The miombo woodlands at the cross roads: Potential threats,sustainable livelihoods, policy gaps and challenges

Stephen Syampungani, Paxie W. Chirwa, Festus K. Akinnifesi, Gudeta Sileshi andOluyede C. Ajayi

Abstract

The Miombo, the most extensive tropical woodland formation of Africa directly supports the livelihoods of over 100 millionpeople through the provision of many tree products and ecosystem services essential to both the rural and urban communities.While the destruction of the Miombo has often been blamed on the rural communities dwelling near the forest resources, manyurban dwellers depend heavily on the various products derived from the woodlands. This paper highlights the importance ofthe Miombo in the livelihoods of rural people, the potential threats to this ecosystem and opportunities for its sustainablemanagement. About 70% of energy consumed in southern Africa is in the form of fuelwood or charcoal. The economicimportance of the Miombo especially from non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is usually understated due to their perceivednon-economic value yet they play an important role in sustaining livelihoods of forest dependent people in the miomboecoregion. The Miombo also contributes to health services through the use of medicinal plant and products, in some cases,contributing up to 80% to rural health, including helping in coping with effects of HIV/AIDS, malaria and several diseases.The possibility of developing payment for environmental services schemes through public–private partnerships, andcommunity-based sustainable management models are proposed. Through conservation and commercialization of some of theproducts and services, there is a potential to provide income and improve the livelihood of people involved in the trade alongthe value chain.narf_1218 150..159

Keywords: Charcoal; Commercialization; Development–conservation trade-off; Natural resource conflicts; NTFPs; Policy gaps; Sustainable livelihoods.

1. Introduction

The Miombo woodland, with an estimated coverage of 2.7million km2, is the most extensive tropical woodland inAfrica (Frost, 1996). It covers Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia,Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and most of thesouthern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo(Campbell et al., 2008). The woodland supports thelivelihoods of over 100 million rural and urban dwellers(Bradley and Dewees, 1993). Unfortunately, the currentforest utilization has resulted in continued deforestation

(Chidumayo, 1997; Luoga et al., 2002, 2005). The keydrivers of deforestation are mainly land clearing foragriculture, wood extraction for energy, and uncontrolledbush fires (Chambwera, 2004; Chidumayo and Mbata,2002; Campbell et al., 2008). Two factors may be attributedto the rapid decline in the miombo woodland. Firstly,demand for fuelwood and charcoal has increased due to therelatively high cost of electricity and petroleum-based fuelsas well as rapid human growth, particularly in urban areas(Chidumayo, 1993). Secondly, there is increasing pressureon the woodlands arising from rapid human growth,particularly in urban areas. In addition, the nationaleconomies of the miombo ecoregion has, in the past beengrowing slowly with per capita income growth rate as lowas 1% between 1990 and 1999 (Kaimowitz, 2003), yetpoverty levels remain high in the ecoregion countries evenin later years (Table 1).

The present patterns of utilization of miombo resourcesare unsustainable (Abbot and Homewood, 1999; Geist,1999; Luoga et al., 2002). Thus, loss of biodiversity and

Stephen Syampungani is with the Copperbelt University, School ofNatural Resources, Kitwe, Zambia. Corresponding author e-mail:syampungani@cbu.ac.zm; mugande@sun.ac.za; mugande2003@yahoo.co.uk

Paxie W. Chirwa is with Stellenbosch University, Department of Forestand Wood Science, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Festus K. Akinnifesi, Gudeta Sileshi and Oluyede C. Ajayi are with theWorld Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southern Africa RegionalProgramme, Lilongwe, Malawi

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extinction of most of the woodland resources are imminentif the current intensive exploitation of miombo resourcescontinues unchecked. What remains of the miombo isof considerable importance scientifically, sociologicallyand economically. Unfortunately, there is a lack of decisivepolicy instruments and management measures to effectivelycurb the biodiversity loss and woodland destruction. Thispaper, which has been drawn from an extensive review ofpublished work is aimed at providing a synthesis of thecurrent state of knowledge on (1) subsistence andcommercial exploitation of timber and non-timber forestproducts (NTFPs), (2) the role of these resources in thelivelihood of local communities, (3) opportunities forcommercialization of products and services without undulycompromising conservation and sustainable managementobjectives, and (4) policy gaps and challenges thathinder realization of sustainable management of miombowoodland resources. We believe such information is usefulfor development of practices, principles and policies thatwill help create alternative livelihoods and economicincentives to integrate biological conservation witheconomic development of the miombo ecoregion.

