A Stone Bead Manufacturing Centre in Peninsular India: A Preliminary Study of Manufacturing Debitage...

TAMIL

CIVILIZATION VOLUME 23 OCT.-DEC. 2009

A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF NEWS AND RESEARCH Also in www.tamiluniversity.ac.in

Tamil University Thanjavur 613 010

Tamil Nadu India

Editorial...

This issue Tamil Civilization covers a variety of subjects including Archaeology, Arts, Languages, Literature, Traditional Science and Education.

Adapting Costin's framework, Gwendolyn O. Kelly demonstrates in her paper that craft production at Kodumanal was diverse at multiple levels. The ways in which those crafts were organised and the style and technology of the crafts indicate diversity in economic and social organization at Kodumanal.

Tilok Thakuria and R. K. Mohanty, based on the study of finished and unfinished beads along with associated debitage from Trench F from Maharjuri contend that bead manufacturing at the site existed even before the Early Historic period and it became one of the organised stone production centres in Peninsular India during the Early Historic period. They conclude that there was standardisation in shape, size and raw material usage.

Based on intensive field study, V.Selvakumar documents 26 archaeological sites in the lower Kaveri Valley region. The sites range from the prehistoric to medieval period. Similarly a preliminary report on the exploratory survey in the Vaippar and Arjuna River Basin, Tamil Nadu is a well documented paper by M.Rajesh. This paper discusses the importance of the 39 sites identified during his field study.

M. Nambirajan, Arun Malik, C.R. Gayathri and A. Anil Kumar discuss in their article, the significance of recent excavations at Adichanallur. The findings reveal that there were 3 phases of burial deposits. Based on ceramics and other implements they date the site to 1st century BC. But there is a possibility that this site dates back to the early 1st millennium BC.

Vandalism is one of the major threats to our cultural heritage. B.Jambulingam in his article discusses the lost Buddha statues from Pudukkottai District of Tamil Nadu based his field study and stresses the importance of public awareness programme on our cultural heritages.

S.Rjendran in his paper on Machine Readable Dictionaries presents the various problems associated with the building of networks and hierarchies for machine reading. He discusses different patterns of identification and concludes that the identification of a satisfactory genus term is not straightforward in all the cases. He adds that the problem associated with classifying the relationships expressed are difficult and numerous. He concludes that a thorough study of the grey areas is necessary in order to make optimal use of the semantic information available in MRDs.

Ch.Savithri discusses in her paper regarding the problems faced by the learners in plural formations in Telugu comparing the grammatical rules and findings from her teaching experience.

M.Shameem criticises the morality aspects as perceived in Nayantara Saghal's Novels generally dealing with men and women, especially women struggling against oppression and injustice heaped upon them in the name of tradition and culture. P.Santhi criticises the Nectar in a Sieve by Kamala Markandaya and attempts to find out possible solutions for the correction of the contemporary environmenta1 situations by means of ecocriticism.

N.Nagarajan documents in his paper a list of etho-medicines for veterinary practices based on his field study at Kolli Hills of Tamil Nadu.

Awareness studies on tribal women empowerment in the Kolli hills by C.Kannan and K.Mohanasundaram, Population Education among Teacher Training Students of Thiruchirappalli Educational District, Tamil Nadu by F.Deepa and Environmental Awareness among the Higher Secondary School Students of Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu by R.Muthaiyan point to the importance of researches in education in the contemporary society.

This publication of this issue of Tamil Civilization is made possible only due to the sustained effort and constant encouragement from our Hon'ble Vice-Chancellor Dr.M.Rajendran. We thank our Vice-Chancellor for his constant support in bringing out this volume. Thanks are also due all the contributors, but for their co-operation this issue would not have seen the light of the day.

