ASustainableLivelihoodsFramework-BasedAssessmentoftheSocialandEconomic

BenefitsofFishFarminginEastNewBritainProvince

ShaniceTong

AthesissubmittedinfulfilmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterof

Philosophy

SCHOOLOFBIOLOGICAL,EARTHANDENVIRONMENTALSCIENCES

FACULTYOFSCIENCE

THEUNIVERSITYOFNEWSOUTHWALES

November2018

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NameShaniceTong

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Surname/FamilyName : TongGivenName/s : ShaniceHaLinAbbreviationfordegreeasgiveintheUniversitycalendar : MPhil

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ThesisTitle :

BEESASustainableLivelihoodsFramework-BasedAssessmentoftheSocialandEconomicBenefitsofFishFarminginEastNewBritainProvince

Abstract350wordsmaximum:(PLEASETYPE)InPapuaNewGuinea(PNG)malnutritionfromalackofproteinisasignificantissue,particularlyforthemajorityofthepopulationlivingininlandruralareasofthemainland.Fishfarmingwasintroducedtoaddressthisissue,andtodate,moststudieshavefocusedonthehighlandsofPNG;itspotentialtoimprovelivelihoodsofcoastalcommunitiesispoorlyunderstood,particularlyfortheeasternislandsofPNG.Thisstudyinvestigatedhouseholds’availablecapitalsandevaluatedthesocialandeconomicpotentialofinlandfishfarminginEastNewBritain(ENBP).Thestudyutilisedamixedqualitativeandquantitativeapproachusingasustainablelivelihoodsandlifestyleanalysis(SLifA)framework.Datawerecollectedthroughahouseholdsurvey,animbeddedSWOTanalysisandfocusgroupdiscussions.ThestudyincludedthefourdistrictswhichmakeupENBP:Rabaul,Kokopo,GazelleandPomio.Intotal,56householdsurveysand5focusgroupswereconducted.Themethodscaptureddataonhouseholdcapitals,assets,production,marketingandlifestyle.Thereisanabundanceofsocialandnaturalcapital,butalackoffinancial,physicalandhumancapital.Socialcapitalwasthebiggestinfluenceonlifestyleandhelpedhouseholdscopewithemotionalandfinancialshocks.Thelackoffinancial,physicalandhumancapitalhadadetrimentaleffectonfishfarmers.Alow-levelofinstitutionalsupport,extensionservicesandtrainingwerekeybottlenecks.Whilenaturalcapitalwasabenefittoinlandfishfarming,farmerswerealsoimpactedbyfloods.Toaddressthelackofextensionservicesandsupport,trainingprogramsshouldbeprovidedtoprovincialofficerstotransfertechnicalknowledgetoexistingandinterestedinlandfishfarmers.ThegrowthoffishfarmingoverallinPNGrequiresmoregovernmentinterventionparticularlytofundinitialinvestmentandtraining,andbyregulatingpolicy.ThisstudyprovidesabaselineofdataforENBPfishfarmingdevelopmentandwillenablethePNGGovernmenttohavetargetedinterventionsthataddresslocalissues.Inlandfishfarmingisaviableoptiontofirstlyimprovehouseholdnutritionthroughproteinconsumptionand,secondly,asasourceofincomeforthepeopleofENBP.

Declarationrelatingtodispositionofprojectthesis/dissertation

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iii

Acknowledgements

IwouldliketoextendmygratitudetotheENBPparticipantsofthisstudy

whoshowedtruegenerositybywelcomingustotheirhomesandsharingtheir

experiences.

A/ProfJesSammut,youhavegoneaboveandbeyondinyourroleasa

supervisor.Yourinputandinsightshavebeenimmeasurable.

IacknowledgetheACIARandAquacultureunitofNFAfortheirassistance

andfundingduringmyfieldwork;MrJacobWaniandHaviniVira,thankyou.

ToEllisonSemi,JoeAlois,MicahArankaandJerryTobata,Iamgratefulfor

yourirreplaceableknowledge,guidanceandsupportduringmyfieldwork.

TheRoom601team;Angela,Elizabeth,Lara,Damon,Jenny,Bayu,Hatim,

Taylor,KarthikandMichael.Youhaveallbecomemysecondfamilyandithasbeen

bothanhonourandinspirationtoworkamongstyou.Specialmentionto

CharishmaRatnamwhosecommentsandperspectivealwayskeptmepushingme

todobetter.

Thankyoutomyfamily,friendsandJoshfortheendlesssupportand

encouragement;itdidn’tgounnoticed.Youallsetaprecedentashardworkersand

weremymotivationasIwrotethisthesis.

Thisthesisisdedicatedtomyparents,whogavemetheopportunitytogrow

upinPNGandfindmyownpath.Withoutyourloveandsupport,thisthesiswould

notexist.Thankyou.

iv

TableofContentsAcknowledgements .............................................................................................................iii

ListofFigures&Tables.....................................................................................................vii

GlossaryofAbbreviation................................................................................................... ix

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... xi

ChapterI:Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1

1.1InlandAquaculture.................................................................................................................................... 2

1.2AbriefoverviewofInlandAquacultureinPNG............................................................................ 6

1.3Problemstatement..................................................................................................................................11

1.4AimsandResearchQuestions ............................................................................................................14

1.4.1Overallaim .........................................................................................................................................14

1.4.2Researchobjectives ........................................................................................................................14

1.5Approach .....................................................................................................................................................15

1.6SustainableLivelihoodAnalysisframework................................................................................16

1.6.1Introducinglifestyleintothesustainablelivelihoodsanalysis ...................................19

1.6.2Vulnerabilitycontext .....................................................................................................................20

1.7Assets,CapitalsandCapabilities .......................................................................................................21

1.7.1Humancapital ...................................................................................................................................21

1.7.2Socialcapital ......................................................................................................................................22

1.7.3Financialcapital ...............................................................................................................................23

1.7.4Physicalcapital .................................................................................................................................23

1.7.5Naturalcapital ..................................................................................................................................24

1.8Structure ......................................................................................................................................................25

ChapterII:HistoryandLegislationofAquacultureinPapuaNewGuinea......26

2.1AquacultureinPNG.................................................................................................................................26

2.2HistoryofAquacultureinPNG ...........................................................................................................28

2.3AquaculturePoliciesandDevelopmentStrategiesinPNG ....................................................41

2.3.1Aquaculturelegislationandpolicy ..........................................................................................42

2.3.2Governmentprogramsrelatedtoaquaculture...................................................................49

2.4Summary......................................................................................................................................................51

ChapterIII:Methodology..................................................................................................53

3.1Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................53

3.1.1Studygroupdescription ...............................................................................................................54

3.1.2Theauthorsroleintheproject..................................................................................................56

3.2 Methods.................................................................................................................................................56

v

3.2.1Fishfarmersurveys........................................................................................................................57

3.2.2Focusgroups .....................................................................................................................................60

3.3Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................63

3.3.1Significanceandoutcomes ..........................................................................................................63

3.4LimitationsandEthics ...........................................................................................................................64

ChapterIV:ENBPFishFarmingCapitalsAvailableandBottlenecks.................66

4.0Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................66

4.1ENBPdemographics ...............................................................................................................................67

4.1.1SchoolinginENBP...........................................................................................................................69

4.1.2Involvementinfishfarming........................................................................................................71

4.1.3SpecieschoiceandpondsinENBP ..........................................................................................72

4.2ThecapitalsavailabletofarmfishinENBP..................................................................................74

4.2.1Social&humancapitals................................................................................................................74

4.2.2NaturalcapitalavailableinENBP.............................................................................................77

4.2.3PhysicalcapitalinENBP...............................................................................................................81

4.2.4FinancialcapitalsinENBP...........................................................................................................83

4.3 Social,EconomicandEnvironmentalBottlenecksforFishFarminginENBP........87

4.3.1 EconomicbottlenecksaffectingthefishfarmingindustryinENBP .................88

4.3.2 SocialconstraintsimpactingthefishfarmingindustryinENBP .......................93

4.3.3 EnvironmentalbottleneckshinderingfishfarminginENBP...............................98

4.4Summary................................................................................................................................................... 100

ChapterV:TheSocialandEconomicBenefitsofFishFarmingDevelopmentinPNG........................................................................................................................................ 102

5.0Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 102

5.1SocialBenefitsofFishFarming....................................................................................................... 103

5.1.1EastNewBritainbenefits ......................................................................................................... 103

5.1.2PapuaNewGuineabenefitsoffishfarming ...................................................................... 110

5.2TheEconomicBenefitsofFishFarming...................................................................................... 115

5.2.1EconomicbenefitsoffishfarmingtoEastNewBritain ............................................... 115

5.2.2EconomicbenefitsoffishfarminginPapuaNewGuinea ........................................... 118

5.3FarmerSurveySWOTAnalysis ....................................................................................................... 120

5.3.1Strengths .......................................................................................................................................... 121

5.3.2Weaknesses..................................................................................................................................... 125

5.3.3Opportunities ................................................................................................................................. 129

5.3.4Threats .............................................................................................................................................. 132

5.4ThePotentialNegativeImpactsofAquaculture............................................. 136

vi

5.5Summary................................................................................................................................................... 138

ChapterVI:SynthesisandConclusion....................................................................... 140

6.1Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 140

6.2MajorFindings ....................................................................................................................................... 141

6.3InteractionofMajorFindings .......................................................................................................... 143

6.4FutureResearch..................................................................................................................................... 146

6.5RecommendationsonFutureInterventions ............................................................................. 149

6.6Conclusion................................................................................................................................................ 157

References.......................................................................................................................... 158

AppendixA:SLAsurveyhouseholdquestionnaire............................................... 186

AppendixB:FocusgroupquestionstranslatedtoTokPisin ............................ 208

AppendixC:PhotosofFishPonds .............................................................................. 211

vii

ListofFigures&Tables

Figure1.1:MapofENBPandspecificareascoveredbystudy .................................... 13

Figure1.2:SustainableLivelihoodsFramework ............................................................... 18

Table2.1:ListofintroducedspeciestoPNGfrom1930’s-2000(adaptedfrom

Glucksman,West&Berra,1976) ............................................................................................... 35

Table2.2:ACIARprojectnativespeciespotentialintroductionspecies

(FIS/2004/065)................................................................................................................................. 40

Table2.3:Classificationoflevel1,2and3activities ....................................................... 44

Table2.4:UnlawfulenvironmentalhardasdefinedbyEnvironmentAct

(Amendment)2014.......................................................................................................................... 44

Figure2.1:TheprocessofgettinganenvironmentalpermitinPNG(PNGLNG

EnvironmentalImpactStatement2009) ................................................................................ 46

Table2.5:Finesforbeingguiltyofanoffencewithoutanenvironmentalpermit

................................................................................................................................................................... 47

Table3.1:ParticipantswithineachENBPdistrict ............................................................ 57

Table3.2:Questionsthemesrelatingtocapitalsinthefarmersurvey.................... 58

Table3.3:Focusgroupdiscussionparticipantsandlocations .................................... 62

Table4.1:DemographicsofEHPfarmersurvey2014andENBPfarmersurvey

2017 ........................................................................................................................................................ 68

Figure4.1:HighestlevelofschoolingforENBPfishfarmersfromsurveydata .. 70

Figure4.2:Reasonsforinvolvementinfishfarming ....................................................... 72

Figure4.3:SpeciesculturedinENBPfromsurveydata ................................................. 73

Figure4.4:SocialandculturalinvolvementintheENBPcommunity...................... 75

Figure4.5:CommunalresourcesutilisedinENBP ........................................................... 79

viii

Figure4.6:PrimarysourcesofpowerutilisedinENBP.................................................. 82

Figure4.7:AbreakdownofphysicalassetsoffishfarmersinENBP........................ 83

Figure4.8:ENBPIncomeandexpensesforeachsurveyedhousehold.................... 84

Figure4.9:AbreakdownofwhereENBPhouseholdsspendtheirsavings ........... 85

Figure4.10:Averageallocationofincome&expensesinENBP ................................ 86

Figure4.11:MainconstraintstofishfarmingfromENBPandEHPsurveydata 88

Figure4.12:MostcommoncombinationoffarmingactivitiesinENBP.................. 91

Figure4.13:SocialchangesinENBPoverthepastdecadementionedbysurvey

participants.......................................................................................................................................... 95

Figure4.14:ThemostcommoninfluencesonlifestyleinENBP ................................ 95

Figure5.1:LifestyleaspirationsfoundintheENBPfarmersurvey ....................... 107

Figure5.2:DifferentplacesforENBPfishfarmersgotoforsupport.................... 110

Figure5.3FishfarminginputsoverthreemonthsinENBP ...................................... 118

Table5.1:TheENBPSWOTAnalysis–rankedstrengths ........................................... 124

Figure5.4:SourcesoffingerlingsforfishfarmersinENBP.......................................124

Table5.2:ENBPSWOTAnalysiswithrankedweaknesses ........................................128

Figure5.5:PrimaryplacesfishfarmersweretrainedinENBP................................129

Figure5.6:Theseasonalityofproduction,consumptionandsalesforfishfarming

inENBP............................................................................................................................................... 129

Table5.3:SWOTanalysisopportunities ............................................................................ 131

Figure5.7:FeedsuppliedinENBP........................................................................................ 131

Table5.4:SWOTanalysisthreats .......................................................................................... 133

Figure5.8:MainmarketinENBP ..........................................................................................134

Table5.5:SummaryofSWOTfactorsforENBP.............................................................. 135

ix

GlossaryofAbbreviation

ACIAR–AustralianCentreforInternationalAgriculturalResearch

CEPA–ConservationandEnvironmentProtectionAuthority

DAL–DepartmentofAgricultureandLivestock

DASF–DepartmentofAgriculture,StockandFisheries

DEC–DepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation

DFID–DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment

DFMR–DepartmentofFisheriesandMarineResources

DSIP–DistrictServicesImprovementProgram

EIA–EnvironmentalImpactAssessment

EIS–EnvironmentalImpactStatement

ENBP–EastNewBritainProvince

FAO–FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

FISHAID–FisheriesImprovementbyStockingatHighAltitudesforInland

Development

GIFT–GeneticallyImprovedFarmedTilapia

HAQDEC–HighlandsAquacultureDevelopmentCentre

JICA–JapanInternationalCooperationAgency

LARDEC–LowlandAquacultureResearch,DevelopmentandExtensionCentre

LLG–LocalLevelGovernment

LPYTF–LakePindiYaundoTroutFarm

NADP–NationalAgricultureDevelopmentPlan

NAqDP–NationalAquacultureDevelopmentPolicy

NARI–NationalAgricultureResearchInstitute

x

NDAL–NationalDepartmentofAgricultureandLivestock

NFA–NationalFisheriesAuthority

NGO–Non-governmentOrganisation

NSO–NationalStatisticalOffice

ODI–OverseasDevelopmentInstitute

OISCA–TheOrganizationforIndustrialSpiritualandCulturalAdvancement

OTML–OkTediMiningLimited

PDF–ProjectDevelopmentFund

PEEST-PoliticalEconomicEnvironmentalSocialTechnical

PICTs–PacificIslandCountriesandTerritories

PNG–PapuaNewGuinea

PNGDSP–PapuaNewGuineaDevelopmentStrategicPlan

RPNGC–RoyalPapuaNewGuineaConstabulary

SLA–SustainableLivelihoodAnalysis

SLifA–SustainableLifestyleAnalysis

SRSEP–SepikRiverStockEnhancementProject

SWOT–StrengthsWeaknessesOpportunitiesandThreats

WHO–WorldHealthOrganization

WP-WesternProvince

UN–UnitedNations

UNARI–UniversityofNatural

UNDP–UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNESCO–UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation

xi

Abstract

InPapuaNewGuinea(PNG)malnutritionfromalackofproteinisasignificant

issue,particularlyforthemajorityofthepopulationlivingininlandruralareasof

themainland.Fishfarmingwasintroducedtoaddressthisissue,andtodate,most

studieshavefocusedonthehighlandsofPNG;itspotentialtoimprovelivelihoods

ofcoastalcommunitiesispoorlyunderstood,particularlyfortheeasternislandsof

PNG.Thisstudyinvestigatedhouseholds’availablecapitalsandevaluatedthe

socialandeconomicpotentialofinlandfishfarminginEastNewBritain(ENBP).

Thestudyutilisedamixedqualitativeandquantitativeapproachusinga

sustainablelifestyleanalysis(SLifA)framework.Datawerecollectedthrougha

householdsurvey,animbeddedSWOTanalysisandfocusgroupdiscussions.The

studyincludedthefourdistrictswhichmakeupENBP:Rabaul,Kokopo,Gazelle

andPomio.Intotal,56householdsurveysand5focusgroupswereconducted.The

methodscaptureddataonhouseholdcapitals,assets,production,marketingand

lifestyle.Thereisanabundanceofsocialandnaturalcapital,butalackoffinancial,

physicalandhumancapital.Socialcapitalwasthebiggestinfluenceonlifestyleand

helpedhouseholdscopewithemotionalandfinancialshocks.Thelackoffinancial,

physicalandhumancapitalhadadetrimentaleffectonfishfarmers.Alow-levelof

institutionalsupport,extensionservicesandtrainingwerekeybottlenecks.While

naturalcapitalwasabenefittoinlandfishfarming,farmerswerealsoimpactedby

floods.Toaddressthelackofextensionservicesandsupport,trainingprograms

shouldbeprovidedtoprovincialofficerstotransfertechnicalknowledgeto

existingandinterestedinlandfishfarmers.Thegrowthoffishfarmingoverallin

PNGrequiresmoregovernmentinterventionparticularlytofundinitialinvestment

xii

andtraining,andbyregulatingpolicy.Thisstudyprovidesabaselineofdatafor

ENBPfishfarmingdevelopmentandwillenablethePNGGovernmenttohave

targetedinterventionsthataddresslocalissues.Inlandfishfarmingisaviable

optiontofirstlyimprovehouseholdnutritionthroughproteinconsumptionand,

secondly,asasourceofincomeforthepeopleofENBP.

1

ChapterI:Introduction

1.0 Introduction

Aquacultureisthefarmingofadiverserangeofaquaticorganismsusingnatural

resourcessuchasfreshwater,marinewaterorsoil(Bostocketal.,2010).Globally,

aquacultureisoneofthefastestgrowingfoodproducingsectors,particularlyin

poor,countriesthatfacefoodandnutritionalinsecurity(FAO,2018).Unlikethe

capturefisheriesindustry,thepotentialofaquaculturehasnotreachedareas

wherefoodandincomesecuritycouldbeimprovedupon(Ahmed&Lorica,2002).

Aquacultureisaboomingindustry,globallyproducing110.2milliontonnesof

aquaticorganismsin2016withanestimatedvalueofUSD243.5billion(FAO,

2018).Inlandaquaculture,particularlyinlandfishfarming,alsoknownas

freshwaterfishfarming,accountsfor40%oftheworld’scapturefinfishfisheries

andaquaculture,andisamainsourceofproteinandlivelihoodindeveloping

countries(FAO,2014).However,productivityishighlyvariableamongcountries

duetofarmers’capacity,accesstotechnologiesandlackofsupport,whichhave

hindereditsgrowth(Brummett,Lazard&Moehl,2008;Hambrey,Edwards&

Belton2007;Katiha,Jena,Pillai,Chakraborty&Dey,2005;Lasner,Brinker&

Nielsen,2016).

2

1.1InlandAquaculture

Inlandaquaculture–principallythefarmingoffreshwaterfinfish–isconsidereda

criticallyimportantactivityforproteinproductionindevelopingcountries

(Tidwell&Allan,2001).Aquacultureisparticularlyimportantforareastoofar

awayfromasourceoffishfrommaricultureandcapturefisheries,orincoastal

hinterlandswheresuitablelandcanbeconvertedtopond-basedfarmingsystems

(FAO,2008).Inlandaquaculturecanbepracticedinnumerouswayswithtanks

andcage-basedfarminginreservoirscommonlyusedtoproducefinfish.Cagesin

reservoirs,whileflourishing,requirestrictregulationtomonitortheir

environmentalimpact(Bostocketal.,2010).Cagescanbeusedindifferentplaces

suchaslakesandrivers(Silva,2003).However,pond-basedaquacultureisthe

dominantmethodforland-basedaquacultureglobally(Waiteetal.,2014;FAO,

2018).Pondsvaryinsizeandusefromsmallindividualpondsforhouseholduseto

large20-100hectareponds,whichareusuallyconvertedorintegratedrice

croppingsystems(Edwards,2015).Anincreaseininlandaquaculturehasthe

potentialforhighproductivityinthefuturewithtechnologyadvances(Subasinghe,

Soto&Jia,2009),andthepotentialtoaddressproteinneedsofruralcommunities

indevelopingcountries.

1.1.1TheroleofInlandFishFarminginfoodandincomesecurity

Inlandaquacultureprovided51.4milliontonnesoffood,andaccountsfor64.2%of

theworld’sfarmedfoodfishproduction(FAO,2018).Thetopthreeinland

aquacultureproducersbycontinentareAsia,AfricaandtheAmericas(FAO,2018).

3

Fishisanimportantsourceofprotein,particularlyindevelopingAsiancountries,

whereconsumptioninruralareasishigherthaninurbanareas(Deyetal.,2005;

Kautsky,Berg,Folke,&Larsson,1997);itspopularityindevelopingcountriesis

largelydrivenbythelowlabourcostsandaccesstolandandwaterresources

(Ahmed&Lorica,2002).

Inlandfishfarmingisoftenintegratedwithotherfarmedcroppingsystemssuchas

vegetableandricefarmsincountriessuchasBangladesh(Dey,Spielman,Haque,

Rahman&Valmonte-Santos,2013).Inrecenttimesfreshwaterpondaquaculture

producedamajorityoffinfish(FAO,2016).Inlandaquaculturecanbepracticedin

numerouswayswithtanksandcagearraysinreservoirsalsowidespread(Naylor

etal.,2000).Inlandaquaculturecanalsorangeinintensity,withsmall-scale

householdaquaculturethroughtolargecommercialproduction(Subasingheetal.,

2009).Smallinlandfishfarmsindevelopingcountriesoftenoperateassmall-scale,

family-runoperationsthatprovideacashcropandsourceofanimalproteinforthe

household(Brummet&Williams,2000).

Unsurprisingly,fish-producinghouseholdsconsumeahigherpercentageoffish

thanhouseholdsthatdonot,whichmeanstheyoftenhaveahighernutritional

statusthanothersintheircommunity(Ahmed&Lorica,2002;Deyetal.,2005).As

morefarmsproducefish,marketsupplyincreasestokeeppricesdown,allowing

otherhouseholdstogettheirintakeofprotein(Ahmed&Lorica,2002).Intermsof

employment,ifpoorindividualscannotaffordthelandneededforfishfarming

thereisstilltheopportunitytogainemploymentvialabourormanagementof

ponds(Bénéetal.,2016).

4

Fishfarmingisusuallynotthesoleincomeforahousehold,withmanyusingitto

supplementtheirdietasopposedtomakingittheirprimaryincome(Smith,Khoa

&Lorenzen,2005).Thediversificationoflivelihoodsisoftencommoninruralor

poorcoastalcommunitiesandhelpstocreatehouseholdproteinandincome

(Blanchardetal.,2017).Thosewhopracticeinlandaquacultureareoften

constrainedbylimitedaccesstoresourcessuchaslandandinfrastructure,andare

usuallyconsideredpoor(Tidwell&Allan,2001).Anotherlimitationforinlandfish

farmersistravellingtosellproduceatbiggermarketswithmanypreferringtosell

theirfishtonearbycommunities(Bostocketal.,2010).Technologicaldevelopment

andeffectivefishhusbandryknowledgewillallowdevelopingcountriestogainthe

fullspectrumofbenefitssuchasfoodsecurityanddiversificationoflivelihoods

(Edwards,2000;Rajan,Dubey,Singh&Khan,2016;Smith,Gordon,Meadows&

Zwick2001).

1.1.2GlobalTilapiaProduction

TheNileTilipaisoneofthethreemostcommonlyfarmedspeciesacrossthe

developingworld.TherearenineTilapiaspeciesusedinfishfarming,withmost

nativetoAfricaandcontributing7.6%ofoverallfreshwaterproduction(Bostock

etal.,2009;Gupta&Acosta,2004).KenyawasthefirsttocultureTilapiain1924

beforeitspreadintotheFarEast,thentheAmericasinthe1940sand1950s

(Gupta&Acosta,2004).Tilapiaproductionreached5.7milliontonnesin2015,and

tilapiaistradedinternationally(FAO,2016).ThemainTilapiaproducersare

developingcountriessuchasChinaandVietnam,withimprovedtechnologyand

5

fishhusbandryknowledgeallowingthecontinuedspreadofproduction(FAO,

2018;Yue,Lin&Li,2016).Ariseinfishconsumptionduetochangesinconsumer

attitudesandincreasedinmarketinghasdriventheriseintilapiaconsumption.

TheNiletilapia,Oreochromisniloticus,hasbeenintenselyculturedanddominates

globalproduction(FAO,2016;Wang&Lu,2016).Duringthe1980sand1990s

threespecificspecies(O.niloticus,O.mossambicusandO.aureus)wereprevalently

produced.O.niloticusproductionexpandedintotheAsianmarketinChina,

ThailandandIndonesia(Fitzsimmons,2000).

Tilapiaisomnivorousmeaningitrequiresminimalfeedsinceitalsousesnatural

foodandcanbefarmedinbothsaltandfreshwater(Bostocketal.,2010).These

requirementssuggestthatitisaffordableandeasytorearspecies,whichhis

particularlyimportanttosubsistencefarmers(Campos-Mendoza,McAndrew,

Coward&Bromage,2004).Tilapiaisconsideredalow-valuefishduetolow

productioncostscomparedtootherspecies,wherethespeciesoffarmedfishis

usuallydependentontheincomeofthefarmer(Ahmed&Lorica,2002).In

ThailandandthePhilippines,low-valuefishareusuallyfarmedinhigherquantities

inruralorpoorhouseholdsthanurbanhouseholds,duetoadifferencein

accessibilityofproteinsources(Deyetal.,2005).Tilapiacanbeculturedinmany

differentsystems,ranginginintensity.Themostcommonare:cages(Philippines),

ponds(China,Bangladesh)andtanks(Brazil)(Kumar&Engle,2016;Wang&Lu,

2016).

ThereareafewcommonkeyconstraintsfoundfromglobalTilapiaproduction;the

firstistheabilitytocontrolbreeding(Subasingheetal.,2009).Awidelyused

6

solutionforthisistoutiliseamalemono-sexpopulation,howeverthismaybe

difficultforsmall-scalefishfarmers(Gupta&Acosta,2004;Rokocy,2005)dueto

thecostofhormonesandtheadditionalspacerequiredforthenurserystage.Poor

broodstockproductivity,duetolowfecundityandinbreeding,isasignificant

limitationthataffectscommercialfishfarms(Campos-Mendozaetal.,2004;Dey,

2000).Thedeteriorationofgeneticqualityisaconstraintthataffectsallfarms

acrossallintensities(Dey,2000).Wherebreedingprogramsforselectionandsex

controlareemployed,improvedproductionandgrowthbenefitshaveoccurred

(Gupta&Acosta,2004).AnothersignificantlimitationforallTilapiafarmsisthe

lackofmarketing,developmentofinfrastructureandlackofinstitutionalsupport

neededtogrowhumancapital(Subasingheetal.,2009).Nevertheless,developing

countriesusetilapia,alongwithcarpspecies,asasourceofproteinand

supplementaryincome(Yueetal.,2016).

1.2AbriefoverviewofInlandAquacultureinPNG

PapuaNewGuinea(PNG)hasapopulationof8,084,991andisanaturallydiverse

countryconsistingofawiderangeofnaturalenvironments(TheWorldBank,

2017).Nearbycountries,suchasIndonesiaandVietnam,havehadmajorinland

freshwaterfishfarmingwhichhaseffectivelycreatedincomeandimprovedfood

security,particularlyinruralareas(Belton&Thilsted,2014;Pucher,Mayrhofer,

El-Matbouli&Focken,2015).About33%ofthePNGpopulationearnslessthan

US$1.25perdaywith87%ofthepopulationbeinginlandinhabitantslivingin

ruralareasandusingsubsistencefarmingandnaturalresourcestomeettheir

7

needs(FAO,2017).Duetoalackoflivestockproductionandadependencyonhigh

carbohydratefoods,49.5%ofthepopulationshowsstuntingfrommalnutrition

(WHO,2015).AlthoughPNGhashadalonghistoryofcrop-basedagriculture,with

75%ofthepopulationdependentonsubsistenceagriculture,fishfarmingisa

recentactivity(Bourke&Harwood,2009;UNDP,2012).Fishfarmingwas

introducedtoaddressfoodandincomesecurity,withmostfishfarmsbeing

earthenponds(Smith,2007).

InPapuaNewGuinea(PNG),aquacultureisgrowingatarapidrateof10%ayear

asshownbystudiesdonebyVira(2015)andAustralianCentreforInternational

AgriculturalResearch(ACIAR)projectFIS/2014/062.Smallinlandearthenponds

arethemainfarmingmethodusedforinlandfishfarming.Thesepondsconsist

predominantlyofTilapiaandEuropeanCarpthatarethemainmethodandspecies

offishfarming,particularlyinruralareasofPNG(Smith,2007).Since2006there

hasbeenasignificantincreaseinthenumberoffishfarms,specifically

communitieswithlessaccesstoresourcesthanthatofcoastalregions(Vira,2015).

1.2.1 OpportunitiesandConstraintsofaquaculturedevelopmentinPNG

AquaculturedevelopmentinPNGposesmanyopportunitiesandconstraints.Vira

(2015)conductedaStrengths,Weakness,OpportunitiesandThreats(SWOT)

analysisofEasternHighlandsProvinceinPNG.Therewereanumberofkey

opportunitiesfoundintheSWOTanalysis.Therewerethatfarmersremainedopen

totrainingandextension,demandforfishwasgrowing,educationalinstitutions

wereopentointroductionofaquacultureascontentforcourses,good

8

environmentalconditionsforfishfarmingarepresent,waterisfreelyavailable,

andfarmerswanttoimprovethequalityfishfeed.Threatsincludedalackofan

organisedmarket,slowgrowthoffishevenwithfeedandtheft,whichoverall

discouragesfishfarming.TheculturalconditionsinPNGcanalsobeanadvantage,

withpeoplerelyingonthecommunitywantoksystemforassistance(explained

furtherinSection1.2.3).

TheNationalFisheriesAuthority(NFA)CorporatePlan2008-2012identified

weaknessesfromacorporatepointofview:alackofmarketaccess;inadequate

onshoresupportfacilities(particularlyforcoastalfisheries);lackoftrainedstaff

andcrew;conducivebusinessclimateforinvestmentgoodgovernance;lackof

facilities;and,linkagewithotheragenciesorservices.Improvedtrainingthrough

institutionalsupportwasreiteratedbyACIAR(Smith,2007).Thesepointswere

alsorestatedbyVira’s(2015)SWOTanalysisoffishfarmersinPNG.Farmer-

relatedweaknessesincludealackoffishhusbandryknowledgeandskills,arelated

lackoftraining,andhighpriceoffishfeed.Highcapitalcostsofsettingupfish

farmswereanotherconstraint(Smith,2007).

PNG’saquaculturesectorhasnotseenthesamelevelofsuccessofother

developingcountries.Thisisdue,inpart,toalackofinfrastructure,andfinancial

andinstitutionalconstraintssuchaslackofmanagementandsupport.PNG’s

challengesindevelopingfishfarmingaremirroredbyAfrica.Withsimilar

economic,politicalclimateandpopulationgrowth,Africa’smainconstraintisthe

needfortrainingandculturalconstraintssuchasthelackoftraditionalfish

husbandryskills,mirroringtheneedsofPNGsfishfarmingindustry(Brummet&

9

Williams,2000).PNGalsohassocialconstraintsthataffectthesuccessof

communitymembersviathewantoksystem(see1.2.3).

1.2.2 CurrentInlandAquacultureresearchinPNG

CurrentandrecentresearchintoinlandfishfarminghasbeenconductedbyNFA

andUNSWwithfundingfromACIAR.AlargerACIARinlandaquacultureproject

(FIS/2014/062)isanactiveprojectthatisresearchingwaystoincrease

productionfrominlandaquacultureforfoodandincomesecurity.Partofthis

projectinvolvesconductinghouseholdsurveysin7otherprovinces:Manus,

Madang,WesternHighlandsProvince(WHP),EasternHighlandsProvince(EHP),

Cimbu,JiwakaandMorobe.ThisprojectwillfocusonENBP,whichwasoneofthe

lastprovincestobesurveyedmakingthetotalnumberofprovincessurveyed8.

ENBP,althoughastandaloneproject,waschosentoprovidemoreinformationon

coastalcommunitiesinvolvedinfishfarmingandprovideacomparativedataset

fortheumbrellaACIARproject.Thesurveysutilisedasustainablelifestyleanalysis

(SLifA)modifiedfromasustainablelivelihoodanalysis(SLA)frameworktocollect

dataonthestatus,availablecapitalsandbottlenecksforinlandfishfarminginPNG

(furtherdiscussedinSection1.6).Thisstudyutilisedthesamesurveyformatand

modifiedquestionstosuitthecontextofENBP.Thefindingsfromthiscomponent

ofthestudyisshapingstrategiesforresearchandmanagement.TheACIARproject

targetsthesignificantconstraintstohouseholdpondswhichwerethelackof

technicalcapacityandfishhusbandryknowledge.

10

1.2.3TheWantoksystem

PNGisacountryrichincultureandsocialcapital,withacomplexwebofnetworks

(Baynes,Herbohn&Unsworth,2017;Nanau,2011).Akeyexampleofsocialcapital

inPNGisthewantoksystem,whichisasystemofreciprocity.Wantoktranslatesto

mean‘onelanguage,orpeoplewhospeakthesamedialect’,butcanalsoreferto

commonkinship,socialorreligiousgroups,andethnicidentity(deRenzio,2000).

Itisanetworkofrelationshipsandbehaviours.Onamacro-level,itisanidentity

concept,whileonthemicro-level(i.e.householdandfamilies)itisasocialcapital

(Reilly,2001).Thewantoksystemcanoftenactassocialwelfaresupportbasedon

relationshipsoftrustandcooperationwithotherwantoks(deRenzio,2000).

Communitieswithahighlevelofsocialcapitalareconsideredtohaveabetter

chanceofsolvingproblemsthroughcollectiveactionandrelyingonother

memberstoreciprocatebasedontheirtrustinoneanother(deRenzio,2000).

Havinghighstocksofsocialcapitalalsopositivelyimpactseconomicand

governmentsectors(Fitz,Lyon&Driskell,2016).Thewantoksystemisbuilton

thevaluesandtraditionsofthecommunityandallowsforthesharingof

information.Thisfoundationofsharedinformationcanallowforagreateruptake

ofagriculturalimprovementtechniquesandmoreworkopportunities(Ngwira,

Johnsen,Aune,Mekuria&Thierfelder,2014;Sisifa,Taylor,McGregor,Fink&

Dawson,2016).Whilethewantoksystemcancreategreaterefficiency,itcanalso

bringaheavyburdentocertainmemberswho,forexample,havemoresupport

fromfamilyorearnahigherincomeandgiveothersa“free-ride”–wherepeople

takeadvantageofotherindividuals’capitalandreapthebenefits(Woolcock,

1998).Theamountofsupportanindividualhasisbasedonthegrouptheyarea

11

partofortheirfamilyconnections(Reilly,2001).Thewantoksystemissignificant

tofishfarminginPNGsincesharingnewagriculturalpracticesisoftendoneona

ruralcommunitylevelandhastheabilitytodevelopruralcommunities(Nanau,

2011;Pratiwi&Suzuki,2017).Fishfarmingalsoprovidesbenefitsforcommunity

householdnutritionandaddedfinancialcapital(Thilstedetal.,2016).