2. Consumption of wood products in the miomboecoregion

Wood products are extracted from the miombo for use asfuelwood, for charcoal production, construction materialsand for commercial enterprises such as curing tobacco anddrying fish (Abbot and Homewood, 1999; Geist, 1999).Fuelwood is one of the primary sources of energy fordomestic use and processing (curing tobacco, drying fish,etc) throughout the region (Abbot and Homewood, 1999;Geist, 1999). It accounts for high percentages of the totalhousehold energy requirements. However, the consumptionvaries across countries ranging from 85% in Mozambique(Brigham et al., 1996), 91% inTanzania (SADC, 1993), 76%in Zambia (Chidumayo, 1997) and 14% in South Africa(Gander, 1994).Agro-processing operations such as tobaccocuring require large quantities of fuel wood. Some 9 to 37and 19 to 33 m3 of wood per ton of tobacco is required for flue

and fire-cured tobacco, respectively (Geist, 2000). To meetthe wood demand of tobacco curing, 140,000 ha of miombowoodlands are annually cleared, and this accounts for 4–26%of the deforestation in the miombo (Geist, 1999). A lessobvious but major use of wood is fish smoking. However, astudy from Malawi suggests that this commercial enterprisecan have a major effect on miombo woodlands (Abbotand Homewood, 1999). Neither natural nor artificialregeneration has been able to keep pace with the rate ofexploitation. For example, in eastern Tanzania the estimatedannual wood removal for all uses (6.4 m3 ha-1) exceeds thereported mean annual increment (4.4 m3 ha-1 yr-1) (Luogaet al., 2002). Commercial harvesting of miombo trees forcharcoal overrides patterns from other harvesting purposesbecause of economic incentive and the wide range of speciesand size classes harvested (Luoga et al., 2002).

Trade in fuelwood and charcoal represents a source ofcash income and employment for the many rural poor. InZambia, out of a total of 45,500 people engaged in theindustry full-time, about 41,000 are engaged in charcoalproduction (Hibajene and Ellegard, 1994). A similar patternwas obtained in a study conducted in Dar es Salaam marketsin Tanzania (Monela et al., 1993). There are considerabletrade networks moving the wood, or more usually thecharcoal, from rural areas to urban areas (Campbell et al.,2003). Consequently, proximity to markets and transportroutes is a significant factor in the harvesting levels and theresulting impacts on miombo woodland structure andproductivity (Malimbwi et al., 2005). However, commercialdemand for fuelwood may pose a serious challenge to thecontribution of the industry to the well-being of localcommunities. This is because entrepreneurs not necessarilyresidents in the rural community tend to undertakeharvesting for the commercial markets (Shackleton andClarke, 2007). Attwell et al. (1989) made this observationin Zimbabwe where fuelwood trade was of limitedimportance to rural employment, as most of the suppliesfor the market were done by large-scale commercialfarms.

The high levels of fuelwood energy in the national energybudgets for the miombo ecoregion makes fuelwoodconsumption a major local and global environmental issue

Table 1. Indicators of poverty for selected years in countries predominantly covered by miombo woodlands

Country Gross National Income /Capita(current US$)

Poverty index† Growth rates (%)

2001 2005 . 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Angola 470 1410 na 3 14 3 11 21Malawi 140 160 21 (2005) -5 3 6 7 3Mozambique 210 310 36 (2003) 13 8 8 7 8Tanzania 270 340 58 (2000) 6 7 7 7 7Zambia 300 500 64 (2005) 5 3 5 5 5Zimbabwe 540 350 56 (1997) -3 -4 -10 -4 -6

Source: Campbell et al. (2008); na — data not available; † Poverty headcount ratio at $1/day; (PPP) % of population.