N.Athiyaman

V.Selvakumar

CONTENTS

1. Craft Production and Technology during the Iron Age to Early Historic Transition at Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu 1 - Gwendolyn O. Kelly 2. A Stone Bead Manufacturing Centre in Peninsular India: A Preliminary Study of Manufacturing Debitage From Trench F of Mahurjhari Excavations, Maharashtra 15 - Tilok Thakuria and R. K. Mohanty 3. Recent Archaeological Surveys in the lower Kaveri Valley - 2009 39 - V.Selvakumar 4. Explorations in the Vaippar and Arjuna River Basin, Tamil Nadu: A Preliminary Report 48 - M.Rajesh 5. Significance of the recent Excavations at Adichchanallur 57 - M.Nambirajan, Arun Malik, C.R. Gayathri and A. Anil Kumar 6. A Resurvey of Buddha Statues in Pudukkottai region (1993-2009) 62 - B. Jambulingam 7. Building hierarchies and networks from MRDs of Tamil 69 - S.Rajendran 8. Learning Rules of Plural Formation in Telugu 77 - Ch.Savithri 9. Higher Mortality in Sahgal's Novels 86 - M.Shameem 10. Green Studies in Kamala Markandaya's Nectar in a Sieve 89 - P.Santhi 11. Ethno-veterinary practices: A Survey of Malayali Tribes in the Kolli Hills of Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu 94 - N. Nagarajan 12. A Study on Tribal Women Empowerment in Kolli Hills Area, Tamil Nadu 97 - C.Kannan and K.Mohanasundaram 13. Awareness of Population Education among Teacher Training Students of Thiruchirappalli Educational District, Tamil Nadu 102 - F.Deepa 14. Environmental Awareness among the Higher Secondary School Students of Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu 107 - R.Muthaiyan 15. Book Reviews 112

Tamil Civilization Vol. 23 Oct.-Dec. 2009

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A STONE BEAD MANUFACTURING CENTRE IN PENINSULAR INDIA: A

PRELIMINARY STUDY OF MANUFACTURING DEBITAGE FROM TRENCH F OF

MAHURJHARI EXCAVATIONS, MAHARASHTRA

Tilok Thakuria* and R. K. Mohanty†

Introduction

The village of Mahurjhari is popularly known in archaeological literature for the Megalithic burials located in the surrounding areas of an Early Historic mound. It is located 15 km west of Nagpur city on the Nagpur-Kotal road in Nagpur district of Maharashtra state (Fig. 1). The village lies at an elevation of 320 m above mean sea level. The local topography consists of a network of flat-topped ridges separated from one another by valleys which are characteristic features of the Deccan trap formation. The drainage system of the area is represented by the river Kolar which is a sub-tributary of the river Wainganga. The streams (nullas) draining the valleys and ridges around Mahurjhari are generally 5 to 6 m broad. However, perennial pools of water do exist in the beds of some of these streams. The intertrappean beds in the area provide raw materials for both tool making and industrial use, e.g. bead-making. The valleys and plateau slopes are suitable for agricultural use and the barren land over the trap, covered by dry deciduous forest, is useful for animal grazing.

Cultural Past and Chronology of Mahurjhari

With such favourable ecological conditions, the area was under human occupation, since the Stone Age. Flake tools made up of chert were reported from three different localities within the surrounding areas of 3 km from Mahurjhari (Paddayya 1979). The evidence of Early Iron age Megalithic burials and Early Historic remains at the site was brought to light by Hunter in 1933 (Hunter 1933). In the subsequent period, Megalithic burials located in the surrounding areas of the Early Historic mound were subjected to several seasons of explorations and excavations (IAR 1958-59:21, Deo 1973a, Mohanty 2003, 2004, 2005a). The recent explorations and excavations resulted in the discovery of long awaited habitation deposit belonging to the Early Iron Age Megalithic culture, one km towards the south of the Early Historic mound at Mahurjhari (Mohanty 2004). The Early Iron age Megalithic culture of Maharashtra dates to 7th-8th centuries BC (Deo 1973b, 1973c, 1991, 1998). The Early Historic remains discovered at the site by Hunter was assigned to the Vakataka period. However, Shastri is optimistic about the existence of Mahurjhari since the Pre-Vakataka period (Shastri 1996:38). Though, the Early Historic mound has not been excavated extensively, material

* Department of Archaeology, Deccan College, Pune 411 006 † Department of Archaeology, Deccan College, Pune 411 006


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Figure 1. Location of Mahurjhari


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recovered from limited vertical excavation suggests a pre-Vakataka occupation at the site i.e. Satavahana (Mohanty 2003).