1.3Problemstatement

Thereiscurrentlyaknowledgegaponthesustainabilityofinlandfishfarmingfor

coastalprovincessuchasENBP,theavailablecapitalsandhowitsdevelopment

hasbeenhindered.Anincreasedpopulationhasledtooverfishingandsocial

tension,andfoodsecurityininland,ruralcommunitiesisoftenprecarious(Bellet

al.,2009).Therefore,fishfarmingwassuggestedbyNFAtoimproveeconomicand

socialgrowthwithinENBP,PNG(J.Sammut,personalcommunication,2Nov

2017).FishfarminghasbeenachallengeforPNGfarmers.Commercialor

advancedmethodsofproductionareoftentoohighforruraldwellers(Narimbi,

Mazumder&Sammut2018;Vira,2015).However,thereispotentialforsmall-scale

fishfarmstosucceedwhichisevidencedinareasoftheEasternHighlands

Province,JiwakaProvinceandWesternHighlandsProvince(Smith,2007).A

SustainableLivelihoodsandLifestyleFrameworkwasproposedbySammutand

Wani(2015),withothermethodsofdatacollectiontounderstandthefivecapitals

thataffectfishfarmingopportunities.Therehasbeennosurveyworkconductedin

ENBPwherepossibledifferentconstraints,lifestyleandlivelihoodassetsare

present.Thus,theproposedstudywillenableNFAandtheumbrellaACIARproject

12

tomakecomparisonsbetweenprovincesandplaninterventionsstrategicallyand

equitably.TheoverallACIARprojectandthisstudywillcontributetocreatingthe

largestsocio-economicdatabaseforfishfarminginPNGandabaseline.

Thepurposeofthisstudyistoutiliseanadaptationofasustainablelivelihood

framework(SLA)todetermineifthecommunitiesinEastNewBritainhavethe

capitalstoformasuccessfulandsustainablesourceofincomeandproteinthrough

inlandfishfarming.Thisprojectwillalsoprovideabetterunderstandingofthe

community’sprioritiesandcapitalsinrelationtofishfarmingasalivelihood.This

informationwillinformgovernmentagenciessuchasNFAandProvincial

authorities.ACIARisalargefunderofinlandfishfarmingresearchandother

fisheriesprojectsinPNG.Keyoutcomesofthisstudyareexpectedtoaddvalueto

theACIARproject(FIS/2014/062),generateinformationneededfordecision-

makingbyNFA,andtoidentifybottlenecksforindustrygrowthneededfor

researchandmanagementactivitiesinPNG.

1.3.1StudySite

EastNewBritainprovince(ENBP)isinNewBritainIsland,withapopulationof

~328,369peopleinthe2011census(NSO,2011).Theextentoffishfarmingin

ENBPiscurrentlyunknownandisnotcurrentlyincludedintheACIARproject’s

sustainablelifestyleanalysis(SLiFA).ThisstudywillbeundertakeninRabaul,

Gazelle,KokopoandPomiodistrict,whichmakeupENBP.Amajorityofpeople

fromGazelle,KokopoandRabauldistrictareTolai.TherearealsoBainingpeople

fromGazelledistrict,thathistoricallyarethoughttohavebeendisplacedbythe

13

Tolai.TherearethreeroutinelyspokenlanguageswhichareEnglish,TokPisinand

theTolaivernacularKuanua.Despitethecoastallocation,theislandregions

(Bouganville,ENBP,Manus,NewIslandandWestNewBritain)populationsstill

experiencestunting(38/1%)andenvironmentalconstraints(UNICEF,WHO&

WorldBank,2015).ENBPisatriskofearthquakes,volcaniceruptionsand

subsequentlandslidesduetoitslocationwithinthevolcanicringoffire(Kuna&

Zehner,2015).Thiscontributestopoorqualityroadsandlackofaccessibility,

makingsourcesofproteindifficulttoaccess.However,theproductionoffishis

foundtobeasoundsourceofproteinandcanbeproducedinbackyardsandin

croppingareas(Allison,2011).Producingproteincanreducetheadverseeffectsof

povertysuchasmalnutrition(Golden,Allison,Cheung&Dey,2016).

Figure1.1:MapofENBPandspecificareascoveredbystudy

14

1.4AimsandResearchQuestions

1.4.1Overallaim

Theoverallobjectiveofthestudyistoidentifyindividual’savailablecapitalsand

evaluatethesocialandeconomicpotentialoffishfarminginEastNewBritain

Province(ENBP),PNGusinganSLifAframework.Thisprojectaimstoinform

futureACIAR-fundedworkandNFAprogramstodetermineandsupportinland

fishfarmingopportunitiesandincreasethesocialandeconomicbenefits.

1.4.2Researchobjectives

Thespecificobjectivesandtheirunderpinningresearchquestionsareto:

1. Determineanddescribetheopportunitiesanddriversofsocial,human,natural,

physicalandfinancialcapitalsavailabletosustainablyfarmfishinENBP;

Whataretheopportunitiesforgrowthofthelocalindustrybasedonthesocial,

physical,naturalandfinancialcapitalsofthefarmersorpotentialfarmers?

2. Identifyanddescribethecurrentsocial,economicandenvironmentalbottlenecks

togrowthofinlandaquacultureinENBP;

Whataretheeconomic,socialandenvironmentalbottlenecksforgrowthofinland

aquacultureinENBP?

15

3. Evaluatethesocialandeconomicbenefitsofinlandfishfarmingdevelopmentin

ENBPandPNG;and

Whatarethesocialandeconomicbenefitsofinlandfishfarmingdevelopmentin

ENBPandhowdotheycomparetoexistinglanduse/livelihoods?

4. Makerecommendationsforchangestotheinstitutionalmanagementframework

foraquaculturedevelopmentinENBP

WhatinstitutionalarrangementsarerequiredtoenableNFAtofacilitategrowthof

theindustry?

1.5Approach

Thisisasocio-economicstudyusingamixed-methodsapproach,mainlyfocusing

onqualitativedesignandanalysisduetothesmallpopulationoffishfarmersin

ENBP.Arigorouslyquantitativeanalysiswasnotpossibleduetothestatistical

powerofasmallsamplesize.Thestudyconsistsofinterviews,surveydataand

basicstatisticalanalysis.ItfollowstheACIARmethodologyofaSLifA.

16

1.6SustainableLivelihoodAnalysisframework

Alivelihoodistheaccumulationofassets,activitiesandaccessthatistheliving

gainedbyanindividualorhousehold(Allison&Ellis,2001).Sustainable

livelihoodsanalysisframework(SLA)isapeople-centeredapproachthatimproves

knowledgeontherelationshipsaffectingandinfluencingpeople’slivelihoods,and

guidespolicyanddevelopment,particularlyforpoorandvulnerablecommunities

(Allison&Horemans,2006).Theframeworkfocusesonfourtypesof

sustainability:institutional,economic,socialandenvironmental.Thestudy’sSLA

frameworkfollowsthewidelyuseddefinitionoflivelihoodasdevisedbyChambers

andConway(1992)andisanintegralmethodologyforthisproject.

“Alivelihoodcomprisesthecapabilities,assets(stores,resources,claimsandaccess)

andactivitiesrequiredforameansofliving:alivelihoodissustainablewhichcan

copewithandrecoverfromstressandshocks,maintainorenhanceitscapabilities

andassets,andprovidesustainablelivelihoodopportunitiesforthenextgeneration;

andwhichcontributesnetbenefitstootherlivelihoodsatthelocalandgloballevels

andintheshortandlongterm”(Chambers&Conway,1992,i).

Sustainablelivelihoodsframeworkanddefinitionshavesinceevolvedandgrown

rapidly(Carney,1998;Ellis,2000;Scoones,1998).Theexpansionanduptakeof

thisanalyticalframeworkhasbeenappliedinawiderangeofissuesfrom

HIV/AIDS(Loevinsohn&Gillespie,2003),conservation(Cattermoul,Townsley,&

Campbell,2008),foodsecurity(Ellis&Freeman,2004)andpovertyreduction

(Carney,1999;Lloyd-Jones&Rakodi,2002).Itisalsousedbyorganisations(e.g.

17

FAO,WorldBank,DFID),NGOsandresearchinstitutes(e.g.ODI)asananalytical

evaluationoflivelihoodoraplanningtoolforfuturedevelopment.SLAis

implementedinmanyhouseholdstudiesbecauseitispeople-centeredandcan

makeslinksbetweenthecomplexfacetsofhouseholds(Chernietal.,2007;Ellis&

Biggs,2001;Scoones,2009).SLAaimstomakethecomplexityoflivelihoodsofthe

pooreasiertounderstandandguidedecisionmakingtoovercomedeficiencies

(Morse&McNamara,2013).Bebbington(1999)notesthatitcreatesmicro-and

macro-scalelinksbetweencommunitiesandtheirinfluencelocalinfluenceon

institutionalandpolicy.

TherearefiveintegralcomponentstoSLA:thevulnerabilitycontext;assetsand

capitalsofthehousehold;transformingstructuresandprocesses;livelihood

strategies,and,livelihoodoutcomes(Figure1.2).Morse&McNamara(2013)

contendthatpeople’sassetsaredestroyedorcreatedbythreeexternalfactors:

trends,shocksandseasonalitythatmakeupthevulnerabilitycontext(further

discussedinsection1.6.2).TherearefiveassetcapitalsclassifiedinaSLAwithin

thevulnerabilitycontext,whicharehuman,social,natural,physicalandfinancial

(Ellis,2000).Theseassetsareusuallydepictedinapentagram(Figure1.2).Eachof

thesecapitalscaninfluencetheothersbothdirectlyandindirectly.Socialcapital

interactswiththeothercapitalsandgivesrisetointeractionandrelationship

buildingatalocalandinstitutionallevel(Bebbington,1999).Bebbington(1999)

identifiedtheneedtounderstandthatpeople'scapitalsaresubjecttochangeover

timeandneedreadjustmentthroughouttheirlife.SLArecognisestheactivitiesand

actionspeopledotomakealivingandinvestigateslivelihoodfromalocallevelas

18

wellashowenvironmental(climatechange)andinstitutional/policycanimpact

people.

Figure1.2:SustainableLivelihoodsFramework(Carney,1999)

ThewideuseofSLAisnotwithoutcriticism.Theliteraturecritiquesthescopeand

complexitythattheSLAframeworkcovers(Carney,2003;Scoones,2009).

However,SLAshouldbebroadinordertocoverthecomplexityoflivelihoodas

thisistherealityofapeople-centeredanalysis.Carney(2003)wasconcernedthat

theframeworkdowngradesissuessuchasgovernance,institutionsandpower

whenSLAwasusedinpractice,anddidnotintegrate‘sustainability’fully,

especiallyenvironmentalsustainability(Ashley&Carney,1999).Thiscritiquealso

tiesintotheissueofSLAbeingtoobroadbutisdependentontheindividual

prioritiesofparticipantsandstaff(Ashley&Carney,1999).TheuseofSLAin

respecttolong-termshocksandstressesneedsmorefocus,particularlyrelatingto

environmentalchangeduetoanincreaseinclimaticvariabilityrelatingtoclimate

change(Scoones,2009).Thismeansmanycommunitieswillbemoresusceptible

19

toshocksandstressesbroughtaboutbyclimatechange,thereforeSLAcouldbe

implementedtoevaluatelivelihoodstrategiestohelphouseholdscope.Monitoring

long-termprogressisanotherkeydifficulty,withmuchoftheliteraturebeing

shorttermstudiesthatdonotmonitorchangesthatoccurinhouseholdlivelihoods

(Kranz,2001).

TheapplicationofSLAtotheaquacultureandfisheriesindustryhasgrownover

thelastdecade(Allison&Ellis,2001;Allison&Horemans,2006;Ahmed,2009;

Sari,2015).Allison&Ellis(2001)usedthisframeworkinthecontextofadapting

developingcountries’small-scalefisheriesmanagement,whichcanbeappliedto

thisproject’ssmallcommunityfishfarminginPNG.Theframeworkinthisproject

willbeusedtoanalyticallyprovideknowledgeonthecurrentandfutureneedsfor

developmentofinlandaquacultureinPNG.PNGprovidesaninterestingresearch

settingtoapplySLAbecauseofthetribalsociety,clanownershipofland,lowlevels

ofdevelopment,yetabundantnaturalresources.

1.6.1Introducinglifestyleintothesustainablelivelihoodsanalysis

ThisprojectwillutilizeavariantoftheSLAframeworkdesignedbytheUnited

Kingdom(UK)DepartmentofInternationalDevelopment(DFID)sinceithasa

strongemphasisonitsuseasaholisticdevelopmenttooltoimprovetolivelihoods

ofthepoor(StephenandMcNamara,2013).SustainableLifestyleAnalysis(SLifA),

whichwillbeusedinthisstudy,isbuiltuponthefivecomponentsoftheSLA

framework.Theassetpentagonvarieswiththecenterofthepentagram

representingzeroaccesstoresources(Figure1.2).Therefore,eachpointofthe

20

pentagramcanvarydependingonindividualhouseholds.Assetscanaffecteach

otherandtheaccesstovariousresources.Eachoftherelationshipsbetweenassets

isimportanttounderstandduetotheirrelationship.Livelihoodgoalsusually

supportpeople’slifestyleschoices,alsoconsideringspiritualandaspiration

aspects.Theinclusionoflifestyleencompassesotheraspectsofhumanlifesuchas

cultureandsocialstatus,whichimpactslivelihooddecisions(Morse&McNamara,

2013).ThisframeworkalignswiththeACIARproject’sapproachtofacilitate

comparisonandalsoaddresstheumbrellaobjectivesforinlandandcoastalareas

ofPNG.

1.6.2Vulnerabilitycontext

Thevulnerabilitycontextinvolvestheexternalenvironmentalfactorsthatpeople

havenocontrolover.People’slivelihoodsandassetstatusareaffectedbytrends

(population,resources),shocks(economic,natural)andseasonality(prices,

production).Ahouseholdisaffectedbybothinternalandexternalfactorsthat

affecttheavailabilityofassetsandoptionsforbeneficiallivelihoodoutcomes(Lax

&Krug,2013).Shockscaneliminateassetsdirectly,trendsareusuallylessharmful

andmorepredictable,andseasonalityisoneofthelong-termadversitiesthatface

thepoor(Cannon&Muller-Mahn,2010).Thoughnotalwaysnegative,the

vulnerabilitycontexthighlightsthefactorsthatpredominantlyimpactthepoor,

whichaffectstheirlivelihoodoptionsandabilitytochangetheirlivelihood

strategy.Tochangethevulnerabilitycontextinwhichthepoorlive,itisoftenupto

transformingstructuresandprocesses(e.g.reformingpolicy)(Carney,1999).

Helpingpeopletocopebetterwithshocksincreasestheirabilitytotakeadvantage

21

ofopportunitiestobuildtheirassets.WithoutsocialnetworkssuchastheWantok

system,thereisanincreaseinvulnerabilitytolivelihoodbreakdowns(Koczberski

&Curry,2005).Theidentificationofthefactorsthataffectacommunitywillenable

anunderstandingoftheimpactsandallowstrategiesforminimization.

1.7Assets,CapitalsandCapabilities

1.7.1Humancapital

Humancapitalisknowledge,healthandskillsthatallowhouseholdstofollow

differentlivelihoodstrategiesandachievelivelihoodoutcomes(Carney,2003).

Humancapitalisthelabourskillatahouseholdlevelandshowstheamountand

qualityoflabouravailable.AcapitalisconsideredthesameasanassetinthisSLA

framework,whilecapabilitiesarenotsimplyresourcesusedbutgiveindividuals

theabilitytoactandbe(Bebbington,1999).Humancapitalhasbeenfoundtohave

significantinfluenceonfactors,othercapitalsandeconomicgrowth(Hanushek,

2013).TheDepartmentofInternationalDevelopment(DFID)UKconsidersthis

capitalorassetessentialtogainingaccessandutilisingtheotherassets,whilenot

sufficientonitsown.Humancapitalimpactscanbeatahousehold,communityor

nationalscale.Thevaryingsizeofhouseholdsimpactstheirhumancapitalfrom

educationandskillstoageandgender,influencingthepursuedlivelihood

strategies(Morse&McNamaraetal.,2009).Indirectstructuresandprocesses,

suchasreformtopoliciesandchangetoculturalnorms,areequallyimportantto

complementindividualinvestment.Toachievepositivelivelihoodoutcomes,

22

individualsmustbewillingtoimprovetheirhumancapitalbyinvestingin

themselvesthroughtrainingandschools.InPNGthenetenrolmentratefor

primaryschoolis84.28%,whichmaybepartlyattributedtopooraccessibility

meaninglessprovisionbythegovernmentinhealthandeducationservices

(Gibson&Rozelle,2003).Thislackofprovisionofserviceimpactsrural

community’shumancapitalandlimitstheirlivelihoodstrategies.

1.7.2Socialcapital

Socialcapitalinvolvesthesocialresourcespeopledrawoninpursuitoftheir

livelihoodobjectivesthroughinteraction(Ellis,2000).Carney(1999)classifies

socialcapitalasanintrinsiccapitalthatprovidesabuffertothevulnerability

contextfactors(i.e.shockssuchasdeath)andhowpeoplecope.Itismadeupof

networks,culturalnorms,formalisedgroupsandrelationshipsofsocialsupport,

trustandreciprocity,forexampleasseenunderthewantoksystem(Sayer,

Campbell&Campbell,2004;Woolcock&Narayan,2000).Itsavailabilityis

dependentonthehouseholdmembersandtheirinteractionwithotherpeople,

directlyimpactingtheotherfourcapitals.Socialcapitaliscloselyrelatedto

transformingprocessesandstructures(Figure1.2)withtherelationshipbeing

two-way.Directsupportthroughimprovementofgroupssuchasleadershipand

extendingexternallinksoflocalgroupsfurtheraretwowayshouseholdscan

improvetheirsocialcapital(Carney,2003).Indirectly,thedevelopmentofgood

governanceandstrongorganisations,helpingtodevelopmethodsofinteraction

withcivilsociety,canprovideacohesivesocialenvironment.Whileitcanhelpto

23

preventeconomicfailures,throughsupportfromothers,itcanalsohelptoshift

perspectivesandattitudesofcommunities(deRenzio,2000).

1.7.3Financialcapital

Financialcapitalistypicallytheassetleastavailabletothepoorandisnotconfined

tosimpleeconomicsasitincludesnotonlyflowsbutalsoanyfinancialmeansthe

householdhas(e.g.income,savings,credit).Therearetwomaintypesoffinancial

capital:availablestocksandregularinflowsofmoney.Availablestocksareusually

savingsandcantakeonanumberofforms(e.g.cash,livestock).Regularinflowsof

moneyontheotherhandconsistofincomeandpensions.Theseinflowsshouldbe

reliable(notone-off).Accesstofinancialgoodsenablesthehouseholdtoachieve

livelihoodgoalsandpayforessentialgoodsandservicesvitaltotheirlivelihood

strategy(Krantz,2001).Itshouldbenotedthatfinancialcapitalcanbeconverted

toothercapitalandusedindirectfulfillmentoflivelihoodoutcomessuchasthe

purchasingforfoodtoincreasefoodstability(Carney,2003).AmajorityofthePNG

populationisclassifiedaslivinginpovertywithoutdisposableincome,andwith

someassetssharedbetweenfamilymembersandwantoks(WorldBank,2009).

1.7.4Physicalcapital

Physicalcapitalreferstotheinfrastructurethatchangesthephysicalenvironment,

neededbythepeopletobemoreproductive.Essentialinfrastructurefor

24

sustainablelivelihoodsistheaccessto,andaffordabilityof,cleanwater,transport,

shelterandcommunicationtechnology(Lax&Krug,2013).Infrastructureis

usuallyexpensiveduetoinitialcostsforbuildingandlong-termmaintenance.

Householdscanputgreaterimportanceoncertaininfrastructurethanothers.If

thereislittleaccesstotransport,householdscannotgettheirproduce(e.g.fish)to

marketwhichdetrimentallyaffectstheirproductivityandlivelihoodoutcomes.In

PNGaccesstoaffordableandreliabletransportisnotreadilyavailable,withan

overalllackofinfrastructureandharshlandscapeimpedingitsdevelopmentand

maintenance(Edmonds,Wiegand,Koomen,Pradhan&Andree,2018).

1.7.5Naturalcapital

Naturalcapitalisclassifiedbyawiderangeofnaturalresourcesand

environmentalservices(Kranz,2001).Itincludesintangiblegoodssuchas

biodiversityandtheatmosphere(Carney,2003).Itisalsorelatedtothe

vulnerabilityfactors,particularlyseasonality(e.g.seasonalclimate,weather,

marketseason)whereaccessandqualitycanchangesignificantly.Naturalcapital

providesasignificantcontributiontogoodsandservices.Therefore,long-term

trendsinuseandqualityareimportantandneedtobemonitoredtodetermine

livelihoodstrategiessuchasthroughconservationandimplementationofservices

(Costanza&Daly,2003).Environmentalsustainabilityisoneofthefour

sustainabilitytypesthatSLAfocuseson,inbalancewithmeetingpeople’sneeds.

Indirectchangestotheinstitutionsthatmanagenaturalresourcesandclear

environmentallegislationwillallowbetteraccessandmanagement(Carney,

2003).InSLA,naturalcapitalaimstounderstandhownaturalcapitalisusedand

25

valued.PNGisrichinnaturalcapitalwithhighbiodiversity,naturalresourcesand

landavailability(Barrowsetal.,2009).

1.8Structure

Thisthesisiscomprisedofsixintegralchapters.Inwhatfollows,Chapter2will

discussthehistoryandcurrentstateoftheAquacultureindustryinENBP.Chapter

3outlinesthemethodologyandanalysisconducted.Chapter4presentsaresults

anddiscussiontoevaluatethefirstandsecondresearchobjectives.Chapter5is

alsoaresultsanddiscussionansweringthethirdresearchobjective,referringto

Chapter4.RecommendationsaremadefromthisinChapter6.

26

ChapterII:HistoryandLegislationofAquaculturein

PapuaNewGuinea

2.1AquacultureinPNG

InmanyPacificIslandCountriesandTerritories(PICTs),theissuesandlimited

understandingofnutritionalongsidefoodimportsandavailabilityisprominent

(WHO,2010).Micronutrientdeficiency,higherprevalenceofnon-communicable

disease,anddiabetesarecommonhumanhealthissuesinPICTsduetoadeclinein

qualityfoodandsubsequentnutritionalsecurity(Hoy,Roth,Viney,Souares,&

Lopez,2014;WHO,2010).Thedrivetoincreasefishfarmingindeveloping

countriesstemsfromtheneedforasustainableandattainablesourceofprotein.

DietsinPICTshavetransitionedfromtraditionalfoodsconsistingoffreshfish,

meatandgreenvegetables,toamoderndietofimportedprocessedandrefined

foods(Charltonetal.,2016).Malnutrition,causedbydeficiencyinvarious

nutrientssuchasprotein,canleadtostuntedgrowthanddevelopmentaldelay

(WHO,2010).Awidelysuggestedsolutiontofoodsecurityistoencouragethe

farmingoflocally-producedhighproteinfoods,suchasfish,totakeadvantageof

thenaturalresourcesthatcansupporttheirproduction(Charltonetal.,2016;

FAO2008;Gabrieletal.,2007).

AquacultureinPapuaNewGuinea(PNG)isquicklyexpandingwithasignificant

increaseinfishfarmsinthepastdecade(Vira,2015).Thedemandforfishfarming

hasincreasedduetoitspotentialtoimprovehouseholdnutritionandfood

27

security;itisalsoconsideredmorepracticalforsmall-scalefarming,oftenfamily-

runventures,indevelopingcountries(Charltonetal.,2016).Thisisparticularly

relevanttoPNGbecause80%ofthepopulationlivesinruralinlandareas,away

fromcoastalresources(Nordhagen,Pascual&Drucker,2017).ThePNG

communities’fishconsumptionisundertherecommendedlevels,whichcanbe

attributedtoalackofaccessibilityandthehighcostoffish(Belletal.,2009;Vira,

2015).Currently,thePNGaquacultureindustryusessmall-scaleearthenpondsfor

subsistencelivingorinvolvessmallcommunitymarketsandpondswithoralong

vegetablegardensusinglowtechnologyapproaches(Vira,2015).

ThePNGfishfarmingindustryisdominatedbyGeneticallyImprovedFarmed

Tilapia(GIFT),followedbyCarp.ItwasinferredbySmith(2007)thataquaculture

contributed4%tosmall-scalefarmer’sincome,whichisexpectedtobemuch

highernow,givenitsgrowthinthepastdecade.Otherfreshwaterspeciessuchas

rainbowtroutandbarramundihavealsobeenfarmed;thereareonlythreetrout

farmsandbarramundifarmingrecentlyceasedduetoalackoffingerling

production.Vira(2015)SWOTanalysisrecognizedthatkeyconstraintstofarming

troutandbarramundiincludedthelackofequipmentandmaterials,knowledgeon

accessingcreated,andthelimitedcontacttowatersupply.Furthermore,feedand

husbandryskillswerelimitingfactorsforfarmingcarpandtilapia.Thecurrent

scopeofthefishfarmingindustryishighlyconcentratedinthehighlandsofPNG–

thoughtheACIARprojectcoveredManus,Madang,WesternHighlandsProvince

(WHP),EasternHighlandsProvince(EHP)andMorobe–whichshowsitisgaining

momentum.

28

Thischapterwillcriticallydiscusspreviousandcurrentworkinthedevelopment

ofsmall-scaleinlandfishfarminginPNG.Thechapterincludesahistorical

overviewoftheindustryandexaminesexistingpolicyandregulationsrelatedto

aquacultureinPNG.AcomparisonofresearchbetweenAsiaandotherpacific

countriesisalsoincludedtoplacethePNGaquacultureindustryinawiderAsia-

Pacificcontext.Inthischapter,publishedandunpublisheddocumentsare

analysed,thelatterbeingmainlygovernmentordonor-agencyreportstofill

knowledgegapsinthescantpublishedliteratureonaquacultureinPNG.

2.2HistoryofAquacultureinPNG

PNGhasintroducedandtrialledmanydifferentspeciessincetheintroductionof

aquacultureover50yearsago.FishfarminginPNGwasanearlyrecommendation

stemmingfromoffoodsecurityandnutrientdeficiency.Theintroductionoffish

farmingwasalsoattributedtohavingapredominantlyinlandpopulationandled

totheimportationof21speciesfrom1930-1974(Glucksmanetal.,1976).Dueto

thelimitedknowledgeoffishhusbandry,andrecurrentfailurefarmingnative

species,theintroductionofexoticspecieswasneeded(Smith,2013).Thissection

willfocusonthehistoryofinstitutionsinvolvedinfreshwateraquaculture.

Additionally,thischapterdiscussesfreshwaterfishfarmingspeciespreferencein

PNG,theirprevalenceandthesurvivalofspecies.

29

Earlyhistory1930s-1960s

Mosquitofish(Gambusiaaffins)wasthefirstknownintroduction,around1930,

intendedtocontrolthemosquitopopulationandhelpreduceprevalenceof

malaria(Glucksmanetal.,1976).Inthelate1940s,browntrout(Salmotrutta)was

introducedforstockingintheHighlandsofPNGforfoodandsportsfishing

(Glucksmanetal.,1976).Thisspeciesneverachieveditspotentialasafishfarming

speciesandisnowuncommoninPNG(Glucksmaetal.,1976).Rainbowtrout

(Oncorhynchusmykiss)wasintroducedin1952andshowedmorepotentialforfish

farmingthanbrowntroutforfoodandsportsfishing(Blichfeldt,1974).

Oncorhynchusmykississtillfarmedandoccursinthewild,butwithascattered

populationbecauseitissuitedtothecooler,higheraltitudeconditionsinthe

HighlandsofPNG(Verhille,English,Cocherell,Farrell&Fangue,2016).Onlythree

farmscurrentlyproducethisspeciesinPNG,andrecurrentfailureiscommon.

In1954,theHighlandsAgricultureExperimentalStation(Aiyura)wasdeveloped

bytheDepartmentofAgriculture,StockandFisheries(DASF)tosupportthe

productionoffreshwaterfishinPNG.Thisdepartmentprecededtheestablishment

ofNFA.TheaimsofthisinstitutionweretocreateaproteinsourceforPNGs

malnourishedpopulationandgeneratecashincomeforsmallholderfarmsata

small-scaleandcommerciallevel.Throughout1954-1957afewotherspecieswere

alsointroducedforhumanconsumption(Table2.1).Mozambiquemouthbrooder

(Oreochromismossambicus)isstillrelativelywidespreadandusedforfood,but

mainlyinthelowlands.Atitsintroductionitwasconsideredafailureforfish

farmingduetoslowgrowthrates.However,itbecameestablishedintheSepik

30

Riverduetofavourableenvironmentalfactors(Coates,1987)andisnowpartofa

capturefishery.

Thecommoncarp(Cyprinuscarpio)wasimportedtoreplaceOreochromis

mossambicusforaquaculturein1959,withthegovernmentplayingarolein

distributingthespecies(Glucksmanetal.,1976).Thecommoncarpwasandstillis

oneofthemostsuccessfullyfarmedfishinPNGwithawidespreaddistributionfor

bothcommercialandsmall-scalefarms(Smith,2007;Vira,2015).Itwasreported

thatsweetpotatoandricebranwereusedasfeedforcommoncarp(Cyprinus

carpio)(Wani,2004).Atthistime,mostfarmerswereusingpelletisedfeedsmade

forchickensandotherlivestock,withAiyurapromotingthefertilizationofponds

tostimulatenaturefoodproduction(La’a&Glucksman,1972).TheFAO,in

conjunctionwiththeDepartmentofFisheriesandMarineResources(DFMR),

introducedmanyofthefarmingspeciesandattractedcommunityinterest(Table

2.1).Throughoutthe1960s-70s,DASFstockedmanyfishspeciesforfoodandpond

culture.Otherintroductionsweremadeforarangeofpurposessuchasfood,sport

andaquariumsduringthistimebutfoundnosuccess.Thiswasattributedto

environmentalfactors,mortalityorescapingtheirenclosure(Table2.1)

(Glucksmanetal.,1976).

1970s-1990s

Inthe1970s,therewaspotentialforfishfarmingbutadeclineininterestdueto

thelackofpoliticalsupport,technicalknowledgeandfishhusbandryskills(Kan,

31

1981).Alackoftraditionalfishhusbandrymeantthatfarmedfishshowedslow

growthrates;fishfarmingwasnotwidelypracticed(Glucksmanetal.,1976)thus

husbandryskillswerenoteasilylearnedorshared.In1970,Kotunitroutfarmin

Gorokawasthefirstfarmtotryandproducefarmtrout,specificallyrainbowtrout

(Oncorhynchusmykiss)(Coates,1987).In1973,rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchus

mykiss)wassuccessfullycommerciallyfarmedatKotuni.However,in1984Kotuni

commercialtroutfarmingclosedduetocommunityandmanagementissues,with

somecommunityattemptsatrevivingtheactivitysinceitsclosure(Adams,Bell&

Labrosse,2001;JoeAlois,personalcommunication,12Dec2017).Farmingof

rainbowtrouthasoccurredsparselythroughoutthehighlandsduetotherequired

coolerweatherconditions(Smith,2007).Rainbowtroutoptimumtemperatures

arebelow21˚Cwhiletospawnandgroware2˚to12˚C(Fornshell,2002).Small-

scalefarmersreliedonafewlocalfarmsorcatchingwildtroutforfingerling

supplies(Pitt,1986;Vira,2015),whilstsomeimportedeggsbutexperienced

lossesduetofungalinfectionsintheeggstock.Rainbowtroutisdifficulttofarm

successfullybecauseofdependencyonahighproteincontentinthefeedandthe

needforasupplyofconstantandwelloxygenated,fast-flowingwater(Hair,Wani,

Minimulu&Solato,2006).In1985Aiyuraalsoceasedtroutfingerlingproduction

duetoslowgrowthratesandlackofinterestwithinthecommunity(Pitt,1986).

In1987,LakePindiYaundoTroutFarm(LPYTF)commencedproduction,

producing10tonnesperannumforthedomesticfishmarket(Hairetal.,2006).A

Goroka-basedfarm,NupahaTroutfarm,alsocameintooperationin1990(Povlsen,

1993).Acollaborationbetween1987and1993withthePNGgovernmentand

32

FAO/UnitedNationsformedtheSepikRiverStockEnhancementProject(SRSEP

projectnumberPNG/85/001)whichintroducedanumberoffishspeciesto

increasefreshwaterfishproductionforSepikcommunities.Bigheadcarp

(Aristichthysnobilis)andRedbresttilapia(Coptodonrendalli)wereboth

introducedtooccupynichesnotfilledbynativefishandtoprovidefreshwater

foodsourcesforcommunities(Dudgeon&Smith,2006).Bigheadcarpappearsto

havediedout(Smith,2007).FisheriesImprovementbyStockingatHighAltitudes

forInlandDevelopment(FISHAIDprojectnumberPNG/93/007)1993-1996

followedwhereSRSEPleftoffandintroducednumerousspecies(refertoTable

2.1).

TheJapaneseInternationalCooperationAgency(JICA)wasanearlyinternational

donorthatsignificantlyhelpedtoestablishinlandaquacultureasasourceof

incomeandfoodsecurity.UndertheinfluenceofJICAtheaquacultureindustryhad

significantgrowthinthe1990swiththeexpansionofpondsandhatchery

infrastructure(Smith,2007).JICAhadanearlycollaborationwithDFMR,now

NationalFisheriesAuthority(NFA),beforedelegatingtheroleofaquaculture

developmenttotheEasternHighlandsProvincialgovernmentin1998(Smith,

2013).JICAthenwentontoimprovetheHighlandsAgricultureExperimental

StationatAiyura,nowrenamed,theHighlandsAquacultureDevelopmentCentre

(HAQDEC).HAQDEChadtheaimofincreasingfingerlingproductionandtechnical

skillsofofficersandfarmers.Theyweresuccessfulinincreasingfingerling

distributionofcarpandtroutbyimprovingfishhusbandryskillsandproviding

extensiontrainingprograms(Mufuape,Simon&Chiaka,2000).

33

1999-2008

GeneticallyImprovedFarmedTilapia(GIFT)(Oreochromisniloticus)was

introducedbyJICAin1999andfurthersolidifiedaquaculture’splaceinPNGdueto

itssuccess(Smith,2013).FingerlingdistributionofGIFTcommencedinlate2002

fromHAQDECinMorobeandEasternandWesternHighlandsProvinces(Smith,

2007).GIFTisnowrecognisedasoneofthepreferredfarmingspecies,duetoits

fastbreedingandreducedneedforexpensivehatcherieswithsmall-scalefarmers

supplyingtheirownfingerlings(Gupta&Acosta,2004;Smith,2007).HAQDECat

Aiyuraproducedfingerlingsforcommoncarp(Cyprinuscarpio),GIFT(Oreochromis

niloticus)andJavacarp(Puntiusgonionotus),distributingthemthroughoutthe

country.Anyspeciesthatlowersthecostsoffishfarmingbenefitstheownerin

termsofincomeandruraldevelopmentinthecommunity(Vira,2015).An

investigationbyJICAandHAQDECspecifictocarpexaminedthecompositionof

dietsatYonkiReservoir(Smith,2007).Localfarmersalsoexperimentedwith

chickenmanureandcoffeewastewithlimitedsuccessexemplifiedbystunted

growth(Smith&Kia,2000).Fishfarmingbecameamainstreammethodfor

obtainingfoodsecurityinPNG(Smith,2013).

SincetheJICAprojectendedin2000,theNFAandthefederalgovernmentinPNG

havehighlightedtheneedforaquaculturedevelopmenttocombatfoodsecurity

issues(Wani,2004;Vira,2015).TheAustralianCentreforInternational

AgriculturalResearch(ACIAR)hasalsobeenamajorcontributorandcollaborator

since2001,particularlyinongoingfreshwaterinlandaquacultureprojects.ACIAR

hasenabledaquacultureresearch,capacitybuildingofscientistsandfarmers,and

increasedfishhusbandryknowledgethroughcollaborationwithNFA.Additionally,

34

byfundingresearchbyAustralianagenciestoestablishfoodsecurityinPNG.In

2001-2004anACIARprojectassessedtheindustryandevaluatedsmallholder

researchanddevelopmentneeds(ProjectnumberFIS/2001/034).Thestudy’s

initialestimatednumberoffamerswasalmostdoubledduringthesurveyand

providedimportantdatarelatingtotypesoffarmersandthefeedlocalsused

(ACIAR,2004).Theprojectlaidthefoundationfordeterminingtheextentoffish

farminginPNGthroughsurvey.Followingthisproject,anotherstudyfrom2005-

2008evaluatedimprovingfingerlingsupplyandnutritionforsmallholderfarms

(FIS/2001/083).Thisprojectcametofruitionafterthepreviousprojectfoundthe

lackoffingerlingsupplyandfeedwerekeyconstraints.Theresearchwascarried

outatHAQDECatAiyuraandtheUniversityofWesternSydney,withaworkshop

onhatcheryoperationsprovidingvitalinformation.Thissubsequentlyincreased

theefficiencyandknowledgeforhatcheryandbroodstockmanagementthatwere

applicablefortheagriculturalconditionsinPNG(ACIAR,2008).Theoutcomesof

thisprojectimprovedsmall-scalefarmersaccessibilitytofishhusbandry

knowledgeandfingerlingsupply.However,theprojectultimatelyendedbeforethe

benefitscouldbeaccuratelyquantified(ACIAR,2008).

