WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –PAST TO PRESENT

IRJMSH Vol 5 Issue 9 [Year 2014] ISSN 2277 – 9809 (0nline) 2348–9359 (Print)

International Research Journal of Management Sociology & Humanity ( IRJMSH ) Page 298

www.irjmsh.com

WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –PAST TO PRESENT

Dr. Arun Kumar Sharma

Vice-Principal,

NIMS University,

School of Humanities and Social

Sciences,

NIMS University, Shobha Nagar,

Jaipur, Rajasthan.

[email protected]

Mr. Praveen Singh Assistant Professor,

Department of Social Work,

School of Humanities and Social Sciences

NIMS University, Shobha Nagar,

Jaipur, Rajasthan.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Women's life in India and the world over are bounded by what can be termed as five 'Ps'

Patriarchy; Productive resources access inadequacy, Poverty, Promotion advancement

insufficiency and Powerlessness". It is estimated that women do two-thirds of the world's work.

In replace they obtain only 10 percent of all the returns and own a mere one percent of the whole

world's income of production. It is a fact that the actual social grade and the genuine rank of

political participation of women cannot be analyzed in isolation. On the converse it is interlinked

with the socio-economic conditions, political environment and inequalities inherent in the

customary social structure, its norms and values, customs and rituals. All these factors jointly

centerline the actual social position of women. The pillars of democracy like liberty, equality,

fraternity, justice etc. are well-built sufficient to maintain and protect the people from the

challenges posed by man-made inequalities. Thus the study of the character and level of political

participation and its resultant empowerment can be evaluated only on the basis of the

availability of democratic values. Empowerment is not quality as achieving supremacy to govern

others, but rather power to act with others to effect change. Political participation is a major

element of empowerment. The present paper highlights the situation of women from the ancient

time period to present time and also tries to show the improvements in their status and

mailto:[email protected]


International Research Journal of Management Sociology & Humanity ( IRJMSH ) 99

www.irjmsh.com

participation. This paper also makes some suggestion to increase the women’s participation in

every facet of life.

Keywords: - status, participation, empowerment, democracy, fraternity and decision-making.

INTRODUCTION

Democratic system implies parity for all human being persons, men and women. As adjacent to

this basic concept of democracy what is generally seen is that women are expelled from poles

apart walks of life, more visibly in Politics. The U.N. observes that women represent "world's

leading barred category". For the success of true democratic sprit shall be ensured better political

participation. "In the struggle for gender justice", Usha Narayanan argues, "Political involvement

constitutes the first and prime step in that direction."'.

Equal handling to women in political life, to be significant and successful should start from the

grassroots level. To offer exercise and perform in the progression of decision-making, the rural

democratic institutions are the supreme structures to begin with. One of the aims of the 73rd

Constitutional Amendment Act is to carry out this purpose? "The subject of political

empowerment of women in rural India has implicit considerable importance in recent times

because of the 73rd

Constitutional Amendment Act. The amendment provides reservation of

seats and posts of chairperson for women in all grassroots level democratic institutions in the

countryside known as panchayats. This is a extraordinary march of far attainment implications

and noteworthy repercussions on the political progression in rural India "As long as women of

India", declared Mahatma Gandhi in 1925, "do not take part in public life, there can be no

salvation for the country". He further declared, "As long as ....women do not come to public life

and purify. We are not likely to attain swaraj". "Ever if we did", he added, "It would have no use

for that kind of swaraj to which women have not made their full contribution."'. The recent

constitutional amendment acts provided superior opportunities to women in different aspects of

political life.

WHAT IS POLITICAL PARTICIPATION?

The study of political participation of any society or section of people requirements to take into

account whether or not it is connected with democratic values. The intensity and level of political

participation of people may be constrained by the very subsistence of both natural and man-made

inequalities. While it is not possible to conquer natural factors of inequalities, but it is possible to

overcome man-made inequalities just by adopting and following of democratic ideology and

values. The pillars of democracy like liberty, equality, fraternity, justice etc. are well-built

sufficient to maintain and protect the people from the challenges posed by man-made

inequalities. Thus the study of the character and level of political participation and its resultant

empowerment can be evaluated only on the basis of the availability of democratic values. The

presence of the umbrella of democratic system is a requirement for the accomplishment of

highest point of participation and empowerment.