Mahurjhari: A stone bead manufacturing centre in peninsular India

Peninsular India has provided one of the earliest evidence of ornament production at Patne in Maharashtra dating back to the Upper Palaeolithic period (Sali 1980, 1989). There are a few more excavated sites in the region with evidence for bead production activities from the Neolithic/Chalcolithic to the Early Historic periods. However, one of the largest stone bead manufacturing centres, probably, discovered in India is Mahurjhari (Mohanty 1999a, Mohanty 1999b, 2008). Mahurjhari was a stone bead manufacturing centre for a long time, as excavations at the site have produced enormous quantity of manufacturing refuse in continuous sequence throughout the period of Early Historic occupation at the site (Mohanty 2003).

The Early Historic mound at Mahurjhari was excavated in 2001-02 to “locate, if possible, the alluding traces of megalithic settlement in the earliest levels” (Mohanty 2003). One of the basic aims of this project was to understand “the unique and rich bead manufacturing centre…for its antecedent affinity, technological development, importance of craft specialisation in relation to the site and culture and economic implication on the socio-cultural behaviour of the period” (Mohanty 2003). Eight trenches were taken for vertical excavation in different areas of the early historic mound. The mound is very thickly inhabited by the modern village and there is hardly any space left for horizontal excavation. However, Trench F (Fig. 2) was laid in the highest point of the mound in the compound of the local “Gond king” which seems to be relatively undisturbed by the construction and other destructive activities. Hence, the present study mainly deals with the materials from this index trench.

Trench F

Trench F, measuring 5 m x 5 m, is located at the highest point of the Early Historic mound. It was dug up to 2.64 m from the surface. Excavation revealed seven layers and each layer produced finished and unfinished beads of large quantity along with manufacturing debitage. The layer 1 was about 20 cm in thickness and had light grey, soft loose soil. Layer 2, dark grey soil, was about 30 cm in thickness. Layer 3 was 12-15 cm thick, and had compact ashy grey deposit with stone beddings. Layer 4, about 20 cm in thickness, was a compact light grey soil. Layer 5 was about 50 cm thick and it was a compact brownish grey soil. Layer 6 was about 40 cm thick, and had compact brown clay with mixture of sand. At this level, a pot containing debitage of beads, bead blanks, charcoal, a fragment of a bead polisher and a complete bead polisher was found. This indicates that the entire area was used for flaking, heating and grinding of beads, especially carnelian beads as large number of carnelian waste has been found. This area also seems to have been a working place for the bead manufacturing at the beginning of occupation at this site (Mohanty 2004). All total of 326 finished and unfinished beads were found from the trench along with manufacturing debitage. They have been documented depth wise from the trench. This documentation has been done to understand


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Figure. 2. Location of trench F in Early Historic mound at Mahurjhari

the use of raw materials, stages of manufacturing and shape produced by the Mahurjhari bead makers in chronological sequence. Raw materials used at Mahurjhari and sources of raw materials Evidence from excavation and exploration suggests that Mahurjhari mainly produced beads of semiprecious stones (Fig. 3). It seems that agate and carnelian were the most favoured materials for beads at Mahurjhari. The majority of nodules recovered both from the excavations and surface are of agate. The maximum size of the unused and partially worked nodules ranges from 5 to 8 cm. There is very less amount of carnelian nodules recorded from excavation and exploration. However, most of the flakes and micro flakes are of carnelian. Quartz crystal is also recorded in a considerable quantity. Other materials that were used by the Mahurjhari bead-makers were chalcedony, onyx, varieties of quartz, amethyst, and garnet. Raw materials necessary for the production of beads are available in the Deccan trap areas of the site. Semiprecious stones are found in huge quantities in the Deccan trap


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as intrusions/impurities. Ancient Indian literatures also mention about the sources of raw materials found in the Deccan Trap zone. Mahabharata mentions that vaidura (agate) was mined at Mt. Valavaya, identified as modern Bidar in Deccan (Lad 1979). Kautilya’s Arthashastra also tells of the sources of agate somewhere in Deccan (Shamasastri 1956). Tamil Sangam literature describes several ways of collecting raw materials for making beads, perhaps from the Krishna and Godavari basins (Rajan 1997-98). Sources mentioned in the ancient Indian literatures are corroborated by the geological explorations (Newbold 1846, Arkell 1936, Mohanty 1999a).