35

Table2.1:ListofintroducedspeciestoPNGfrom1930’s-2000(adaptedfromGlucksmanetal.,1976)

Species Date

introduced

DistrictIntroduced Use Status

Mosquitofish(Gambusiaaffins) 1930 Widespread Malariacontrol Widespreadbutholdslittlevalue.Didnotcontrol

mosquitosasoriginallyintroducedfor.

Browntrout(Salmotrutta) 1949 SHD,WHD,ChD,EHD Food-sport Uncommoninthewild.Hadsomepotentialin

aquacultureandasafoodsource

Rainbowtrout(Salmogairdneri

renamedOncorhynchusmykiss)

1952 SHD,WHD,ChD,EHD,

MD

Food-sport Commonalthoughscattered.Hadbetterpotential

thanS.trutta

Mozambiquemouthbrooder(Tilapia

mossambicrenamedOreochromis

mossambicus)

1954 Widespread Food-pondculture DASF.Widespread.

Giantgoramy(Osphroneumusgoramy) 1957 WSD,ESD,WHD,MD,

MaD,WD,ENBD,CD

Food DASF.Small,scatteredpopulations

Snakeskingoramy(Trichogasteror

Trichopoduspectoralis)

1957 WHD,CD,GD Food DASF.Limited.Littlevalue

Commoncarp(Cyprinuscarpio) 1959 Widespread Foodandpond

culture

Moderatevaluewithitspotentialrealised

36

Silvercarp(Hypophthalmichthys

molitrix)

1961 WHD Food-pondculture DASFponds,notreleasedandunsuccessfulinpond

trials

Silverperch(Bidyanusbidyanus) 1962-63 CD Food-sport Fornaturalstockingbutdied

MitchellFreshwatercatfish(Tandanus

tandanus)

1963 WHD Food-pondculture DASFponds,stockeddestroyed

Australiansmelt(Retropinnasemoni) 1963 SHD,WHD Foragefoodfor

otherspecies

Noevidenceofsurvival

Westerncarpgudeon(Hypseleotris

klunzingeri)

1963 CD Foragefoodfor

otherspecies

Noevidenceofsurvival

Grasscarp(Ctenopharyngodonidellus) 1964 WD Food-pondculture DASFponds,notreleased.Doesnotappeartoof

survived

Chinesebarb(Barbussemifasciolatus)

1966 CD Aquarium Notcommon

Estuaryperch(Percolatescolonurum) 1966 CD Food Noevidenceofsurvival

Goldenperch(Plectroplitesambiguous) 1966 WHD,MD Food,sportfishing Noevidenceofsurvival

Freshwatermullet(Trachystoma

petardi)

1966 CD Food Noevidenceofsurvival

Guppy(Poeciliarecticulata) 1967 CD Aquariums POM

37

Javanesecarp(Puntiusgonionotus) 1967-70 EHD Food-pondculture DASFponds,notreleased

Threespotgoramy(Trichogaster

trichopterus)

1970 CD Aquarium POM

Brooktrout(Salvelinusfontinalis) 1974 SHD Food-sports

fishing

Mortalityofova

Bigheadcarp(Aristichthysnobilis) 1987-1993 ESD,WSD Food-pondculture FAOSepikriverfishstockenhancementproject.

Doesnotappeartohavesurvived

Redbreasttilapia(Coptodonrendalli) 1990

(dudgeon)

ESD,WSD Food-pondculture (UNDP)/FAOSepikRiverFishStockEnhancement

Project,PapuaNewGuinea(SRFSEP)

Walkingcatfish(Clariasbatrachus) 1988 GD Invaded Believedtohaveinvadedduetotransmigrantsnear

theFlyriver

Climbingperch(Anabatestudineus) 1988 GD Invaded BelievedtohaveinvadedthroughIrianJaya

Snakehead(Channastriata) 1988 GD Invaded/introduced Believedtohaveinvadedduetotransmigrantsnear

theFlyriver

Giantgoramy(Osphronemusgoramy) 1993-1996 ESD,WSD Food-pondculture FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

Javanesecarp(Puntiusgonionotus)*

reintroduced

1993-1996 ESD,WSD Food-pondculture FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

Snowtrout(Schizothoraxrichardsonii) 1993-1996 ESD,WSD Food-pondculture FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

38

Goldenmahseer(Torputitora) 1993-1996 YonkiReservoir Food-pondculture FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

ChocolateMahseer(Acrossocheilus

hexagonolepis)

1993-1996 ESD,WSD Food-pondculture FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

Pacu(Colossomabidens) 1993-1996 ESD,WSD Food&toeat

berriesandnuts

FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

Curimbata(Prochilodusmargravii) 1993-1996 ESD,WSD Food-pondculture FISHAIDprojectPNG/93/007

Niletilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)

“GeneticallyModifiedImprovementof

FarmedTilapias”(GIFT)

1999 Widespread Food-pondculture Highpotentialinaquacultureduetofastgrowth

rates.Dominantspeciespondcultured.HAQDEC

releasedfingerlingsin2002

Districtabbreviations:WSD:WestSepikDistrict,ESD:EastSepikDistrict,SHD:SouthernHighlandsDistrict,WHD:WesternHighlandsDistrict,ChD:ChimbuDistrict,EHD:EasternHighlandsDistrict,

MD:MorobeDistrict,MaD:Madang,WD:WesternDistrict,GD:GulfDistrict,ND:NorthernDistrict,CD:CentralDistrict,BD:BougainvilleDistrict,WNBD:WestNewBritainDistrict,ENBD:EastNew

BritainDistrict,NID:NewIrelandDistrict

39

2009-Present

From2006-2010therewasanACIARprojectincollaborationwithNFAandOk

TediMiningLimited(OTML)FoodSecurityProgramsinWesternProvince(WP)

(FIS/2004/065).TheaimwastoaddresslackofproteininPNGbyusingAustralian

andPNGnativespeciesinaquacultureandtocreatealivelihoodalternativeinfish

farming.TheprojectalsodevelopedhatcherytechniquesinPNGandQueensland.

BroodstockcollectionswerestockedattheWPGovernmentresearchstation,

LowlandAquacultureResearch,DevelopmentandExtensionCentre(LARDEC)

workingwithOTML.Thesebroodstockcollectionsincludedeeltailedcatfish

(Tandanustandanus),sootygrunter(Hephaestusfuliginosus),sleepycod(mudfish)

(Oxyeleotrislineolata),flyriverherring(Nematalosaflyensis)endemictosouthern

PNGandredclaw(Cheraxquadricarinatus)(Table2.2)(ACIAR,2010).Anumberof

trainingprogramsandproductionregimeswereinplacetobuildtechnical

capacity.

AnACIAR/NFAproject2010-2016establishedwhichspeciesweredominantin

PNGandthemostsuccessfulintermsofproductionandsustainabilityforfoodand

incomesecurity(ProjectnumberFIS/2008/023–ledbyUNSW).ACIAR/NFA

currentlyhaveafisheriesproject(FIS/2014/062–ledbyUNSW)operatinginPNG

withaflagshipprojecttoimprovefarmyieldsbydevelopinglocally-relevant

farmingtechnologiesandfeedingstrategies.Akeylimitationtofishfarming

identifiedbyACIARProjectFIS/2014/062hasbeenthecostoffeedandlackoffish

husbandryskillsandrelatedresearch(Vira,2015).Theprojectisalsoexamining

thesocial,economicandhealthimpactstoevaluatethereturnoninvestmentfrom

theaid-related,research.Centraltothisistheuseofsustainablelivelihoods

40

approach(SLA)sub-projectinfiveprovincesthataimstodetermineandeliminate

fishfarmingproductionbottlenecksforbothsocialandeconomicgrowthand

sustainability(Sammut&Wani,2015).

Table2.2:ACIARprojectnativespeciespotentialintroductionspecies(FIS/2004/065)Species

Whyintroduce? Use Development

Eeltailedcatfish

(Neosilurusatra)

Abletoliveandgrowin

highdensity,appearstobe

omnivorous,benthic

feeding.

Hatcherytechniques

beingdevelopedatFFAC.

FlyRiverHerring

(Nematalosa

flyensis)

Planktoneater,therefore

canbeproducedwithother

speciese.g.redclawand

sleepycod.

Potentialasfodder

food,fishmealand

human

consumption

OTMLlookingintoa

potentialsourceoffish

mealforfish,poultryand

pigpellets.

SleepyCod

(Oxyeleotris

lineolata)

Abletoliveandgrowin

highdensity,benthic

feeding,demersalspawner

Highmarket

potentialasgood

eating.

Redclawcrayfish

(Cherax

quadricarinatus)

Breedinponds,requires

simplefood,canbefarmed

inhighdensitiesandeasily

transportedlive

Aquaculture

techniques

transferable

fromFFAC

Sootygrunter

(Hephaestus

fuliginosus)

Omnivorous,withpotential

formarketdevelopment

Excellenteating

fish

Smallscalehatchery

techniquesalready

developed.FFAChas

extensiveexperiencein

lowtechbreeding

techniques,weaning,

41

spawning.Potentialfor

restocking.

Invasivespecies

InvasivespecieshavemadetheirwayintoPNG.Thethree-knownspeciesarethe

walkingcatfish(Clariasbatrachus),climbingperch(Anabatestudineus)and

snakehead(Channastriata)(Swalesetal1998).WalkingcatfishandSnakehead

aresaidtohavebeenintroducedbytransmigrantsfromWestPapua(Storey,

Roderick,Smith&Maie,2002)asthesespeciesarewidelyfarmedinIndonesia.

ClimbingperchisexpectedtohavecomefromIrianJiyaduetoitsabilitytouseits

gillsto‘walk’onlandforshortperiodsoftime(Davenport&Matin,1990;Pace&

Gibb,2014;Storeyetal.,2002).Researchhasfoundotherfishcanhavedifficulty

swallowingtheclimbingperchdueitsgillcovers(opercula),killingthelarger

predatorfishandevenpredatingonbirds(seeHitchcock,2008;Storeyetal.,

2002).AllthreespeciesarenowwidespreadinPNGbuttheirimpactonnative

specieshasnotbeenquantifiedorstudied.

2.3AquaculturePoliciesandDevelopmentStrategiesinPNG

Areviewofgovernmentlegislationandpolicy,aswellasrelatedregulations,

relevanttoaquaculture,wasexecuted.Apolicyisusedtohelpachievespecific

long-termfishfarminggoalsthroughaprocesswhilearegulationistoallowthe

42

operationitselftogosmoothlybyspecifyingandenforcingguidelines.Legislation

ontheotherhand,isalawusuallybythegoverningbodythatisenforceable,

unlikepolicy.Thisplaysasignificantroleinmanagingfishfarmssustainablywith

consequencesoutlined.Governmentdevelopmentpoliciesassociatedwith

aquaculturewerealsoreviewedandsummarised.Thepolicyimplicationstothe

environmentandfisheries(land,water)wereevaluated.

2.3.1Aquaculturelegislationandpolicy

FisheriesManagementAct2015(FMA2015Amendment)andthesecondFisheries

Managementregulations2000(FMR,2000)aretwomainlegislativeinstruments

thatareofsignificancetoaquacultureinPNG.TheNationalFisheriesAuthority

(NFA)comprisesoftheNationalFisheriesBoardandtheAuthorityandisthe

primarycorporatestatusorganisationresponsiblefortheregulationofboth

fisheriesandaquaculturewithinPNG.UndertheFMA2015andFMR2000,NFAis

themainpointofcontactfortechnicaladvice,researchandpolicy-making.Italso

fundsresearchintoaquaculture,particularlycommercialtosupplementincome

forsmallholders.NFAisobligatedtocollaboratewithanumberofdifferent

organisations,provincialagenciesandgovernmentsectorsundertheFMA2015

(Amendment).ThiscollaborativeworkbyNFAistoensureallsectorsare

consistentandfollowingcurrentlegislationandpolicy.PNGhaveaspecific

AquacultureandInlandFisheriesUnitforthedevelopmentofaquacultureand

inlandfisheries.TheNationalDepartmentofAgricultureandLivestock(NDAL)

andNationalAgricultureResearchInstitute(NARI)arebothcollaborators,

43

providingresearchandtrainingtowardsfoodsecurityandtechnicalcapacity.NARI

istheleadresearchagencyresponsibleforthedevelopmentofappropriate

agriculturetechnologies.

LicensesareissuedtoensureregulationoftheindustryFMA2015(Amendment)

andFMR2000.UndertheNationalAquacultureDevelopmentPolicy(NFA,2007)

semicommercialorsmallnon-commercialinlandfishfarmingoperationsdonot

requirealicense,whilemariculturedoes.Anyoperationwithanannualturnover

equaltoorbiggerthan10tonnes,mustbelicensed.Thisisalsothecaseifone

hectareoflandormoreisutilised.TheNFAmanagingdirectorundertheFMA

2015(Amendment)andFMR2000givesfisheriesofficersthepowertoupholdthe

regulationsandlawspertainingtofisheriesandcantakeawaylicences,fineor

imprisonthosenoncompliant.

Environmentalpermits

Thereareanumberofdifferentregulationsandpoliciesimplementedtocontrol

theuseofnaturalresourcessuchasland,waterandthegeneralenvironment.Land

inPNGispredominantlytraditionallyowned(Seelandandwaterregulations).A

processmustbeundertakenbeforeanenvironmentalpermitisgrantedbythe

ConservationandEnvironmentProtectionAuthority(CEPA),whichreplacedthe

DepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation(DEC).TheEnvironmentAct2014

(Amendment)andtheEnvironment(PrescribedActivities)Regulations2002lookat

theimpactofaquacultureontheenvironment.AnEnvironmentalImpact

Assessment(EIA)andEnvironmentalImpactStatement(EIS)arerequiredunder

Section42iftheactivitiesarelevel2and3.Level1,2and3activitiesarebroken

44

downinTable2.3.Environmentalharmisdefinedasanydetrimentalchangeor

effectonthevaluerelatedtotheenvironment.Itcanbecausedbyanactor

omissionregardlessofiftheactisdirectorindirect.Environmentalharmisfurther

brokendowninTable2.4.Environmentalharmcausedbyfishfarmerswouldbe

relatedtocreationoferosionfromloosesoilandpollutionofwatersource.

Farmersthatarecategorisedasalevel1activitysuchassmallholderfarmersare

notrequiredtoholdanenvironmentalpermit.

Table2.3:Classificationoflevel1,2and3activities

Level Activity

1 Anyotheractivity

2 1. Mayresultinmaterialenvironmentalharm

2. Mayhaveanegativeimpactonamatterofnationalimportance

3 1. Mayresultinseriousenvironmentalharm

2. Mayhaveasignificantnegativeimpactonamatterofnational

importance

Table2.4:UnlawfulenvironmentalharmasdefinedbyEnvironmentAct(Amendment)2014

Unlawfulenvironmentalharm

a) Releasingnoise,dust,odourorelectro-magnetismorlitter

b) Creatingorpermittinganunhealthy,offensiveorunsightlyconditionbecauseofa

contaminant

c) Causingorpermittingtobeplacedinorsothatitmaybereleasedintotheenvironmentany

contaminanttheuseofwhichisprohibitedbyorunderthisActordoesnotcomplywithany

prescribedorthatcontaminant

45

d) Causingorpermittingthereleaseofanycontaminantintotheenvironmentincontravention

ofthisAct

e) UsinganychemicalsubstanceorfueltheuseofwhichisprohibitedbyorunderthisAct

f) Contraveninganyregulationdealingwiththeuseofanyozonedepletingsubstance,orthe

manufacture,assembly,operation,maintenance,removal,saleordisposalofgoods,

equipment,machinery,orplantcontainingorusinganozone-depletingsubstance

g) Placingacontaminantinanypositionwhereitcouldreasonablybeexpectedtogainaccessto

watersincircumstanceswhereifaccesswasgainedthecontaminantwouldresultinthe

waterbeingchangedinamannerprohibitedbythisActorwhichdoesnotcomplywithany

standardprescribedforthatcontaminant

h) CausingorpermittingthetemperatureofthereceivingwatersreferredtoinParagraph(g)to

beraisedorloweredbymorethanprescribedlimits

i) Establishingonlandasiteforthedisposalofrefuse,garbage,soil,rockorothersolidorliquid

wastesoastobeobnoxiousorundulyoffensivetothesensesofhumanbeingsorsoasto

interferewithanygroundwaterinamannerprohibitedbythisActorwhichdoesnotcomply

withanystandardprescribedforthatcontaminant

j) InanyotherwayprescribedbyregulationorTechnicalStandard,isguiltyofanoffence

TheEISshouldidentifyallimpactsofactivitiestobeundertaken,howtoalleviate

theirimpactandmonitoringprotocolstobeutilised.Theprocessofapplyingforan

environmentalpermitissummarisedinFigure2.1.TheEnvironmentAct

(Amendment)2014hasincreasedthemaximumpenaltyfromtheEnvironmentAct

2000aswellasmoreclarificationofwhatlevel2and3activitiesare.Ifanoffence

iscarriedoutwithoutapplyingforanenvironmentpermitfinesfoundinTable2.5

areapplicable.

46

Figure2.1:TheprocessofgettinganenvironmentalpermitinPNG(PNGLNGEnvironmental

ImpactStatement2009)

47

Table2.5:Finesforbeingguiltyofanoffencewithoutanenvironmentalpermit

Type Fine

Corporation AfinenotexceedingK10,000,000

Natural

person

NotexceedingK5,000,000,orimprisonmentforatermnot

exceeding5years,orboth

Default AfinenotexceedingK500,000,000

Landandwaterregulations

UndertheLandAct1996(LA,1996)aforeignpersonorbusinesswantingtostarta

commercialaquacultureventuremustobtainalandpermit.Amajorityoftheland

inPNGiscustomary,meaningitispasseddownwithinafamily.Therefore,

permissionorapropertyleasefromlocallandownersmustbeobtained.The

applicationisthengiventotheDepartmentofLandswheretheMinisterofLand

makesthedecisiontoapproveornot.Small-pondownersthatarecitizensofPNG

arenotrequiredtoundergothisprocess.IftheNFArequirementsaremet,citizens

areabletodevelop,buylandorenterintoaleaseagreementwiththelandowner,

immediately.

TheWaterResourcesAct1982(WRA,1982)andWaterResourcesRegulation1982

(WRR,1982)arenowincorporatedintotheEnvironmentAct2000and

Environment(prescribedactivities)Regulations2002.ThisActaimstoprotectthe

resourceofwaterforallofthecommunitybyensuringequalaccessforsustainable

long-termuse.Section78-84oftheEnvironmentAct2014(Amendment)now

outlineswaterusepermits,rightsandcompensation.Waterisdefinedasall

freshwaterandsaltwateraboveandbelowthelandsurface,thereforetheuseof

48

waterforfishpondsfallunderthis.TheEnvironmentAct2000statesapersoncan

takewaterfreelyfordomesticpurposes,wateringstockorfirerelatedincidents

fromawatercourseorlakethatisaccessibletothepublicviaroadandisreserves

forpublicuse(Section80,subsection1).However,theactalsostipulatesifa

persontakingwaterundersubsection1placesapermanentinstallationfortaking

waterinoronthelandadjacenttothewatercourseisguiltyofanoffence.If

convictedtheywillpayafineofK50,000foracorporationorifclassifiedasother,

afineexceedingK25,000.Imprisonmentnotexceedingayearisalsoapplicable.

Withoutapermit,anypersondamming,divertingordischargingintoariveror

streamwillreceiveafineoflessthanK50,000orimprisonmentofupto5yearsfor

non-compliance.Therefore,itisvitalallfarmersareawareandcomplywith

provisionstoavoidpenaltybymakingsuretheyhaverightstothewaterontheir

land.

Aquaculturelicensing

TheFMA2015(Amendment)statesanyoperationinvolvingthefarmingofaquatic

organismsisrequiredtohaveanaquaculturefacilitylicense.However,thisis

dependentoncertainregulationsoutlinedintheFMR2000andtheNational

AquacultureDevelopmentPolicy(NFA,2004).TheFisheriesManagement

Regulation2000Section2statesaquacultureisanactivitythatmayrequire

licensing,dependingontheextentoftheventure.Licencesarenotrequiredwhere

productionisunder10tonnesperyearorutiliseslessthan1hectareoflandor

water.Smallholderfarmsthereforewouldusuallynotberequiredtoobtaina

license.

49

2.3.2Governmentprogramsrelatedtoaquaculture

TheaquacultureindustryinPNGissignificantgiventhatthecombinedworthof

inlandpondfarmingtilapia,carpandrainbowtroutisestimatedtobeK10million

(NFA,2013).Theimplementationofgovernmentpolicyanddocumentshasbeen

ledbytherecentgrowthofsmall-scaleandcommercialaquacultureforfood

securityandeconomicgain.TheNationalAgricultureDevelopmentPlan2007-

2016(NADP)aimedtomaketheagricultureandlivestocksectorsmore

economicallyproductivesectors.Inthisplanthecurrentstatusandconstraintsto

aquaculturewerediscussedwithsuggesteddevelopmentinresearchprograms,

technicaltraining,hatcheriesandcreatingacooperativemarketingarrangement.

Aquaculturesimportanceasaproteinsourceandformofincomeisalso

recognised,withthepotentialforfurthergrowth.TheNationalDepartmentof

AgricultureandLivestock(NDAL)isakeyagencyresponsiblefordeveloping

aquacultureasafoodsecurityactivitybycreatingextensionservices.The

ProvincialDivisionsofPrimaryIndustry(DPI)undertheNADPplans,coordinates

andmanagesextensionandsupportprogramsforfishfarming.Keyconstraintsto

aquaculturedevelopmentidentifiedbytheNADPwerethelackoftechnical

capacity,qualityfeed,policydevelopmentofsmall-scaleaquacultureand

consistentdiseasemonitoringprogram(NADP,2006).Sincethereleaseofthe

NADPmanyoftheseissuesarestillcurrentlyongoing(Vira,2015).

InthePNGvision2050,thefisheriessector–includingaquaculture–isidentified

asamajorcontributortowealthcreation,naturalresourcesandgrowth.This

indicatesamoveawayfromtheminingandenergysector.ThePapuaNewGuinea

50

DevelopmentStrategicPlan2010-2030(DNPM,2030)(PNGDSP)providesaplan

tomakeaquacultureakeysectoroftheeconomythroughincreasedresearch.

PNGDSPsuggestsrevenuefromfisherieslicensingandexcisebereinvestedinto

thecoastalfisheriesandaquaculture/maricultureprograms.TheNational

AquacultureDevelopmentPolicy(NFA,2004)(NAqDP)isaplanningdocument

thatguidesNFAsprograms.IthighlightsNFAsinvolvementinallsectorsofthe

aquacultureindustryandstakeholders,withfocusonthecommercialindustry.

NFAalsoaimstodevelopthesmall-scalefishfarmingindustrywithcollaborators.

TheNAqDPlooksataquaticorganismhealthmanagementthroughthe

enforcementofregulationsandcapacitybuildingatinstitutionalandlocallevels.

Overall,theNAqDPdocumentreflectstheaspirationandNFAsvisionofathriving

aquacultureindustryfunnellingsocial,economicandenvironmentallysustainable

benefitstothecommercialandsmall-scalesectors.NFAismotivatedtodeveloping

theinlandaquacultureandcoastalfisheriesforthebenefitoflocalPNG

communitiesforfoodsecurityandruraldevelopmentwithsomesuccess.Itshould

benotedthatthesepoliciesarealsolinkedtotheSustainableDevelopmentGoals

bytheUnitedNations(UN),withmanyrelevanttoPNG.Themostrelevantgoals

forPNGbeingzerohunger,goodhealthandwellbeing(i.e.moredietaryprotein)

andnopoverty(i.e.livelihoodalternatives)(UN,2015).Thesegoalsarerelevantto

thelong-termimplicationsoffishfarmingwithcurrentpoliciesandlegislationin

PNG.

ThefutureofAquacultureinPNG

Currently,anACIARproject(2015to2020)on‘Improvingtechnologiesforinland

aquacultureinPapuaNewGuinea’(ProjectnumberFIS/2014/062)isoperating

51

andinvolvesUNSWastheCommissionedAgencyandNFAastheprimaryPNG-

basedagency.Theaimoftheprojectistoincreasebothtilapiaandcarputilising

low-cost,farmer-friendlytechnologytoimprovelivelihoodoutcomesfor

smallholdersinPNG(ACIAR,2018).Technologicalresearchisfocussedinthe

EasternHighlands,andtheextensionworkisnationwide.Anotheraimisthe

identificationofthesocialbenefitsofmoreproductionandfarmersinaquaculture

tounderpinpolicyanddevelopmentstrategies.FIS/2014/062alsoinvolves

scientificandfarmertrainingandothercapacitybuildingactivitiestosupport

growthoftheindustry.

Itwasonlyaftergenerationalchangeinperspectiveandincreasedinterestand

exposurethataquaculturebegantogainmomentumonalocallevel(Smith,2007).

AsimilarcasecanbeseeninAfrica,withthechangingofperceptionandincreased

interestinfishfarmingovergenerationsandprevalence(Brummet&Williams,

2000).InAsia,areviewofexoticspeciesshowedanetpositiveoutcomefor

aquaculture(Silvaetal.,2006).Whileintroducedspeciesarenotidealintermsof

biodiversityandlocalculture,ithassetafoundationtogrowfrom.Fishhusbandry

skillsarefirstneededtobecomelocalknowledge.Furtherresearchand

developmentofthecurrentindustrymustcontinuebeforethefarmingof

indigenousspeciesisimplementedtolearnfrompastmistakesofprevious

projectssuchasACIARprojectFIS/2004/065.

2.4Summary

52

Therehavebeenmanydevelopmentcollaborationsandpartnersincreatingthe

aquacultureindustryinPNG.PNGhasahistoryoffishintroductionsstartingfrom

the1930s,withGIFTandcarpnowthedominantfishfarmingspecies.What

startedasasportsfishingactivityisnowusedtoaddressfoodsecurityand

nutritiononalocallevel,withstudiesshowingitisaviablesolutiontoimprove

rurallivelihoods(Ahmed&Lorica,2002;Pravakar,Sarker,Rahman&Hossain,

2013).Collaborationsbetweenanumberofinstitutionshavebeenbasedon

integratedresearchtodevelopthefishfarmingindustry.However,moresupport,

extensionservicesandtechnicalcapacityarestillrequired.Smith(2007)

conductedthefirstextensivesurveyoffishfarmersinPNGandfounddoublethe

estimatednumberoffarmers.Fishfarminghasalreadyevolvedandchanged

significantlysincethissurvey.Policy,legislationandregulationshaveevolvedwith

theemergingaquacultureindustry.Smallholderfarmersarenotgreatlyaffectedby

thelaws,onlyensuringirreversibledamageisnotdonetotheenvironmentand

activityissustainable.Thereisanabsenceofaccurateaquaculturedata,with

interventionsrequiredtoachieveprogressthathasbeenhinderedinthepast

(Vira,2015).ThecurrentACIARproject(FIS/2014/062)willprovideimportant

data,integraltoimprovingtheabilitiesofsmallscalefishfarmers.Asthefish

farmingindustrycontinuestogrow,legislationmustalsoimproveandadapt.

Industrypolicyshouldbereviewedbasedoncurrentdatatoensurethataims

developedbythegovernmentreflecttheindustry(Hahnlein,Bayer,Ferguson,&

Blum,2013).TheNAqDPneedstoberenewedwithcleargoalstoeradicatethekey

constraintsidentifiedandinterventionsputinplace.Thenextchapterwillexamine

themethodologyutilisedtocollectdataonthecurrentstatusoffishfarmingin

ENBP.

53

ChapterIII:Methodology

3.1Introduction

Thischapteroutlinesthemethodologicalapproachusedtocollectandanalyse

data.TheSLifAstructuredsurveywasakeymethodindeterminingthestatusof

livelihoodsandfishfarminginENBP.SLAisregularlyusedintheprogressof

developing,ruralandpoorcommunities(Bebbington,1999;Krantz,2001;

Marschke&Berkes,2006;Scoones,2009).Previously,thelivelihoodsapproach

hasbeenusedinthefisheriesindustrytolookatpolicyanddevelopmentofthe

small-scalefisheries(Allison&Ellis,2001;Allison&Horemans,2006).Sarchand

Allison(2001)usedanSLAlookingatAfrica’sinlandwatersandtheir

management,whileMarchkeandBerkes(2006)evaluatedthelivelihoodstresses

placedonCambodianfishingcommunities.ThisstudywillbuildupontheSLAand

utiliseaSLifAframeworktoencompassthecurrentanddesiredlifestyleof

participants.Focusgroups,ontheotherhand,werechosentocomplementthe

surveybyexpandingoninformationfromthesurveybyenablingtheparticipants

todiscusstheirexperiencesandopinionswithotherfarmers.Itisimportantto

notethatthenumberoffarmersinENBPissmallandfocusgroupshelptocapture

dataintheabsenceofalargersurvey-baseddataset.Focusgroupsalsohelptofill

knowledgegapsthatcannotbeeasilyaddressedunderastructuredsurvey.This

approachgeneratedinformationondifferencesinopinionsandallowed

participantstodefendtheirperspectivestootherresearchparticipants(Kelly,

2003).Thisinteractioncreatedmorefocussedgroupdataandaricherdataset.

54

Focusgroupshavebeenusedinavarietyoffieldssuchashealth,education,

developingcountriesandpoororvulnerablegroups(Owen,2001).Thesemethods

havebeenusedbybothindustryandresearchersindevelopingcountrieswhere

thereisanoralcultureanddifferingeducationstandards(Halcomb,Gholizadeh,

DiGiacomo,Phillips,&Davidson,2007).Therefore,thesemethodsareusefulin

answeringtheresearchquestionspresentedinchapterone.

3.1.1Studygroupdescription

EastNewBritainprovincehasanareaof15,274squarekilometreswith17.76

peoplepersquarekilometerandisrichinhistory(NSO,2011).InENBPthelife

expectancyis57.1yearsandhasaliteracyrateof81.6in2000(Knoema,2011).

Theirlifeexpectancyislowerthanthecountryexpectancy(66.2)by9.1years.In

2008,88percent(%)offarmersreportedalossofvegetationand/oranimals,

whichcouldbeattributedtochangesinclimateandanincreaseinpopulation

(Knoema,2011).

In1942,thecapital,RabaulwascapturedbytheJapaneseduringWorldWarIIand

usedastheirmainbaseintheSouthPacific(Erfurt-Cooper,2014).By1990the

populationwasover17,000people,butduetolargevolcaniceruptionsin1994

fromVulcanandTavurvurvolcanoes,manypeoplerelocatedtothenearby

townshipofKokopo(NSO,2011).Taroandbananawerekeycropsandholda

significantculturalandeconomicrolefortheTolaipeople(Kerua&Glyde,2016).

ShellmoneyalsopossessesanimportantculturalsignificancetotheTolaipeople

andisstillused.Cocoagroves,followedbyCopra,madeupmuchofagricultural

55

exportinEastNewBritainprovincein1990-95andremainthemaincropsin

ENBP(Curry,Lummani&Omuru,2009).

TheEastNewBritainFisheryDivisionrecorded110fishfarmingpondsinthe

ENBPdistrict(E.Semi,personalcommunication,6April2017),butthenumberof

pondownersisunknownbecauseoflackoflandtitledataandthefactthatmost

pondsareonclan-ownedland.Manyofthesefarmsarenotoperational(80).The

speciespredominantlyfarmedareGIFTandCarp(Troal).Thefarmsareusually

extensive,usingearthenandartificiallyconstructedpondslessthan100square

meters.ManyofthepondswerefundedbyLocalLevelGovernment(LLG),District

ServicesImprovementProgram(DSIP)aswellastheNFAProjectDevelopment

Fund(PDF)schemeandownincome(E.Semi,personalcommunication,6April

2017).Farmedfishisconsideredtobeareliablesourceofproteinandreduce

povertyinotherpartsofPNGsuchasthehighlandsundertheACIARproject(Dey

etal.,2005).

TheEastNewBritainprovincialofficersdeterminedfourmainissuesand

constraints.Farmerslackoftechnicalskillsandknowledgeoffishfarming,whichis

impingingonthepotential.Thecapacitygapwasfoundlackingwithinthemarket

aspectsoftheaquaculturefisheryinENBP.Therewasnoestablishedfingerling

suppliertofacilitatesupplyforthesmallnumberoffarmersthatoperate.Climate

change,withwatersourcesvulnerabletodryingoutorflooding(E.Semi,personal

communication,6April2017).Nevertheless,morerobustdatafromtheindustry

wasrequiredandthemethodsareoutlinedbelow.

56

3.1.2Theauthorsroleintheproject

Ihaveundertakenthisworkasastudentandwasnotateammemberunderthe

ACIARproject;mysupervisor,however,istheprojectleader.Iundertookthis

workasIspentpartofmychildhoodinRabaulandKokopodistrictsinENBPand

wasinterestedinaquaculturedevelopmentasalivelihoodoptionforthisparticular

community.Havingbeenexposedtotheactivitiesoutcomesandimpactsofthe

ACIARprojectthroughmyinvolvementwiththeUNSWAquacultureResearch

GroupIexpressedaninteresttoundertakeworkinENBPthatwouldprovidedata

foranotherprovince.Thiswasneededbytheprojectduetoitsfocusoninland

provinces.

3.2 Methods

Thisstudyutilisedaqualitativemulti-methodapproach,withdatacollected

throughstructuredsurveysandfocusgroupdiscussions.Astructuredsurveywas

usedduetothelargegeographicareabeingcovered;thatis,tobemoretime

efficientandcollectasmanyparticipantsandtheirfishfarmsaspossible.Notall

farmscouldbevisitedduetotheremotenessofsomeareas,andthelackof

knowledgeontheirlocation(largelyduetotheisolationofsomevillagesand,in

part,alackofrecordkeeping).Satelliteimagerywasdifficulttouseduetotreeand

cloudcover.Thefocusgroupdiscussionswereafollow-onfromthesurveyand

expandedonthesurveydatabyprovidinginformationaboutideasandfeelings

towardsconstraintsandhighlighteddifferentperspectiveswithinthegroup

(Rabiee,2004).Thefocusgroupdiscussionsinvolvedfivedifferentgroups.This

57

allowedforfurtherconversationonfishfarming,communicationbetweenfish

farmersanddiscussionbasedontheirexperiences.Theuseofamulti-method

approachallowedfortriangulation,increasingthedatasetvalidity(Hussein,

2015).Thecombineddatawasusedforanalysistoanswertheresearchquestions

raisedforENBP,PapuaNewGuinea.

3.2.1Fishfarmersurveys

EastNewBritainProvincewasbrokendowntoadistrictlevel:Rabaul,Gazelle,

KokopoandPomiotoconductsurveys.Thiswastoallowthebestuseofresources

andtime.Intotal,56farmerswereinterviewedinthefourdistrictsoversixweeks

(Table3.1).Theaimwastoensureeachdistrictsurveyedwasnotgeneralisedand

wasproperlyrepresentedinthedataset,withbothKokopoandRabaulhavingless

fishfarmersthanGazelle.However,bothKokopoandRabaulhavelesslandand

morebuiltinfrastructure.Duetotimeandgeographicalconstraints(difficultor

unsafeaccess),someLocalLevelGovernment(LLG)areaswereexcludedfromthe

farmersurveys.