Empowerment is not quality as achieving supremacy to govern others, but rather power to act

with others to effect change. Political participation is a major element of empowerment. "Look at


International Research Journal of Management Sociology & Humanity ( IRJMSH ) 00

www.irjmsh.com

in participation and empowerment links them bi-directionally, empowered individuals may be

more likely to participate in organizations, and participation accelerates empowerment."The

word political participation generally refers to those charitable activities of members of a society,

in the selection of rulers and creation of public policy. Since popular sovereignty is one of the

indivisible attributes of democracy, the right to participate is a vital feature of democratic

government and an inborn right in a democratic process. Political participation is a basic

component of all political systems. Participation helps the person to be effective and

acquaintances him with the political system. Higher the rate the more varied the forms of

political participation. It is very important to the appropriate functioning of a democratic polity.

The International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences denied political participation as the principal

means by which sanction is granted or withdrawn in a democracy and rulers are made

responsible to the ruled. It signifies such procedures like voting, seeking information, discussing

and proselytizing, attending meetings, contributing financially and communicating with

representatives.

Many writers have truly argued that political participation of citizens is the distinctive mark of

modern states. More than anything else, the modem state is distinguished from the Additional

ones by the extent to which people participate in politics.' High levels of political participation

are generally connected with democracy, which is favorable both to the individual and to the

society. Political participation has been considered as a 'sine qua non' of democracy. Political

participation has been characterized as a civic duty, as a mark of political strength and the best

way of ensuring that one's personal interests are not neglected. Although political power in every

society is monopolized by a few, the incumbents of political authority in every system are found

to be rather keen on ensuring some quantity of political participation by the people. Thus, by

concerning the many in the matters of the state, political participation fosters solidity and order

by reinforcing the legality of political authority.

Mc Closky defines, "political participation implies those voluntary activities by which members

of a society share in the selection of rulers and directly or indirectly, in the formulation of public

policy". Verba and Pye define it as "Those activities by private citizens that are more or less

directly aimed at influencing the selection of governmental personnel and the actions they take"."

WOMEN AND POLITICS IN INDIA

The Indian society is full orthodoxies. On the one hand, foreigners come in hordes to our country

in search of spiritual solace but on the other hand, Indians rank among the most corrupt nation

the world. Again, on the one hand, India is spending millions and billions to send satellites to

space to establish its scientific advancement but on the other the state cannot supply nearly half

the population with the basic requirements of food, education, health and shelter. The same irony

exists in the case of women too. On the one hand, the scriptures put them on a high peclestal. An

old Sanskrit proverb is that, where the women are held in worship there do the gods reside. The

customary belief in the Indian society is that, a society grows if the women grow, if they partake

of the spirit of progress, for they are household domestic legislators, they are the matrix of social



www.irjmsh.com

life. In the Indian mythology, even God is regarded as half man, half woman-'ardh-narishwara'.

On the other hand, according to the UNICEF's recent international report, "The Progress of

Nations 2010", more than 50000 dowry deaths occur every year in India.

"Women's lives in India and the world over are bounded by what can be termed as five 'Ps'

Patriarchy, Productive resources access inadequacy, Poverty, Promotion advancement

insufficiency and powerlessness" It is estimated that women do two-thirds of the world's work.

In replace they obtain only 10 percent of all the returns and own a mere one percent of the whole

world's income of production. It is a fact that the actual social grade and the genuine rank of

political participation of women cannot be analyzed in isolation. On the converse it is interlinked

with the socio-economic conditions, political environment and inequalities inherent in the

customary social structure, its norms and values, customs and rituals. All these factors jointly

centerline the actual social position of women. Not only that, women's status differs according to

region, caste, class and religion and also on considerations of tribal, rural and urban areas." The

status of a person is a big force in participating unconditionally in the developmental process. In

the case of women, their poorer status relegated to them due to fundamentalism of tradition and

religious beliefs blocked them from lively participation in developmental process.

Historically women are imaginary to take ahead the traditions, norms and the values of society.