Figure. 3. Raw material from trench F

Manufacturing process at Mahurjhari

The bead manufacturing process employed at Mahurjhari is investigated by analysing the debitage and finished beads recovered from trench F as well as from the surface investigations. Ethnographic parallels are also used for the better understanding of the manufacturing process and organisation related issues such as specialisation and organisation of labour. Mohanty, based on his initial research on Mahurjhari bead production, has discussed the various stages of production (Mohanty 1999a, 1999b, 2008). Hence, the stages of production discussed earlier by Mohanty have been further elaborated with the fresh evidence from Mahurjhari excavations. Fig. 4 shows recovered the bead waste from trench F, according to stages of production.

The first stage of production is extraction of the raw materials. At Khambat, the Bhills collect nodules (Trivedi 1964) and sell them to intermediaries from whom bead-makers buy suitable nodules (Francis 2002). These nodules are kept in pile under the Sun for drying in the courtyard of the houses of the middlemen or the bead makers (Kenoyer


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1994). Large number of nodules of agate, chalcedony and jasper has been found at Mahurjhari (Fig. 5). The evidence of scattered of nodules at Mahurjhari indicates that they were imported and kept for later use. As mentioned above, semi-precious stones are available in the Deccan trap formations around Mahurjhari.

Figure. 4. Different stages of bead production recovered from Trench F

Once nodules are selected, the next step is chipping. Before chipping, it is necessary to heat up the selected nodules. Heating is necessary to remove the moisture content. Removing the moisture makes flaking easier. Heating is also necessary to change the colour of the agate nodule and it helps to achieve the desirable red hue. At Khambat, heating is conducted in open hearths. The rows of earthen ware pots containing the nodules are covered with sawdust for heating. The heating lasts for about 24 hours under temperatures ranging between 250° C and 300° C. Sometime unfinished beads are re-heated to the get desirable colour. Heat treatment can be repeated up to twelve times before the desired colour is obtained (Roux 2000). Over-heating may cause white patina on the surface of the bead. It is imperative that the heating is done very gradually to prevent the formation of cracks that would cause the stone to shatter (Inizan 1991, Inizan and Lechevallier 1996). The evidence of heating at Mahurjhari has come from the Trench F in the form of an earthen pot filled with agate nodules mixed with ashy material (Fig. 6). This indicates that heating of nodules at Mahurjhari was done as in modern day Khambat. Moreover, there are thousands of primary flakes in carnelian and agate with signatures of pre-heating on the cortex. These flakes show the change of colour occurred during the process of heating.


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Figure.5. Nodules of raw materials from Mahurjhari

Figure.6 Pot containing ashy material and semiprecious stone nodules from trench F


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Once the nodules are heated, the next step is shaping the core by knapping. The first step of knapping removes the cortex of the nodule. This step creates a workable platform for the next step with some primary formation of the shape of the proposed beads. Some of the nodules are discarded during the first knapping, due to fault in structure or cracks developed during heating, and error in the attempts to remove the cortex.

The technique used at Khambat is indirect percussion by counterblow (Trivedi 1964, Allchin 1975, Possehl 1981, Kenoyer 1986, Konyer at el 1994, Roux 2000). The edge of the nodule to be knapped is kept against the tip of an iron rod placed at an angle into the ground away from the knapper. The knapper then strikes the stone with a hammer made of a buffalo horn fixed to a thin bamboo stick. Some discarded chipped-out nodules and roughouts from Mahurjhari exhibit nail marks of chipping which indicates that similar ‘indirect percussion by counterblow technique was used. After the first chipping, the next stage is to make a roughout of the bead (Fig. 7). This stage is important to add the artistic and aesthetic value to the bead. In case of banded agate, a dressed nodule is chipped in a way that the bands fall in a particular arrangement that enhances the aesthetic value of the bead. This is the stage where a particular dressed core goes for desired shapes and size. Chipping of this stage needs control over the hands. Once the roughout is made, the next process is micro-chipping (Fig. 8). During this stage, the roughout gets the pre-definite shape of a bead. It needs expert hands. Any kind of mistake either in placing the roughout on the nail or control over the force applied may damage the roughout. Sometimes, the roughouts contain deep flake-scars and are removed by careful tri mming to refine the shape. By this stage, faceted bead become well demarcated and prominent. After the micro-chipping, the evidence from Mahurjhari suggests that it goes through the process of pecking. This method was used to make the surface smooth. During this process, the micro-flake scares and chipping marks are removed giving the bead an even surface. It was probably intended to reduce the time and labour required for grinding (Mohanty 1999a).