Table3.1:ParticipantswithineachENBPdistrict

District Districtcapital Numberoffarmerssurveyed

Gazelle Kerevat 16

Kokopo Kokopo 4

Rabaul Rabaul 2

Uvol,Pomio Pomio 34

Total 56

58

AsdiscussedinChapter1Section1.6.1,aSLifA-basedfocusunderpinnedthe

designofthesurvey,withanemphasisonlifestyleaspects.TheSLifAsurveywas

structuredtocollect:farmingdata,householdinformation,pondmanagement,

marketing,SWOTsoffishfarmingandlivelihoodassets.Farmerrelateddata

pertainstoownershiprights,householdinformation,farminghistory,species

farmed,pondsizes,stock,watersupply,marketingandconstraints(AppendixA).

ThequestionsrelatingtoSLifAcapitalsisshowninTable3.2.Thesequestions

werechosenbecausetheyencompassedtheSLifAandrecoveredvitalfarming

information.Thisinformationwillcontributetobuildingabaselineofinformation

aboutthestatusoffishfarminginENBPandforPNG.Thehouseholdsurvey

includedaStrengths,Weaknesses,OpportunitiesandThreats(SWOT)analysis

utilisingaLikert-scaledquestions.ThescaleconsistedoffivepointswithPreston

andColman(2000)findingthatscalesfrom5to10showedhighercorrelations.

Thescalerangedfromstronglyagreetostronglydisagree(AppendixA).

Table3.2Questionthemesrelatingtocapitalsinthefarmersurvey

Human Social Financial Physical Natural

SectionA• Education• Occupation

ofhouseholdhead

• Occupationofspouse

SectionD• HHfarming

activities• HHrequire

additionaltraining

SectionD• Socialand

culturalinstitutionsavailable

• Social/culturalnetworks

• Rolesofsocialculturalnetworks

SectionB• HHassets• House

related• Major

crops,fruitsandlivestock

• Otherassets

SectionE• Income+

expenses• Savings• Financial

institution

SectionB• Primarysource

ofdrinkingwater

• Mainsourceofelectricityandenergy

SectionC• Aquaculture,

livestock,farming,forestryandgardeningassets

• Accessibility• Water

SectionC• Communal

resources• Resource

conflictissues

• Intentiontouselandforotherpurposes

59

s• Financial

literacy• HH

finance• Fish

farmingfinance

infrastructure• Otherland• Accessto

resources• Natureof

access/rightstoland

ThequestionsinthesurveywerebasedonthelargerACIARproject

(FIS/2014/062)andweretweakedtobebetter-suitedquestionsrelevanttothe

studyarea.ThelargerACIARandNFAsurveywillbeusedforcomparative

analysesunderalinkedactivityattheendofthisstudy.ProvincialFisheries

OfficersandotherNFAandACIAR-trainedteammembers,whospokethelocal

languageTokPisin,conductedthehouseholdsurvey.Ensuringtheinterviewerhas

localknowledgeandspeaksTokPisingavetheintervieweeasenseofcomfortand

trust.Studiesshowsurveysgivenintheparticipantsnativelanguagegeneratea

greaterunderstandingoftheprocessandquestions(Dornyei&Taguchi,2009).

Thesurveyedparticipantswerefromhouseholdsthathavehadafishfarmorare

currentlyfishfarming.SurveyquestionswereaskedinTokPisin,withtheanswers

thenrecordedinEnglish.Thiseliminatedtheneedfortranslationofthesurvey.

EachlocationoftheparticipantsfishfarmwasGPSrecordedinthefirsthalfofthe

surveys.However,thiswasmoredifficultinPomiodistrictduetothewetweather,

with19ofthe34farmerssurveyedhavingtheirGPScoordinatesrecorded.

Overthecourseofsurveying,therewerethreeNFAofficerstrainedtoconductthe

interviewand,wherepossible,myselfpresentbutatanarm’slengthofthe

interviewprocess.TheNFAfisheriesofficerwasfromRabauldistrictandcould

alsospeakthelocaldialect,Kuanua,whenrequired,creatingarapportwiththe

60

participant.EachdistrictLLGfisheriesofficersentalistoffishfarmersintheir

designateddistrictthatwereeligibletobesurveyed.Theaimwastosurveyas

manyknownfarmersfoundwithinthetimeconstraint.Whenable,LLGfisheries

officerswhoareknowntothefarmerswouldaccompanyustocreaterapportand

putfarmersatease.Thepointofsaturationwasreachedbysurveyingtheknown

populationoffishfarmers(Carlsen&Glenton,2011).Afemale(myself)amongst

thegroupalsohelpedtomakefemalefarmerinteractionmorecomfortable.The

teamtravelledbycarthroughouttheprovinceforfourweeksandsurveyedmost

farmersattheirfarmsite,averagingatleasttwofarmersaday.Visitingthepond

siteinpersonenabledtheteamtoofferadvice,observetheconstraintsand

confirmsurveydatagivenbyfarmers.

3.2.2Focusgroups

FollowingtheSLifAsurvey,focusgroupdiscussionsinvolvingfivesmallgroups

wereconducted.Focusgroupdiscussionsareutilisedinmanydifferentfieldsto

gainperspectiveandideaspertainingtoindividualswhocancommunicateina

group(Rabiee,2004).Thereisnodiscriminationofthosewhocannotreadorwrite

inafocusgroup,cateringformanylevelsofsocial-economicstatus(Owen,2001).

Thefocusgrouphad11setquestions,relatedtothesurveydatathatweretweaked

foreachgroup,withtheflexibilitytoadaptthequestionsastheconservations

progressed(AppendixB).

Theparticipantswereseparatedintothreekeygroups;peopleinterestedor

startingtofishfarming,establishedfishfarmer,anddoingotherventures.Thefive

focusgroupswereheldintheKokopoNFAoffice(3)andMelkoiLLGoffice(2),

61

witheachgroupconsistingofgroupsof2-8participantsandlasting1to11/2hours

(Table3.3).Thegenerallyagreeduponoptimalnumberbeingbetween6-10to

manageandgaindata(Rabiee,2004).Smallgroupswereusedtoensureall

participantswereincludedandhadtheopportunitytointeractfreelywithone

another(Krueger&Casey,2015).Participantshadsimilarsocialcharacteristics

andopinionsonthefishfarmingtopic,hencetheyweremorelikelytobe

comfortabletalkingtotheinterviewerandeachother(Richardson&Rabiee,

2001).Participantsweregivenbackgroundinformationandestimatedtimeofthe

focusgrouptoensuretheywerewellinformedoftheprocess.AnNFAofficer

facilitator,directedtheconversationandtheothertooknotesonexchangesinthe

groupandnoteddownspecificstatementstosupplementtheoraldata(Stewart&

Shamdasani,2015).Thefacilitatorisnotinapowerpositionandisunbiasedsoas

nottoinfluencetheanswersofparticipants(Ivanoff&Hultberg,2006).The

questionspertainedtotheirpersonalexperienceswithfishfarmingorother

ventures.Theopportunities,constraints,communityimpactsandGovernmentor

NGOinvolvementtheyhavepersonallyexperiencedwerealsoincludedinthe

survey.

Focusgroupsallowfurtherinsightwiththosethathavevitalknowledgeand

perspectivespecifictotheindividualthatisnotpickedupbythesurveyquestions

orwithoutinteractionfromthoseinasimilarbackground(McLafferty,2004).The

focusgroupquestionsweredevelopedfromtheSLifAsurveyanswerstoensure

thequestionsaskedwererelevantandexpandedonexistingknowledgeandfilled

ininformationnotpickedupbythepaper-basedquestionnaire(AppendixB).Each

questionwaspredeterminedandopen-ended(Krueger&Casey,2015).The

62

informationgainedfromthefocusgroupfromanSLifAperspectivewillbeusedto

influenceandinforminstitutions,processesandpolicybyidentifyingkeyissues

andvalues(Krueger&Casey,2015).

Participantswereselectedusingpurposivesampling,wherethesubjectsare

chosenusingthecriterion-istrategybymeetingthepredeterminedcriterion.In

thiscasebeingfishfarmersorinterestedinfishfarming,withmostparticipants

alreadysurveyed(Palinkasetal.,2015).Participantsintheinterestedandactive

groupswerechosenrandomlyoutofsurveyparticipantsandtheotherventures

categoryrandomlyrecruitedinKokopotown.Whilethereisahighbiasduetothis,

therewasalimitednumberofprimarydatasourcesthatcouldcontributewithin

thegeographicalandtimeconstraints.Explainingtheparticipantsinformation

confidentialitycanreduceparticipantstellingtheresearcherwhattheythinkyou

wanttohear.Bothqualitativeandquantitativedataweregeneratedfromthe

interview(McLafferty,2004).Thefocusgrouphadastructuredpurposeandwas

voicerecorded.Theinterviewwasconductedinthenativelanguagetoensure

participantswerecomfortableandfreetoexpressthemselves(Krueger&Casey,

2002).

Table3.3Focusgroupdiscussionparticipantsandlocations

Group Location Numberofparticipants DateActive KokopoNFAheadoffice 6 19/07/17Active PomiodistrictMelkoiLLG 8 31/07/17Active PomiodistrictMelkoiLLG 8 2/08/17Interested KokopoNFAheadoffice 4 11/08/17Other KokopoNFAheadoffice 2 11/08/17

63

3.3Analysis

SLifAallowsanalysisatboththemacroandmicro-levelsandtheirinteraction.The

frameworkallowedfortheanalysisofhouseholdassets,strategies,prioritiesand

goalsonthemicro-levelandthepolicies,institutionsandprocessesthataffect

livelihoodsatnationalatthemacro-level.Thesurveyandinterviewfindingswill

informfutureresearchandinformrelevantgovernmentsectorsofmanagement

considerationsofpeopleandfishfarming.Undertheparticipatoryframework

SLifA,dataonhuman,natural,social,economicandphysicalcapitalswillbe

collected.Therewasinsufficientstatisticalpowerwiththeavailabledatato

statisticallytestforassociations.

ThefocusgroupdiscussionswereconductedinTokPisinwithparticipantshaving

limitedEnglishandthereforehadtobetranslatedandlatertranscribed.Survey

dataandfocusgroupdiscussionswereenteredintoMicrosoftexcelsheets.Once

transcribedaqualitativeresearchtool,NVivo11,wasusedtodevelopthemesin

thedatawithKrueger&Anne(1994)frameworkanalysismethodutilised.This

methodhasfiveclearstages:familiarisation,identifyingathematicframework,

indexing,charting,mappingandinterpretation.Keythemeswerecategorised

usingNVivo11,withover250referencesand35nodes.

3.3.1Significanceandoutcomes

ResearchingtheextentoffishfarminginRabaul,PNGwillcreateagreater

foundationofknowledgeforthePNGgovernmentandfisheriesorganization’s.

64

Ultimately,thisinformationwilldetermineiffishfarmingisasustainableventure

forthestudysite.ThisprojectwillalsoaddvaluetothemainACIARproject

(FIS/2014/062)andimprovetechnicalcapacitybyincludingusefulinformationon

thecoastalprovincefreshwaterinlandfishfarmingsector.Itwillalsoinformthe

typesofinterventionsthatcouldbeputintoplacetomakefishfarmingmore

viable.Aswellasthis,theprojectgeneratesmuchneededknowledgeforthe

decision-makingprocessesandstrategicdevelopmentoftheindustrybyNFA.It

willalsobuildthecapacityofprovincialfisheriesofficersinvolvedinthesurvey

workandincreasetheircommunityengagement.Thisresearchwillmakeacritical

contributionbyidentifyingbottlenecksforlocalindustrygrowththatisessential

forresearchandmanagementactivitiesinEastNewBritain,andaddtothe

understandingofissuesacrossPNG.

3.4LimitationsandEthics

Therecruitmentofparticipantsforthesurveywasthroughanexistingdatabase

fromlocallevelgovernmentfisheriesofficersandutilizedthesnowballingeffect,

whereparticipantswereaskediftheyknewofotherfishfarmers.Manyfarmers

werefoundthroughwordofmouthfromcommunitiesnearby.Asdiscussedabove,

thenumberoffishfarmersissmallforENBPandmanyareinareasdifficultto

accessorconsideredunsafetooutsiders,thustherewasinsufficientstatistical

powerforassociation/correlationtesting.

65

Thefocusgroupparticipantswererandomlyselectedfromthesurveylistwhile

the‘other’groupwasrecruitedoff-the-streetrandomly.Non-attendeeswerean

issue,althoughtextmessageremindersweresentoutdayahead,somehadto

workorhadnochargeintheirphone.Duetolackofresponsefocusgroupshadto

berescheduledtwice.Theparticipantsofthesurveywerefirstshownthesurvey

questionsinTokPisinwithateammember,ensuringtheyunderstoodeachstage

oftheprocess.TheprocesswasalsoverbalizedinTokPisinduetodiffering

literacylevelsintheprovince,toensureconsentwasgiven.Permissiontobevoice

recordedforpost-interviewtranscribingandanalysiswasalsoreceived.Survey

questionscanbefoundinAppendixA.Alldatawasrecordedonpaperformsinthe

fieldandthenenteredtoanExcelspreadsheetbackathomebaseinKokopo.This

datawascollectedwithUNSWHumanEthicsapproval(HC:16925)

66

ChapterIV:ENBPFishFarmingCapitalsAvailableand

Bottlenecks

4.0Introduction

Thepurposeofthischapteristopresentthefindingsonthecurrentandpotential

ofinlandfishfarminginENBPanddeterminethekeyissueshinderingitsgrowth,

toinformfuturepolicyanddecisionmakers.Thiswillalsoprovidemoreinsight

intothecurrentinlandfishfarmingindustrydriversanddifficultieslinkedtoSLA

capitalsforhouseholdsinENBPandPNG.Abetterunderstandingofhowthe

capitalsinteractandimpactlivelihoodoutcomesisintegraltounderstandinghow

toaddressissuesandadapttoshocks(Su,Saikia&Hay,2018;Thulstrup,2015).

Theresultsfromthesurveyandfocusgroupsareusedtoanswerthefirstand

secondobjectiveandtheunderpinningresearchquestionspresentedinChapter1

Section1.6.ThechapterwillalsodiscussandanalysethedemographicsofENBP,

usingdatafrompreviousandthisstudy’sfishfarmersurveysandfocusgroups.

Thefirstobjectiveseekstodetermineanddescribetheopportunitiesanddrivers

social,natural,physicalandfinancialcapitalsavailabletosustainablyfarmfishin

ENBP.Thesecondobjectivewastoidentifyanddescribethecurrentsocial,

economicandenvironmentalbottleneckstogrowthofinlandaquacultureinENBP.

Bydiscussingandanalysingtheresults,thisstudycaninformfuturedecision

makingforinlandfishfarmingonalocalENBPprovincialandnationalPNGlevel.

Thiscombinedresultsanddiscussionchapterissplitintothreeparts:ENBP

67

demographics(4.1),capitalsavailable(4.2)andbottlenecks(4.3).Chapter5also

buildsadiscussionaroundthefindingsofthischapter.

4.1ENBPdemographics

Thedemographicsofthesurveyparticipantsareimportanttoansweringthe

overallaimofthisstudyasitsetsthecontextforthestudysiteandallowfurther

researchtocomparethisdataovertime(Connelly,2013).AsshowninTable4.1,

fishfarmsinENBPareownedbyanindividualorhouseholdandare

predominantlyrunbymales.Vira(2015)foundasimilarpercentageofmaleand

individualorfamilyownership(Table4.1).However,incomparisontotheEHP

survey,thereisadifferenceinfemaleownershipof6.9%.Whilefishfarmingis

predominantlyamale-dominatedlivelihoodstrategy,itholdsthecapacityfor

womentotakeanactiverole(Harohauetal.,2016).Thiscouldleadtomore

opportunityforwomentobeinvolvedaccumulatinghumanandfinancialcapital.It

shouldbenotedtheEHPstudysurveyed100peoplecomparedtothe56inthis

study.TheaverageageforfishfarmersinENBPwas40yearsold.InPNGa

majorityofthepopulationfallswithinthe25-54agebracket(CentralIntelligence

Agency,2017).TheENBPandEHPdatamirrorsthestatisticabovewiththis

bracketbeingtheagemostindividualsareworkingontheirfishfarms.ENBPhad

anaverageof3dependents,whileEHPhad6withdependentsoftenasignificant

financialburdenforthehouseholdheads.InMelanesiaitiscommonfor

householdstohaveoneprimaryincomeearnerwithahighnumberofdependents,

whichoftenmeansalowerstandardofliving(McDonald,Naidu&Mohanty,2016).

Theprimaryoccupationofthesurveyedfarmerswassmallholderfarmers;

68

however,therewasahighlevelof‘other’(e.g.paid)occupationscomparedtothe

2014EHPsurvey,withmanychoosinglabourastheirprimaryoccupation.Itis

possiblethatpeopledonotgetinvolvedinfishfarmingduetoalackoffish

husbandryknowledgeandrecognitionoftheiravailablecapitals(natural,social,

physical,humanandfinancial)(Krauseetal.,2015;Salas,Chuenpagdee,Seijo&

Charles,2007)(FurtherdiscussedisSection4.1.2).

Table4.1:DemographicsofEHPfarmersurvey2014andENBPfarmersurvey2017

Characteristic EHPfishfarmsurveyin

2014(Vira,2015)

ENBPfishfarmersurvey

2017

Genderownership

Male(%) 96.3 89.3

Female(%) 3.8 10.7

Averageagesoffarmer

(years)

41.5+11.5 40.0+12.64

Maritalstatusoffarmer

Married(%) 93.8 85.7

Unmarried(%) 6.2 14.3

Dependents(family

memberslivingwith

farmer)

6.39+3.74 3.06+2.35

Natureofownership

Individual/familyowned(%) 90 94.6

Community/other(%) 10 5.4

Primaryoccupationoffarmer

Smallholderagriculture(%) 93.8 51.8

Other(%) 6.2 48.2

69

4.1.1SchoolinginENBP

In2015approximately264millionchildrenandyouthgloballywereoutofschool

(UNESCO,2015).Schoolingisimportant,particularlyindevelopingcountries

becauseitgivesindividualsmoreopportunitiesforworkandimproves

productivityandself-confidence(Achola&Pillai,2016;Hanushek2013;Ramphele

&Rosovsky,2015).ManychildreninPNGdonotattendorfinishschoolafter

primarylevelduetointra-householdconstraints(Ryan,Koczberski,Curry&

Germis,2017).InPNG,grossenrolmentinprimaryschoolis74.4%and44.4%for

secondaryschool,showingmostchildrenarereceivingprimaryorbasiceducation

(UNDP,2014).Whilehigherschoolingdoesnotnecessarilymeanareducedlevelof

poverty,itcanprovidemoreworkforceopportunitiesandfinancialgain

(Hanushek,2013).Enrolmentintechnicalandvocationeducationisonly4%asa

percentageofthetotalenrolmentinsecondaryeducationinPNG(UNSECSO,

2012).InENBPthehighestlevelofschoolingamongsurveyparticipantsis

depictedinFigure4.3,whereamajorityofparticipantsfinishedtheirschoolingin

primaryschool.InGazelle,KokopoandRabauldistricts,mostparticipants

completedtertiaryorvocationalstudies.Thisshowsthosethatfinishedsecondary

schooldidnotstoptheireducationthereandwentintofurtherstudyafterwards.

Overall,thehighestlevelofschoolingwasusuallyprimaryschoolwith55.4%of

participantsdroppingoutafterprimaryschooltowork(Figure4.1).Smallholder

agricultureistheprimaryoccupationinENBP(Table4.1)andmaybewhya

majorityofparticipantsonlyneededaprimaryeducation,beforebeinga

smallholderfarmerandgettingintofishfarming(Kuépié,Shapiro&Tenikue,

2015).Limitedfamilyresourcesalsocontributetoschooldropouts,whichisa

70

commonscenarioindevelopingcountriesandPICTs(Achola&Pillai,2016;Posso

&Feeny,2016).Asurveyparticipantnoted;

“Childrencannotmakeittoschoolforstudiesduetolackfinance(sic).”

Intra-householdconstraints,suchasimbalancedgenderpower,lowparental

educationlevelsandlowattractionofeducationmayalsobeprimaryreasonsfor

thelackofschooling(Ryanetal.,2017;Shahidul&Karim,2015).Inthehighlands

itisalsocommonforchildrentostopattendingschoolduetointer-tribalconflict

andlackofaccessibility,thoughthisisnotprevalentinENBP(UNESCO,2012).In

totalmorepeoplefinishedtheirschoolinginprimaryschool(55.4%)thantertiary

orvocational(41.1%).Thislowertertiarystudycouldberelatedtoneedingto

earnanincome,costornotputtingvalueineducation(Achola&Pillai,2016;Posso

&Feeny,2016).Marriageandsupportingafamilyareanotherpossibility,withthe

legalageofmarriageinPNG16forgirlsand18formales,althoughthiscanbe

loweredto14and16respectivelywiththepermissionofparents(Ryanetal.,

2017).Ageisnotconsideredincustomarymarriagesandexemptfromthelaw.

Figure4.1:HighestlevelofschoolingforENBPfishfarmersfromsurveydata.

0

20

40

60

80

None Primary Secondary Tertiary/Voc

Participantslastschooling(%)

Levelofschooling

HighestLevelofSchoolinginENBP

Gazelle,Kokopo,Rabaul Pomio Total

71

4.1.2Involvementinfishfarming

ThemainreasonsforinvolvementinfishfarminginENBPareshowninFigure

(4.2).FishfarmersinENBPstartedfishfarmingforcashincomeandnutrition

(Figure4.2).Asmallpercentageengagedinfishfarmingsolelyfortheirhousehold

nutrition,andalsomarketingthefishforadditionalincome(Bénéetal.,2016).The

‘other’categorylistedlifestylereasonssuchaspersonalinterestandinspiration

fromotherfarmersfortheirinvolvementinfishfarming(16%).Only4%of

surveyedfarmersfarmedfishsolelyforhouseholdnutrition.Duringthefocus

group,onefocusgroupparticipantdiscussedhismotivationsforfishfarming;

“Foodsecurityandthesecondonewouldbe,um,forearningaliving,yes.Sell

itandeat”

InPICTs,whilefishisasourceofhouseholdnutritionitisalsoanopportunityto

supplementhouseholdincomebymarketingfishatalocallevelvialocaland

roadsidemarkets(Cleasbyetal.,2014;Feeny,2016).Thishasalsobeenseenin

otherdevelopingcountries,i.e.diversifyinglivelihoodsandusingfishfarmingas

anotheravenuetoincreasetheirmonetarygain(Allison&Ellis,2001;Betcherman

&Marschke,2016;Foeken&Owuor,2008).Oneparticipantconstructinghispond

reiteratedasimilarstatement;

“Formeit’smybreadandbutter.Formyfamilytosurviveandforextended

familymemberstohaveemployment.”

Fishfarmingcanalsoincreasetheirsocialcapitalbycreatingnetworksandtrust,

whichisembeddedintheirculturalwantoksystem(Chapter1Section1.2.2)

(Baynesetal.,2017).Trustandsocialcapitalareimportantinsmall-scale

agricultureventuressuchasfishfarming,trustingthatthepersonworkingonthe

farmwillnotactopportunisticallyandnegativelyimpactthefarm(Fitzetal.,

72

2016).Aswellassocialcapital,humancapitalalsoisimprovedthroughlearning

aboutfishhusbandry,whichcanbesharedandtaughttoothermembersofthe

community(Sharp,2015).

Figure4.2:Reasonsforinvolvementinfishfarming.

4.1.3SpecieschoiceandpondsinENBP

FishintroductionshaveoccurredinPNGsincetheearly1930s(Chapter2Section

2.2).GIFTandcarparethetwo-dominantspeciesculturedinPNG,whichisalso

reflectedintheENBPdata(Smith,2009).InENBPgeneticallyimprovedfarming

tilapia(GIFT)andacombinationofGIFTandcarpgrowninthesamesystem,are

mostcommon(Figure4.3).The‘none’legendreferstonospeciescurrentlybeing

culturedintheirpondsduetotheirnewconstruction(Figure4.3).Thepolyculture

oftilapiaandcarpisparticularlyprevalentindevelopingcountries.Thisisthought

tobebecausebothspeciesarefastgrowing,canliveinarangeoftemperatures

andarelowcosttofarmcomparedtootherspeciesoffish(Goldenetal.,2016;

Valladão,Gallani&Pilarski,2016).Thefingerlingsforthesespeciesarewidely

71%9%

4% 16%

MainreasonsforENBPinvolvementinmishfarming

Cashincomeandnutrition Income(selfemployment)Householdnutrition Other

73

availableandinformationaboutthespeciesisaccessible.Nootherfreshwater

speciesarefarmedinthetropicalclimateofPNG;troutarefarmedinthecold

watersofthehighlands.Therefore,carpandGIFThavethebestpotentialto

developfishfarmingasalivelihoodstrategy.

Figure4.3:SpeciesculturedinENBPfromsurveydata.

AmajorityoffishpondsinENBPwereearthenponds,thoughsomefarmers

utilisedirondrumsorconcrete(AppendixC:1,2,3).Earthenpondsareoneofthe

mostcommonsmallholderpondsduetothelowmanuallabourandresources

needed(Waiteetal2014).Theaveragenumberofpondswas2.9,thoughonly1.4

werestocked,whichwaspredictedtoberelatedtolackoffishhusbandry

knowledgeandtheconstraintofflooding(discussedfurtherin4.3).ENBPponds

tendedtobefairlysmall,withanaveragesurfaceareaof37.8m2.Thesmallsurface

areaisinferredtobeduetoitsmanageabilityanduseforhouseholdconsumption

(Bénéetal.,2016).

78%

14%

4% 4%

SpeciesCultured

Tilapia TilapiaandCarp TilapiaandOther None

74

4.2ThecapitalsavailabletofarmfishinENBP

TheSLAframeworkencompassesfivedifferentcapitals:social,human,natural,

physicalandfinancialcapitals(Chapter1Section1.7).Eachofthesecapitals

contributestoanindividualorhousehold’slivelihood.Thissectionwilllookatthe

capitalsavailableandtheirsignificancetofishfarmersbyusingdatafromboththe

surveyandfocusgroups.Socialandhumancapitalarecloselylinkedandrequired

forthelong-termsuccessoffishfarmingduetotheirimpactonlivelihood

outcomes(i.e.improvedhealth)

4.2.1Social&humancapitals

Socialcapitalismadeupofculture,networksrelationships,trustandreciprocity

whilehumancapitalistheknowledge,healthandskillsorlabourofindividuals

(Djuric&Filipovic,2015).Thissectionwillcombinehumanandsocialcapitaldue

totheirsimilaritiesandtoreducedatarepetition.Thewantoksystemisan

exampleofasocialcapital,wherethereisaninteractionwithothersandan

emphasisontrustandreciprocityforco-operationandco-ordination(Fitzetal.,

2016;Nanau,2011).Toimprovesocialcapitaldirectly,communitysupport,and

supportfromLLG,nationalgovernment,NGOsandextensionservicescanbe

provided.Governmentandnon-governmentorganisations(e.g.JICA,ACIAR,

EuropeanUnion)canfostersocialinteractionthroughprogramsleadingto

businesssuccessandmoreaccesstoaid(Chen,Wang&Huang,2014;Seferiadis,

Cummings,Zweekhorst&Bunders,2015).Surveyparticipantswereallinvolved

withasocialorculturalnetwork,ranginginactivities(Figure4.4).ENBPisrichin

75

local-levelsocialcapitalwiththesenseofcommunityandsocialgroupsevident

(Nanau,2011).Themostcommonsocialundertakingwastraditionaland

community-basedactivities(e.g.firedance,maskfestival)with22participantsof

the56takingpart(Figure4.4).Thewantoksystemcreatesasystemofsupport,

withthecommunityinENBPrelativelyculturallyhomogenous(Reilly&Phillpot,

2002).Churchattendancealsohadahighinvolvementratewithmanypeoplein

ENBPbeingreligious,addingtotheirsocialcapital.Thesesystemsofsupport,

protectionandinteractionhelphouseholdsbettercopewithshockssuchasdeath

withinahouseholdorfamilywhichispartofthevulnerabilitycontext(Fitzetal.,

2016;Mohanty,2011)(Figure4.4).Havingsocialcapitalisanintegralpartof

adoptingagriculturalpracticessuchasfishfarming,withstudiesfindingthatfor

collectiveactionorchangetooccurtheremustbesocialcapital,forexample

utilisingfamilyorwantokassistance(Baynesetal.,2017;Jara-Roja,Bravo-Ureta&

Diaz,2012).

Figure4.4:SocialandculturalinvolvementintheENBPcommunity.

0510152025

Numberofparticipantsinvolved

Socialorculturalactivity

ENBPSocial&CulturalInvolvement

76

Inthefuture,combiningfishfarmingknowledgewithschoolwouldengage

studentsinnewskills,andincreaseinteractionwithfishfarmers,contributingto

theirsocialandhumancapitals(Huffman,2001;Muchiri&Kiriungi,2015).This

approachisalreadyoccurringelsewhereinPNGunderanNFAFishforSchool

ProgramwithtechnicalsupportfromACIARProjectFIS/2014/062(J.Sammut,

personalcommunication,20March2018).Whilethispracticeisnotwidespreadin

ENBP,twosurveyedfishfarmersschoolsareundertakingthisactivityandhosting

schoolexcursiongroupstovisitfishfarms.Thetwofishfarmersalreadyrunning

schoolsareintegratingtheirknowledgeoffishfarmingintotheschoolcurriculum.

Onefarmerrunningaschoolstatedinthefocusgroup;

“-itwillbe(a)verygoodideaifwecanattachschoolvocationaltocomeand

hookupwithfarmerssothattheywillbroadentheindustrytogether.Itwill

beworkifit’sonlyus.”

Theseschoolsgivestudentsapracticaldemonstrationofagriculturalactivities

suchasfishfarmingandcontributestotheirhumancapitalthroughskillsand

knowledge.Familyandcommunitysupportareintegraltodevelopingnewskills

andallowingyouthstoexcel(Israel,Beaulieu&Hartless,2001;Woolley&Bowen,

2006).Aswellasschoolinvolvement,thesurroundingcommunitycanalsobe

involvedthrougheventsanddayexcursions.Thisinvolvementincreasesthe

knowledgeandskillsofadultsandchildren.Afocusgroupparticipantexpressed

theiropinionofeducatingvisitingschoolchildrenaboutfishfarming;

“Formethisyear,WorldwaterandWorldEnvironmentday,schoolscomeand

lookaround.Theygetthebasiccommunitybenefit.Knowledge,proteinwise

(and)takeownership.”

77

ThiscanalsobeundertakenbyorganisationssuchasOISCA,whichrunpractical

trainingsessions.Onefocusgroupparticipantnotedtheircurrentinvolvement;

“WhereIliveOISCA.OISCAcomewithschools(to)observe.”

TheFishforSchoolsprogramrunbyNFA,isanexampleoftransferringknowledge

toimprovehumanandsocialcapitalforthefuturegenerations;broadeningthe

programtoincludeislandcommunitieswouldbeawayofexpandingthe

program’sreachandimpacts.Therefore,thereisasignificantpotentialtofurther

theyoungergenerationsknowledgeofnaturalcapital,fishhusbandryandfish

farmingasasourceofdietaryproteinthroughschoolprograms.

4.2.2NaturalcapitalavailableinENBP

Naturalcapitalincludesbiodiversity,ecosystemservicesandnaturalresources,

whichareneededtoundertakeanyagriculturalactivity,suchasfishfarming

(Guerryetal.,2015).ENBPisrichinnaturalresourcessuchasland,waterand

forests,whichisreflectedinthediversityofcropsundertakenbyfarmers(i.e.

cocoa,copra,taro)(Bourkeetal.,2002;Kerua,2017).Inlandfishfarming,in

particular,requiresgoodsoil,withsufficientclayforwaterretention,andclean,

freshwater.Thesurveyfoundthatallparticipantshadaccesstocommunalnatural

resources,oneofwhichistheirfreshwatersource(Figure4.5).Theprimarywater

sourcefoundfromthesurveyisfromstreams(63%)and‘other’whichrefersto

rainwatertanksandwells(21%).Manyfishfarmersfoundwaterontheirlandand

decidedtoutiliseit.Afocusgroupfishfarmermusedwhatnaturalresourcesare

neededtofarmfish;

“Firstonewouldbeland.Inordertoconstructapondorfarmfish,wemust

havethisone.So,landisaresourcepeoplehavebutthenwater,watersource.

78

Peoplelivingnearwater,they’vegotwatertheyneedtoknowhowto

constructorlookafterfish.So...fundingpeoplehavegot,theycanstart.The

interestistherewiththepeopleresourcesthere.”

Anothersaid;

“IsawIhadsomewaterthere.Hadnoideabutthenhadaninteresttofarm

fish.”

Otherparticipantscommonlymentionedtheircommunalresourcesweretheland,

forestandocean(Figure4.6).Landandwatersourceswerewidelyavailableto

thesefishfarmers;however,thismaynotbethecaseforallresidentsinENBP.A

majorityoffishfarmersalsoownedotherland(58.9%),whileitissuspectedtobe

customaryorfamilyland,anylandisasignificantadvantageinlivelihood

strategies(Koczberskietal.,2017).Currently,thereislessthan5%oflandunder

freeholdtitleorstateleases,withincreasingpressureputoncustomaryland

(Koczberskietal.,2017).Intermsoffishfarming,manyfarmersweremakingtheir

ownfeedandusingthenaturalresourcesavailabletothem(e.g.termites,cassava

leaves,foodscraps).Examplesofthiswasfoundinthesefocusgroupquotes;

“Localfeed,yes.LocalfeedIhave”

Anotherintervieweesaid;

“Itoldthemthereisabigpotential.IcanplantallthecassavainRabaul,the

cassavacangrow,thetapiocacangrow.”

Thesurveyandfocusgroupdatashowthereisawideavailabilityofnatural

resourceshighlightingtheopportunityforstartingandexpandingfishfarms.

Havingnaturalcapitalisintegraltodiversifyinglivelihoodstrategiesinrural

communities,withotherstudieshighlightingitsimportance(Martin&Lorenzen,

2016;Sisifaetal.,2016).

79

Figure4.5:CommunalresourcesutilisedinENBP.

FishfarminginENBPhasnotbeenwidelyaffectedbyfishdisease;cocoaonthe

otherhandhasbeensignificantlydepletedbycocoapodbora(CPB)(Curryetal.,

2015).ThiswasamaincroplivelihoodformanyhouseholdsinENBP.ENBPwas

previouslythehighestcocoaproducerinPNGanddropped80%between2008-

2012,drivingachangeinlivelihoodstrategies(WorldBank,2014).Anexampleof

CPBsimpactcanbeseeninthisfocusgroupquote;

“waterwastheresoIstarteddiggingandhadmanythoughtsandideas.

Therewerealotofthoughtsthatpoppedintomyhead.First,mythoughtwas

thiswouldbegoodtoputinfish.So,whenIdidthis,CPB(CocoaPodBorer)

too(out)theCocoaindustryandthat’swhenIthoughtokthiscouldbe

sustainable.”

ThequotedemonstratesthatCPBforcedpeopletoconsiderdifferentlivelihood

strategies,suchasfishfarmingtoutilisetheirnaturalcapitals.Duetothesmall

scaleofthecurrentfishfarmingindustryinENBP,therehasbeennosignificant

diseaseoutbreaks.Thisisvitaltothesuccessoffishfarmingbecausewhilefish

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Stream Creek River Well+bore Ocean+reef

Forest+Bush

Numberoftimesmentioned

Communalresource

CommunalResources

80

farmingutilisesavailablenaturalcapital,diseaseinfishfarmscancausesignificant

shockstolivelihoodsandfinancialloss(Ahmed,2009;Wang&Lu,2016).

Unlikemarinefishing,fishfarmingcanoccuratanytimewithweatherand

resourcessuchasaboatandfuelnotaconstraint.Fishfarmingcanalsobe

undertakeninconjunctionwithotherfarmingventures.Themostcommonare

chickenpens,plantsandrice,whichismoresustainablefortheenvironment(Thi

Da,HuuPhuoc,NgocDuc,Troell&Berg,2015;Haobijam&Ghosh,2018).This

farmingstrategyhasbeenusedbysmall-scalefarmersglobally,likethose

currentlyinvolvedinfishfarminginENBP,andisanotherventureforcontributing

tohouseholdincome(Granada,Sousa,Lopes,&Lemos,2015;Goldenetal.,2016).