The process of socialization that they go through in their families does not prepare them for non-

traditional roles. Now, it is sensible to enquire about what the mainstream Indian culture expects

a woman to be. In order to get a suitable reply to such a question, one will have to go throughout

the corridors of the history of India.

ANCIENT INDIA

In ancient India, respect was given to women as mother's image, a symbol of life, strength and

purity, with vast capacity for patience, sacrifice and sufferings. In the Vedic and Upanishadic

periods women enjoyed significant liberty so far as political, social and educational activities

were concerned and thus enjoyed a rank and status in society. In homes, women were given

greater position to that of men .As they were treated as the personification of Goddess of wealth

(Laxmi) strength and education. Woman was depicted as 'shakti', and it was a customary belief

that where woman is respected, there is divine presence. According to Manu, where woman are

neglected, all rites and ceremonies are unrewarding and that family quickly perishes, but where

women do not lament that family always prospers. Rig-Vedic women played a key part in the

family, in the society and even in the political life. They enjoyed first position of parity and were

respected both in the family and society as well. They were not decorative objects but co partners

in life, in its pleasures and hurdles, in its joys and sorrows. They were imparted education like

men and enjoyed significant liberty in their personal matters. These are evidences of women

actively participating in the political activities. They participated in the deliberations of Vidhatha

(the earliest folk assembly of Indo-Aryans) and Sabha along with men. In short, it may be said

that women enjoyed a practically acceptable position throughout ancient times. The communities



www.irjmsh.com

as a whole showed appropriate concern and respect for women, allowing them considerable

freedom in different activities of social and political life.

MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Medieval period witnessed a steady turn down in the position and status of women in India.

Women were considered pathetic and it was the accountability of man to look after them. Since

they were sensitive in temperament, they should be treated with love and care. They were

considered dependent on men throughout their lives. In early days the father looks after her, in

young age the husband and in the old age her sons supported her. Therefore, all her life she had

to depend on someone or the other and never enjoyed abandoned liberty. During this period,

there emerged social evils like female infanticide, child marriage and the practice of sati in the

Hindu society. Such dreadful practices were liable for the worsening of the status and role of

women to a great extent both in the family and in the society. At the same time the spread of

Islam and the beginning of Sikhism provided a curative touch to the ruin of women. Guru Nanak,

the founder of Sikh religion, wanted women to be treated by men as equals. He said, "Within a

woman is a man conceived, from a woman he is born, he is married to a woman and with her

goes through life. Why call her bad. She gives birth to Kings. None may exist without a woman.

Only the one true God is exterior to woman. However, it was a fact that the position of common

Women folk in the country remained miserable. Their only function was bearing and rearing of

children. They were confined to the four walls of their homes, leading ignorant and illiterate lire.

THE REFORM MOVEMENTS

The disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the 18th

century and the resulting political chaos

added to the miseries of Indian women. When the British started ruling on India their position

was the nastiest in the history of the country. From the ideological point of view women were

measured a poorer species. She was inferior to male having no individuality and significance.

From the social point of view she was kept in a state of absolute subjection, denied any right,

totally suppressed and oppressed. "The traditions of polygamy, the defiance of women's rights

over property, child marriage, sati and ban on remarriage to widows - all these practices in this

period resulted in the development of a very weak character of women." The British sway was

positive in the direction of women's uplifiment. The close contacts with western cultural

tradition, literature and education affected very deeply the minds of the Indian leaders. The

natural result was the social movements for reforms of those evils, which were prevalent in the

society.

Consequently a number of reform movements emerged. The leaders and the social reformers of

significance who were in the forefront of the struggle for women's emancipation were Raja

RamMonanRoy, Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Swami

Vibekanand, Mahatma Gandhi, JawaharLal Nehru and such others." These social reformers felt

that the social evils can be eradicated by raising consciousness and making people sensitive to



www.irjmsh.com

the. Injustice perpetrated on women. One of the important offshoots of the social reform

movement was the establishment of the National Social Conference in 1887, which provided a

forum for the reformers to talk about various practices and institutions which needed to be

reformed. At this juncture there emerged a number of institutions organized by great social

reformers led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy who is rightly called the father of Indian Renaissance.