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(Chambwera, 2004). Fuelwood consumption together withslash and burn agriculture has accelerated degradation inthe region (FAO, 2000a).

The high levels of energy consumption make urban areassignificant contributors to energy related problems such asdeforestation (Karekezi and Majoro, 2002). Deforestationof the miombo woodland has been associated with massiveloss of nutrients, fauna, flora and high productiveecosystems (Bradley and Dewees, 1993; GRZ, 1998;Sileshi et al., 2007). Biodiversity and nutrient losses are ofmajor concern in the miombo ecoregion. For example, FAO(2000a) reported that 191 tree species in the miomboecoregion are endangered due to forest conversion for eitherslash and burn agriculture or charcoal production.Additionally, it has been reported that conversion ofmiombo woodlands to agricultural ecosystems is depletingterrestrial carbon by drastically reducing the vegetationcarbon density as well as soil organic carbon (Sileshi et al.,2007) thereby increasing the emission levels. Althoughthese per capita emission levels (e.g. 93TgC for 1996) arelower than world averages (Scholes, 2004; WRI, 2000)there has been an increase in emissions over the 1990baseline (Sileshi et al., 2007).

3. Economic potential of NTFPS

The miombo ecoregion’s non-timber forest products playan important role in the livelihood of its people by providinga range of products for subsistence consumption and trade.Medicinal plants, exudates, forage, bee products, edibleplants, woodcrafts, mushrooms and bush meat are some ofthe main items in this group. Over the years, there has beenan increase in reliance on non-timber forest products fora large number of people due to high incidence of povertyand the limited access to products and services from theformal sector (FAO, 2005). Additionally, the growinginternational trade in a number of products, includingmedicinal plants has also increased the demand for thenon-timber forest products (FAO, 2005). Some of theseproducts are discussed below

3.1. Medicinal plants

It has been estimated that more than 80% of the ruraldwellers in sub-Saharan Africa depend on medicinal plantsfor most of their health needs (Garrity, 2004). Among thevarious non-wood products traded, medicinal plants deservespecial attention, not only in view of their importance intraditional healing, but also for their contribution tointernational trade. In the developing world, an estimated80% of the population use traditional medicines for theirprimary healthcare needs (Chirwa et al., 2008). The rangeof health products has increased both within and outsideAfrica. Cunningham (1997) also reported that increasedurbanization and the inadequacy of conventional medicinal

facilities have resulted in growing demand for traditionalhealing which in turn increases the demand and economicpotential for medicinal plants. Trade in medicinal plantproducts can greatly enhance the economic well-beingof communities at local, national and international levels.For example, FAO (2000b) estimated an annual trade inmedicinal plants of about US$ 60 million for South Africawhile that of Zambia was estimated at US$ 4.4 million.

The market in raw materials for medicinal or therapeuticplants and products in southern Africa is estimated at US$150 million per year. Between 5,000 and 10,000 tonnes areexported annually, and 50 to 100 thousand tonnes areconsumed locally (Diederichs, 2006). The informal trade ofmedicinal plants and products in southern Africa isdominated by about four to five hundred thousandtraditional healers that dispense medicines and herbalremedies to up to 100 million consumers (Diederichs,2006). Local communities have exploited the leaves fortreating several ailments, such as constipation, toothache,cold and cough, fever, pains, measles and malaria. Becauseof unsustainable harvesting methods and economicpressures, medicinal trees in the miombo region, are nowthreatened.

3.2. Wood carving

The woodcraft industry also provides employment for manypeople in the ecoregion. Miombo woodland has a number ofspecies used for processing into wood carvings or furniturefor the market. Among these species, the commonly usedones in the ecoregion are Dalbergia melanoxylon,Pterocarpus angolensis, Spirostachya africana, Afzeliaquanzensis and Swartzia madascariensis (Matose et al.,1996). The ability of wood carving to sustain the livelihoodof the rural people has been well documented not only forthe miombo ecoregion (Braedt and Campbell, 2001;Standa-Gunda, 2004) but also for other developingcountries. Similarly, Mikolo et al. (2008) reported theimportance of wood carving in income generation amongthe poor South Africans. With slow growth of formaleconomy in the miombo ecoregion, this kind of informaleconomy may provide an alternative source of employmentto the rural people. However care must be taken to ensuresustainable harvesting of the preferred species. Currently,various studies report unsustainable harvesting for highlypriced species in Zimbabwe (Standa-Gunda, 2004) and alsoin some parts of South Africa (Shackleton and Shackleton,2004).