Thebenefitsofinlandfishfarmingcomparedtomarinefishingwerementionedby

thisfocusgroupparticipant;

“WhenIstartedIwentthroughlearningtofarmfishandatthesametime

farmingriceinonesamepond,thenIfoundoutwithfarmingfishit’salltime

weather.Youcangofishingatmidnight,rainy,youcangofish.Notlikeoutat

sea.Whenit’swindy,rainy,youcangofish.Withponds,I’measy.Whenyou

havetime,youeatfish.”

Environmentally,thespeciesusedinfishfarmingareusuallylowertrophiclevel

andthereforecansurviveoffmoresustainablefeedthanmarinefishspecies

(Lynchetal.,2016;Sibhatu,Krishna&Qaim,2015).Inlandfishfarmingprovides

smallholderfarmswitheconomicsecuritybyofferinganalternativesourceof

income,foodandashocksafety-net(Lynchetal.,2016).Thisiseconomically

viableforENBPfishfarmers,whoalreadyundertakemultipleventuresto

contributetotheirlivelihoodsandutilisetheirnaturalcapital.Byutilisingthe

81

waterandlandalreadyavailable,lessmoneyisspentthancomparedtomarine

fishingwhichrequiresmaterialssuchasnets,hooksandaboat(Gogoi,Kachari,

Dutta,Darshan&Das,2015).InENBPnaturalresourcesarewidelyavailablefor

fishfarmingandasupplementaryincomeforlowincomecommunitymembers

whilealsoprovidingaccesstoawatersource(physicalcapital).

4.2.3PhysicalcapitalinENBP

Physicalcapitalincludesinfrastructuresuchaswatersupply,roadnetworks,

sanitationsystemsandschools,andisoftenpoorindevelopingcountries

(Massoud,El-Fadel&Jamali,2016).InENBP,33.9%ofsurveyparticipants’

householdswereaccessiblebycar.AllinterviewedfishfarmersinENBPlivedin

houses,rangingfromtraditionaltoconcrete,andhadsomeformoflivestock(e.g.

chickens,pigs,goat).ThesurveyfoundthatfishfarmsinPomiowereall

inaccessibleduetofloodingandbreakdownoftheroadnetwork,whiletheRabaul,

KokopoandGazelledistrictroadnetworkisfairlyextensiveandaccessible.The

lackofaccessibilityissupportedbyafocusintervieweequote;

“-Themarketingpotentialforaquacultureproduct,veryhigh.It’snota

problem.Butthethingishowtogetitfrom,fromnowhere.Imeanfrom

whereIlive,tothemarket,tosupplythatmarket.”

Amajorityofhouseholdaccessdrinkingwaterfromstreamsorrainwatertanks

(Section4.2.2).ElectricityisalsoconsideredaphysicalcapitalbutENBPfish

farmerspredominantlyusedfirewoodforcooking(Figure4.6).However,solarand

generatorpoweredelectricitywerealsocommon(Figure4.6).Electricitywasonly

usedoravailableto~10%offishfarmingsurveyparticipants.Smallholderfish

farmingdoesnotrequireelectricitytobringeconomicbenefit,howeveritshows

82

thatENBPisstilladevelopingprovince.ManyPICTsstillstruggletoprovidethe

necessaryinfrastructureforelectricitytoitsinlandinhabitantsduetoalackof

financialcapital(Betzold,2016;Carr,Simoncini&Manson,2018).

Figure4.6:PrimarysourcesofpowerutilisedinENBP.

Aphysicalassetssectionwasimbeddedinthesurvey.Thephysicalassets

contributetoahousehold’sphysicalcapitalandimpactthehousehold’sother

capitalssuchashuman(health),social(interaction)andfinancial(income)(Suet

al.,2018).Thetwomostcommonphysicalassetswerethespadeandaxe,which

haveavarietyofusesoutsideoffishfarmingandpondmanagement(Figure4.7).It

isevidentfromFigure4.8thatphysicalassetsareaccessiblebutcanbeimproved

throughbetterroadnetworksandavailabilityofmaterials,whichisshownto

improvefinancialcapitalofcommunities(Feeny,2016;Thulstrup,2015).There

aretertiaryeducationinstitutionsavailableinENBPsuchasUNREaswellas

trainingcolleges,which7surveyparticipantsmentionedasplacestogetsupport.

010203040506070

Electric Firewood Solar Generator Minihyro Fuellamp Carbattery

Percentage(%

)

Typeofpowersource

SourceofPowerinENBP

83

Thesurveysalsofound98.2%ofparticipantshadaschool,churchoraidpost

(medicalclinic)nearthem,whichimprovessocial(interaction,trust)andhuman

(health,knowledgeandskills)capital.Thesephysicalcapitalscontributeto

householdsfinancial,socialandhumancapitalwhilealsoactingasabufferagainst

shocks(Biggsetal.,2015;Thulstrup,2015).

Figure4.7:AbreakdownofphysicalassetsoffishfarmersinENBP.

4.2.4FinancialcapitalsinENBP

Financialcapitalisthediversityandlevelofincome,accesstofinance,savingsand

livestockthatareusedbythehouseholdtoachievetheirlivelihoodstrategies

(Metcalfetal.,2015).Fishfarmers,whileeachhouseholdhadexpenses(K2614.8),

theyhadmoreoverallsavings(K1397.2)(Figure4.8)overathree-monthperiod.

Thesurveyfound66.1%offishfarmerssaidtheyhadsavings.Theirintentionsfor

theirsavingswerefarmingventures(19%),schoolfees(22%)andhealthor

emergencyexpenses(humancapital)(24%)(Figure4.9).Thisshowsparticipants

aresavingtobettertheirlivelihoodandbetterpreparetheirhouseholdforshocks.

InKokopo,GazelleandRabaultherewasahigherlevelofbothexpensesand

0102030405060708090

Percentageofparticpantswh

oown

asset(%)

Typeofasset

Physicalassets

84

income(Figure4.8).Thisismostlikelyduetothisareahavingmoreinfrastructure

andaroadnetwork,unlikePomio.Roadnetworksarevitalforeconomic

developmentandaccesstopublicservices;upperENBPhasmoreopportunityfor

successthanPomioduetoaccessibilitytoresourcesandsupport(Edmondsetal.,

2018).Havingsavingsisintegraltocopingwithshocks(e.g.health)aswellasplan

forthefuture(e.g.schoolfees)(Goedecke,Guerin,D’Espallier&

Venkatasubramanian,2017).

Figure4.8:ENBPIncomeandexpensesforeachsurveyedhousehold

01000200030004000500060007000

Kokopo,GazelleandRabaul

Pomio Total

IncomeandExpensesoverthree

months(PGK)

District

ENBPDistrictdifferencesinIncomeandExpenses

IncomeExpenses

85

Figure4.9:AbreakdownofwhereENBPhouseholdsspendtheirsavings.

Manyoftheparticipantswereinvolvedinanumberofdifferentventuresandhave

adiversefarmingportfolio(Figure4.5).ThemostincomeinENBPcamefrompaid

employment,other(PMVbuses,tradestores)andcropfarming(Figure4.10).Fish

farmingandpoultrybroughtintheleastincome;thisisbelievedtobeduetoonly

producingenoughforhouseholdconsumption(Figure4.10).Thisisinferredtobe

becausetraditionallyinENBPandPNGhouseholdsdependonsubsistencefarming,

onlygrowingenoughtoeatandtaketothemarket.Householdscouldberisk

adversetoexpandproductionduetothelackoffoodsecurityandvulnerabilityto

shocks(Haushofer&Fehr,2014).ThisissupportedbyYesuf&Bluffstone(2018)

whofoundthatinruralEthiopia,householdsfromruralpoorcommunitieswere

lesswillingtotradeofftheircurrentwelfarefor“risky”endeavourswiththe

potentialtoimprovetheirlivelihood.Thehighestaverageexpenseswerefood,

educationandfarmtools/labour(1USDis0.30K10/08/2018)(Figure4.10).

Healthexpensesaresignificantshockstohouseholdsandcanhaveadetrimental

8%

16%

22%19%

8%

24%

3%

ENBPSavings

Tools/labour Business EducationFishfarm Farm Health/emergencyOther

86

impactonlivelihoodsiftherearenosavings(Russell,2004).Therefore,having

savingsisintegraltocopingandavertinganydetrimentaleffectstohousehold

livelihoods(Karlan,Ratan&Zinman,2014).

Figure4.10:Averageallocationofincome&expensesinENBPforthreemonths.

Roadsidemarketscontributetothecommunity’ssocialcapitalthroughinteraction

andfinancialcapitalviaincome(Craig&Porter,2017).Forfishfarmerswho

producedenoughtosell,thesemarketswereasignificantpartoftheirincomeand

allowedpeopleinthecommunityaccesstoprotein.Onefocusgroupparticipant

said;

“YoucanbuythefishforK1andsellforK3orK2.Soplentymoney.”

“Buyfromthefarmers,theymakemenus,thentheysell,andtheybenefit.

Roadsaleandthiskindof(activity).”

Roadsidemarketsincreasefinancialcapitalcontributingtofishfarmershousehold

income.Itisoftenhardforsmall-scalefarmerstoexpandandcommercialisedueto

0100200300400500600700800900

Rent

Crop

Livestock

Poultry

Vegetable

Fruit

Fish

Employment

Remittance

Other

Foodexpenses

Clothing

Education

Health

Farmtools/labour

Communityfees

Religious

Tax&

related

Leisure&lifestyle

Other

Income Expenses

AverageK

ina(K)

ENBPAverageIncome&Expenses

87

alackofaccesstoservicesandtheinabilityofsmallscalefarmerstocaterforthe

highdemandforfish(Bienabeetal.,2016).Improvinggovernmentpolicyto

includesmall-scaleenterpriseswouldgivefarmerstheopportunitytoexpandand

increasefinancialcapitalandassets.Thisfinancialcapitalandbusiness

managementwouldimprovethehouseholdlivelihoodandcreatemorelivelihoods

forthosewithinthecommunity,overcomingtheassociatedbottlenecks(Limaet

al.,2018;Purcell,Lovatelli&Pakoa,2014).

4.3 Social,EconomicandEnvironmentalBottlenecksforFishFarmingin

ENBP

InlandfishfarminginENBPhasexperiencedsignificantbottleneckstogrowth.The

mainbottlenecksforENBPandEHPinlandaquaculturewerecomparedinFigure

4.11.Thefivemostcommonconstraintswerecategorisedintoeconomic,social

andenvironmental(Figure4.11).Themostcommonconstraintswereweather,

lackofsupportorfunding,fishspecies(i.e.speciesissuesandfingerlingsupply),

theftandmaterialsorinfrastructure.Accesstoorcostofmaterialsand

infrastructurewasthemostprevalentconstraint,followedbyalackofsupportand

fundinginbothEHPandENBP.Constraintspertainingtofishspecieswerethe

leastmentionedbutstillwithinthetopfiveconstraintsstated.Theseconstraints

willbefurtherdiscussedinthesectionsbelow.

88

Figure4.11:MainconstraintstofishfarmingfromENBPandEHPsurveydata.

4.3.1 EconomicbottlenecksaffectingthefishfarmingindustryinENBP

Economicconstraintspertaintohindrancestomonetarygainandaccessto

infrastructure.Economicconstraintswerethemostcommonissuesinthefarmer

surveys(Figure4.11).Itwasidentifiedthatalackofmaterialsandinfrastructure

wasthemainconstrainttoENBP,mirroringtheEHPdata(Figure4.11).Thereare

noaffordablefingerlingsuppliersforfishfarminginENBP,withmanygettingtheir

fingerlingsfromotherfarmers(71%).Asonefocusgroupparticipantstated;

“(I)don’thaveagoodincometobuyfingerlings.Thelocaleconomyisn’t

good.”

05101520253035

Weather

Lackofsupport/

funding

Fishspecies

Theft

Materials/infra

Percentage(%

)fromsurvey

Constraint

MainconstraintsinEHP2014andENBP2017

ENBP EHP

89

ManyfarmersinPomioarewithoutelectricityandnoPVCpipetodirectwater,

insteadutilisinghusked-outbetelnuttreestodeliverwatertotheirponds(Figure

4.12).Firewoodisthemainsourceoflightintheabsenceofelectricityutilisedin

ENBP,whichisabottlenecktomaintainingtheirpondanddivertingwater

efficiently(Figure4.12).Whilesolaranddieselgeneratorsarecommonthey

requirethefinancetopurchaseandmaintain,whichcanbetoocostly(Figure

4.12).Thisconstraintgoeshand-in-handwiththeconstraintoflackofsupport,

suchastrainingandfinance,whichisthesecondbiggestconstraintaffectingENBP

farmers(Figure4.11).Thelackofsupportandassistanceisevidencedbythe

observationsofafocusgroupquote;

“Wearenotaskingforassistance.IforonehaveneverbeenvisitedbytheLLG

thatIcomefrom.Theyhavenever.Iamsevenyears(into)doingthistraining

andI’veneverbeengiventheopportunityjusttocomeandseewhatweare

doing.Sothatotherfarmerscanknowwhatwearedoing.Weareall

workinginisolation.”

Alackofsupportandtrainingonfishfarmingknowledgehindersthetransferring

ofinformation,whichwouldotherwiseallowfarmerstobebetterinformedin

theirdecision-makingandenhancetheirhumancapital(Anderson&Feder,2004).

Extensionserviceshavebeenshowntoeffectivelyfacilitateknowledgetransfer

andsupport(Khan,Nawaz,Ullah&Habib,2016;Tata&McNamara,2016).

Pickering(2006)foundthatadvancesinseaweedaquacultureinPICTswerebetter

enabledbytrustingrelationshipsbetweentrainerandtrainee.Inotherdeveloping

countriesthislackoffinancialsupporthasledtoabreakdownorlackofphysical

infrastructuretosupportsmallholderfarmers(Brownetal.,2018;Mwangi&

90

Kariuki,2015).Ithighlightstheneedforsupportfromgovernment,fisheriesand

LLGtoimprovephysicalandfinancialcapital.

Alackofknowledgeandtheneedforfishhusbandrytrainingwasbroughtupoften

infocusgroupinterviewsandinthesurveyunderfishspeciesconstraints(Figure

4.11).Manyofthesurveyparticipantsalsostatedtheyneededtrainingand

materialstogrowtheirfarmtobettermanageandexpandtheirponds;

“Myproblemisfeed,(I)needtrainingformakingfeedsoIcanmakemyown

feedandfindingtherightbalanceandfeedthefishproperly.”

Technicalknowledgeisintegraltoeffectivelyfarmandproduceeffectivelyandis

hinderedbylackofphysicalandfinancialcapital(Mwangi&Kariuki,2015).

Withouttechnicalcapacityanduptakeofnewknowledgefarmersareinhibiteddue

toalackofpost-harvestprocessingskills(London,Anupindi&Sheth,2010).

Farmersdidnotsolelyfarmfish,undertakingacombinationofactivitiestoearnan

incomeandsupporttheirfamilies.Thesurveyfoundwhichcombinationoffarming

activitiesworkedbestaccordingtothefishfarmers.Therewere70%ofthe

participantsinvolvedincropsandfishfarming(Figure4.12).ENBPwasknownfor

itscopraandcocoacropproductionbeforethecocoapodborer(CPB)infestation

startingin2006(ACIAR,2006;Kerua,2017).Only2%ofparticipantswhofarmed

fishwerealsoinvolvedincoastalfisheriesshowingitwasnotaprimarylivelihood

amongstfishfarmers.Thesurveydatafoundthatoverthreemonthstheaverage

incomefromfishfarmingwas$1.02Kina.Therefore,currentlyfishfarmingcannot

beaprimarysourceofincomeandismorelikelygoingtowardshousehold

nutrition.Gardening(fruitsandvegetables)wasalsocommon(25%),growing

91

flowersandvegetablestosellatlocalmarkets(Figure4.12).Thisisacommon

livelihoodstrategyinENBPandPICTs,butlessprevalentthancopraandcocoa

(Jones&Charlton,2015).Livestockwasrelativelycommon,particularlychickens

andpigs.Thesurveydatafound69.6%ofparticipantsownedpigsbutdidnot

believetheyarealargepartoftheirlivelihoodoroptimalfarmingcombination

with3%(Figure4.12).However,pigsarepredominantlyusedforhousehold

consumptionorculturaleventssuchasbridepricepaymentandfunerals(Ayalew

etal.,2011).Pigsarealsoasymbolofsocialstandingorwealthandnota

consistentsourceofincome(Bourkeetal.,2009)noraretheyaregularsourceof

food.Overall,themostsuccessfulfarmingcombination,accordingtofishfarmers,

wasfishfarmingandcrops;ENBPhasarichhistoryofcropfarming(Curryetal.,

2015).Thisshowsadiversificationoffarmingtoutilisethenaturalcapitaland

generatefinancialincome,whichcanreducethevulnerabilityofhouseholds

(Coppock,Desta,Tezera&Gebru,2011;Ellis,2008;Smith,Hudson&

Schreckenberg,2017)

Figure4.12:MostcommonfarmingactivitiesinENBP.

2%

70%

25%

3%

Combinationofmishfarming&farmingactivities

Fisheries Crops Gardening Livestock

92

Anothereconomicconstrainttofishfarmersistheirlimitedknowledgeofavailable

fundingorhowtoapplytofundinginitiatives.Theconsensusfromfocusgroup

datawasthatfisheriesofficerscouldnotofferguidanceandlackedthefish

husbandryskillsandknowledge.Farmerswerethenrequiredtoeitherlearnfor

themselvesorspendtheirownmoneyfortrainingwithallbutonesurvey

participantwantingmoretraining.Thecurrentstateofsupportforfishfarmersis

evidencedbythisfocusgroupparticipant;

“Ithinkwealsoneedtechnicalknowledge.BecauseIseeabreakdownof

communication.IthinkLLGhasnoinputinthisarea,novisitsortraining.”

Multi-stakeholdercollaborationsbetweeninstitutionsandagenciessuchasNFA

andOISCAortheUniversityofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment(UNRE),and

moretrainingprograms,wouldensuremoresupportandaccessibilityto

knowledgeforbothLLGofficersandfarmers.Technicalcapacitybuildingfor

provincialfisheriesofficersisneededtoensurethattheknowledgethenshared

fromtheLLGtothefarmerisaccurate(Mecartney&Connell,2017;Mwangi&

Kariuki,2015).Theneedfortechnicalknowledgewassupportedbyonefocus

groupparticipant;

“Thepotentialistherebutthetechnicalknowledge,skillsandmanagement,to

become–thenextlevel.Otherwisesomeofus,5-6yearsstuckatthesamelevel

becausenoonecomes.”

Collaborationbetweenkeystakeholdersandinstitutionsisakeystrategyto

improvingknowledge,productivityandincomeforsmallholderfarmers

(Adekunle&Fatunbi,2012;Mutoko,Shisanya&Hein,2014).Thiswouldnotonly

improvetheeconomicoutputoffarmersbutincreasetheirsocialandhuman

93

capitalthroughgainingskills,knowledgeandsocialnetworkscreatedthrough

collaboration.

4.3.2 SocialconstraintsimpactingthefishfarmingindustryinENBP

Asocialconstraintisconsideredanissuethataffectsorinfluencesanumberof

peoplewithinsociety(Stephen&McNamara,2013).Socially,theftisconsidereda

biggerconstraintthanfishrelatedissuesinENBP(Figure4.11).Manypeoplelack

thefinancestoputupsecurityfencestokeepthievesout.Theftisaconstraintin

developingcountrieswithcrime,suchasthetheftofnaturalresources,asland

becomeslessavailableduetoincreasingpopulation(Natarajan,2016).Thewantok

systemisaculturalfactor,withindividualsfeelingentitledtoafarmers’fish

becausetheyareawantoktothefishfarmer.Whilethewantoksystemoffers

support,theyalsocreateasocialobligationtoeconomicallycontributeto

traditionaleventslikefuneralsandbridepriceswhichputfinancialstressonthe

household(Feeny&McDonald,2016).However,famerswerelesslikelyto

contributetothiswhentheywereexperiencingashockperiod,whichisasudden

pressureontheirlivelihoodfromthevulnerabilitycontext.Fishfarmersfoundthe

traditionalculturalsystemdifficultattimesduetoitsfinancialobligations(Feeny

&McDonald,2016).Whiletheftwasaconstraint,ethnicconflictwasminimal

(3.5%)amongstfarmerssurveyedacrossENBP,unliketheHighlandsofPNG

wherelocaltribalfightingisrampant(Allen,2013).However,41.7%reportedan

increaseinpopulationand,inturn,alcoholanddrugissueswithintheir

community(Figure4.13).TheanalysisfromNVivoinvolvedcodingtheinterviews

94

underdifferentcategories.Asaresult,‘traditionalbeliefs’werementionedby

participants37timesacrossthefocusgroups(Table5.2).Thisisevidencedinthe

followingfocusgroupquote;

“(Traditionalcultureis)goodtoprotectassetsandbuildbutfortime

managementitisnothelpful.”

Theeconomiccostofcontributingtobridepriceanddeathceremoniesandits

hindrancetosavingwereoftenmentioned,althoughmanyconcededthatthis

socialobligationhashelpedthemwhentheyneededsupport(Ebere,2016).Many

peoplefelttheywereobligatedtocontributeto,andbeinvolvedin,tradition.This

issupportedbyafocusgroupquote;

“(You)cannotbeanislandamongstacommunityofpeople”

However,anumberofparticipants(37.5%)felttherehadbeennosocialchanges

inthepastdecade.Fromthisfigureitcanbeinferredthatacombinationofsocial

changessuchasincreaseddrugandalcoholuse,andthewantoksystembeliefs

accountforincreasedtheftoffish,whichisacurrentsocialconstraintinENBP.

ENBPwasidentifiedbytheRPNGC(RoyalPapuaNewGuineaConstabulary)data

in2010asbeinga‘hotspot’forcrime,wherethecrimeincidencewasconsistently

abovethenationalaveragewithstealingamongstthetopcrimesreported

(Lakhani&Willman,2014).

95

Figure4.13:SocialchangesinENBPoverthepastdecadementionedbysurveyparticipants.

Figure4.14:ThemostcommoninfluencesonlifestyleinENBP.

Thementalityofpeopletowardstraditionallivelihoodssuchascropfarming,

marinefisheriesandtraditionaltoolsisoftenabottleneckforadoptingnew

livelihoodstrategiesinPICTs(Mecartney&Connell,2017;Sardos,Muller,Duval&

Noyer,2016).InPomio,peopleprimarilyuseadiggingstickinsteadofaspade,due

toalackofstoresandthestickbeingatraditionalimplementsaidtobringhigh

yields.Traditionalmentalitiesandtoolscanbeahindrancetodevelopingtheir

pondsintermsoftimeandlabourcostduetousingthisineffectivetoolbecauseof

01020304050

Alcohol&Drugs Traditionalbelief

Support/infra Nil

Percentage(%

)

Socialchanges

SocialchangesinENBP

0510152025303540

Numberoftimesmentioned

Inmluencesonlifestyle

Lifestyleinmluencesmentioned

96

traditionalbeliefs(Mecartney&Connell,2017).Financialandhumancapitalare

impactedfromtheuseofthesetraditionaltoolsbecauseofthetimewasted,which

couldbeusedmoreproductively,andthemanuallabourinvolved.Manysurvey

participantsmentionedthattraditionalbeliefandsocialchangeshaveimpacted

theirlivelihoodinanegativeway(Figure4.13,4.14).Thereisalsoalackof

awarenessandaculturalroadblockforotherlivelihoodpossibilitieslikefish

farming.Anactivefishfarmersperspectiveonthisis;

“Additionally,Ithinkthereisamentalityofcopra.Abigthingisweneedmore

awarenessthatinlandfishfarminginanotherlivelihoodotherthancopra

(farming).”

Studiesfromsimilarsocio-economiccommunitieshavefoundthatdiversifyingto

non-traditionalactivitiessuchasfishfarmingweremoreeconomicallystable

(Addinsall,Glencross,Scherrer,Weiler&Nichols,2015;Smith,Hudson&

Schreckenberg,2017;Smithetal.,2001).Asresourceavailabilityandclimate

changestheneedtodiversifylivelihoodstrategiesforsurvivalandincome

becomesmoreprominent(adaptivestrategies).Afocusgroupparticipantdelved

furtherintotheissue;

“Weneedmoreawarenessandbasictraining.Buttheyhaveaninterest,

peoplecometothehouse,buttheydon’trespectit,theyonlycometolook.

That’sabigthingisforpeopletoknowinlandfishfarmingisanothervenue

ormeansofliving.Mentalityisthatit’sonlyfish.So,itcreatessomesortof

disrespect.Theywillnevertakeownership,theyjustthinkcocoaorcoconut.I

trycarryoutawarenessforthis(issue).”

Diversificationisalivelihoodstrategyusedtodecreasevulnerabilitytoshocksand

earnanincome,thoughinitiallyhardtobreakthroughculturalbarriers(Niehof,

97

2004;Thulstrup,2015).Nordhagenetal(2017)foundthatinPNGtheprimary

reasonfordiversificationofcropswasconsumption,toimprovesocialstatusand

facilitatetraditionalexchange.Therefore,thisshowsdiversificationcan

breakdownculturalbarriersgiventherightsocialcommunitysuchasoccursin

PNG.Thissupportstheideathattraditionalbeliefsandsocialcapitalarea

prevalentpartofadoptingnewfarmingmethodsandtechnologies.

InPNGthereisaculturaldiscourseongenderimbalancethatpromotesthe

domesticationofwomen.Therearecurrentlymoremale(89.3%)fishfarmersthan

female(10.7%)(Table4.1).Thishasbeenexplainedasmenbeingphysically

strongerandthereforehavinghighercashcropproductivitylevels(Jayachandran,

2015).Whilethereisanexistingcultureofwomenseenashousewives,itisthe

womenwhoarethebiggestproducersofsubsistencefoodinPNG,contributingto

householdlivelihoods(Mikhailovich,Pamphilon,Chambers,Simeon&Zapata,

2016).Thedomesticationdiscourseisslowlyevolving,withmorewomen

becominginvolvedinfishfarmingduetothelowphysicallabourinvolvedafterthe

initialdiggingofthepond(Harohauetal.,2016).Menarealsostartingtofacilitate

womeninfishfarmingbygivingwomen-onlychurchgroupsandschool-age

childrensmalllabourjobsaroundpondssuchasweeding,whichraisesinterest

andknowledgeintheventure(humancapital).Whiletherealmoffishfarmingis

becomingmoreaccessibletowomen,thereisstillasignificantgenderimbalance

asshownbyTable4.1.

Incomparisontothehighlands,thereareonlyasmallnumberoffishfarmersin

ENBP,thereforeinformationandfacilitiesspecificallyforfishfarmingarescant,

98

makingfarmerinteraction,thatisintegralforknowledgesharing,difficult(Vira,

2015).Thiswillalsocreateasocialnetworkenrichingfarmers’humanandsocial

capital,reiteratedbythisfocusgroupparticipant’squote;

“Ithink,I’lljustmentionitwouldbegoodtoshareinformationbetweenfarmers.

Ifyouknowsomething,thenIcanknow.Howcanwesharesomethingifyou

don’tknowthebasic(s).”

Sharinginformationbetweenfarmerswillthereforeenrichthehumanandsocial

capitaloffishfarmers,wheretheycancreatetheirownnetworkoffarmersand

formacooperativeforsupportknowledgesharing(Pratiwi&Suzuki,2017).An

understandingoftheenvironmentalbottlenecksisalsointegraltoaddressingthe

keyissuesimpactingthefishfarmingindustry,whichhasadominoeffectonother

capitals.

4.3.3 EnvironmentalbottleneckshinderingfishfarminginENBP

Environmentalconstraintsimpacttheuseorlackofnaturalresourcesandthe

biodiversityofENBP.Weatherwasanenvironmentalconstraintidentifiedby

surveyedfarmers.Variableweatherandunreliablewatersourceswerethe

primaryconcernswhichwasreiteratedbymanysmall-scalefishfarmerswho

mentionedfloodingoftheirponds(Cochrane,DeYoung,Soto,&Bahri,2009).

Farmsbeingwashedawayduetofloodingareacommonoccurrencewith53.6%of

participantsobservingchangesinrainfallinthelastfewyears.Thisissupported

byafocusgroupparticipantquote;

99

“Atmyfishfarm,myproblemiswater.Itisjustcomingupthereandfishare

shortofoxygen.IseenoproblemifIhavetheopportunitytogooutandfinda

goodsourceofwater.”

Withsupportandtrainingfrominstitutionsandagenciesonpondsiteselection,

andeducationaboutclimatechange,theseissuescouldbeavoided.Astudyby

Alrieri&Nicholls(2017)foundthatmanysmall-holderfarmerscopedand

preparedforclimatevariabilitywhenawareofclimaticchangebyusingstrategies

suchaswaterharvestingandsoilmanagement.Withinformationavailable,fish

farmerscouldprepareforclimaticvariabilityandbebetterequippedtomanage

andsustaintheirpondsthusincreasingtheirlongevitywhilesecuringtheir

livelihood.

The‘fishspecies’categoryincludesspeciesissuesandfingerlingsupply(Figure

4.11).ThemaincomplaintwithGIFTwastheuncontrolledbreeding,makingit

hardtoseparatethemandformbroodstock.Stuntedfishwasanothercommon

issuemanyfarmersfaced.Stuntingcanresultfromcompetitionforfeedresulting

fromuncontrolledbreeding,orpoorqualityfingerlingsandalackofnutrients,

whetherfromnaturalfoodsourcesinthepondorfrompoorqualitypelletedfeed.

Thesearecommonissuesamongstsmall-scalefamersoftilapia,particularlyin

developingcountrieswherefishhusbandryandextensionservicesarelacking

(Little,2000;BrummettandPonzoni,2009;Omasaki,2017).

Climatechangeandtheallocationoruseofnaturalresourcesisaconstraintin

ENBP.All(100%)ofsurveyparticipantsbelievedtherehadbeenanincreasein

populationandthenumberofbirthsandnewmarriagesinthepastfewyears.The

100

useofnaturalresources,suchaswaterandland,isaconstraintduetothe

observedgrowingpopulationandthesubsequentreductionoflandavailabilityfor

agriculturalactivitiessuchasfishfarming(Campbell,2015;Lambin&Meyfroidt,

2010).Afocusgroupparticipantrecognisedtheimportanceofcommunalwater

sources;

“Watersource,supplypublicsoweneedtoseparateasdemandfrompeople

too.So,wemustseparateit.Demandforpeopleforwater.”

Thisisacommonproblemwithindevelopingcountries,withtheallocationofland

andwaterresourcesnotconsideringthedegradationoftheenvironmentfromnew

developments(Jha&Whalley,2015).InPICTsthereisaneedtofindalternative

livelihoods,withtheloomingthreatofclimatechangecausingunpredictable

seasonalityandshockstocurrentlivelihoodstrategies(Hanichetal.,2018;Ramos,

2016;Williams&McDuie-Ra,2018).

4.4Summary

ThesurveyandfocusgroupdataproducedinformationregardingENBP

demographics,availablecapitalsandbottlenecks,whichwerediscussed.The

demographicsinENBPshowedthereisalackofliteracylevels,whichisreflected

inPNGasawhole.Themajorityoffishfarmsareownedbymen,although

comparedtoEHPsurveyin2015thenumberoffemalefarmersishigher.Farm

ownershipisprimarilyindividualorhouseholds,whichisconsistentwithVira’s

(2015)previousPNGfishfarmersurveys.Thereisanabundanceofsocial,human,

physical,financialandnaturalcapitalsavailabletofishfarminENBP.Thereisan

101

advantageofhavingastrongculturallysocialnetworkaswellasdownfalls,

howeverinconjunctionwiththeavailablenaturalresourcesthereissignificant

potentialforfishfarmers.Theprominentbottlenecksfoundwerethelackof

extension,materialandsupportservicesavailable.Manyresourcerichcountries

suchasPNG,althoughrichinexports,needtofixlocallevelinfrastructuresuchas

roadnetworkstobenefittheagricultureindustryasawholeanditssmall-scale

farmersinplacessuchasENBP(Sanida,Asafu-Adjaye&Mahadevan,2016).The

nextchapterwilldiscussthesocialandeconomicbenefitsoffishfarmingand

presenttheSWOTfindings.

102

ChapterV:TheSocialandEconomicBenefitsofFish

FarmingDevelopmentinPNG

5.0Introduction

Studiesinotherpartsoftheworldhaveshownthatthebenefitsoffishfarmingare

farreachingandimpactdifferentlevelsofsocietysuchasthecommunity(micro-

level)andnationally(macro-level)(Bacher,Gordoa,&Mikkelsen,2014;Bénéetal.,

2016;Lynchetal.,2017).Theliteratureidentifiesfishfarmingasasourceof

protein,income,socialsupportandempowerment(Allison&Ellis,2001;Bénéet

al.,2016;Tidwell&Allan,2001).InBangladeshAhmed(2009)foundthat

livelihoodoutcomesforfishfarmingarepositive,withimprovementsinsocial,

humanandeconomicconditions.Unlikeotherpartsoftheworld,theimpactoffish

farminghasnotbeenwidelydocumentedinPICTs.Vira’s(2015)studyonthe

benefitsoffishfarmingfocusedontheEasternHighlandsProvince,andSmith

(2007)discussedfishfarmingbenefitsinPNGmoregenerallyandduringatime

whentheindustrywasemerging.Sincethentheindustryhasbecomewell

established,asdemonstratedbyVira(2015).However,ENBPhasneverbeena

partofanymajorstudyinvestigatingthesocialandeconomicbenefitsoffish

farming.Overall,thechapterwillexploretheoverridingquestionofwhetherfish

farming,besidesbeingasourceofprotein,isalsoasocio-economicassetforthe

peopleonENBPandPNG.Itwillalsoidentifytheinternalfactors(strengthsand

weaknesses)andexternalfactors(opportunitiesandthreats)ofinlandfish

farminginENBP,highlightedbytheSWOTanalysis.Thiswillbedonebydiscussing

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thesocialandeconomicbenefitsoffishfarminginENBPreferringbacktochapter

4,andwherepossible,willmakecomparisonstoVira(2015),Smith(2007)and

literatureformainlandPNG.Aswellasthis,datafromthesurveyandfocusgroups

willbereferredto.Thechapterwillbesplitintothethreeprimarythemesunder

thefollowingsections;socialbenefits(5.1),economicbenefits(5.2)andSWOT

analysis(5.3).

5.1SocialBenefitsofFishFarming

5.1.1EastNewBritainbenefits

WithinENBP,thereareanumberofbenefitsthatpositivelyimpactboththefish

farmerandthesurroundingcommunity.ENBPhaschangedoverthepastdecade

asnotedinSection4.3.2wheremanysurveyparticipants(41.7%)saidtheyhad

observedanincreaseinpopulation,whichissupportedbythe2011census,which

sawthepopulationcountriseby108,236people(NSO,2011).Thisissupported

furtherbyaparticipantquotefromthefocusgroup;

“Aspopulationincreases,crops(Cacao,vegetables)andproductiondecrease

asmorepeoplecomein.It’sforcingusintootherventures.”

Anincreaseinpopulationoftenleadstomorecompetitionfornaturalresources,

thereforedrivingtheneedtodiversifyfarmingventurestobettersuitthe

shrinkingavailabilityofland(Ellis,2008;Lambin&Meyfroidt,2010).Literature

aboutdiversifyinglivelihoodsforruralpopulationssuggestitcanreduce

vulnerabilityandcreatemorefinancialstability,leadingtobetterlivelihood

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outcomes(AdeFreeman,Ellis&Allison,2004;Coppocketal.,2011;Soltani,A.,

Angelsen,Eid,Naieni&Shamekhi,2012).Inthecontextofsmall-holderfarms,a

studybySibhatuetal(2015)foundthatdiversifyingfarmingproductionforthe

poorandundernourishedsignificantlycontributestodietarydiversityandbetter

nutrition,whichcontributestobetterhumancapital.Thisisasignificantbenefit

fortheENBPcommunityandPNG,wheremalnutritionisprevalent(Foaleetal.,

2013).Whilefishfarmingcancontributetohumancapital(i.e.health),itcanalso

improvesocialcapitalthroughstrengtheningsocialnetworks.