The 18th

century reform movements and social renaissance initiated the process of improving the

status of women. While spreading consciousness and pride in indigenous cultural tradition,

institutions like the Arya Samaj, Rama Krishna Mission, the Prarthana Samaj etc. encouraged

social service, educational and reform activities to bring about social change favoring women's

upliftment. The struggle for the emancipation of women took place mainly in three directions -

To make necessary laws for social reforms

To provide maximum opportunities for their education; and

Provide them with the fundamental political rights.

Attention was concentrated on the first two in the 19th and early 20th centuries whereas political

rights of women got attention only during the last phase of the independence movement. With

the beginning: of the twentieth century a number of organizations exclusively for women

appeared among high - caste or elite women. The All India Women's Conference, The National

Council for Women, Women's Indian Association of Madras etc. came into existence.

WOMEN IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE

The Indian freedom struggle under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi inspired Indian women to

enter the open field of politics. He recognized the importance of women's participation in the

freedom struggle. He said, "In the non-violent struggle, women have an advantage over men, for

women are in any way superior to men in their religious devotion. Silent and dignified service is

the badge of her sex. Woman is sacrifice personified. When she does a thing in the right spirit,

she moves mountains".

In the Non Cooperation Movement of 1921 and the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, new

techniques like picketing and boycotting of foreign goods, liquor shops and non-cooperation in

various governmental activities were used. Mahatma Gandhi had immense faith in the women's

inner strength and their moral appeal. In various non-violent agitations not only the upper class

urban women but at many places, simple unsophisticated rural women also assumed leadership.

Women organized themselves into groups and were willing to join processions, face police firing

and go to prison. They broke the salt law, picketed shops selling liquor and boycotted foreign

manufactured cloths. There were also women who joined terrorist group; and helped in editing

and distributing banned news papers and even manufacturing bombs. The independence

movement brought the two streams of politically involved womenfolk together, the elite and the

masses; both participated in the struggles for independence. Mahatma Gandhi encouraged

women to participate in all aspects and phases of nationalist activities, particularly in the

productive program and the non- violent Satyagraha, for it required not physical strength but

moral courage and spiritual determination. Thus the nationalist movement was, for Mahatma



www.irjmsh.com

Gandhi, not merely a political struggle but a means of regenerating and rejuvenating the society.

It was Mahatma Gandhi who gave a new direction, strength and inspiration to the freedom

movement. He played a key role in extending women's lively participation in political life

through the national movement. While he accepted the concept of women's rights to individual

dignity and legal equality from the beginning, he had viewed the role in the freedom struggle as

supportive of man in the prior period." although the implications of Gandhian social philosophy

were not fully realized even by his followers, the massive involvement of women in the freedom

struggle resulted in the transformation of women's position in the eyes of society. By the time of

independence women from all sections of society had become active in politics. Direct political

participation promoted women's confidence and self-reliance broke the barriers of public and

private dichotomies in their lives. However, while the basic issue of women's right to participate

in politics was hence established, the elements of their political role continued to be an open

question.

The social reform movement which began in the 19th

century emphasized enhancement of

women's status all the way through education, restriction of child marriage, improvement in the

conditions of widows and provision of property rights to Hindu widows.’The reformers were not

very much interested in establishing equality in roles between men and women. They saw

women as custodians of the family and responsible for the well being of children, inculcating in

them the cultural values and heritage of the Indian civilization.

WOMEN IN POLITICS IN INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

The constitution of free India has guaranteed all its citizens justice, liberty, equality and dignity

through several provisions like credentials of fundamental rights and directive principles. The

constitution of India is the best in the world which has taken care of the deprived and the

minorities. All our laws get their approval from this constitution and any law which violates a

provision of the constitution is declared unconstitutional. The framers of the constitution realize

that a true democracy requires not only equality but also justice. This concept resulted in the

Indian constitution, which not only grants equality to women but also empowers the state to

adopt measures of positive discrimination in favor of women for neutralizing the cumulative

socio- economic, educational and political disadvantages faced by them.

a number of articles are incorporated in the constitution in order to materialize the desired

objective of equality and justice for the women in India. Besides the preamble, the articles of the

constitution, which impinge on our subject of enquiry are Articles 14,15,16 under part 111,

Articles 39, 42, 44 under part IV, Article 5 1 - A(c) under part IV A and Article 246 under part

XI are noteworthy.