3.3. Fruits and nuts

The utilization and marketing of fruits are integralcomponents of the local economies in the ecoregion.Miombo fruits are of great importance in the diet of manyrural dwellers. Fruit sale is one of the strategies to meetspecific cash needs in case of crop failure (Akinnifesi et al.,

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2008b). The last two decades have witnessed increasedinterest in the conservation, domestication andcommercialization efforts of indigenous miombo fruit trees(Akinnifesi et al., 2008b). Miombo species whose fruits arewidely marketed throughout the ecoregion include Uapacakirkiana, Azanza garckeana, Sclerocarya birrea andStrychnos cocculoides (Akinnifesi et al., 2008a).Harvesting miombo indigenous fruits from the wild andsemi-domesticated trees growing on-farm can substantiallyboost rural income and create employment (Akinnifesiet al., 2008a), especially with processing and value addition(Saka et al., 2007).

Recent participatory domestication research by the WorldAgroforestry and partners has created opportunities for thedevelopment of miombo indigenous fruit trees as new cropsand their management on-farm (Akinnifesi et al., 2008b).This provides a win–win strategy aimed at reducing over-dependence and exploitation of the wild population, whileat the same time helping farmers and researchers in thedevelopment of new tree crops to capture economicopportunities.

3.4. Mushrooms

The Miombo is rich in edible mushroom populationsnamely about 45 different species in Zimbabwe (Wilson,1990), 60 in Malawi and 53 in DRC (Makonda and Gillah,2007) while in Zambia, the figure is even higher (Piearce,1987). For example, the world’s largest and one of thetastiest mushrooms (Termitomyces titanicus) is restrictedto miombo (Piearce, 1987). Although the quantities andmarket values are not known, mushrooms are widelycollected and traded by the local people.

3.5. Honey

Honey hunting and traditional beekeeping have long beenpart of the subsistence economy of people inhabiting theMiombo woodlands (Fischer, 1993). Honey-hunting fromferal colonies of bees is done by many people on anopportunistic basis, while beekeeping is often a specialistenterprise, or a way-of-life. In Zambia alone, honey huntingand beekeeping improve diets for an estimated 250,000farmers and are an important source of income for over20,000 rural households. Management of the hives andcolonies is adapted to the seasonal nature of the woodlandsand the semi-migratory habits of the bees. Hence traditionalbeekeeping works within a framework set by thesubsistence needs of the household, the chance to earnsupplementary income, and the opportunity of supplyingimportant commodities to the community to theenhancement of social relationships. The high abundance ofbee plant species in the miombo woodland (Chidumayo,1997) makes the ecoregion one of the major producers ofhoney and bees wax in Africa (Chikamai and Tchatat,undated). The annual production of honey is estimated at

24,000MT (FAO, 2000a). In Tanzania, annual foreignearnings from both honey and bees wax was estimated atUS$ 8 million (Mpuya, 2003). Beekeeping was for a longtime considered detrimental to forestry in Miombo, becauseof the large number of trees used in hive construction, andthe indiscriminate burning that was sometimes caused byhoney-hunters. In north-western Zambia, an estimatednumber of 272,900 trees are debarked every year to providethe 15,000 beekeepers owning on average 73 hives, with 29replacement hives each year (Clauss, 1991). However, ifmodern hives are promoted, beekeeping can be carried outin Miombo woodlands without conflict with any other formof land use therein (Fischer, 1993).