Thesurveyfoundthatfishfarmerscaninspiresurroundingcommunitymembers,

familyandfriendstotrytheventure.Itwasrevealed16%ofsurveyparticipants

startedfishfarmingbecausetheywereinspiredbyotherfarmers(Chapter4

Figure4.3).Thissentimentwasreflectedbycommentsaboutpeopleinspiringeach

otherduringfocusgroupdiscussions,forexample;

“Ithinktheotheroneistoinspirepeople.Theycanusetheirland,theirwater,

theirlabour,theirfoodsupply.Theywillthinkofgoingintofishfarming.So,

it’slikeadominoeffect.Startswithyouandeverybodyelseisinspired.”

Anotherfocusgroupintervieweenoted;

“SawthatIcouldstartmyownfishpondandsupportmyfamilyandgive

themfish.Whenthesaltwaterbecametoohard,Iturnedtofishfarming.”

Thesequotessuggestthatthereisahighlevelofsocialinteractionwithinthe

communityleadingtoothersbecominginspiredtostarttheirownfishfarm.Lebel,

Whangchai,Chitmanat,Promya&Lebel(2014)foundthatactivefishfarmerscan

inspireotherpeopleinthecommunityandrelativestotryaquaculture,suchasfish

farming,creatingadominoeffectandexpansionofthesocialnetwork.Anincrease

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infishfarms,and,thereforeanincreaseinproteinavailability,canimprovehuman

health,thusreducemalnutrition,andincreaseengagementinschool,particularly

inchildrenandyouth(Wild,Miller&Groopman,2015).Improvedhumancapital

canhaveamultipliereffectonimprovingotherSLifAcapitalsaswell.Forexample,

withimprovedknowledgethrougheducationbettereconomicopportunities

becomeavailable(Erikson,2017).Thishasthepotentialtoimproveindividuals’

financialincomebecausetheyarebetterqualifiedandbetterprovideforthe

household(Goldin,2016).

Theproductionofproteinandincomeforhouseholdsisaparticularlyimportant

issueinPacificIslandcountriesandterritories(PICTs)(seealsoChapter2Section

2.1),withfishbeingasolutionforlowfoodsecurity,andhighvulnerability(Béné&

Heck,2005;Labrosse,Ferraris&Letourneur,2006;Belletal.,2009;Charltonetal

2016).Thesurveyfoundthatmostpeoplestartedfishfarmingforconsumption

andincome(71%),householdconsumption(4%)orincome(9%)(Figure4.3).

Improveddietandincomewerediscussedinthefocusgroup,whenparticipants

wereaskedaboutwhatdrovethemtofarmfish;

“Firstly,foreating,forfoodandanythingIdoyoucomeandwalkaround.

‘CosIcommittime.Commitmentformetakestime,keepsmebusy.Looking

afterfishandeating.Thenmakemoney.Sustaining.Plentyofthings.Feedto

providegoodproteinforcommunityandinvolvethecommunity.Intermsof

labour.”

Thismeansfishfarminghouseholdshavetheopportunitytoimprovetheirhuman

capitalthroughbetterdietand,consequently,alsoconcurrently,increasetheir

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financialcapital(Belton&Thilsted,2014;Tidwell&Allan,2001).Thebenefitsof

increasedfinancialincomewillbefurtherdiscussedbelowinSection5.2.

ThereishighsocialcapitalinENBPwith39.3%ofsurveyparticipantsinvolvedin

communityandtraditionalgroups,suggestingastrongsocialnetworkforfish

farmers.Whenthefishfarmerfeelsempowered,thereisastrengtheningofsocial

networksandcreatingconversationaroundfishfarming–improvedsocialcapital

(Gautam,Ananthan&Krishnan,2017;Lynchetal.,2016).Althoughnotmentioned

byothers,onesurveyparticipantmadeastrongpoint;

“(Therewasa)Changeinthewaytheybehavedtoeachother,showing

respect”

Whilethisquoteisnotrepresentativeoftheentirecommunity,itshowsthatfish

farmingcanresolveconflictandchangeattitudes.AstudybyGoswami,Ziauddin&

Datta(2010)foundthatsocialparticipationwasasignificantfactorinsuccessfully

adoptingfishculture.Only2outofthe56surveyparticipantshadexperiencedany

conflict,withbothregardingcustomarylandandbeingsettledincourt.While

minimalconflictmaynotbeadirectresultoffishfarming,itcouldbea

contributingfactorbecauseithelpstofulfillifestyleaspirations(Flechtner,2014;

Lakhani&Willman,2014).ThemostcommonlifestyleaspirationsfromtheENBP

surveyweretoimprovethestandardoflivingfortheirfamily(43%)andimprove

theirfishfarm(37%)(Figure5.1).ThiswasalsosupportedbySmith’s(2007)

previoussurveyworkinPNG,whichfoundthat86.9%ofrespondentsstarteda

fishfarmtoobtainacashincomeandimprovefamilynutrition.Fishfarmingcan

alsobeassociatedwithstressreliefandrelaxationbecausefeedingthefishisnot

labourintensiveorrequiremuchpreparatorywork(Lynchetal.,2016).Dueto

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minimalmanuallabourtofeedandmaintainthefishpond,itspriorityasa

livelihoodstrategyishigherbecauseitislesslikelytotakeawayfromother

strategies(i.e.crops).Therefore,fishfarmingempowersfarmersbygivingthem

theopportunitytoprovidefortheirfamilyandfulfiltheirlifestyleaspirations(Bell

etal.,2009).

Figure5.1:LifestyleaspirationsfoundintheENBPfarmersurvey.

Theconnectionbetweennatureandhumansisalsofurtherdevelopedthroughfish

farmingandcreatesfeelingsofrelaxation,whichhascontributedtoreducing

substanceabuseinyouthandcreatingabetterconnectionwithnatureinother

countries(Lynchetal.,2016;Smithetal.,2005).Thisconnectionbetweenpeople

andnatureisevidentinPICTs,wholiveofftheland(Horowitz,2001;Robbins,

2006).WhilethepeopleofENBPareconnectedtothelandthroughalonghistory

ofcropfarming(cocoa,copra)(Curryetal.,2015),anyformofagriculturehasbeen

showntogivepeopleanappreciationfortheirnaturalresources(Gosling&

Williams,2010;Restall&Conrad,2015).Socialandculturaldynamicswere

evidentthroughthehighlevelsofparticipantinvolvementinsocialeventsand

16%

37%

43%

4%

LifestyleAspirations

Farm Fishfarm standardoflivling Tourism

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culturalobligations(seeChapter4Section4.2.1,Figure4.4).However,thefocus

groupparticipantsconsideredfishfarmingtobeimportantfor‘community

benefits’.Discussionsofthesecommunitybenefitswerelengthy,sinceitwas

mentioned22timesduringthefocusgroup.AfocusgroupparticipantinPomio

reiteratedtheuseoffishduringsocialandculturalfestivities;

“Goodproteinforthefestive(Christmas)season.”

AlthoughtheparticipantrefersonlytoChristmasitisrecognisedbytheliterature

thatregularaccesstoproteinisimportantforhumanhealth(Belletal.,2015;Wu,

2016).Otherstudieshaveshownanindirectbenefitofsmall-holderfishfarmingis

thatitencouragesinvolvementinculturaleventsandsocialinstitutionssuchas

churches,schoolsandcooperativestocreateaplatformforknowledgetransfer

andcapacitybuilding(Jupiter,2016;Lynchetal.,2016).Aspostulatedearlierin

thisthesis,fishispotentiallyagoodsourceofproteinforfishfarmers,whichwas

supportedbyfindingsfromVira(2015)EasternHighlandsProvinceandSmith

(2007).Whilethereareothersourcesofproteinavailable,suchaspigandchicken,

theyareoftenexpensiveandsavedfortraditionalactivities,particularlypigs,

whichholdaculturalsignificance(Chapter4section4.3.1)(Mack&West,2018;

Reilly,2008).

Culturalortraditionalactivitieswerefoundtobethebiggestinfluenceonlifestyle

mentioned37timesinthesurvey(Chapter4Figure4.14)andhadthehighest

involvementrateofanysocialandculturalactivities(39.3%)inENBP(Chapter4

Figure4.4).ThethirdmostcommonsocialgroupwasLLGwith12.5%ofsurvey

participantsinvolved(Chapter4Figure4.4).Manyofthesurveyparticipantswere

foundduetotheassistanceofLLGofficers.Inthesurvey,whenaskedwherethey

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couldgoforsupport,80%ofparticipantsanswered“LLG/fisheries”(Figure5.2)An

NFAofficerrecognisedtheirinvolvement;

“LLGofficers.OnethingisthesupportoftheLLGofficers.Ifthisstationwasn’t

herewewouldn’tknowyou(thefishfarmers)werehere.”

Thisshowsthebenefitofhavingspecificfisheriesofficersinplacetoidentifyissues

andwhereassistanceisneeded.TheNVivoanalysiscodedtheinterviewsunder

differentcategories.Themainbenefitcodedwastheabilityto‘providefortheir

family’,whichwascategorisedwhenlookingforkeythemes.Providingfortheir

familywasmentioned37timesacrossthefocusgroups.Thisshowsthereisa

strongconnectiontothetraditionalculture,whichhasastrongsocialnetworkand

appreciationforthenaturalland(Restall&Conrad,2015).InMelanesia,McDonald

etal(2016)foundthesupportfromsocial,communityandtradition-based

activitieshasbeenfoundtohelpcopewithchangeswithinahouseholdand

community.Ingeneral,fishfarmingcanameanstoimprovetheirsocialnetwork

andincreasetheirsenseofempowerment(Bekibele&Onunkwo,2007).Theabove

referslargelytoENBP,whichisanislandcommunitywithlessresourcesand

infrastructurethereforeitisworthmakingcomparisonbetweenthisworkand

withwhatisknownfrommainlandPNG,wherefishfarmingwasstartedandhasa

longerhistory.Thismayprovidesomeinsightsintohowgovernmentandother

agenciescanprovidemoreappropriateinitiativesorinterventions.

110

Figure5.2:DifferentplacesforENBPfishfarmersgotoforsupport.

5.1.2PapuaNewGuineabenefitsoffishfarming

Thissectionwilldelveintothesocialbenefitsoffishfarmingfromthelocalmicro

level(e.g.localcommunity)tothemacrolevel(e.g.countryanditsgovernment)in

PNG.Lynchetal(2016)foundthatinsmallholderinlandfisheries,new

managementskillsincreaseknowledgesharingoverpoliticaljurisdictions.Inthis

study’shouseholdfarmersurvey,participantswereaskedwhattheirotherland

useintentionswere.Itwasfoundthat66.1%ofsurveyparticipantshadother

intentionsfortheirland,with18.9%ofthemwantingtoutilisethelandfor

ecotourismoreducationpurposes.Ecotourismingeneralcanempower

communitiesandindividualsandincreasecommunityorganisation(Eshun&

Tonto,2014;Stronza&Gordillo,2008).InotherPICTs,ecotourismhasbeen

consideredasafoodsecuritysolutionbenefitingboththefarmerandthe

communitythroughimprovedfinancialandhumancapital(Belletal.,2018;

Gibson,2015;Sakata&Prideaux,2013).Theincomefromfishfarminghasbeen

4%

80%

2% 9%

5%

SupportinENBP

University/DPI LLG/provincialofmicer/misheriesBanks Themselves/othersNoidea

111

seeninotherpartsoftheworldtoincreasenutritionandeconomicsavingsfor

farmtoolsandschoolfees,whichweresignificantcoststosurveyedhouseholds

(refertoChapter4Section4.2.4)(Frelatetal.,2015;Thilstedetal.,2016).Thereis

anabsenceofjournalarticlesonsocialbenefits,howeversomepressarticleson

thecurrentprojectsuggestthatsmall-scalefishfarmswillbringmoresocial

stabilitythroughoutPNGasawhole,withthelargerACIARprojectfindingthatfish

farmingreducedtribalfightingbetweendifferentvillages(JesSammutperscomm.

2018;Vira2015).InPICTsstudieshavefoundwithareductioninfoodsecurity

issues,communitiesaremorerelaxedandwillingtobeinvolvedinsocialgroupsas

wellasparticipateinthedecision-makingprocessofpolicy(Feeny,McDonald&

Posso,2014;Regenvanu,2009).

Womeninfishfarming

Globally,theeconomicstatusofwomenisadeterminantoffoodsecurityand

nutritionalstatusofhouseholds(Kawarazuka&Béné,2010;Smithetal.,2003).In

Melanesia,womenareoftennotconsideredequaltomenandoftencannotcreate

theirownfinancialsecurityorcareerduetoalackofopportunity(Bradley,1994;

Ellsberg,Heilman,Namy,Contreras&Hayes,2012;Eves&Crawford,2014).Fish

farmingbreaksdownstereotypesandempowerswomenbyenablingthemto

managethefishponds,andtheabilitytoprovidefortheirfamilyandearnmoney

forthehouseholdtherebyaddingtotheirhuman,socialandfinancialcapital(Béné

etal.,2007;Eves&Crawford,2014;Gannicott&Avalos,2010).Thesurveyfound

thatinENBP10.7%offishfarmswereownedbywomenand4.5%offishfarmer

spouseshadanalternativeoccupationotherthanbeingahousewife.InPICTsit

hasbeenseenthatwomenplayakeyroleincoastalfisheries(Kleiber,Harris&

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Vincent,2014;Kronen&Vunisea,2007;Ram-Bidesi,2015).Thiscouldbecarried

overtoinlandfisheries,similartoSari,McDougal&Rajaratnam(2017)who

recognisedtheempowermentofwomenthroughaquaculture.Studiesshowthat

themorecontrolwomenhaveoverthehouseholdincome,thehigherthe

proportionofincomethatgoestowardsfood,leadingtobetterhouseholdnutrition

(Kawarazuka&Béné,2010;Shaikh,2007).InENBPthesurveyfoundthattending

tothefishpondwastheresponsibilityofthewholehousehold,particularlythe

householdheads(husbandandwife).Traditionally,inPICTs,menhavetakenon

theroleastheprimaryincomeearnerwithwomenhavingahigherinvolvementin

domesticactivities;bychangingthisdynamichouseholdconflictcouldarise

(Singh-Peterson&Iranacolaivalu2018).InothercountriesandPNG,itiscommon

forwomentobeinvolvedinanimalhusbandry,post-harvestandtradingaspectsof

fishfarming(Béné,2003;Sammut,2016).InPICTs,roadsideandlocalmarkets

sellingfisharetypicallyrunbywomen,whichdevelopstheirbusiness

managementandpost-harvestskillsdevelopingtheirfinancialcapital(Cleasbyet

al.,2014;Feeny&Miller-Dawkins,2016;Kawarazuka&Béné,2010).Enabling

womenmorecontrolovertheeconomicsofthehouseholdcanincreasetheirsocial

capitalviarespectwithinthefamilyandcommunity,leadingtomoreinputin

decisionmaking(Béné,2003;Eves&Crawford,2014).TheACIARproject

(FIS/2014/062)hasobservedtheempowermentofwomenthroughvocational

trainingprograms(Sammut,2016).However,whilewomenmaygetasenseof

empowermentfromtheirinvolvementinfishfarming,thebenefitshavebeen

foundtobelowerorlimitedforwomen,comparedtomenbecauseoftraditional

genderroles(Morgan,Terry,Rajaratnam&Pant,2017).Thishinderstheabilityof

womentohaveactiveparticipationthroughlimitingtheirtimeandsocial

113

interactions(Morganetal.,2017).Thelimitationofwomenparticipatingin

agriculturalactivitieshasbeenfoundaroundtheworldandusuallycorrelatedto

theircultureandbeliefsystems(Debashishetal.,2001).InPICTsandother

developingcountriesthereisincreasedflexibilityinlabourformaleandfemales,

meaningtheopportunityforwomentohaveamoreactiveroleinthelabouroffish

farmingcouldexpandtootherventures(Boserupetal.,2007;Harohauetal.,

2016).CurrentlyinPNGthereisnogenderdissociationinanyofthecurrent

policiesonfishfarming,whichcouldalsolimitthebenefitsavailabletowomen.

ThiswillbediscussedfurtherinChapter6.

CrimerateinPNG

ThecrimerateinPNG’smajorcitiesissignificantlyhighandthereareseveral

driversofthesehighcrimeratessuchasalackofeconomicopportunities,poverty,

lackofmotivedyouthanddrugandalcoholuse(Lakhani&Willman,2014).Akey

constrainttofishfarmingwastheftwith16.5%ofparticipantsinENBPand5%in

EHPcitingitinthefarmersurvey(Vira,2015).Inadditiontotheft,alarge

proportionofsurveyparticipantsalsomentionedalcoholanddrugsasthebiggest

socialissue(41.7%).WhilethereisstillongoingtheftandsocialupheavalinPNG,

fishfarminghasbeenrecognisedinPNGandothercountriesasatoolforreducing

crimeasiscreatesanotherincomesource(financialcapital),reducingeconomic

pressure,givingindividuals/householdsapurpose(socialcapital)andproducesa

stableproteinsource(humancapital)(Allison,Béné.&Andrew,2011;Mufuapeet

al.,2000;Sackey&Johannesen,2015).Afocusgroupintervieweestatedthe

followinginrelationtotheimpactoffishfarmingonthiscommunity;

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“Anotherbenefitisitkeepsmenbusymanagingtheirpond.Beforeplentyof

menwerejuststandingaroundbutnowthey’rebusytakingcareoftheirfish.”

InPNG,NFA,withsupportfromACIARProjectFIS/2014/062,iscurrentlyrunning

aprogramwithinprisonsthataimstobuildskillsforalivelihoodandprovide

protein.However,thisprojectalsogivesinmatesapurposeandsenseofpride

throughfishfarming.Manyoftheseinmatesnowhavefishhusbandryknowledge

andskillsandfeeltheycanbecomerespectedmembersoftheircommunitywhen

theyarereleased(J.Sammut,personalcommunication,4March2018).Fish

farmingisalsoamethodtocreatefeelingsofownershipandresponsibility.

InPNGanotherdriverofcrimeistheclashoftraditionalandformalinstitutions

andpeople’sabilitytocopewithchange(Lakhani&Willman,2014).Ethnic

fragmentationiscommononalocallevelinruralPNGcommunitiesdueto

geographicfactorsandcanalsobepoliticallyfueled(Lakhani&Willman,2014;

Reilly,2001).Aspreviouslymentionedtherewereonly2incidentsofethnic

conflictinENBP,thoughotherPNGprovincessuchasthehighlandshavehigher

proportionsofconflict(Reilly,2008).APomiofocusgroupparticipantexplained

howtheyshareinformationbetweenfarmers,illustratingalackofconflict

betweenfarmers;

“Wetalkamongstourselvesandwealldothesamework.Asagroupweshare

informationandadvice.Weallsupporteachother.”

Thismeans,whileENBPhasminimallevelsofconflict,otherareasarestillaffected,

andfishfarmingcanbeaconflictreductionmethodbycreatingopportunity.

Studieshaveshownfishfarmingintroducesnewskills,instilsrespectfornature

andenablesthecreationofnewsocialnetworksbetweendifferentcommunities,in

bothabusinessandpersonalsenseforbothadultsandyouth(Sackey&

115

Johannesen,2015).AstudybyDinnen,Porter&Sage(2010)foundinMelanesia

youthincrimeusuallylackedopportunityandinequalitycomparedtourbanareas.

Fishfarmingisalivelihoodopportunitywhichcanbringmorepeaceandsocial

stabilitytocommunitiesinPNG,lesseningtheburdenontheeconomy(Sammut,

2016).

5.2TheEconomicBenefitsofFishFarming

5.2.1EconomicbenefitsoffishfarmingtoEastNewBritain

Thissectionwillpresentanddiscusstheeconomicbenefitsoffishfarmingin

ENBP.InENBPthesurveyfoundamajorityoffishfarmershavesavings(66.1%),

showingtheyearnmorethantheyspend(Chapter4Figure4.8).Monetarygainor

financialcapitalisgloballyrecognisedastheprimarybenefitoffishfarming,with

demandforfishhigh,whichallowsforastablesourceofincomeiffarmerscan

produceplate-sizefish(Table5.1)(Gogoietal.,2015;Lynchetal.,2017).Fish

farmingalsoincreasesfishfarmers’householdassets,givingthemmoreeconomic

stability.Spadesandaxeswerethemostcommonassetownedbysurvey

participants,whichisintegraltobuildingandmaintainingtheirfishponds(Figure

4.7).Theeconomicbenefitswerereiteratedbyafocusgroupparticipant;

“Foodsecurityandthesecondonewouldbe–forearningaliving,yes.Sellit

aneat.Anothersidetoois,it’salltimeweather,alltimeweather.Anytime

fishing.”

Anotherfocusgroupparticipantalsostated;

“Betterthanbuyingtinnedfish,tinnedfishistooexpensive”

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Manyparticipantshadsavings(Chapter4.2.4Figure4.8)andplannedtouseitto

developtheirfishfarm.Havingeconomicsavingsandassetsareintegraltocope

andbufferwithshocks(i.e.naturaldisastersandhealthconditions)andtrends(i.e.

environmentalchanges,politicalconflict)(Karlanetal.,2014;Prina,2015).Higher

financialcapitalisalsocorrelatedtohumancapital,wherehouseholdscanafford

educationandhealthservices(Ruinaetal.,2018;Serrat,2017).Anotherbenefitto

fishfarming,establishedinotherstudiesonPICTs,isthatfreshfishhasless

saturatedfatthancannedfishandwouldbemoreaccessibleforinlandinhabitants

(Belletal.,2015;Charltonetal.,2016).Therefore,inPICTsitcanbemore

economicallyandnutritionallysoundforlocalcommunitiestobuylocally-

producedfishthantobuyimportedandlocal(PNG)cannedfish,whichisregularly

geographicallyinaccessibleandhighinsaltcontent(Charltonetal.,2016).Studies

indevelopingcountriesshowbuyinglocally-producedfish,thelocaleconomyalso

receivesaboostandgivesfishfarmersincreasedcashfloworfinancialcapital

(Ateweberhametal.,2013;Gogoietal.,2015).

ParticipantsintheENBPsurveyspentmoneyoneducation(22%),cultural

obligations/emergency(24%)andtheircrops/fishponds(19%).Thisshows

participantsprioritisetheirhouseholdneedsandsaveaccordingly.Indeveloping

countries,thecommunitybenefitsfromsavingfinancialcapitalwithimproved

healthandeducation(Feenyetal.,2014;Snyman,2012).Amajorityofparticipants

(48.2%)usedtheirownmoneyorfundsfromfamily(7.1%)andotherfarmers

(2%)toconstructtheirpond.Whileonly10.7%ofparticipantsusedfinancial

assistanceofNGOs,LLGorbankstofundtheirfishponds.Asignificantproportion

ofparticipantsdidnotspendanymoneyontheirponds,insteadusingtraditional

117

orinnovativemeans(48.2%).Thisshows,thatonlyasmallnumberoffarmersare

benefitingfromfundingfromtheLLGandextensionservicestoincreasetheir

financialcapital.Managingthefinancesofthehouseholdwereusuallythedutyof

themale(51.8%)whilewomendid26.8%andrarelyboth(7%).Therefore,while

thereislimitedfunding,theinterest,motivationanddrivetofarmfishisclearfrom

theiruseoftheirincome,savingsandownlabour.Overthreemonthsthelargest

financialinputforsurveyparticipantswaslabourspendinganaverageof$37kina

inthreemonths(Figure5.3).Thisisexpectedtobeduetoonesurveyparticipant

whowasinthemiddleofconstructingtheirpond.Aftertheinitialcostofdigging

thepondtheinputswereminor.Thenextlargestcostwasfingerlings,whichis

inferredtobeduetonocurrentfingerlingsupplierinENBP.Thismakesitmore

expensivetofindfingerlingsfromtrustedsuppliers.Overall,duetothesmall-scale

natureofthesefarms,andtheutilisationoflocalresources,financialcostsare

relativelylow.Thisisasignificantbenefitforfishfarmersaslowerfinancialinputs

meanmoreoftherevenuegoestothehouseholdandimprovingtheirlivelihood

(Sheriff,Little&Tantikamton,2008).Indevelopingcountrieswhenfundingis

lacking,thebenefitoffishfarmingisitcanbedoneatlowcostandholdsignificant

benefitsforthehouseholddietandfinancialcapital(Gogoietal.,2015).

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Figure5.3FishfarminginputsoverthreemonthsinENBP.

5.2.2EconomicbenefitsoffishfarminginPapuaNewGuinea

Onalargerscale,fishfarmingwillcreateanotherformofincomefortheeconomy,

withcoastalfisheriesexhaustingthemarinehabitatinPNGandPICTs(Belletal.,

2015;Cronaetal.,2016).Whilecapturefisheries,specificallytuna,isparticularly

lucrative,wildmarinefishstocksarenotaccessibleforthoseinruralinlandPNG

(FAO,2010).Aswellasthis,87%ofthepopulationinPNGliveinruralandinland

communities,makingaccessibilitytoresourcesandproteindifficult(The

WorldBank,2016).Duetothis,theneedforanotherventuretotakepressureoff

marineresourcesandallowinlandinhabitantsaccesstoproteinisneeded.While

inlandfishfarmingbringsinrevenuetothecountry(financialcapital),italso

provideslocallevelproteinsources(humancapital)andanalternativelivelihood

(Beveridge2016).However,thereisincreasingevidencethatwhilefishfarming

anddiversificationdoesincreasefinancialcapital,andtoreallymakeadifference,

0510152025303540

Cost(PGK)

Typeofinput

FishFarmingInputs

119

marketaccessibilitymustbeinplace(Frelatetal.,2016;Sibhatuetal.,2016).An

increaseinassetsstemmingfromanincreaseinfishfarmingwillgivethepeopleof

PNGmoreeconomicstabilityandaproteinsourceleadingtobetterhealth(Bénéet

al.,2007).Savingsonanationallevelarestronglycorrelatedtoeconomicgrowth

contributingtofinancialcapital(Karlanetal.,2014).Governmentpolicyto

improvethecountriesproteinintake,technicalcapacityofcommunitiesand

economicstandingwouldbenefitfromtheseriousconsiderationoffishfarming

(Stronza&Gordillo,2008).Knowledgetransferpertainingtofishfarmingcanalso

leadtomoresustainablemanagementprocessesstemmingfromcooperation

betweenorganisationsandthegovernment(Lynchetal2010).Legislationis

neededtoensuresmall-scalefarmersarenotsocially,economicallyandpolitically

marginalised(Bénéetal.,2007).Goingforward,whendevelopingfuturepolicy,

small-scalefishfarmersshouldbeinvolvedintheprocessofcreatinglegislation,

whichwillminimiseconflictandensureitisrelevanttofarmerandstakeholder

needs(Ahmed,2009).

UndernutritioninchildrenisasignificantcosttothePNGeconomy,costing$USD

1.5billioninayear(ScalingUpNutrition,2017).Improvingnutritionthroughfish

farmingwoulddecreasethiscost,reducestuntinginchildrenandassociated

healthexpenses(Aiga,Matsuoka,Kuroiwa&Yamamoto,2009).Thedisparity

betweentheurbanandruralareasisapparentinPNG(Lakhani&Willman,2014).

Theurbanpopulationhasmoreemploymentandproteinaccessopportunities;

however,amajorityofthepopulationlivesinruralPNG,withpooraccessibilityto

resources(Edmondsetal.,2018).Therefore,thereisaneedtoclosethegap

betweenurbanandruralareasbymakingproteinmoreaccessible,whichfish

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farmingisbelievedtoimprove.Thisdivideoftenmeanstheallocationoffinances,

attainmentofeducationandeconomicopportunitiesismoreprevalentinurban

areaswhereresourcesandaccessarewidelyavailable(Allen,Bourke&Gibson,

2005;Gibson&Rozelle,2003).Anexampleofsmall-scalefisheriescontributingto

theeconomyisinAfrica,wherefishfarmingisanintegralpartofregional

economiesandimproveslivelihoodsofcommunities(Kolding,vanZwieten&

Mosepele,2015;Smithetal.,2005).Thedemandforfishmeansthereisa

significantopportunityforpoorsmall-scalefisheriestobenefitdirectlyand

indirectlythroughthealleviationoftheirpoverty,supplementarytheirincomeand

foodsecurity(Bénéetal.,2007).InPNGthiscanleadtotheimprovementof

physicalcapital(infrastructure)fromaninjectionoffinancialcapital(Clarkeetal.,

2016;Sanidaetal.,2016).

5.3FarmerSurveySWOTAnalysis

TheSWOTanalysiswasembeddedinthesurveyquestionnaire,whichfounda

numberofstrengthswithinthefishfarmingindustryinENBP.TheSWOTanalysis

willanalysetheinternalandexternalenvironments,tohelpstakeholdersmake

decisionsaboutthefutureofthefishfarminginENBPandPNG.‘Strengths’and

‘threats’aretheinternalfactorsmeasurecapabilities,whileexternalfactorsare

‘opportunities’and‘weaknesses’thatpertaintothesustainabilityoftheobject

(Suh,2014).Marinoetal(2014)usesanarbitrarycut-offpointforacceptanceof

66.7%ofthetotalscore,thiswouldbe3.3/5andisusedasaguideforthis

analysis.Participantswerepresentedastatementandaskedwhethertheyagreed

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ordisagreedonascaleof5to1,with1being‘stronglydisagree’.Thereare

decision-makingimplicationsfromtheacceptanceofthesestatements.Chapter4

showedthatwhilethereisanabundanceofcapitalsavailable,thereisalackof

capacityandknowledgeavailabilitywithinENBPthatishinderingtheprogress

andimplementationofinlandfishfarming.

5.3.1Strengths

Therewere8strengthstatementspresentedinthesurvey,with5acceptedas

factorsbecausetheyscored3.3andaboveontheLikertscale(Table5.1).Wateris

freelyavailableandaccessible(1)wasmostaccepted,whichissupportedbysurvey

datapresentedinchapter4section4.2.2withallparticipantshavingaccesstoland

andwaterasacommunalresource.Landisfreelyavailable(2)andthereisagood

climateandenvironmentforfishfarming(4)wasalsoanacceptedstatement.Focus

groupparticipantsalsofrequentlymentionednaturalresourcesasabenefitor

drivertofishfarming.‘Naturalresources’werecategorisedintheNVivoanalysis

andmentioned30times.Thethreefollowingstatementsrelatetonaturalcapital

whichisfundamentallyimportanttoamajorityofPICTshouseholdsduetothe

relianceonnaturalresourcesintheirlivelihoodandinthiscasestartingand

sustainingafishfarm(Erikssonetal.,2017;Sanidaetal.,2016);

“Goodwatersource,fromcreeksandrivers.Alwaysagoodsupply.Ifyoudig,

you’llfindwateranditisfree.”

Anintervieweealsomentionedthefollowingbenefit;

“Theground,lotsofground.Plentyofit.”

Anotherexamplefromthefocusgroupstatedthefollowing;

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“AllyeararoundIcanfishfarm.Whereasdeepseafishing,doesnotallowthis.

WhenthereissunIcanfishandsellthematthemarket.ButwhenitrainsI

can’tgotothesaltwatersothereisnoproteininourdiets.Whereasnowwe

haveafishpond,wecanhavefish.”

TheabovequotesshowthattheENBPsurveyparticipantsperceiveanabundance

ofnaturalcapital,whichcanbeutilisedforfishfarms.Theimplicationsofthisare

thatunlikecoastalfisheries,thereistheopportunitytofishyear-roundand

producetheirownhouseholdprotein.Fishfarmingcanbeacomplementaryor

alternativetobuyingcoastalfishandcouldreducethecostofinlandcommunity

memberstravellingforprotein(Cleasbyetal.,2014).Therefore,theabundanceof

naturalresourcesisasignificantbenefittoENBP.Gooddemandforfarmedfish(3)

wasanagreedstatement,contributingtotheeconomicstabilityoffishfarmers

(Charltonetal.,2016;Vira,2015).Afocusgroupparticipantspokeofthedemand

offishinhiscommunity;

“Beforepeoplewholiveinlandhadtocomedownfromthemountainstobuy

fishfromthelocalfisherman.”

Fingerlingsarewidelyavailable(5)wasanacceptedstatement,withmanyfarmers

sharingfingerlings(71%)thushighlightingthetraditionofaltruisminwantok

systeminENBP(Figure5.4)(Nanau,2011).However,whilefingerlingsare

available,thereisnospecificENBPhatcherytoensurethequalityoffingerlings.In

othercountriesfingerlingqualityhasbeenidentifiedtohaveadetrimentaleffect

onthegrowthoffishfarmingduetoinbreedingcausingslowgrowth(Nabi,2008).

Participantsdidnotacceptextensionservicesarereadilyavailable(6).When

extensionservicesarenotavailable,thepotentialofthesefarmersishindered

becausetheylacktheknowledgeandsupporttosuccessfullymanagetheirpond

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(Mwangi&Kariuki,2015).Fundingandcreditareaccessible(7)wasdisagreed

upon,whichaperceivedweaknessinthefishfarmingindustry.Anexampleoflack

ofphysicalcapital,linkedtofinancialcapital,ispresentedinthefollowingquote

fromthefocusgroup;

“WeneedmaterialsfromLLG,grantsforPVCpipeandcement”

OtherstudieshavefoundalackoffinancialcapitalisasignificantissueinPICTs

becausetheydonothaveaccesstophysicalcapital(infrastructure)(Cleasbyetal.,

2014;Feeny,2003).Theneedforfundingandcredittodevelopfarmsisvitalwith

thosegiventheopportunitymorelikelytosucceed(Mwangi&Kariuki,2015).NGO

ordonorsupportisaccessible(8)wasnotacceptedandbecauseofthis,candeter

interestedfishfarmersbecauseinformationisnotreadilyavailableoraccessible.

However,whenaskedwheretheycangoforhelpthesurveyfound12%suggested

NGOs,showingtheyknowofNGOagencies(Figure5.2).Lackoftechnicalsupport

isalsoamainconstraintfromthesurveydata(Figure4.11)butisnotspecificto

NGOs.NGOsorotherdonorsplayanimportantroleinsupportingdeveloping

sectorsandcapacitiesindevelopingcountries,includingPNG(Bhattacharyya&

Palit,2016).Thefollowingquotefromthefocusgroupexplainafarmer’s

experiencewithNGOs;

“NGOhadsomeinvolvement.OISCAshowedusconstructionofponds.Brought

inservicebutdidnotsupportthecommunityintheseprojectsbyproviding

traininginthisarea.”

Meneghel,Salanova&Martinez(2014)foundthatwhenpeoplecansharetheir

experienceandcommunicatewithothers,theyaremoreresilientduetothissocial

network.Thiswouldmakeinterestedfishfarmersmorelikelytosuccessfullycope

withshocksandconstraintsandactivefishfarmersabletosupportoneanother.

124

ParticularlyparticipantsinGazelleandPomiodistrictwouldbenefitfrom

communicatingwithotherfishfarmerseitherinpersonorsocialmediato

overcometheissueofaccessibility(Cohenetal.,2016).Overallthereweremore

acceptedstatements,withmanyofthestrengthshighlightingtheabundanceof

naturalinENBP.

Table5.1:ENBPSWOTAnalysis–rankedstrengths.

Rank Avscore

Strength AcceptasfactorAvscore>3.3

1 4.98 Waterisfreelyavailableandaccessible ✔2 4.96 Landisfreelyavailable ✔3 4.73 Gooddemandforfarmedfish ✔4 4.46 Goodclimateandenvironmentforfish

farming✔

5 3.82 Fingerlingsarewidelyavailable ✔6 3.14 Extensionservicesarereadilyavailable X7 2.7 Fundingandcreditareaccessible X8 2.57 NGOordonorsupportisaccessible X

Figure5.4:SourcesoffingerlingsforfishfarmersinENBP.