The right to vote can be said to be the starting point in the struggle of women for their political

equality and participation.



www.irjmsh.com

WOMEN AND 73RD

CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT

The 73rd

Constitutional Amendment Act came into force in April 1993 and consequently all the

states have amended their laws relating to local self government. As a result, the role and

significance of Panchayati Raj structure became highly critical as well as meaningful. The

panchayat can emerge as model of an effective local organization representing the interests of the

people. State agencies can formulate policies, while panchayats serve as potential instruments for

an effective deliver of programs and services.

The 73rd

Constitutional Amendment Act shall be a milestone in the constitutional growth of

India. Since it is for the first time in the political history of India that one-third of the total seats

in local self- government institutions have been statutorily reserved for women, the legislation

has several important implications for the empowerment of women. It has made a silent

revolution in the country.

In the Indian context, a constitutional amendment became necessary in order to ensure active

involvement of women because of the existing socioeconomic and political condition of women

in India. Indian culture and social ethos have, to a large extent, been influenced by a patriarchal

value system. As a result of deeply deep-rooted social attitudes and practices, women by and

large have not been independent decision-makers in the country. The wishes and dictates of male

family members have influenced the decisions in most cases. As a result they are discriminated

against in terms of access of food and health care. Besides, they are discriminated in economic

and political spheres too. The most alarming factor regarding women is that visible and invisible

violence and harassment against them are increasing. The crudest form of violence, killing a girl

child before she is born, exists in many parts of the country. Manu Bhaskar explains the:

biological factors of limited participation of women in politics. She argues. "The inferior status

of women in political institutions also results from the underlying biologism (biologism means a

prejudice based on sex which determined gender roles by biologically assigned characteristics)

of male gendered politics for gender equality.'' In ancient India women enjoyed equal status with

men. Democratic decentralization will be a success, only if all the sections of people participate

in the activities of the local self-governing bodies. So women population must be properly

represented in different governmental agencies,which should start with village panchayats. It is

generally accepted that the political participation of women is very much related to certain

important aspects of women's life such as marriage, family .and employment. Manu Bhaskar

says that, “there is no country in the world today, where women have equal status with men in all

the major areas of life family, health, reproduction, education, work, government, and cultural

expression." It is in this background that one should analyze the far reaching implications of

reservation of one-third of seats. And offices of chairperson for women guaranteed by the 73rd

Constitutional Amendment Act. It ensures compulsory involvement of women in all grassroots

level political institutions. Bidyut Mohanty argues that, "However, the reservation itself can only

be regarded as the first step in this direction A comprehensive effort will have to be made in this

direction. It is necessary to create proper social, economic and political conditions to enable

women to participate effectively in the local government institutions without endangering the



www.irjmsh.com

positive values of the prevailing family systems. It is believed that legal and constitutional

support and legislative measures are necessary for bringing about social change. Together with

them, the political will and awareness of people are crucial for bringing about democratic

decentralization, a reality by all means. Thus in order to be effective and meaningful, a three-

dimensional approach represented by the political will of the people, people's general political

awareness and the constitutional and legislative measures - has to be developed. By the 73rd

Constitutional Amendment Act, the local self-governing institutions received greater status and

relevance. Moreover, the Panchayati Raj has become the third tier of governance in India.

The 73rd

Amendment to the Constitution of India

This Amendment, dated 24 April 1993, directed all state legislatures to amend their respective Panchayat legislation

to conform to the Constitution Amendment, within a year. All the states conformed and take up new Panchayat

legislation by 23 April 1994. By April 1995 all the states were expected to complete decisions on new Panchayats -

and those who delayed ran the risk of losing central government assistance, as announced by the Prime Minister.

But why?

The Constitution of India was adopted in 1950. It had envisaged (Article 40) that "the State shall take steps to

organize village Panchayats and provide them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to facilitate them

to function as units of self government." This condition of the Constitution was principally advisory. In the following

four decades, some intermittent and indifferent steps were taken by some of the state governments to organize

Panchayats; but they were invariably denied any meaningful powers and authority and, worst of all, the elections

were infrequently held at 5-year intervals as required. This deplorable state of affairs was an affront to the

Constitution (Article 40) and there was growing demand in the country for a definite constitutional mandate to secure

periodical and regular elections to Panchayats just as in the case of Parliament and State Assemblies.