3.6. Edible insects

The most common insects are termites (Sileshi et al., 2008)and edible caterpillars (Chidumayo and Mbata, 2002) At theonset of the rainy season, termites are trapped in theirdispersal flight and are processed and eaten as relish orsnacks. These are also dried, and sometimes transportedlong distances to markets for sale. However, quantitiestraded are yet to be determined. Edible caterpillars are notonly a source of food but also a source of income enablinglocal people to buy goods and services that otherwise wouldnot be obtained (Chidumayo and Mbata, 2002). Hence,collection and trade in edible caterpillars is widespread inthe miombo. For example, people travel 200–300 km topick caterpillars, and traders travel up to 900 km (fromLusaka and the Copper Belt) to buy them in northernZambia (Holden, 1991). A person can earn the equivalent ofa month’s salary for a general worker in Zambia from sevendays’ picking (Holden, 1991). Detailed local studies alsoshow that utilization of caterpillars is a viable enterprise forrural communities in Zambia (Chidumayo and Mbata,2002) and Malawi (Munthali and Mughogho, 1992). Evenin years of moderate abundance, edible caterpillars generateincomes of over US$ 60 per household that are comparableor even higher than incomes from sales of agricultural cropsin northern Zambia (Chidumayo and Mbata, 2002). AroundKasungu national park in Malawi, caterpillar collection andbeekeeping produced twice to several times the grossmargin values of maize, beans, and groundnuts, and did notdirectly compete for labour with the existing agriculturalenterprises in rural households (Munthali and Mughogho,1992). In Malawi, approximately 170 people participated inthe legal harvest of caterpillars during the 1991 seasonwhere each person earned nearly 50 US$ from the sale ofcaterpillars (Cunningham, 1997).

The method of harvesting edible caterpillars has in turncontributed to deforestation in the miombo. Forestryworkers in Zambia have considered the caterpillars more aspests due to the damage done by people collecting themillegally in the National Forests, cutting down trees to pickthem (Chidumayo and Mbata, 2002). Local extinction ofsome species due to the loss of their natural habitat and host

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plants, and eradication of some considered pests has been amajor constraint to their sustainable utilization (Chidumayoand Mbata, 2002, Munthali and Mughogho, 1992). Themajor causes of decline of edible caterpillar populations inthe miombo are deforestation, forest fires and overgrazing(Munthali and Mughogho, 1992).

3.7. Bush meat and other animal products

This is an important source of food more especially in areasclose to natural forests. For example, people in NorthernMalawi, parts of southern Tanzania, Zambia andMozambique where considerable area of forest exists, do alot of hunting. Poaching and cross-border trade in bushmeat pose serious threats to wildlife throughout themiombo (Stuart et al., 1990). Elephant and rhino poachinghave been extremely severe due to insufficient managementwithin protected areas as well as the civil war inMozambique (Stuart et al., 1990). In the Selous GameReserve alone, the elephant population has been reducedfrom 100,000 in 1981 to roughly 31,000 in 1994 (Saidet al., 1995) as a direct result of poaching. Trafficking inhides is a further problem. In addition, the live animal tradein Tanzania is one of the biggest in Africa, especially inbirds and tortoises. This activity could severely affect localwildlife populations (Stuart et al., 1990).

4. Opportunities for commercialization andconservation

4.1. Commercialization and conservation of NTFPs

Trends in food markets have changed significantly in thelast decades, with growing emphasis on variety and organicproducts (Akinnifesi et al., 2008a). Miombo woodland fruitproducts can qualify as organic products and could gainmarket share and entrance in the increasing niche marketfor natural products, especially if operated within fair tradeprinciples (Akinnifesi et al., 2008a). Phytotrade estimates apotential regional value of US$ 3 billion for eight oilproducing wild fruit species provided reliable markets canbe established (Campbell et al., 2008). The opportunitiespresented by emerging markets for these and other productssuch as cosmetics, pharmaceutica and food additives cangreatly benefit many people in the Miombo ecoregion.

For example, the marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp.caffra) has been used in the production of the popularCream liqueur and maruline (Ham et al., 2008). Similarly,the ecoregion has important high value medicinalplant species which include Erythrophleum lasianthium,Aloe spp. and Harpagophytum procumbens (Cunningham,1997). Harpagophytum procumbens is one of theplant species that represent South Africa’s contribution tothe world medicines (Chikamai and Tchatat, undated).

However, the reliability of supply and quality tend to affectthe long-term viability of the commercialization potentialof these products.