71%

12%

4% 13%

Fingerlingsupply

Otherfarmer NGOs/Company/university Imported N/A

125

5.3.2Weaknesses

ASWOTanalysiswasconductedinthefarmersurveytoaidinidentifyingkey

constraintsandtoprovideadditionalinformationtosupportallmodesofdata

collection.AllquestionsaskedinthefarmersurveySWOTanalysisstronglyagreed

withtheweaknesseslisted(Table5.2).Farmersbelievethatfishfeedisexpensive

and/ornotalwaysavailable(1)withamajoritystronglyagreeing(4.94),with

manyfarmersmakingtheirownfeedfromlocalproducesuchaswhiteantsand

cassavaleaves(Figure5.5).Whilenaturalresourcessuchhaslandandwaterwere

astrength(Chapter4,Section4.2.2),onefocusgroupparticipantsaidthefollowing

ofhavingtofindfoodfortheirfish;

“Food,struggletofindforfish”

TherearenofactoriesorfeedmillsthatsupplyfishfeedinENBP,withcostsfor

fishfeedalreadyhigh,importingforsmallholderfarmsisnoteconomically

feasibleandisnotneededtotheextentpreviouslythought(Narimbietal.,2018;

Smith,2007).Thisperceivedrelianceonfishfeedfortilapiaproductionisnot

confinedtoPNG(Filbrun,Renolds&Culver,2013).Lackofextensionmaterialand

trainingforfarmers(2)wasalsowidelyaccepted(4.61),whichbacksupthesurvey

datawhichfoundalackofsupportisakeyconstraint(Figure4.11).Thisisalso

supportedbyafocusgroupparticipantquote;

“LackoftechnicalsupportandadviceneededfromLLGtoaddressthefish

farmingissueswearefacing.(We)loseinterestbecausewehavenosupport.-

Trainingandpracticalskillsareneeded.”

Inotherdevelopingcountrieslackoftrainingisasignificanthinderancetolocal

farmershumancapitalandthegrowthoffishfarmingatthemacro-level(Bostock

126

etal2010;Smithetal2005).Farmerslackskillsinfarming(3),farmerslackskillsin

preservation/post-harvesthandling(4)andfarmerslackbasicrecordkeepingand

managementskills(7)wereacceptedweaknesses,whichissupportedbysurvey

datawhichfound98.2%ofsurveyparticipantswantfurtherskillsand100%felt

thisaffectedtheirlivelihood.Thesurveyfoundthat28fishfarmershadnotraining

infishfarming,whileNFA/LLGwerethemostcommonsourceoftraining(Figure

5.5).Globally,thelackofskillsinfishhusbandryandpondmanagementrelatetoa

lackofhumancapital(Knowledge/skills)iscommonandcanhavesignificant

detrimentalimpactsonfishfamerspondlongevityandabilitytosustaina

livelihood(financialcapital)(Pravakaretal.,2013;Subasingheetal.,2009).Lackof

accesstoaquacultureequipmentsuchasscoop-nets,seine-nets,etc.

discourages/hindersfarmers(5)issupportedbysurveydatawhichfoundalackof

materialsandinfrastructure(32.1%)aswellaslackofsupport/funding(21.3%)to

bethebiggestconstraintstoENBPfishfarmers(Figure4.11).Chapter4,Section

4.2.3foundthatphysicalcapitalwaslacking,withaxesandspadesbeingthemost

commonassetwithbetween60-80%owningthem(Figure4.7).Allotherphysical

assetshadlessthan30%ownershipbyfishfarmersinENBP(Figure4.7).Thisis

encapsulatedbyafocusgroupquotefromafishfarmerinPomio;

“IneedPVC,becauseIusebuaitree,it’sheavyIneedtoputapipe.Buaiisn’t

goodandcollapsesandbreakswiththewater.SupposeIhadPVCpipe,this

wouldn’toccur.Savetime.”

Alackofphysicalcapitalsuchasinfrastructureandroadsislinkedtolackof

financialcapital,whichisaconstrainttodevelopmentinPNG(Gibson&Rozelle,

2003;Koczberski&Curry,2005).Alackofregularupdatesandinformationonfish

farmingdevelopmentandopportunitiesthroughradio/newspaper(6)thisisrelated

127

tolackofsupport,whichisanotherkeyconstrainttofishfarminginENBP(21.4%,

Figure4.11).Thefocusgroupfoundpracticaldemonstrate(14responses)wasthe

preferredmethodofeducationalmaterial,followedbywritten(6responses).

SocialcapitalishighinENBPduetothewantoksystemandhighinvolvementin

socialorculturalgroups,showingsignificantpotentialforknowledgesharing

(humancapital)andfacilitationfordiscussiontomakechanges(Reilly2001;Smith

etal2005).Alackofanorganisedmarketforfarmers(8)wasacceptedasbotha

weaknessandthreat(Section5.3.2),withmanysettinguptheirownroadside

marketstoselltheirfish,withlocalmarketsnon-existentorinaccessible,whichis

oftenthecaseinPICTs(Feeny&Miller-Dawkins,2016).Figure5.6showsthatover

threemonthsfarmersaveragedaproductionof~30fish,howeversignificantly

lessweresold,consumedorgiven.Thisshowsthesmallscaleofinlandfish

farminginENBPcurrently,butalsogivesanindicationthatbothhouseholdsand

thecommunityaregettingaccesstoaproteinsource.FishfarminginENBPis

predominatelyusedforhouseholdnutritionandlocalmarketingandwithouta

largerlocalmarkettoselltheirfishtotheirprofitsarelimited(Chapter4Section

4.3.1)(Londonetal.,2010).Thelastacceptedstatementwasthatbadtransport

infrastructurediscouragesorhindersfarmers(9).Thesurveyfoundthat67.9%of

fishfarmerswerenotaccessiblebycar,withonlythreeinaccessibleinRabaul,

GazelleandKokopodistrictandtherestbeingfromPomiodistrict.Thisshows

thereisadifferencebetweenPomiodistrictcomparedtoupperENBPdistricts.

Pomiothereforedoesnothavethesamedirectroadnetworkandaccessibilityto

resourcesthatotherpartsofENBPhave(Chapter4Section4.2.3).OnePomio

residentinvolvedinthefocusgroupstated;

128

“Thereisnoroadinfrastructure,whichmeanswehavetowalkfarandmakes

ithardtosellfish.”

Thislackofphysicalinfrastructureasmentionedinsectionisacommon

occurrenceinPICTsduetoalackoffinancialcapitalavailableandimpactsthe

livelihoodstrategiesofthecommunity,highlightingtheneedforgovernment

intervention(Alther,Castella,Novosad,Rousseau&Hieu,2002;Gibson&Rozelle,

2003).Overall,therearesignificantconstraintsaffectingcurrentfishfarmersin

ENBP.

Table5.2:ENBPSWOTAnalysiswithrankedweaknesses.

Rank Avscore

Weaknesses AcceptasfactorAvscore≥3.3

1 4.94 Fishfeedisexpensiveand/ornotalwaysavailable

✔

2 4.61 Lackofextensionmaterialandtrainingforfarmers

✔

3 4.59 Farmerslackskillsinfarming ✔4 4.55 Farmerslackskillsinpreservation/post-harvest

handling✔

5 4.52 Lackofaccesstoaquacultureequipmentsuchasscoop-nets,seine-nets,etc.discourages/hindersfarmers

✔

6 4.46 Lackofregularupdatesandinformationonfish-farmingdevelopmentandopportunitiesthroughradio/newspaper

✔

7 4.42 Farmerslackbasicrecordkeepingandmanagementskills

✔

8 4.36 Lackoforganisedmarketforfarmers ✔9 4.25 Badtransportinfrastructure

discourages/hindersfarming✔

129

Figure5.5:PrimaryplacesfishfarmersweretrainedinENBP.

Figure5.6:Theproduction,consumptionandsalesforfishfarminginENBP.

5.3.3Opportunities

TheSWOTanalysisdeterminedtheopportunitiesavailableforfishfarmingin

ENBP.AllsixopportunitystatementsinthisSWOTanalysiswereacceptedasa

factor(Table5.3).Farmersneedmoretrainingandextensionservices(1)was

051015202530

NFA/LLG University NGO Nill/selfNumberoftimesmentioned

Trainingagency

TraininginENBP

05101520253035

Produced Consumed Given Sold

Averageoverthreemonths

Seasonalityfactor

Production,Consumption&SalesofFishinENBP

130

acceptedandwasakeyconstraintidentifiedbythesurveyamongstcurrentfish

farmers(Figure4.11).Indevelopingcountriestrainingandextensionservicesare

vitaltothegrowthandlongevityoffishfarms(Cleasbyetal.,2016;Rajanetal.,

2016;Sarma,Talukdar&Mishra,2013).Childrenshouldbetaughtfishfarmingasa

lesson(2),whichwasdiscussedinSection4.2.1inthepreviouschapter.Educating

childrenfromdevelopingcountriesaboutvariouslivelihoodstrategiessuchasfish

farmingprovidesthemwithfutureopportunitiesandknowledgeaboutpreventing

malnutrition(Muchiri&Kiriungi,2015;Shrimpton,Mbuya&Provo,2016).There

isanopportunityforstakeholders,NGOsandorganisationstoworkwithfish

farmers,astheyhavenopreference(3).Thisisasignificantopportunityfor

aquacultureandhascollaborativebenefitsatalocalandinstitutionallevel(Ross,

MartinezPalacios&Morales,2008).AstudybyLyons&Cavaye(2016)foundthat

communityengagementwithgovernmentandotherinstitutionsinENBPhas

previouslyshownimprovedcommunityinvolvementindecisionmakingand

accesstoresources.WhileNGO’sempowercommunitydrivenchange,thereisthe

riskofdependenceonfunding(Kress,2017).Itisagreedthedemandoffish

farmingisgrowing(4),with16%ofsurveyedfishfarmersinspiredbyothersto

startfishfarmingandwasanacceptedSWOTstrength(Section5.5.3.1).Thisis

expectedtobebecauseoftheperceivedfinancialandhumancapitalsurvey

benefitsoffishfarmingofproteinandincome(Figure4.3).Theopportunitytosell

tilapiaatmarketsandthedemandforfishwassupportedbythefollowingfocus

groupquote;

“Itisavailable,infreezedryeskieswhenweharvestourfish.Wetrieditatthe

marketandpeoplesay,‘isthisTilapia?’.Allthesepeoplenotfromherebought

allofit.Sopotentialishere.Wejustneedmorefarmerstogettogether.”

131

ThisreiteratesthatthedemandoffishissignificantinENBP.Whiletheinterestis

there,goodaffordablefishfeedisneededtoimprovefarming(5)isaccepted,where

currentlyamajorityoffarmersuselocalproduce(91.1%)withonly3.6%of

surveyparticipantsusingformulatedfeed(Figure5.7).Relianceonhighcost

pelletedfeedisacontinuingconstraintinthePNGinlandfishfarmingindustry

(Narimbietal.,2018).However,peopleinENBPfelttheyhadthenaturalfeed(e.g.

cassavaleaves)tocounterthislackofformulatedfeed.Farmerswouldusesocial

media(Facebook)toreadaboutfishfarmingifavailable(6)isanaccepted

opportunityforENBP.Theuseofsocialmediatogainmoreknowledgeaboutfish

farming(6),wouldimprovetheirhumancapital.InPICTssocialmediaisaccessible

withuserstendingtobemoretrustingofinformationpassedonbytheironline

friends(Finauetal.,2014;Turcotte,York,Irving,Scholl,&Pingree,2015).This

wouldalsogivefarmerstheaccesstovaluablefarminginformationtoimprove

managementandfishhusbandrypractices.WhileENBPsurveyedfarmersfeltthey

neededmoresupport(Figure4.13)thereisanopportunityforcommunity-led

engagement,liaisingwithlocalgovernmenttohaveaninfluenceinthedecision-

makingprocess(Lyons&Cavaye,2016).Throughcommunityengagementthefish

farmingcommunitywouldhavemoresayinpolicyandensureitisrelevantto

them.

Table5.3:SWOTanalysisopportunities.

Rank Avscore

Opportunities AcceptasafactorAvscore>3.3

1 4.89 Farmersneedmoretrainingandextension ✔2 4.82 Childrenshouldbetaughtfish-farmingat

schoolasalesson✔

3 4.82 Farmersarehappytoworkwithall ✔

132

stakeholdersandhavenopreference4 4.73 Demandforfarmedfishisgrowing ✔5 4.46 Goodaffordablefishfeedisneededtoimprove

farming✔

6 4.07 Farmerswouldusesocialmedia(Facebook)toreadaboutfishfarmingifavailable

✔

Figure5.7:TypesoffeedsuppliedinENBP.

5.3.4Threats

TheSWOTthreatsanalysisquestionsidentifiednumerouspresentandfuture

bottleneckshinderingfishfarminggrowth(Table5.4).Outof11statementsonly5

wereaccepted.Theslowgrowthoffisheventhoughfeedisregularlygiven,

discouragesfishfarming(1)wasaccepted.Thisisconnectedtotheinternallackof

fishhusbandryskills(i.e.whentofeed,quantity)atalocallevel,extensiontraining

andfeedconstraintsmentionedinchapter4section4.3,whichiscausedbyan

externaloveralllackoffinancialandphysicalcapitalandinstitutionalsupportfrom

LLG.ThisisacommonconstraintinPICTs,wherealackoffinancialcapitalleadsto

4%

91%

5%

FeedSuppliedinENBP

Formulated Traditional N/A

133

limitedphysicalcapitalandaffectstheaccesstoandaffordabilityoffeed(Cleasby

etal.,2014;Sisifaetal.,2016).Stealingisdiscouragingfishfarming(2)was

acceptedbecausesurveyparticipantsoftencannotaffordafenceforsecurity,

creatingacycleoftheft.Thisissupportedbysurveydatawhichfoundtheftwasa

keyconstrainttofishfarming(16.1%)andoneofthekeyconstraintswaslackof

infrastructureandmaterials(32.1%).Anexampleoftheftisevidencedinaquote

fromafocusgroupparticipantbelow;

“-otherpeoplewillcomeanddisrespectourpondsbystealingthefish.”

InPNGthereisoftenjealousyofothersandlackofjobopportunitiesthatresultin

stealing,whichwasoneofthemostcommoncrimesin2010(Lakhani&Willman,

2014).Thelackofanorganisedmarket(3)isacceptedasathreatandwasalso

acceptedasaweakness(Section5.3.4).Thesurveyfoundonly19.6%soldtheir

fishatalocalmarketwith78.6%eithernotsellingornothavingaccesstomarkets

(Figure5.8).TheSWOTstatementandsurveydataissupportedbythefollowing

focusgroupquote;

“Anotherproblemisthereisnoproperfishmarket.Noeskytostorefish.”

Thisshowsitisconsideredapresentthreattomakingalivelihoodoutoffish

farminginENBP.Alackoforganisedmarketintheagriculturalsectorhasbeen

identifiedasaconstraintinotherPICTsandhindersgrowth(Bammann,2007;

Singh-Peterson&Iranacolaivalu,2018).Diseaseintroductionwilldiscouragefish

farming(4)isathreat,withPrein&Ahmed(2000)findingsmallholderfish

farmersoftendon’thavethefishhusbandryknowledgetocopewithdisease.

Floodingaffectsfishfarming(5)isacceptedasafactorandwasthirdmostgiven

answerinthesurvey(17.9%)(Figure4.11)showingitisasignificantthreatwith

134

furtherimplicationsinthefutureduetoclimatechange.Thisfocusgroupquote

capturestheimpactoffloodingontheirpond;

“Therainfallcauseslandslidesaroundthepondanddestroysthepond.”

FishfarminginPICTsisvulnerabletoseasonalityandwithoutmanagementisa

threattothislivelihoodstrategy,particularlyduetochangingclimate(Belletal.,

2011;Cleasbyetal.,2014).Anothercomponenttofloodingissiteselectionmade

byfishfarmers.Siteselectionintermsofreducingfloodingwasnotsomething

manyparticipantsthoughtabout,rathertheywantedtoutilisetheirwatersource

andstartafishfarm.IntheNVivoanalysiscategorisationofdataintothemes,

whenaskedaboutsiteselectioncriteria,“naturalresourceavailability”was

mentioned17times.Thisquotecapturesthemajorityoffarmersthoughtprocess;

“FormeIputthepondbesidemyhouse,andutiliserainwaterbecauseIknew

itwouldcome.Sometimesnowitfloods.Butwatersupplyisthere.”

ThisshouldbepartoftraininggiventoLLGorprovincialfisheriesofficers,sofish

farmerscanbeeducatedandinthelongtermprotecttheirpondsfromflood

damage.Indevelopingcountriessiteselectionandfloodingisoftenathreattofish

farmsduetofluctuatingweatherpatterns(Edwards,2015;Uppanunchai,

Chitmanat&Lebel,2018).

Table5.4:SWOTanalysisthreats.

Rank AvScore

Threats AcceptasfactorAvScore≥3.3

1 4.555 Slowgrowthoffisheventhoughfeedisregularlygiven,discouragesfishfarming

✔

2 4.07 Stealingisdiscouragingfish-farming ✔3 4 Lackoforganisedmarketisdiscouragingfish

farming✔

135

4 3.84 Diseaseintroductionwilldiscouragefishfarming ✔5 3.55 Floodingaffectsfishfarming ✔6 3.07 Alongspillofdroughthasaffectedanddiscouraged

fishfarmingX

7 3.05 Pollutionofwatersupplyaffectsmyfarm X8 2.93 Itisgettingmoreexpensivetofarmfish X9 2.12 Conflictonlanduseforfishfarmingandotheruseis

growingX

10 2.06 Stealingoffishfrompondsisincreasing X11 2.2 Conflictonwateruseforfishfarmingandotheruse

isgrowingX

Figure5.8:MainmarkettosellfishinENBP.

SummaryofsurveySWOT

OveralltheENBPfishfarmersurveySWOTanalysisidentifiedfivestrengths,eight

weaknesses,sixopportunitiesand5threatspertainingtosmall-holderinlandfish

farming(Table5.5).

Table5.5:SummaryofSWOTfactorsforENBP

2%

20%

78%

MainmarketinENBP

Request Local Nill

Strengths • Waterisfreelyavailableandaccessible• Landisfreelyavailable• Gooddemandforfarmedfish• Goodclimateandenvironmentforfishfarming• Fingerlingsarewidelyavailable

136

5.4ThePotentialNegativeImpactsofAquaculture

Thereareavarietyofbenefitsfromfishfarming;however,itisimportanttonote

therearepotentialadverseimpactsonhouseholdlivelihoods.Bénéetal.(2016)

assessedexistingliteratureandfoundthattheproductionoffishthrough

aquaculture,whileincreasinghouseholdconsumption,didnotcorrelatewith

improvednutritionalstatus.InthecaseofENBP,itwasfoundpeopleprimarily

farmedfishforbothconsumptionandadditionalincome(Figure4.2).Onlyasmall

numberoffarmerssolelyfarmedfishforhouseholdnutrition,optingtosellexcess

fish.Thisbenefitedsurroundingcommunitiesduetoimprovedaccessibilitytofish.

ThisisreiteratedbyFAO(2012)whichfoundfishconsumptionishigherinsmall-

islanddevelopingstates.However,thismaynotbetrueinotherdeveloping

countries,whichhaveadifferentsocio-culturalclimateandprioritisethesellingof

fishtobuyotherproteinsources(Kawarazuka&Béné,2010).Nevertheless,an

Weaknesses • Fishfeedisexpensiveand/ornotalwaysavailable• Lackofextensionmaterialandtrainingforfamers• Farmerslackskillsinfarming• Farmerslackskillsinpreservation/post-harvesthandling• Lackofaccesstoaquacultureequipmentsuchasscoop-nets,seinenets,

etc.discourages/hindersfarmers• Farmerslackbasicrecordkeepingandmanagementskills• Lackoforganizedmarketforfarmers• Badtransportinfrastructurediscourages/hindersfishfarming

Opportunities • Farmerswantmoretrainingandextension• Childrenshouldbetaughtfishfarmingatschoolasalesson• Farmersarehappytoworkwithallstakeholdersandhavenopreference• Demandforfarmedfishisgrowing• Goodaffordablefishfeedisneededtoimprovefarming• Farmersarewillingtousesocialmediatolearnaboutaquaculture

Threats • Slowgrowthoffish,eventhoughfeedisregularlygiven,discouragesfishfarming

• Stealingisdiscouragingfishfarming• Lackoforganisedmarketisdiscouragingfishfarming• Diseaseintroductionwilldiscouragefishfarming• Floodingaffectsfishfarming

137

increaseinincomedoescreateanopportunitytopurchaseothersourcesof

proteinthatwasnotpreviouslypossiblebeforeincomegenerationfromfish

farming.

InthecontextofSLifA,thereistheriskofincreasedvulnerabilitytoshockssuchas

fromtoxinsimpactinghumanhealth(e.g.mercurytoxicity,ciguaterafromreef

fish),associatedwithincreasedconsumptionoffish.However,theliterature

demonstratesmorepositivehealthimpactsfromconsumptionoffishsuchas

decreasingtheincidenceofhighbloodpressureandcoronaryheartdisease

(Larsen,Eilertsen&Elvevoll,2011).InrelationtoPNG,thereiscurrentlyno

publishedliteratureabouttheimprovementofnutritionalstatus,althoughthereis

isinformationonreductioninmalnutritioninareaswherefishareroutinely

consumedinPNG(Vira,2015;ACIARProjectFIS/2014/062;unpublisheddata).

Diseaseandvariableweatheraffectingcropsisasignificantvulnerabilityinfish

farmingandaquacultureingeneral.Blytheetal.,2015foundthatinsmallscale

shrimpfarmsinMozambique,80%ofhouseholdsstruggledwithdiseaseaffecting

theircrops.Diseaseisaconsiderableshockforhouseholdsduetoitsimpacton

cropsforconsumption(humancapital)andselling(financialcapital).While

diseaseisanissueinotherdevelopingcountriessuchasAsia,inPNGdiseasehas

notwidelyaffectedfishfarmingduetotheirsmallscaleandlowstockingdensities

andtheabsenceofpathogensthatareprevalentinothercountries(Smith,2007).

Shocksassociatedwithvariableweatherpatternsandnaturalresources(e.g.

flooding,drought)alsohavesignificantramificationsonhouseholdlivelihood,

destroyingpondsandcausingnatural,financialandhumancapitalimpacts(Lebel

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etal.,2015).InPNGvariableweatherwasconsideredoneofthebiggestchallenges

forfishfarmersinENBP(Figure4.11).Itisimportantpolicymakersand

stakeholders,suchasthefarmers,areawareofthesepotentialissuestoavoidtheir

adverseimpactsonhouseholdlivelihoods.

5.5Summary

Thereareavarietyofbenefitsforinlandfishfarming,particularlysocialand

economic,whichaffectENBPandPNG.Fishfarmingcanhelphouseholdsto

achievesustainablelivelihoodsbyprovidingsupplementaryincomeandsocial

benefits.Onacommunitylevel,PNGwouldbenefitfromfishfarmingthrough

decreasedhealthcostsassociatedwithmalnutrition,whichwouldalsotake

pressureoffthemarinefisheries.WomeninPNGwouldalsoplayamoreactive

roleinbringingfinancialcapitaltothehouseholdviafishfarming,increasingtheir

socialstature,whichwillalsoresultinmorerespectwithinhouseholds.Alower

crimerateduetoanewfoundpurposewouldbeadvantageousforENBPandPNG

bothsociallyandeconomically.Duetolessconflictandburdenofcostsassociated

withcrime.Economically,thebenefitoffishfarminginENBPistheincreasein

localcashflowthroughsellingfish.Onanationalscale,fishfarmingcreates

anotherlivelihoodstrategyandimproveslivelihoodoutcomesbyproviding

anotheravenueofeconomicopportunity.Thefinancialcostofchildundernutrition

onthePNGeconomywiththeopportunityoffishfarmingcoulddecreaseand

improvebothhumanandsocialcapital.TheSWOTanalysisidentifiedanumberof

internalandexternalfactorsimpactingtheinlandfishfarmingindustryinENBP.

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Overalltherewere8significantweaknessesand5externalthreatsimpacting

farmersandtheirfishfarms.Therewere5strengthsand6opportunities

identified.Thekeyweaknesseswerethelackofaccesstofishfeedandsupportor

extensionservices,hinderingtheabilityforfishfarmerstoimprovetheir

production.Whilethekeythreatsofslowgrowthandstealingdiscouragingfish

farmersmeanthatwithoutfishhusbandryknowledgeandaccessorfundingfor

resourcessuchasfencing,fishfarmingwillnotbeaviablelivelihoodstrategy.

However,thekeystrengthsaretheavailabilityofnaturalresources,whichis

foundationaltostartingandmaintainingafishfarm.Lastly,thereissignificant

opportunityforextensionservicesandintroducingfishfarmingintoschools.This

wouldimprovecurrentandfuturefishfarminglivelihoodoutcomes,creatingmore

humanandsocialcapital.Overall,whilethereareadvantagesforfishfarming

apparent(i.e.socialandnaturalcapital),thepotentialoffishfarmingiscurrently

impededbydeficienciesrelatingtohumanandfinancialcapital.

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ChapterVI:SynthesisandConclusion

6.1Introduction

Theoverridingaimofthisstudywastoidentifyindividual’savailablecapitalsand

evaluatethesocialandeconomicpotentialoffishfarminginEastNewBritain

(ENBP),PNGusingasustainablelifestyleanalysis(SLifA)framework.Thiswork

hasdevelopedabetterunderstandingoftheopportunities,bottlenecks,threats

andstrengthsoffishfarminginENBP,whichhasnotpreviouslybeenattempted.

Thisiscriticallyimportantbecauseitisanemergingindustryandtomovetowards

sustainablepractice,abaselineofknowledgeisneeded.Thefindingsofthisstudy

canalsoguidefurtherresearchandunderpindecision-makingandattemptsby

governmenttoprovidetherequiredsupport.Additionally,thefindingswill

contributetothenationwidedevelopmentofaquacultureinPNGthroughlinksto

anumbrellaprojectfundedbyACIAR(ProjectFIS/2014/062),whichhaslookedat

7otherprovincesinPNG.Underthatproject,thisisoneofthreeprovincesthatare

classifiedascoastal.

ThischapterwilladdressObjective4bysynthesisingtheresultsanddiscussion

fromChapter4and5relatingtoObjectives1,2and3.Accordingly,the

implicationsofthemainfindingswillbediscussedtounderpinrecommendations

forstrategicdevelopmentofinlandaquacultureinENBPandpotentially,more

broadly,forotherprovincesinPNG;thiswillinvolverecommendationson

researchableissuesandthetypeofstrategicandmanagementinterventionsthat

areneededtoclearbottlenecksandmaximisethebenefitsofexistingstrengthsand

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opportunities.ThefourthObjectivealsoinvolvesmakingrecommendationfor

changestotheinstitutionalmanagementframeworkforaquaculturedevelopment

inENBP,whichisembeddedinthefollowingsections.Thischapterwilladdress

theaboveaimasfollows:thefirstObjectiveisaddressedinSection6.2to

determineanddescribetheopportunities,driversandsocial,natural,physicaland

financialcapitalsavailabletosustainablyfarmfishinENBP.InSection6.3the

secondObjectivetoidentifyanddescribethecurrentsocial,economicand

environmentalbottleneckstogrowthofinlandaquacultureinENBPissynthesised.

TheObjectivetoevaluatethesocialandeconomicbenefitsofinlandfishfarming

developmentinENBPandPNGisfurtherassessedinSection6.4.Section6.5will

discussfutureresearchforinlandfishfarminganditsuseasalivelihoodsupport

tocombatPNG’sfoodsecurityissues(Barnettetal.,2015;Boweretal.,2014).

6.2MajorFindings

ThissectionwilldiscussthemainfindingsundereachObjectiveandwhere

possibleexamineiftheyaresupportedornegatedbytheliterature.Objective1to

determineanddescribetheopportunities,driversandsocial,natural,physicaland

financialcapitalsavailabletosustainablefarmfishinENBPwasaddressedin

Chapter4Section4.2.ThemostsignificantfindingsforObjective1wasthe

prevalenceofsocialcapitalandtheemotionalandfinancialsupportsocialand

culturalgroupsofferfromshocks(e.g.healthproblems,deathinthefamily).High

socialcapitalisconsistentwithmanyPICTs,whichhavestrongsocialnetworksof

support,thoughtheycanalsocausesomefinancialburden(Schram,2015).Natural

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capitalwasalsoabundantandakeydriverforstartingafishfarm,withmany

PICTshavingaclosetraditionalconnectionwithnature(Jupiter,2017).

Similarly,Objective2toidentifyanddescribethecurrentsocial,economicand

environmentalbottleneckstogrowthofinlandaquacultureinENBPwas

addressedinChapter4Section4.3.Themainbottleneckswerealackofsupport,

extensionservices,materialsandinfrastructure.Whileprovidinghousehold

protein,alackoffishhusbandryknowledgeandskills(humancapital)from

provincialLLGandlocalNFAofficershindersthebuildingofthetechnicalcapacity

offishfarmers.ThisfindingwasconsistentwithBrummett,Lazard&Moehl(2008)

researchinAfricawherethepeoplefacesimilarpoliticalandsocio-economic

challenges.Theseissueswereaddressedbyrecommendingbothlocalandexternal

participationofextensionservicesandgovernmentinterventionfortechnology

developmentandtransfer(Mustapha2016).Thisfindingisalsoconsistentwith

otherstudieswithinruralcommunitiesandPICTs,wherethereisalackof

extensionservices(Cleasbyetal.,2014;Rajee&Mun,2017).Thishasbeen

overcomeinPICTssimilarly,bygovernmentorinternationaldonor’sintervention

andinvestment,allocatingmoremoneyfortraining(Sisifaetal.,2016).Thereare

alsoparallelsbetweenObjective1and2findings,withalackoffinancialand

physicalcapitalsessentiallybeingalackinfrastructureandmaterials,stemming

fromlackofsupportorfunding.

Objective3,toevaluatethesocialandeconomicbenefitsofinlandfishfarming

developmentinENBPandPNG,wasachievedinChapter5.Thekeybenefitswere

relatedtothefindingsofObjective1and2inthattheabundanceofsocialcapital

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wasabenefittofishfarminginENBP.Thisissupportedintheliterature,with

Melanesiancommunitiesutilisingtheirsocialnetworkorwantoksystemfor

support(Nanau,2011).Economically,thereisthepotentialforfishfarmingto

reducetheeconomicburdenofcrimeandinjectfinancialcapitalatalocallevelvia

marketsandroadsidesellingoffish.Akeyfinancialbenefitwasthatfarmersof

ENBPpredominantlyhadsavings,whichwasusedtobettertheirlivelihood(e.g.

schoolfees,medicine,farmingtools).

Objective4,tomakerecommendationforchangestotheinstitutionalmanagement

frameworkforaquaculturedevelopmentisgoingtobeaddressedbysynthesising

theinformationaboveinthecontextintheoverallObjectiveofthestudy.The

overallaimwastoidentifyindividual’scapitalsandevaluatethesocialand

economicpotentialoffishfarminginENBP,usingasustainablelifestyleanalysis

(SLifA)framework.Thissectionsynthesisedthemajorfindingsfromprevious

chaptersanditsrelationtotheliteratureavailablefromotherdeveloping

countries.

6.3InteractionofMajorFindings

Theinteractionbetweenmajorfindingswillbediscussedinthefollowingsection,

withreferencetohowthisstudy’sfindingsareconsistentordifferfromthecurrent

bodyofliterature.Themostsignificantfindingsdiscussedabovein6.2willbe

evaluated.InrelationtoObjective1,thelackoffinancialcapitalmeanttherewasa

deficiencyofphysicalcapitalthathinderstheoverallgrowthoffishfarmingandits

viabilityasalivelihoodsstrategy.ManySLAstudiescombinephysicalandfinancial

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capitalduetotheirinteraction(Bebbington,1999;Kranz,2001;Scoones,2009).

Improvingphysicalcapitalcanhavesignificantfinancialcostduetotheinitialand

ongoingcostsofmaintenancebutisimportantbecauseitenablesbetterservice

provision(Rodriguez-Pose&Hardy,2015).Therefore,itwasakeyfindingwhen

addressingObjective2becauseitaffectedaccessibilitytomaterialstobuildand

maintainpondsaswellasaccesstoextensionservices.Inthelong-termalackof

physicalcapital(e.g.accesstoextensionservices,workingroads,spades)limitsthe

abilityforfishfarmerstoadoptnewtechnologiesandmanagementasitislinked

toalackoffishhusbandryknowledge,productivityandbusinessacumen(human

capital)(Teixeira&Queirós,2016).However,abenefitofthefinancialandphysical

capitalsinteractingcloselyisthathavinghigherfinancialcapital,oftenmeansmore

physicalcapitalsuchasfarmingtoolsandaccesstoelectricityduetoincreased

incometobuyneededassets(Gutierrez-Montes,Emergy&Fernandez-Baca,2009).

Additionally,therewerealsoclearrelationshipsbetweenfindingsunder

Objectives1and3.Themainrelationshipwasthattheabundanceofsocialcapital,

whichwasthenabenefittofishfarmingbecausefarmerscanrelyonwantoksto

assistandsupportthem,canalsoactasabarriertoshocksinthevulnerability

context.Thiscanalsobesaidfortheavailabilityofnaturalcapital,whichisalsoa

benefittofishfarmingbecauseitisfoundationaltostartingafishfarmandthen

sustainingit.Relatingbacktothefirstpoint,withoutfishhusbandryknowledge

andfinancialcapitalthecapacityoffishfarmersisimpededeventhoughtheyhave

thesocialandnaturalcapitalsavailable.However,thereisanopportunitytoutilise

socialinstitutions(socialcapital)toimproveaccesstocredit(financialcapital)and

services(physicalcapital)byraisingawarenessandsupport(Allison&Horemans,

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2006).Teixeira&Queirós(2016)recognisedtheimprovementofhumancapital

suchashealthoreducationisalsolinkedtophysicalcapitalprovisione.g.accessto

water,transportandelectricity.

WhilebyaddressingObjective1itwasfoundthatsocialcapitalisabundant,it

couldbeimprovedfurtherbyincreasingtheeducationlevel(humancapital)ofthe

ENBPpeopletoimprovethelevelofknowledgeneededtomanagefinances.There

isthenthepotentialtomanagetheirfarmasabusinessandmovefrommeeting

immediateproteinneedstoalsoprovidingaprimaryorsecondarysourceof

income.Therefore,thiswouldcreateanetworkofknowledgeablefishfarmers,not

justwantoks.Thiswouldleadtobettermanagementofhouseholdfinancesand

pondswhileincreasinghouseholdproteinconsumption.ThisisevidentinAhmed

&Lorica(2002)paperwhichidentifiedthatsmallholderfishfarminghouseholds

inVietnamandBangladeshhadahigherhouseholdconsumptionoffishthanboth

ruralandurbanhouseholdswhodidn’tfishfarm.Thishighlightsitscontributionto

householdnutrition.

Currently,itisimportantforpolicies,institutionsandprocesses(PIPs)toprioritise

foodproductionbeforeitmovestoincomegeneration,whichissecondary.Iffood

productioncanberesolved,thenthegovernmentcanthenlookattheissuesof

financialandphysicalcapital.Byaddressingfoodproduction,animprovementof

humancapital(healthandknowledge)willoccur,oftenleadingtobetterfinancial

outcomesasaresult(Connolly-Boutin&Smit,2016).Foodproductionand

specificallylackofproteinconsumptionisasignificantissueinPICTsincluding

PNG,affectingallaspectsofhousehold’slivelihoods(Belletal.,2009;Charltonet

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al.,2016).Duetothestrengthofsocialcapitalthereisanopportunityfor

governmentordonororganisations’interventiontoincreasehumanandfinancial

capitalthroughextensionservices,fundingandtrainingprograms.Therefore,

beforeanyoftheotherissuescanberesolved,theabovedeficienciesmustfirstbe

addressed.

Limitations

Oneofthedifficultieswiththisstudywastherewasnotalargepopulationbecause

fishfarmingisnotyetabigindustry.Asaresult,itwasnotpossibletodoany

rigorousstatisticalanalysisofparticipants’responsestotestforsignificanceor

associations.Theconstraintoftimeandresourcesalsomeantthatsomefish

farmers,whichwerenotreachablebycarcouldnotbesurveyed.Havingan

individualtranslatefromTokPisintoEnglishthereisachanceofalteringthe

intendedmeaning,whichhisoftenthecase(Al-Amer,Ramjan,Glew,Darwish&

Salamonson,2015).However,byusinglocalsfamiliarwithboththelocaldialect

(Kuanua),TokPisinandEnglish,thisissuewasavoidedasbestaspossible.