The features of the Act in brief are:

• Panchayats shall have a uniform five-year term and elections to constitute new bodies shall be completed before the

ending of the term. In the episode of dissolution, elections will be compulsorily held within six months.

• In all the Panchayats, seats shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes(STs) in proportion to

their population and one-third of the total number of seats will be reserved for women. One-third of the offices of

chairpersons of Panchayats at all levels shall also be reserved for women.

• Seats of the chairpersons of the Panchayats shall be reserved in favor of SCs and STs in proportion to their

population in the State.

• The Gram Sabha will be a body including all the adult members registered as voters in the Panchayat area.



www.irjmsh.com

SUGGESTIONS

It is evident that men’s attitude towards women’s entry into politics has begun to change

from that of total rejection to limited encouragement and in some cases even to active

encouragement. This trend needs to be strengthened through orientation courses and

training programmes for officials and elected representatives, both men and women.

Besides there is a need to train the women leaders at regular intervals to enable them to

manage the responsibilities assigned to them in the Panchayats at all the levels. Since the

hard up women members found it difficult to forgo their wages for attending training

programmes, these must be organized at their doorstep and some of the articulate

Panchayat leaders should be involved as the trainers.

Another important effort required for real empowerment of rural women is to bring about

an attitudinal change in both men and women. The feeling that women are meant for

household activities and rearing children needs to be transformed into a feeling of equal

The History of Women's Inclusion in Political Representation in India

1946 -There were 16 women out of 150 members in the Constituent Assembly.

1957- When Panchayat Raj was first introduced, the concept was to co-opt two women "who are interested in work

among women and children" (Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report).

1961 -Maharashtra Zilla Parishad and Panchayat Samiti Act of 1961 provided for the "nomination of one or two

women" to the Panchayat bodies "in case women were not elected".

1973- West Bengal Panchayat Act, also provided for co-opting 2 women.

1976 -The Report of the Committee on the Status of Women (CSWI) demanded representation of women in Panchayat

as well as the establishment of "All-Women Panchayat at village level".

1978- In Maharashtra Panchayat, only 6 women were elected although 314 were nominated. In the largest parts of

India, women were brought into Panchayat only through co-option.

1983- As many as 25 percent of seats were reserved for women in the Karnataka Zilla Parishads, Taluk Panchayat

Samitis, Mandal Panchayat and Nyaya Panchayat Act of 1983. Elections under this Act were delayed for various

reasons and could only be held in 1987. Some 14,000 women were elected out of 30,000 candidates who contested.

1988- Elections were held in Uttar Pradesh for 74,000 village Sabhas, the first elections for 22 years. There was

provision made for the cooption of only one woman. In Panchayat elections, less than one percent of women came

through elections.

1991- Orissa Panchayat Samiti provided for "not less than one third of the total number of seats to be reserved for

women". Elections were held in 1992 and over 22,000 women were elected. In Kerala Districts Councils elections,

while 30 percent seats were reserved for women, 35 percent seats were won by women.

1993- About 71,000 women candidates contested elections and with 33 percent seat reservation, 24,900 women came

in through the ballot box.

1994- In Madhya Pradesh 150,500 women were elected to village, block and zilla Panchayats.

33 percent of seats were reserved for women in village Panchayat and women captured 43 percent of the seats.

2009- The Union Cabinet of the Government of India, on 27 August 2009, approved 50% reservation for women in

PRIs (Panchayati Raj Institutions). The Indian states which have already implemented 50% reservation for women in

PRIs are Madhya Pradesh Bihar,Uttrakhandand Himachal Pradesh

2011-On 25 November 2011, the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharastra, Orissa,

Rajasthan and Tripura also reserve 50% of their posts for women



www.irjmsh.com

partnership of women and men. To inculcate this they should be imparted education for

bringing about social and political awareness among both.