Improvement in quality may therefore be achieved at twolevels; firstly, through a tree improvement programmeat domestication stage. The characterization of species(see Atangana et al., 2002) can help in developing cultivarswith traits desired for consumption and to satisfy marketpreferences. Secondly, through improvement of post-harvest practices, covering aspects of harvesting of fruits,extraction, drying and sorting of kernels, storage andpackaging. For hard-shelled nut species such asRicinodendron heulotii and Sclerocarya birrea, efficientmethods for kernel extraction are available (Tchoundjeuet al., 2008). To address issues related to the effects of thesupply chain, quality assurance and pricing, peopleinvolved in this trade may be trained in marketing.Additionally, it would also be important to provide theplayers in this trade with adequate market information.

4.2. Development of sustainable natural resourcesmanagement

Dependence on agriculture and subsistence utilization ofwildlife, besides depleting the resources in the miombowoodland, has been ineffective in improving the livingstandards of local communities. Therefore, creation ofalternative livelihoods and economic incentives such asclimate change mitigation, that integrate biologicalconservation with economic development, are neededfor effective management. This entails development ofpractices, principles and policies that help increase foodand/or income for economically marginal rural familieswho rely on extraction of the woodland. To reducedependence on fuelwood extraction and charcoal burning,the following would have to be implemented: (1) promotionof agroforestry woodlots for production of fuelwood andother alternative biomass energy sources on-farm (e.g.Jatropha oil) (Sileshi et al., 2007), (2) design of improvedstoves and promotion of efficient kilns for charcoalproduction, (3) adoption of an energy policy specificallyfocused on biomass production, and (4) encouragement ofother alternative and renewable energy sources such assolar, hydro-electricity, biogas and petroleum products. Toreduce dependence on honey-hunting and tree-debarking,improved beehives and appropriate apicultural technologiesneed to be promoted. However, in places where extensivewoodland cover still exists, there may be initial resistance.There is also no reason to radically change traditionalmethods of beekeeping since they have proven to besustainable and resilient to many different internal andexternal forces (Fischer, 1993). To reduce destructivecaterpillar harvesting, mass-production methods (Keniset al., 2006) could be explored since edible caterpillars areas easy to mass produce as silkworms. There are alsoopportunities for integration of beekeeping and edible

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caterpillar collection in current management of protectedareas and agroforestry practices (Kenis et al., 2006).

4.3. Payment for environmental services and associatedbenefits

The relationship between forests, and changing trendsin forestry around the world and environmental serviceshas been central to much of the thinking, funding andpromotion of markets for environmental services (MES)(Landell-Mills and Porras, 2001). Evidence of globalwarming and the role that forests play in reducing thisthreat is well established (Hulmes, 1996). Since forests arevaluable natural resources, providing ecosystem servicessuch as attractive landscapes, carbon sequestration,biodiversity conservation, and watershed protection,considerable attention is being given to sustainable forestmanagement (Jun, 2006). Payment for EnvironmentalServices (PES) is becoming increasingly recognized as astrategy to bridge the perceived disconnect betweenenvironmental conservation and food security especially inlow-income and food deficit countries (Ajayi et al., 2007).These ecosystem services are commonly attributed tosustainable forest management.

More than anywhere else, understanding the link betweenclimate change and development is crucial in the miomboecoregion, and in the whole of Africa, where agriculture andother climate sensitive sectors are the mainstay of mostnational economies (Kandji et al., 2006). Miomboecoregion countries have recognized the challenge posedand have shown commitment to tackling climate change. Astrong indication of the region’s commitment is that all thecountries have ratified UNFCCC (Kandji et al., 2006) andtherefore clean development mechanisms. Under the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol,industrial development and land-use projects that createcarbon sinks (i.e., which result in the net uptake of CO2