6.4FutureResearch

Thisstudyisthefirstaquaculture-relatedstudytobeundertakeninENBP,

followingthisstudythereisanopportunityforfutureresearch.Thereare3key

futureresearchprojectsrecommendedbythisproject.Thefirstisacost-benefit

analysisoffishfarming,becausealthoughfishfarmingisamethodforprotein

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production,noonehascomparedittootherlivelihoodstrategiesforENBPnor

determineditseconomicbenefitagainsttheinvestment.Thisresearchcould

investigateimpedimentstoalternativeorcomplementarylivelihoodssuchaspig

orchickenfarming.AnexampleofcomplementaryfarmingisillustratedbySahoo

&Singh(2015)whousedabenefit-costratioandfoundthatintegratingpigand

fishhadthehighestprofitcomparedtofishandchickens.Thisresearchwouldbe

importantforunderstandingfarmers’perceptionsofnewtechnologiesand

adoptionoftechnologies,whiletakingintoconsiderationofethnographicfactors

tofacilitatetheadoptionofinformation(Meijer,Catacutan,Ajayi,Sileshi,&

Nieuwenhuis,2015).Giventhattechnologiesarefundamentaltothesuccessofany

agriculturalventure,acost-benefitanalysiswouldalsoneedtoconsiderthelevel

oftechnologiesversusthetargetedlevelofproductionandotherfactorsthatmight

influencetechnologyadoptionforsustainablefishfarming.Mwangi&Kariuki

(2015)foundthatintheliteraturetherewereanumberofinstitutional(e.g.access

tocredit,accesstoextensionservices,socialgroups)andhuman(education,age,

gender)factorsthatdrovetheadoptionofnewtechnology.Traditionalfarming

mentalitiesareoftencommoninPICTswithastrongconnectionbetweenthe

peopleandtheland(Campbell,2015).Whilethisprojectsfocuswason

aquaculturebutthereispotentialforalternativelivelihoodsthatwherefarmers

don’thaveorlackaspecificcapital,mayutiliseanalternative.

Anotherpotentialtopicforfutureresearchistheutilisationoflocally-available

ingredientsforfishfeed.ThisworkisbeingdoneinthehighlandsundertheACIAR

project(FIS/2014/062),thoughcropsinthehighlandsdiffertothoseinENBP.For

example,thehighlandsareknownforsweetpotatoandENBPforbanana(Bourke

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&Allen,2009;Kambuou,1995).Futureresearchcoulddetermineifthereare

locally-availablesourcesofnutrientsthatcanbeincorporatedintofishfeedforfish

aroundENBP.Followingonfromthis,studiestocomparefishproductionversus

vegetable-basedproteinsandwhetherthosearefeasibleasalternativesorcost

effectivewhiletakingintoconsiderationculturalandpracticalissues.Bekibele&

Onunkwo(2007)alsorecognisedtheneedtoproducelocalfeedtoreducethecost

ofproductionandmeettheproteinneedsofthecommunity.Thistiesinwiththe

recommendationtoresearchcost-benefitsoffishfarminginthisprovince.

Anotherareaforfutureresearchisidentifyinghowclimatechangecanaffectfish

farminginENBPorPNG.InrelationtoENBP,becauseitiscoastalitisatriskof

sea-levelrise,whilethosethatliveinlandarevulnerabletounpredictableweather

patterns(e.g.floodinganddrought)affectingtheirlivelihoodstrategies(e.g.

crops).Campbell(2015)identifiedthatclimatechangecanimpactPICTs

communitiesinanumberofwayssuchaslandsecurity(landforsettlement),

livelihoodsecurity(foodsecurityandaccess)andhabitatsecurity(disease

exposure).Conductingthisresearchwoulddetermineshocks(e.g.growing

population,unpredictableweather,politicalchange,conflict)withinthe

vulnerabilitycontextthattheENBPorPNGpeopleexperienceandtheimpactthey

haveontheirlivelihood(Clay,2017).Bell,Taylor,Amos&Andrew(2016)put

forwardfourdifferentscenariostodeterminetheimpactsofclimatechangeand

provideinsightvitaltopolicyanddecisionmakers.Thiswouldalsodetermine

whatlivelihoodstrategiesareviabletowithstandtheshocksassociatedwith

climatechange.Overall,whilethereistheopportunityforfutureresearchthere

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arealsorecommendationsforimprovingthecurrentfishfarmingindustryin

ENBP.

6.5RecommendationsonFutureInterventions

ThereistremendouspotentialinENBPforthegrowthofinlandfishfarming;

however,foraquaculturetodeveloptheissuesoutlinedintheabovesectionsneed

tobeaddressed.TheSWOTanalysisandSLifAfindingsdemonstratethatthereare

anumberofissuesandopportunitiesthatcanbeaddressedbygovernment

interventions.Principallyintheareaofbuildingfarmercapacitybuilding,

improvingtechnicalsupportandextensionservices,andsupportingimprovements

toinfrastructureandaccesstofishfeed.Thereneedstobeastrongcorrelation

betweenresearchandpolicy.Bénéetal(2016)foundthereisoftenadisconnect

betweenevidence-basedresearchandpolicy.Linkingpolicytoresearchdoesnot

appeartobeoccurringinENBP.

Developingleadfarmers

Inthehighlandsusingleadfarmersmakesasignificantdifference.Leadfarmers

aretrainedtrustedcommunitymembersthathavestatusthatthentrainother

peoplebecausethereisaleveloftrustinthemandagreateracceptanceofthe

knowledgethatleadfarmersimpart.Therefore,farmersaremorelikelytoadopt

informationfromleadfarmersbecausethey’reapartofthecommunityandseen

tobesuccessfulandofthesamesocialstatus.Thiscanbeinferredduetothehigh

levelofsocialcapitalanditsimportanceinENBPandPNGsociety.Blytheetal.

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(2017)foundthatintheSolomonIslands,leadfarmerswereintegralinthe

adoptionofaquaculture.Therefore,thisisamodelthatcouldbeadoptedinENBP.

Byredistributingfinancesoftenconcentratedinthehighlandsduetothehigher

concentrationoffishfarms,thereisanopportunityfordevelopmentoffish

farminginotherruralandcoastalprovinces.However,thereshouldbe

considerationofthepotentialofsocialconflictandjealousythatcouldarisefrom

choosingleadfarmers.Inrelationtothisredistributionoffinancialcapitalfor

extensionservicesandtrainingshouldbecomeapriority.RevisionstoNFA’s

strategicplansforaquaculturedevelopmentcouldincorporatefindingsfromthe

presentstudytoensuresuchsupportisplannedfor.

Farmerandextensionstafftraining

AsdiscussedbyVira(2015),andfoundbythisstudyforENBP,thereisaneedto

buildthecapacityoffarmersandtechnicalsupportservices,largelythrough

extensionsupportthatisunderthecharteroftheProvincialFisheriesOfficers.

FarmercapacitybuildinghasbeenasuccessinthemainlandprovinceswhereNFA

andACIARProjectFIS/2014/062havetrainedleadfarmersandfarmer

cooperativesinfishhusbandry,fingerlingproductionandfishfeedingstrategies.

Trainingisdoneformallyandinformally;formaltrainingisdeliveredbystructured

theoryandfield-basedtraining.Whilstontheotherhand,informaltrainingoccurs

throughfarmerparticipationintheresearch,farmersvisitingtheHighlands

AquacultureDevelopmentCentre(HAQDEC)andtheGorokaOfficeoftheACIAR

project.Farmersarealsotrainedinformallywhentheycollectfishfeedfromthese

agenciesorwhenprojectandNFAstaffdositevisitsorcompletesurveywork.

ThoseinvolvedintheACIARfisheriesprogramintheAsiaPacificregionwere

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showntohavepositiveoutcomesintermsofwellbeing,productiveandproduction

(Hiruy&Wallo,2018).FormaltrainingisalsoprovidedbytheCollegeofFisheries

inKavieng,aunitofNFA.Althoughthecoursesareusuallydeliveredtohighschool

graduates,leadfarmersarealsofundedbyNFAtoattend.Todate,andtothebest

oftheauthor’sknowledge,onlyfourfarmersfromENBPhaveparticipatedinNFA

trainingandnoprovincialofficers(E.Semi,personalcommunication,20

November2017).Nevertheless,thereappearstobeinadequatetechnicalcapacity

ofProvincialOfficers,andthisis,inpart,duetoalackofresourcestofacilitate

engagementwithfarmersandtobuildtranslatetheoreticalskills,albeitlimited,

intopractice.Provincialofficerscouldactasactorsintheknowledgechainthatcan

carrytheinformationtothefarmersandpresentitinawaythatisdigestible,

usableandaffordable.Translatingthescienceintopolicyandprovidinggreater

extensioncapacity.

TraininghasalsobeendeliveredformallythroughtheMariaKwinCentre’s

CertificateinAquaculture(J.Sammut,personalcommunication,12June2018).

AlthoughtheCentreispartoftheACIARproject,itoperatesasanindependent

NGOanddemonstratesthevalueofengagingnon-governmentagenciesin

extensionandtraining.IdentifyingENBP-basedNGOsandtrainingstaffinfish

farmingextensioncouldhelpmirrorcapacitybuildingactivitiesofthemainland

programrunbyNFA,theACIARprojectandotheragencies.Forexample,the

DepartmentofLivestock(DAL)workscloselywiththeACIARprojectandNFAto

buildfarmercapacity.LocalDALinENBPcouldplayaroleinlocaltraining

programs,asisthecaseintheEHP.NationalAgricultureResearchInstitute(NARI)

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alsohasavestedinterestinbuildingaquacultureandcouldbeapotentialsourceof

trainingandtechnicalsupportbypartneringwithNFAinanENBP-basedprogram.

TheACIARprojectfocus,duetobudgetandscopeoftheproject,hasbeenon

mainlandprovinces,butprovincessuchasENBPstandtobenefitfroman

investmentintrainingprograms.Inrelationtothisisaneedtostrengthenthe

technicalskillsofprovincialfisheriesofficers(andalsoDALstaff)stationedin

ENBPwhoarelargelyworkingonotheraspectsoffisheriesandhavelimitedskills

infishfarming.Accordingly,thereismuchtogainfromextendingtrainingtothese

officerssothattheyprovidetechnicaladvicetofarmers.AsstatedinChapter4

Section4.3,farmersseektechnicalassistancefromgovernmentofficers,butthey

notethattheseofficerslacktherequiredtechnicalexpertisetoassist.Toachieve

this,governmentfundingmustbedivertedtowardsfarmerandgovernmentstaff

training,preferablyfollowinganeedsand/orgapassessmenttoidentifycoreareas

thatrequireintervention.Thiswillbedifficulttoaddressasaresultoftherecently

enactedPublicMoneyRegulationAct(alsoknownasthe90/10Act)whichhas

significantlyreducedNFA’soperationalbudgetbydivertingNFAincometothe

centralbudget.Thisissueisdiscussedfurtherbelow.

Resolvingfishfeedrequirements

ThepresentstudyechoedthefindingsofVira(2015)andtheumbrellaACIAR

Project(FIS/2014/062)whichfoundthatfeedisasignificantbottleneckto

farming.NFAhashadsuccessinhelpingfarmersenteringtheindustrythrougha

programthatisofferingfishfeedatasubsidisedrate(thatis,atcostprice)to

farmersinthehighlands.Thisenablesfarmerstogetoverthefinancialhurdleof

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startingtheirbusinessandenablesthemtoreinvestprofitsfromsuccessfulcrops

intotheirenterprise–it,ineffect,providesthemomentumneededtogetstarted

(J.Sammut,personalcommunication,30Jan,2018).However,thisonlyworksin

tandemwithbuildingfarmingskills.Otherwiseaninvestmentinprovidingaccess

tofishfeedwillfaildueotherfactorse.g.lackofknowledgeonhowtousethefish

feedefficiently.Bekibele&Onunkwo(2007)alsoidentifiedthatfeedwasa

significantbottlenecktofishfarminggrowthinAfricaandsuggestedtheuseof

locallyproducedfishfeedtoreducethecostofimportedfeed.NFA’sproject

developmentfund(PDF)alsocontributedtomanyfishfarmingprojectsinPNG,

buttheprogramhasbeen‘mothballed’duetofinancialconstraints;thisis

discussedbelowinmoredetail.

Analternativetoprovidingbetteraccesstocommercialfeedsisthepotentialtoset

upminimillsassmallbusinessventures.Onthemainland,minimillscreatefish

feedusinglocal-sourcesorimportedfishfeedingredients.Thepelletedfeedis

usuallycheaperthanimportedfishfeed.ACIARProjectFIS/2014/062iscurrently

testingnewfishfeedformulationsthatinvolvereplacingexpensiveingredients

withalternative,locally-availableingredients.Thetransferofsuchknowledgeto

ENBPhasbeenearmarkedandwouldcomplementaprogramthatestablished

minimills.Onthemainland,farmershavealsobeentaughttoextrudetheirown

feedsusingbasicequipment,andtraininginthispracticeisrecommended,

particularlyforisolatedfarmerse.g.Pomiofarmers.

Infrastructure

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FishfarmersinENBParecurrentlyconstrainedtofishproductiontomeet

immediateproteinneeds,whichisimportantandthepriority.However,tomake

fishmoreaccessibletothewidercommunity,andtocreateopportunitytoscaleup

fishfarmingsothatitcontributeseconomically,investmentininfrastructureis

necessary.Forexample,thereisnodirectroadaccesstoPomio,insteadtheNFA

officerswererequiredtocatchaboat.AreaswithintheGazelledistrictwerealso

difficulttoaccessduetoabreakdownofroadsfromregularflooding.This

significantlyimpactsfishfarmersabilitytomarkettheirfishandaccessextension

andtrainingservices.ThesurveyandSWOTanalysisfoundalargemajorityof

participantsdidnothavecoldstorageassetssuchaseskiestostoretheirfish

hygienicallyandlackedskillsinpost-harvestandpreservation.Itwasalsoevident

inPomiofromthefocusgroupsthatfarmersdidnothaveaccesstoorafford

physicalassetssuchasPVCpipeorspadestoconstructtheirponds.However,in

lieuofphysicalcapital,animprovementofhumancapitalwouldlikelyresultin

betterphysicalcapital.Therefore,itissoundtosaywithouttheimprovementof

infrastructurefishfarminginENBPwillcontinuetobehindered.

ImpactsofthePublicMoniesManagementRegulationAct2017

ThecapacityofNFAtosupportsuchprogramswasweakenedbytherecently

introducedPublicMoniesManagementRegulationAct.ThisActinvolvesthe

FinanceDepartmentappropriatingallincomefromNFAandthenreleasingsmall

mountsback.NFA’sprogramsarenoweitherunder-fundedorsuspendeddueto

lowerfunding(PapuaNewGuineaPostCourier,5March.2018).Thereisalsoa

riskofdownsizingNFA’sworkforceduetoinsufficientoperatingfunds;thiswould

impactNFA’sengagementwithfarmersinareaslikeENBP,whicharetoofarfrom

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PortMoresbytocapitaliseonthestaffbasedthere.Thisissuewasnotpresent

whentheSWOTAnalysiswasundertakenbutcanbeconsideredbothaweakness

andathreat.ThisisbecauseNFAisnowlesscapabletosupporttheindustry,anda

threatinthesensethattheindustryisexposedifNFAisunabletohelpitaddress

biosecurityrisksandotherexternalfactorsthatcouldimpactfisheriese.g.alackof

accesstofishfeedandfishfeedingredientsduetoeconomicdownturninPNG.

Re-establishingthePDFprogramandfundingtrainingandcapacitybuildingwill

beachallengeasNFAnowoperatesonasmallrevenuebasedwhilst,inthepast,it

retainedalmostallincomeitgeneratedfromthetunalicensingandotherfisheries.

Atthetimeofwriting,theimpactsofthe90/10Actwerestillbeingevaluated,and

thesituationisfluid.Nevertheless,itisreasonabletoassumethatifNFAisnot

appropriatelyfunded,itwouldbeunabletosupportmanyoftheabovementioned

interventions.

Womeninfishfarmingpolicy

Areviewoftheliterature,policiesanddevelopmentplansundertakeninChapter

2,demonstratedthattherewasnogendermainstreamingofanyofthepolicies,as

aresult,mostinterventionsinPNGarenotgendersensitive.Therefore,a

recommendationofthisworkisthatNFA,NGOsandotherorganisationsinvolved

inthedevelopmentofaquaculture,whetheritbeENBPoranywhereinPNG,

considergendermainstreamingofthepolicies.AnACAIRpipelineproject,ledby

UNSW,iscurrentlybuildinggendermainstreamingintoitsactivitiesandincludes

buildingcapacityofNFAstafftoincorporategenderprinciplesintotheworkforce

practices.Itisimportanttocollectsustainablelivelihoodanalysisdata,ashasbeen

156

undertakeninthisstudy,particularlysex-disaggregateddatathatcanbeusedto

betterunderstandtherolesofmenandwomeninordertobeabletodesign

policiesandinterventionsthataregendersensitive.Thiswillalsolimitthe

potentialadverseeffectsinvolvementinfishfarmingmayhaveforwomenas

discussedinSection5.1.2.Furtherlivelihoodanalysisshouldalsotakeinto

considerationthesocio-culturalvaluesofthepeopleinPNGsuchastraditional

genderroles.

Considerations

Whiletheaboverecommendationsareimportanttothegrowthoffishfarmingthe

currenteconomicclimateinENBPandPNGshouldbetakenintoconsiderationto

prioritiseissues.InthecaseofPNG,withtheexceptionofVira2015and

unpublisheddatasetsfromtheoverarchingACIARprojecttherehavebeenno

studiesthathavedocumentednegativeimpactsfromaquaculture.Unlikeintensive

farmingsystemselsewhereintheworld,whereimpactshavebeensignificant

(Ellis,Urbina&Wilson,2017;Tarangeretal.,2015),PNGfishfarmsarelow

densityoperationsthatmainlydischargeeffluentintovegetablegardensatlow

volumes.Astheindustrydevelops,thereisthepossibilitythatscalingupoffarms

mayresultinnutrientloadsexceedingthecarryingcapacityoftheenvironment

(Montanhini&Ostrensky,2015).Nevertheless,itisimportanttoconsiderthe

findingsofsimilarstudiesindevelopingnations,whichhaveshownthatinthe

absenceofappropriatemanagementaquaculturemayleadtoadverseimpacts.

Eventhoughthereisalackinfinancialcapitalandarecommendationformore

infrastructuretowardsfishfarming,thismoneymaybebetterspentimprovingthe

community’shumancapitalthrougheducationfacilitiesoraidposts.Thefocus

157

hereishowithelpsfishfarming,buttheallocationofgovernmentfundingtowards

infrastructureforfishfarmingshouldnotbeattheexpenseofcommunity

prioritiesandneeds.Acost-benefitanalysisshouldnotberestrictedentirelyto

thebenefittofishfarmingitshouldalsoconsiderthebroaderneedsofthe

communityandcomparelivelihoodoptions.

6.6Conclusion

Thisstudyhasachieveditsoverridingaimanditisthefirstmajorstudytocreate

animportantbaselineforresearchandmanagementoffishfarminginENBP.Ithas

shownthatfishfarmingisindeedanemerging,potentiallyproductivelivelihood

activityforthepeopleofENBP.Firstly,toaddressproteindeficiency,andsecondly,

thereissignificantpotentialforittogenerateasecondsourceofincomeandover

time,becomeaprimarysourceofincome.However,thereareanumberofissues

thatneedtobeaddressedsuchasalackoffinancialandphysicalcapitalsand

extensionservicesofferingsupportortraining.Thereareanumberof

recommendationsstemmingfromtheresultsofthisstudy,whichaimtoimprove

andstrengthentheinlandfishfarmingindustryinENBP.

158

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AppendixA:SLAsurveyhouseholdquestionnaire

SustainableLivelihoodsand

LifestyleAnalysis(SLifA),

andSWOTAnalysisQuestionnaire

TheNationalFisheriesAuthority

ENGLISHVERSION

(tobeadoptedbyACIARProjectFIS/2014/062inYear2)

187

DataSheetCode:____________________________

InterviewTeam:Researchers’/FieldOfficers’details

Namesofresearchers/FieldOfficers Organisation

1

2

3

Place

Date

Time

Note:

A. Household(HH)Details

Name(tobecoded)

Age

Sex

Levelof

education

HHhead

Spouse

Province District

Village GPSreading

Altitude

DetailsofHHmembers

Sex Levelofeducation Living

condition

Age

groups

Male Female Primary

Education

Secondary

Education

Tertiary

Education

Living

with

family

Living

alone

Above18

188

Below18

HowlonghastheHHlived

inthislocation?(years)

Ethnicity

Primary Secondary Tertiary

*OccupationoftheHHhead

*Occupationofthespouse

Male Female

HHmembersworkinginthefarm

(number)

Note:

*[Hint:agriculture,fishfarming,trading,hiredlabour,housewife,formalemployment,

etc.]

189

B. HHAssets

1. Pleaseconductatransectwalkacrossthefarmwithyourteammembersandmapthe

farm.Youcanalsotakeaphotoshotofthefarmonyoutablet,mobile,orcameraand

attachthefiletothisquestionnaire.PleaseplottheGPSreadingofthearea.Answer

questions1&2tofillindetails.Ifyouhaveaccesstoanexistingmapoftheareaor

printonefromGoogle,itcanbeutilisedtodrawtheresourcemapofthefarm.

190

2. Familyhouserelateddetails

*Typeofhouse Size

(m2)

Toilet Outside Inside None

Totalareaoffarminhectares

[Hint:Describetheconstructionmaterialofthewallandroof.Forexample,woodwall

andthatchedroof,concretewallandcorrugatedironsheetroof.]

3. Listmajorcrops,fruits,vegetablesandfarmanimalsownedbytheHH.

Crops,fruitsandvegetable Animals

Item/type Sizein

hectare

Annual

yield

Annual

yield/ha

Type Number Note

Crops Fish

Fruits pigs

Vegetables Goats/sheep

Cattle

191

4. ListotherHHassetsownedbythefamily(ifthereareotherassets–addtothelist)

Asset Car Tractor Motorbike Bicycle Television Radio Stove Generator Other

Quantity

Assets

Quantity

5. WhatistheprimarysourceofdrinkingwaterfortheHH?(Underline)[River/Stream/

Opendugwell/Pump/Pipewater/Other(name:

____________________________________________)]

6. WhatisthemainsourceofelectricityandenergyfortheHH?(Underline)

[Electricgrid/Firewood/Solar/Generator/Minihydro/other(name:

__________________)]

C. LivelihoodAsset-physicalandnaturalassets

1. Listallaquaculture,livestock,farming,forestryandgardeningassets

Item

Quantity

Cost

per

item

Total

cost

Item

Quantity

Cost

per

item

Total

cost

Boat Trees

motor

pump

Chainsaw

handnet Axe

cages Spade

coolerbox Shovel

192

Trees Hoe

Pigpen Handmill

Chicken

pen

Cowshed

2. Isthefarmaccessiblebycar?Yes/No.Ifyes,howfaristhemainroad(sealed

road/gravelroad)fromtheHH?_______________.

3. IsthereanybuiltwaterinfrastructurethattheHHhasaccessto?Yes/No.Who

controlsthisasset?______________________________________________________________________.

4. Besidesthecurrentfarm,doestheHHownotherland/property?Yes/No.Ifyes,list

alltheproperties

Locationof

property

Size(ha) Purpose(usedfor)

193

5. Aretherecommunalnaturalresourcesinthevillage?Yes/No.Ifyes,whatarethey?

List._____________________________________,______________________________________,

_____________________________________,______________________________________.

6. HowdoestheHHaccesstheseresources?Explaintheregimeofresourceuse.

________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________.

7. Whatisthenatureofaccessrightstolandinthisvillage?Describe.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________.

8. Arethereanyencroachmentorresourceconflictissuesinthevillage?Yes/No.Ifyes,

hastheHHexperiencedanyoftheseissues?Yes/No.Ifyes,describetheexperience.

____________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________.

9. DoestheHHhasintentiontousethelandforotherpurposesthanwhatitiscurrently

usedfor?Yes/No.ifyes,whatfor?_______________________________.Whatarethereasons

forthechoice?______________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

D. LivelihoodAsset–humanandsocialassets

194

1. PuttheHH’sfarmingactivities(fishfarming,cropfarming,livestockfarming,etc.)in

orderofimportance(first,second,third….)________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________.

2. Aretheresocialandculturalinstitutionsandnetworksinthevillageandsurrounding

areas?Yes/No.Ifyes,nameallsocialandculturalinstitutionsandnetworks.

______________________________________,_____________________________________

______________________________________,_____________________________________

______________________________________,_____________________________________

3. DoestheHHheadorhisfamilybelongtoanysocialand/orculturalnetworks?Yes/

No.Ifyes,hastheirmembershipcontributedtothelivelihoodoftheHH?Yes/No.If

yes,inwhatway?____________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

4. InrelationtolivelihoodofHHs,whatrolesdoculturalandsocialnetworksplay?

Pleaserecordyourpersonalobservations.Youmayalsoasktheintervieweefor

comment._______________

____________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

5. Isthereanytraditionofinnovationinaquacultureinthearea?Provideexamplesand

explain.(Noteiffarmershavecreatednewwaysofdoingthingsorsubstitutesfor

products.)____________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________.

195

6. WhatexternaltechnologiesinfishfarmingarebeingusedbythisHH?

____________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

7. DoHHmembersfeelthattheyrequireadditionalskillsorinformationtobettertheir

fishfarmingpractices?Yes/No.Ifyes,inwhatareas?_________________________________,

___________________________________,______________________________________,

___________________________________,______________________________________.

8. Pleasecheckculturalappropriatenessbeforeaskingthisquestion.DoestheHHhead

(ifmale)hasmorethanonewife?Yes/No.DoesthisaffectthelivelihoodoftheHH?

Yes/No.Ifyes,inwhatway?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

E. FinancialAssets

1. Listallincomesourcesandexpensesinthelastthreemonths

Incomesources Expenses

Income Estimated

amount

Expenses Estimated

amount

Rent Food

Cropsales Clothing

Livestocksales Education

Poultrysales Health

Vegetablesales Farmtools&labour

196

Fruitsales Communityfees

Fishsales Religiousfees

Paidemployment Taxandrelatedfees

Remittance* Leisureandlifestyle

Others Others

TOTAL TOTAL

*RemittancereferstomoneyreceivedfromWantoksandotherrelatives.

2. DoestheHHhassavings?Yes/No.Ifyes,whataretheplansforfutureinvestmentor

expenditure?_________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

3. AreHHmembersawareoffinancialinstitutionsthatlendmoney?Yes/No.Ifyes,

pleaselistthesefinancialinstitutions____________________,__________________________________,

__________________________,______________________,________________________.

4. DoanyoftheHHmembershavefinancialliteracy?Orhavetheyattendedfinancial

literacycourses?(Yes/No).Ifyes,listthosemembers.________________________,

__________________________,_________________________,______________________.

5. WhocontrolsfinanceintheHH?________________________________________.

6. HowisfishfarmingfinancedintheHH?____________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

F. Fishfarmingrelatedsocio-economics

1. Whatisthefarmownership?

!

197

I Farmerandimmediatefamily

II Community

III Others(church,school,prison,etc.)

2. Historyoffarming

I Yearstartedfarming?

II Thereasonfor

farming?

III Receivedtraining?

Fromwhoorwhat

organisation?

IV Receivedextension

advice?Fromwhoor

whatorganisation?

3. Whatisthemainfishspeciesbeingfarmed

!

I GIFT

II Commoncarp

III Rainbowtrout

IV Other

4. Farmingdata

198

I Numberofponds

II Numberofstockedponds

III Averagepondsurfacearea(m2)

IV

Watersource(creek,river,etc.)

V Flowthroughsystem(yes/no)

VI

Isfeedsupplied?Ifyeswhat?

VII Howoftenisfeedsupplied?

VIII Sourceoffingerlings

IX Howoftenareharvestsmade

X Reasonsforharvest

5. Marketing

I HowoftendoestheHHselltable

sizefish?

(inthelast3month)**

Seldom Sometimes Regularly

Whereisthemainmarket?

III Whatistheaveragesizeoftable

fishsold(cm)?

199

IV Anaveragenumberoftablesize

fishsoldperharvest?

V Isharvestseasonal?

VI Whatisthepriceofaveragefish

sold?

**1)Seldom(onceortwice)2)Sometimes(3-10times)3)Regularly(morethan10

times)

6. Mainconstraint

I Whatisthemainconstraint?

II Wheredoyouthinkyoucanget

supporttohelpyou?

7. Seasonalityofproduction,consumptionandsalesoffarmedfish(estimatethe

quantitiesandvaluesoffishproduced,consumedandsoldforthelast3months).

Tablesize

fish

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Amount

produced

(#)

Consumed

(#)

200

Givento

neighbours

orrelatives

(#)

Sold(#)

Sales

price/fish

($)

8. Fishfarminginput(pleasenotetheinputsassociatedcosts).

Input Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fingerlings

Fishfeed

Manure/fertiliser

Labour

Medicine

Otherinputs

G. Vulnerabilitycontext

1. Havetherebeenchangesinhumanpopulationinthevillageinthepastfewyears?Yes

/No.Ifyes,inwhatway?_____________________________________________________________

201

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

2. Havetherebeenchangesintheproductivityoflandoverthepastfewyears?Yes/No.

ifyes,inwhatway?___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

3. HastheHHobservedvariationincropyield,fruityieldorfishyieldoverthepastfew

years?Yes/No.Ifyes,inwhatway?______________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

4. Hastherebeenchangesincroppingandfarmingpracticesinthepastfewyears?Yes/

No.Ifyes,inwhatway?_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

5. HastheHHbeenaffectedbychangesinrainfallinthepastfewyears?Yes/No.Ifyes,

inwhatway?_______________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

6. Werethereanyethnicconflictsintheareainthepastfewyears?Yes/No.Ifyes,isit

(increasingordecreasing)?HowhasconflictaffectedthelivelihoodofthisHH?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________.

7. HastherebeennoticeablechangesthataffectedthelivelihoodoftheHHand/orits

accesstogovernmentservices?Yes/No.Ifyes,whatwerethosechangesandinwhat

202

wastheimpactontheHH?

_____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________.

8. ArethereothersocialtrendsthattheHHheadwouldliketotalkabout?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________.

H. Policy,Institutionandprocesses

1. WhatisthelevelofawarenessofHHmembersabouttheroleofgovernmentsin

improvingthelivelihoodofHHs?Discuss.

_____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________.

2. AreHHmembersawareoflegislativeframeworksand/orpoliciesthataffectthe

livelihoodoftheHH?Explain._________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

I. Livelihoodstrategiesandoutcomes

1. WhatarethereasonsforwhichtheHHisengagedinfishfarming?_______________________

____________________________________________________________________________.

2. IftheHHhasmorethanonefarmactivities(sayfishfarming,vegetables…),which

combinationofactivitiesseemtobeworkingforthisHH?

_________________________________________

203

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

J. Lifestyleandlifestylechoicesandoutcomes

1. Besidestheimmediatelivelihoodstrategies,whataretheexpectationsthatHH

membershave?(askfortheirdreamsandwhattheyaspirefor)

_______________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________.

2. WhatarethereligiousandspiritualexpectationofthisHH?Discuss.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________.

3. Arethereanyculturalfactorsthatyouthinkinfluencelifestylechoicesinthis

community(pleasenoteyourpersonalobservations)

_________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________.

204

4.

K. SWOTAnalysis

Circlescorethatexpresseshowmuchthefarmeragreeswiththestatement.

KEY: 1=stronglydisagree 2=disagree

3=possiblybutnoevidenceorhavenotexperienced

4=agree 5=stronglyagree

S1 Waterisfreelyavailableandaccessible

S2 Landfreelyavailable

S3 Extensionservicesreadilyavailable

S4 Fingerlingsarewidelyavailable

S5 Goodclimateandenvironmentforfishfarming

S6 Fundingandcreditisaccessible

S7 NGOordonorsupportisaccessible

S8 EHfarmer’scooperativeissupportingfarmers

S9 Gooddemandforfarmedfish

205

W1 Lackofextensionmaterialandtrainingfor

farmers

W2 Lackofregularupdatesandinformationon

fish-farmingdevelopmentandopportunities

throughradio/newspaper

W3 Fishfeedisexpensiveand/ornotalways

available

W4 Farmerslackskillsinfarming

W5 Farmerslackbasicrecordkeepingand

managementskills

W6 Lackoforganisedmarketforfarmers

W7 Farmerslackskillsinpreservation/postharvest

handling

W8 Lackofaccesstoaquacultureequipmentsuch

asscoop-nets,seine-nets,etc.

discourages/hindersfarming

W9 Badtransportinfrastructure

discourages/hindersfarming

O1 Demandforfarmedfishisgrowing

206

O2 Farmersneedmoretrainingandextension

O3 Childrenshouldbetaughtfish-farmingat

schoolasalesson

O4 Farmerswouldusesocialmedia(Facebook)to

readaboutfishfarmingifavailable

O5 Farmersarehappytoworkwithall

stakeholdersandhavenopreference

O6 Goodaffordablefishfeedisneededtoimprove

farming

T1 Itisgettingmoreexpensivetofarmfish

T2 Stealingoffishfrompondsisincreasing

T3 Stealingisdiscouragingfish-farming

T4 Conflictonwateruseforfishfarmingandother

useisgrowing

T5 Conflictonlanduseforfishfarmingandother

useisgrowing

T6 Lackoforganisedmarketisdiscouragingfish

farming

T7 Diseaseintroductionwilldiscouragefish

farming

207

T8 Slowgrowthoffisheventhoughfeedis

regularlygiven,discouragesfishfarming

T9 Pollutionofwatersupplyaffectsmyfarm

T9 Alongspillofdroughthasaffectedand

discouragedfishfarming

T10 Floodingaffectsfishfarming

Arethereanycommentsthatyouwouldliketomake?_______________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________.

208

AppendixB:FocusgroupquestionstranslatedtoTokPisin

FocusGroupDiscussion

1) Whatarethemainbottleneckstoaquaculturedevelopmentinyourlocality?

Wanembigpelaproblemesavebagarapimwokbilongakwakalsalokamap

gudnagrobigpelainsaitlopelesbilongyou?

2) Whatopportunitiesarethereforaquaculturedevelopmentinyourlocality?

Wanemgutplachancenaolrisosessapotbilongkirapimwokakwakalsae

staplopelesbilongyu?

3) Whatarethedriversforestablishingafishfarm?Arethereanyincentives

tofarmfish?Ifso,whatarethey?

Wanemkainsamplatoktok,tingtingohalivimemekimyustatimna

kirapimfishfarm?Igatsampelaluksaveohalivimyukisimlolukautim

fish?Saposegat,wanemkainluksave?

4) Whatarethecommunitybenefitsoffishfarming?

Wanemgutplahalivimokaikaifishfarmingebringimkamlongkomunity?

5) Whatarethemainlivelihoodsformembersofyourcommunity?

YutingolcommunitysavewokimwanemwoklopainimkaikainaMani

samtingbilongusimnastaplife?

209

6) Whatgovernmentandnon-governmentprogramshavehelpedfish

farmers?Whichoneswereeffectiveandwhy?Whichoneswereineffective

andwhy?

WanemkainwokGovernmentnaNon-Governmentoganisasenebin

kamapimehalivimolfishfarmers?Wanemworkekamapgutplanawanem

enokamapgutpla?naywokekamapolsem?

7) Wheredoyouconsidersuitableforfishfarmingandwhatcriteriadoyou

use?

Yutingwanempeleselukgutpelalokamapimfishfarm,nayyutokolsem?

8) Wouldfishfarmingbeapriorityforfoodorincomesecurity?

Yutingwanem?Fishfarmingbaikamapnambawantingtingbikoslokisim

gutpelakaikailopisobikoslokamapimpisnasalimlokisimmani?

9) Howisinformationonfishfarmingsharedbetweenfarmers?

Yupelaolfishfarmersavesikelimoltingtingnatoktokbilongkamapimwok

fishfarmingnamellongyupelaolsemwanem?

10) Whattypeofeducationalmaterialwouldhelplocalfishfarmers?

Wanemkainolbukotrainin-pepanapiksabilongtrainimolfishfarmersI

kenhalivimollongkisimsavegut?

11) Whattypeoftrainingprogramswouldhelplocalfishfarmers?

210

Wanemkaingutplawaynapasinbilongtrainingekenhalivimolfarmerslo

wokimgutfishfarm?

211

AppendixC:PhotosofFishPonds

1:Irondrumfishpond

2:Concretefishpond

212

3:Earthenpond,themostcommontypeofpondinENBP