc

(Omensis multicaulis) offers similar comfort to the nervous

system.

Essential oil has been a Moroccan cottage industry

since the 7th century A.D. (Lachance, A. 2002)

Equipment and technology has grown obsolete. Morocco,

in concert with Canadian researchers supported by the

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IDRC (International Development Research Centre) is

working to develop new stills. Dr. Bachir Benjilali of

the Aromatic Plants and Essential Oil Laboratory sees

direct progress, as currently hundred of thousands of

Moroccan people are employed through the essential oil

industry. Professor Benjilali, a former rural

villager, is proud to be associated with the first

chemical description of verbena oil in the world.

Plantes aromatiques (Maroc) a project directed byrof.

Benjilai and Dr. Belanger of Canada,includes research

on chemical compositions, chemotaxonomy and optimal

conditions for exploitation of artemisia, verbena,

rosemary, Tyme saturoides, Tanacetum annuumL., Ammi visnaga,

Inula graveolens, Ciste ladanifere and ThujaMorocco. (IUPAC.org,

2000)

UNIFEM brokered a deal between the women shea butter

manufacturers of Burkina Faso and the international

natural cosmetic company L’Occitane.

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STIFE (Students in Free Enterprise) a US led not-for-

profit is working in various West African countries

teaching, rural villagers to make soap and botanical

cosmetics.

Rural Togo, Benin and Ghana established distillation

technology to extract lemongrass oil, under the

direction of Vegetal Extracts and Natural Aromas

Laboratory et al.

A-SNAPP (Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African

Plant Products) helps rural African communities

manufacture natural products for the international

market.

Zambian farmers in concert with Ecocert in Malawi has

certified organic essential oils of melissa, jasmine, lemon

verbena, rosemary, lemongrass, citronella. Wildcrafted and

organic bee products are also being exported. Zambili

d’Afrique is developing crafts and agricultural products

including essential oils, herbs and spices. As of the year

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of 2000, they have been members of IFAT (International

Federation of Alternative Trade). Zambili products have

been inspected by FLO (Fair Trade Labeling Organization, ETI

(Ethical Trading Initiative)

(DOCREP)

Women in Zambia and Zimbabwe organized their own

lemongrass essential oil co-ops. African Shea Butter

Company is the first, hopefully of many companies,

buying directly from such co-ops, directly affecting

rural economies. This same company also sells bourbon

geranium, quality shea butter and oils from rural

communities. African Shea Butter Company plans to add

African natural fabrics and locally made paper to their

packaging.

In current Incense land (Somalia), trade groups wade

through politics and tradition to establish fair trade

of frankincense and myrrh.

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An exquisite vetiver essential oil sold internationally

comes from Haiti. An innovative phytotherapy

(herbalism) school featuring nonwestern approaches has

been established.vi

Traditional distilleries still manufacture bay rum in

Jamaica.

There is a growing grass roots movement within the US

to obtain sufficient medical care for African Americans

and to utilize complimentary care more. Gullah herbal

traditions are being preserved and disseminatedvii. A

growing number of Black people are embracing

traditional African religions (which feature herbalism)

and reconnecting to Egyptian spirituality.

Conclusion

vi The Temple of Yehwe, Vodou Medicine, Max-G Beauvoir www.vodou.org, seminars and workshops

vii Gullah/Geechee Sea Island Coalition, PO Box 1207, St. Helena Island SC 29920, (843) 838-1171

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As we embark on a new millennium, I hope to see an increase

in use of aromatherapy to address the health crisis facing

the Black community worldwide, including our high incidence

of diabetes, asthma, high blood pressure, cancer and mental

illness.

Accomplishing this goal is complex. We need more

aromatherapists of African descent; people knowledgeable of

African healing traditions capable of adapting it to today’s

needs. Moreover, practitioners from the global community,

regardless of nationality or ethnicity, willing to reach out

practically, politically, economically or social

way will undoubtedly bring about healing.

Overall, the future looks bright for the conservation of

indigenous aromatic plant knowledge of Africa. I hope that

the intense concentration of international energies towards

African ecology, sustainability, development of non-timber

related forest products, fair trade, new technologies and

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creative entrepreneurial schemes built around aromatic

plants continues to flourish.

End Notes

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