Grinding is also necessary for giving the bead a smooth surface (Fig. 9). It is necessary in case of faceted beads to highlight the edges and shape. This also removes extra uneven marks that could not be erased during pecking. Grinding is done by rubbing the bead over a hard surface, e.g. stone. The aim of grinding is to eliminate the traces of all the scars and to give the piece its final shape. There are a large number of such grinding stones at Mahurjhari. This indicates that grinding was a very essential part of production and special care was taken in the case of faceted beads like square bicone, flat hexagonal and circular bicone.

After grinding, the next steps are polishing and perforation. Both the steps are necessary and important as they fix the market value of the bead. If polishing and perforation are not up to the mark or aesthetic appeal, the bead gets minimum market value. Hence, both the processes need expertise and careful execution. At Mahurjhari, beads are found polished, but not perforated, as well as perforated, but not polished.


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Figure 7 Roughout from Mahurjhari

Figure 8 Micro chipped roughout from Mahurjhari

Figure 9 Evidence of grinding at Mahurjhari


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Polishing sometimes appears to have been more crucial than drilling. Polishing takes more time and labour, hence if a polished bead is discarded due to faulty perforation, it causes loss of whole of the effort. Therefore, drilling is often done first and then polishing in many cases. In some cases, beads are polished first and then drilled. Drilling was a specialised job carried out by an expert and the availability of expert craftsmen sometimes determines the production process (Mohanty 1999a). It is not affordable to lose a drilled bead, while polishing. Therefore, drilling and polishing are done keeping in mind the artistic and aesthetic value of the bead. There are beads from Mahurjhari collection, from both the stages. It is observed that some of the beads have dimple marks on the surface at the place where perforation was to be started (Fig. 10). Many a time, drill slips and causes damage to the bead. Therefore, to get a grip of the drill, dimpling was done. It was done after the grinding. There are a few beads in the assemblage collected from Mahurjhari that show excellent evidence of dimpling.

Perforation is usually done using a bow-drill with a diamond tip at Khambat. Similar method might have been used at Mahurjhari. There was discovery of a bone piece from Mahurjhari with multiple holes on its interior (Fig. 11). While perforating a bead at Khambat, the perforator holds a coconut shell in his palm against the drill top to put pressure on the drill. Because of the rotation of the drill, holes are created at the coconut shell. The perforator at Khambat uses this to avoid injury in the palm and make it easier to apply pressure on the drill. Discovery of a similar kind of object, but on bone, suggests that perforation at Mahurjhari was done by bow-drill. However, excavations at the site have not produced any drill bit.

Finger rings of carnelian were also manufactured at Mahurjhari. The technique applied for making a finger ring was more or less similar with that of Khambat. First, a circular disc is made and then multiple holes on the surface are made leaving the inner margin of the disc. Then, these holes were broken to get the ring-hole.

Figure 10. Evidence of dimpling Figure 11. Bone palm supporter of bone used by driller at Mahurjhari


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Shapes produced at Mahurjhari

In 1927, Beck systemised the classification and nomenclature of beads (Beck 1927). He has identified and described some characteristic features to define the shapes of beads. Here, while defining a shape three main characters have been followed as proposed by Beck: firstly, the profile, then the transverse section, and finally the longitudinal section. Profile of a bead is defined as line or lines bordering the longitudinal section, joining the two ends or apexes of the bead (Beck 1927: 2-3) Transverse section is the section at right angles to the axis which has the largest area (Beck 1927:2). In other words, it is the cross-section of a bead. The longitudinal section is that section along the axis that includes the major radius--that is, the section that shows the greatest distance from the axis to profile (Beck 1927:2). These three characters are strictly followed to avoid any misclassification of bead. Table 1 shows the classification of beads found from trench F according to their profile, transverse section and longitudinal section and their total number. The table will give an idea about the profile of shapes that are recurrent in the trench. Table 1, shows that beads from the Trench F consist of mainly two profiles, i.e. convex and straight, and out of the total 326 beads 222 beads are of convex profile and 104 beads are of straight profile. Fig. 12 shows the frequency of occurrence of convex and straight profile beads from Trench F, and beads of concave profile are not reported.