Studies on women in politics have emphasized that contact with outside world makes

women more alert and also active in the political process. There could be two ways of

doing it. Firstly, interaction between enlightened rural women and illiterate elected one’s

should be encouraged. Secondly, these women could be taken out to the urban areas and

their interaction with educated urban elected women representatives be arranged.

The women should also be encouraged to organize themselves. The Mahila Mandals in

the village can be effectively used as instruments to mobilize them for this purpose. Some

successful women’s organizations can also act as catalytic agents for encouraging the

women’s participation in social and political activities. The Government should provide

finances and infrastructure to some of the deserving and successful women organizations

to take up the responsibility of encouraging the women elected representatives. The

leaders of women’s movement in the country could also take up this task. They too can

provide support to sensitize the rural women.

Incentives play a vital role in ensuring the participation of elected representatives in

decision-making. It has been noticed that there are certain very active and enlightened

women leaders at all the levels of Panchayats, who have been successfully implementing

the developmental schemes and have ensured overall development of their constituencies.

Such leaders need to be encouraged by publicizing their leadership qualities and honoring

them in public meetings. It will certainly encourage other women representatives and

their success stories and good practices will get replicated.

The media both print as well as electronic can play an important role in creating

awareness in the rural society. It can act as an agent of political socialization for

inculcating the values of gender equality and gender justice.

CONCLUSION

Notwithstanding the honor tic position granted to women in the pre and post Aryan period and in

the Vedic times, that too in a substantive and obligatory manner, made binding on society by the

creed of religion and observance, women of later periods spanning between the middle and

modern ages have been starved of their rightful place of honor owing to a variety of reason both

religious and mundane. Indian society, a vortex of numerous caste and communal combinations,

has paid scant regards for the education and welfare of women culminating in child marriage,

sati, ban on widow marriage, and divorce, to name a few atrocities on them. It is a misfortune

that the rulers never tried to irritate the orthodox religious beliefs by initiating reform, which

would boost the prestige and status of women. Even the few women who hobnobbed with

Mahatma Gandhi and the frontline leaders of the freedom movement were from rich and

educated milieu and did not represent the backward and oppressed womenfolk of India subjected

to all kinds of exploitations and tortures. The leaders of both pre and post independent India paid

nothing to the upliftment of women in various walks of life including rightful representation in



www.irjmsh.com

the legislatures, both at the centre and in the states, with the result that even now women do not

enjoy pride of place in the power centers of legislation, administration and party leadership. It is

to be viewed with concern that NGOs which played a dominant role in social renaissance

elsewhere in the world with extraordinary success, have not paid due attention in India to the

cause of women's political participation and empowerment which would have transformed the

face of its administration, political culture and sense of values considerably for the better.

Politics does not bring returns to the women activists who have got to support their families and

keep their husbands and in laws in good humor. The higher the women's qualifications the lower

their fighting spirit. The male folk think that politics is a challenging career, which demands

perseverance; fighting spirit, ideological convictions and loyalty to the party they belong. Hard

work, extensive travels, the capacity for fund raising and building up party units are not tasks,

which people without grit and dynamism can handle. It is generally believed that politics is bed

of roses on which anyone can be laid. Experience shows that those who come up in politics are

subjected to all sorts of tribulations, backbiting and crises which no ordinary mortal can stand.

REFERENCES

Usha Narayanan, "Women's Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges",

Mainstream, April 10, 1999, p.7.

Prabhat Datta, Major- Issues in the Development Debate: Lessons in Empowerment form

India, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 1998, p.40.

Usha Narayanan, op.cit., p:'. S.R. Bakshi, Empowerment of' Women and Politics of

Reservation, Book Enclave, Jaipur, 2002, p.53

International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Vo1.12, New York, 1968, p. 253.

Hari Hara Das, 1ntroduction to Political Sociology, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi,

1997, p. 146.

K. Seshadri, Political Linkages and Rural Development, National Publishing House. New

Delhi, 1976, p. 175.

Lester W. Milbrath, M.L. Goel, Political Participation: How and Why Do People Get

Involved in Politics, Rand Mcnally, Chicago, 1977, p.2.

G.A. Almond, G.B. Powell Jr., Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach, Amerind

Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1975, p.98.