from the atmosphere) or prevent carbon sources areencouraged (Scholes, 2004). Industrialized nations areexpected to meet part of their carbon emission reductioncommitments for 2008–2012 by carrying out specifiedforest management programmes in developing countries(UNFCCC, 2001) which include activities like avertingdeforestation and promotion of natural woodlandregeneration. The contribution of carbon sequestrationprojects to the well-being of the communities around theindigenous forests/woodlands has been documented inTanzania (Stave and Eraker, 2000) and Uganda (WRM,2002). Miombo woodland can also be managed for carbonsequestration. Even with high levels of deforestation in theecoregion, the degraded sites may still be managed forcarbon sequestration through coppice or regenerationmanagement. This is because miombo woodlanddevelops rapidly once it is abandoned. Several studies(Syampungani, 2008 and references cited therein) havereported rapid development of the miombo regrowth stands

on cessation of the disturbance (cultivation or charcoalproduction). The regrowth stands have also been reported tobe of very high productive forest ecosystem (Geldenhuys,2005; Syampungani, 2008). The high productive forest/woodland ecosystems tend to have high rates ofphotosynthetic processes and therefore high uptake ofcarbon dioxide. The data on rates of carbon uptake inSouthern African savannas are available (see Shackleton,1997; Scholes and Van der Merwe, 1996). Additionally, dataon the primary production and soil carbon availabilityspecific to miombo woodland indicate that 900–1600 gm-2 yr-1 (Frost, 1996). These values indicate thatSouthern African woodlands have a large potential forcarbon storage (Scholes, 2004) and therefore can contributeeffectively to carbon emission reduction. Agriculturetechniques which conserve biomass and build soil organicmatter, such as agroforestry, could result in a landscapewhich is both agriculturally productive and rich in carbon(Frost, 1996). The reduction in fire frequency in woodlandsavannas is believed to increase carbon uptake forphotosynthetic activities. Experiments in many parts ofAfrica, including some in miombo woodlands, have shownwoody biomass and soil carbon to increase if fires areexcluded (Trapnell et al., 1976). Additionally, carbon-storage benefits of miombo management can be extendedbeyond 50 years by harvesting the timber sustainably, andeither converting it to long-lived products such as furniture,or by using its energy sources instead of fossil fuels (Frost,1996).

Miombo woodland is also rich in fauna and floraresources (Stuart et al., 1990) which are essential to boththe rural and the urban livelihoods across the ecoregion.Wildlife is hunted mostly for food and commercialpurposes. As in many other African forests, the resource hasbeen overexploited as a common property resource inmiombo woodlands with almost all hunting activities beingcarried out illegally. Hunters operate without permits, usingunregistered guns and unconventional trapping equipment(e.g. Tako, 1999) resulting in wildlife resource depletion.Eco-tourism through game farming may provide analternative way of managing wildlife resource to derivebenefit for both government and the local communities.

Ecotourism is one of the sectors with the fastesteconomic growth in the world and one that has a generallylow negative impact on the environment in comparison withother productive sectors (Chikamai and Tchatat, undated).A well designed eco-tourism programme offers potential toenable local residents to receive substantial economicbenefit while simultaneously creating incentives for natureconservation (Wunder, 1999). It is a form of non-consumptive use of the forest and hence a well suitedelement for conservation of the forest and its biodiversity(Brown, 1998). If properly implemented, eco-tourism canbe an alternative source of income and livelihood that candivert local communities away from actions that negativelyimpact miombo woodland. Various examples in Africa

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where eco-tourism has succeeded have been documentedincluding Kipepeo Project in Kenya, Zimbabwe, the Gorillawatching forest (Uganda, Rwanda and the DemocraticRepublic of Congo, and the USAID/Ghana tourism projects(see Gordon and Ayiemba, 2003; Hasler, 2003).