Norman D. Palmer, Elections and Political Development: The South Asian Experience,

Vikas Publish.ng House, New Delhi, 1976. pp. 50-57.

Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man, Arnold Heinemann, New Delhi, 1973, p. 82.

Raj Bala, The Legal and Political Status of Women in India, Mohit Publications, New

Delhi, 1'399, p.250.

Robert E. Lane, Political Life: Why Do People Get Involved in Politics, Free Press, New

York, 1953, p.94.



www.irjmsh.com

Herbert Mc. Closky, "Political Participation", International Encyclopedia of Social

Sciences, Vol. 12, Macmillan, New York, 1968, p. 253.

Kalpana Roy, Women in Indian Politics, Rajat Publications, Delhi, 1999, p.68.

Hari Hara Das, Political System of India, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1998, p.36 1.

Raj Kumar(Ed.), Encyclopedia of Women and Development, Vo1.5, Anmol Publication.

New [)elhi, 2000, p.36.

Manaveeyam: Sthree Padhavi Padanam-A Hand Book (Malayalam), State Planning

Board, Thiruvananthapuram, 2000, p.77.

William Henry Chafe, The American: Her Changing Social, Economic and Political Roles,

Oxford University Press, New York, 1972, pp. 46-47.

Imtiaz Ahmed, "Women in Politics", in Devaki Jain(Ed.), Indian Women, Publications

division, New Delhi, 1975, p.312.

Zenab Banu, "Political Status of Muslim Women: An Empires Study of Udaipur

(Rajastan)", LIP. Journal of Political Science, Vol. 12, No. I, Jan- June, 1990, pp.37-43.

Marcia Manning Lee, "Why Few Women Hold Public Office: Democracy and Sexual

Roles", Political Science Quarterly, Vo1.91., No.2, 1976, pp.297-3 14.

Sushma Sood, Violence Against Women, Arihant Publishers, Jaipur, 1990, p.12.

Hema Lata Swamp, "Ethnicity, Gender and Class", International Conference of Historians

of the Labour Movement, Europaverlag, Vienna, 1993, p.1.

M.Immanuel, Women and Devvelopment. Karnavati Publications, Ahmedabad, 1998,

p.22.

V. Bhavani, V. Jyothi, "Women Politicians and Women Entrepreneurs : Why are they

Rare? An Analysis", Paper Presented at Indian Association for Women Studies first

National Conference, at Jadavpur University, Calcutta, 1977, p. I.

Leela Damodara Menon, ''India and the International Women's Year", India Quarterly,

Vo1.3 1, No. 3, July-September, 1975, p.278.

C.K Jain, Women Parliamentarians in India, Surject Publications, Delhi, 1993, p.307.

A.S. Altekar, The Position, of Women in Hindu Civilization, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,

1962, p.339.

P.Thomas, Indian Women through the Ages, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1964,

p.49.

Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects of Politica1 Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Motilal

Banarsidass, Ilelhi, 1968, pp.78-102.

Kala Rani, Role Conflict in Working Women, Chetna Publications, New Delhi, 1976, p.52.

Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the status of

Women in India, New Delhi,1985, pp. 43-44.



www.irjmsh.com

S.S. Mathur, Anju Mathur, Socio-Psychological Dimensions of Women’s Education, Gyan

Publishing House, New Delhi, 2001, p.25.

Neera Desai, Maithreyi Krishnaraj, Women and Society in India, Vohra and Company,

New Delhi, 1957, p.39.

Barbara Neslon and Najma Chauwdhary (Eds.), Women and Politics World Wide, Oxford

University Press, Delhi, 1997, p.366.

The Harijan, 22 December, 1921

Apama Basu, Role of Wcrnen in Indian Struggle for Freedom, Allied Publishers, New

Delhi, 1970, p.39.

S.R. Bakshi(Ed.), Advanced History of Modern India, Vo1.4, Anrnol Publications, New

Delhi, 1995, p.226.

M.K Gandhi, Young India, 1february 20, 1918

Urmila Phadnis, lndira Mulani(Eds.), Women of the World: Illusion and Reality, Vikas

Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978, p.20.

WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –PAST TO PRESENT

Documents

Transcript of WOMEN AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –PAST TO PRESENT