5. Policy gaps and challenges ahead

Management of forest resources and other natural resourcesin the miombo ecoregion is governed by a regulatorysystem consisting of several acts and policies(Kayambazinthu et al., 2003). Access to forest resourcesuse through these regulations involves the issuanceof permits (Oduol et al., 2008). Reinforcement ofconservation by-laws by traditional rulers has beenwitnessed in some communities. For example, in northernZambia, by-laws regulating bush burning and the openingand closing dates of caterpillar collection are enforced bythe chiefs or the paramount chief (Chidumayo and Mbata,2002; Holden, 1991). In Tanzania, some chiefs declaredcertain forests as traditional reserves (Kowero et al., 2003).Although the government acts and local regulatory systemscould, in principle, help to protect natural resources, thedrawback is that their implementation has been ineffectivedue to the independent nature of their operations and subtlecompetition between institutions (Kowero, 2003).Additionally, the management style emanating from theenforcement of the legal instrument has been restrictive innature (Kowero, 2003). For example, policies governing themanagement of protected areas have so far stressed non-consumptive utilization of protected resources (Munthaliand Mughogo, 1992). This has hampered the opportunityfor the rural communities to manage and live in harmonywith their natural resources. Some government actsand policies also tend to take away functions andresponsibilities of the traditional leadership, central in anAfrican setting (Virtanen, 1999) yet traditional institutionsprovide for sustainable forest management. If policies haveto be effective, they need to be inclusive by taking allstakeholders on board and providing an opportunity forstakeholders to meet their needs as they contribute towardssustainable forest management. This approach recognizesthe vital role that local communities play in forestmanagement. It also recognizes the contribution of forestsand woodland resources to rural livelihoods. Historically,rural communities in many African countries and elsewherehave sustainably managed woodland resources for a varietyof products (Clarke, 1994) and this has been the basis forthe formulation of participatory forest managementpolicies. Participatory forest management has beenpractised in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa: BurkinaFaso (Hagberg, 1992); Cameroon (Watts, 1994); Ghana(Rietbergen-McCracken, 1996); Somalia (Prah, 1997);Sudan (Langoya and Long, 1998); Sudan (Rietbergen,1998) and many southern African countries (Wily, 2009).

Policies conducive to promotion of small- scale, moresustainable technologies such as alternative (clean) energydevelopment and agroforestry are lacking. Programs andpolicies which take into account the complex economicforces that influence energy production and consumptionare urgently needed. It is therefore important that forestryand energy policies are complementary in order to foster theachievement of maximum benefits which wood can offer.Additionally, the promotion of more efficient wood stovesand the development of more modern production systemssuch as the use of wood for electricity production maycontribute towards sustainable forest management.

6. Conclusion

The rural economies in the miombo region are mainly basedon extraction of various products and services from themiombo woodlands. With a population growth that is notcommensurate with economic growth, it is unlikely that thelivelihood of the people will improve soon. This implies thatthe communities will continue to depend on the miombowoodland and exert pressure on it. Any attempt to avertdeforestation should work towards addressing the economicproblems faced by the rural communities. Policies aimedat conserving biodiversity and safeguarding the benefitsof miombo resources through in-situ management,domestication of plants and animal species and their geneticdiversity for provision of products and services deservehigh priority. Alternative energy and agroforestrytechnologies need to be widely promoted. There is also needto seriously consider the consequences of governmentpolicies that promote fire-cured tobacco, and alternativelypromote woodlots and agroforestry-based plantations forfuelwood. Non-consumptive use of forests and woodlandssuch as payment for environmental services (PES) may bewell suited elements for conservation of the miombowoodlands and its biodiversity and also for the economicwell being of the rural people. The rapid development of themiombo regrowth stands on disturbance cessation makesthe miombo woodlands highly productive ecosystems andsuitable for carbon sequestration projects. This is becausesuch ecosystems tend to have high rates of photosyntheticactivities and therefore have high demand for carbondioxide. It can therefore be concluded that the availability ofdisturbed miombo regrowth stands due to either charcoalproduction or cultivation presents an opportunity forthe production of a productive ecosystem through eithercoppice or regeneration management.

Additionally, it is important that policy gaps areaddressed to make natural resource policies all-inclusiveand provide for community-based management of thesenatural resources. Policies which emphasize functionsand responsibilities of traditional leaderships are centralto participatory forest management. Additionally,the realization that local communities have from time

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immemorial been involved in forest management tendsto promote the formulation of inclusive policies as theytake all stakeholders on board in forest managementprogrammes. Such policies should also provide for anopportunity for stakeholders to meet their needs as theymanage the forests. Lastly, it is also important that non-timber forest products are included in forest managementplans so as to manage the impacts that arise fromharvesting.

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