Figure. 12 Frequency of occurrence of convex and straight profile beads from trench F The recurrent shape is of convex profile with circular transverse section and circular longitudinal section, which is according to Beck’s classification belong to CI.a group. In this group profile meets the perforation and shapes include oblong, spherical and ellipsoid as the beads are short, standard and long. From trench F beads of CI.a groups are of standard spherical. The frequency of occurrence of spherical shape of bead is 56.13% of total number of beads. The other shapes are of convex in profile, with circular transverse section with conical, barrel and biconical longitudinal sections. Frequency of convex circular bicone is 7.36%, Convex Circular cone 0.30% and convex


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circular barrel 2.5 %. There are two example of faceted transverse section, i.e., square and hexagonal with barrel and biconical longitudinal section in convex profile category. Frequency of convex square barrel is 0.61%, while convex hexagonal bicone is 0.30 %.

Table 1. Classification of beads from Trench F according to their transverse section and profile

On the other hand, straight profile category is recorded only on 104 beads. The recorded transverse sections in this category are circular, square, tabular, and rectangular and hexagonal with biconical, cylindrical and conical longitudinal sections. The most outnumbered shape in straight profile category is square transverse section with biconical longitudinal section. Frequency of this shape is 20.85%. There are a few beads with hexagonal and rectangular transverse section with biconical longitudinal section in the straight profile category. Frequency of occurrence for the straight hexagonal bicone is 5.21 and for straight rectangular bicone is 0.30%. Beads with cylindrical longitudinal section in straight profile category include both circular and square transverse sections. The recorded percentage for the straight circular cylinder is 2.70% and for straight square cylinder is 1.22%. Likewise, beads with conical longitudinal section in straight profile category include both circular and square transverse sections.

Distribution of shapes of beads from trench F by Layer

The maximum number of 97 beads is recorded from Layer 6. This layer has also given evidence of pot with nodules and ash indicating heating of nodule (Mohanty 2004). Layer number 7 yielded 64 beads. This layer also produced evidence of a complete specimen of grinding stone (Mohanty 2004). The layers 1, 2 and 3 yielded 36, 54 and 26 beads, respectively. Layer 4 produced only 10 beads. All these layers have produced a large amount of debitage and flakes.

Profile Convex Straight

Longitudinal Section Longitudinal Section

Transverse Section

Circular Bicone Cone Barrel Cone Bicone Cylinder

Total

Circular 183 24 7 1 2 9 226 Square 2 1 66 4 73

Rectangular 2 2

Tabular 2 2 4

Hexagonal 2 1 1 17 21

183 30 1 8 2 89 13 Total

222 104

326


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Table 2 shows distribution of shapes from Trench F by layer. Spherical and straight square bicone shapes are present in all the layers in different quantities. Layer 7 produced a total of 64 beads representing 5 shapes. Spherical and straight square bicone shapes occur in highest frequency than any other shapes from this layer. Spherical shape is represented by 34 beads and straight square bicone, 21 beads from this layer. The other shapes from this layer are circular convex barrel (n=3), convex hexagonal cone (n=1), convex circular bicone (n=5). This layer has also given evidence of a complete bead polisher stone.

Layer 6 produced 10 shapes of beads in different quantity. Spherical and straight square bicone remained to appear in large number than other shapes of beads. Spherical shapes and straight square bicone has 54 and 23 beads, respectively from this layer. The other shapes continued from layer 7 are convex circular barrel (n=3), convex circular bicone (n=5) (Fig. 13). The new shapes appeared in this layer are convex hexagonal bicone (n=2), convex tabular bicone (n= 1), straight square cylinder (n=2), straight rectangular cone (n=1), straight square cone (n=1), straight square bicone (n=23), straight hexagonal bicone (n=3) and spherical (n=53). As mentioned above, this layer has also given evidence of heating of nodule of raw materials for making bead and working platform (Mohanty 2004).

Layer 5 has representations of 7 shapes. Spherical and straight square bicone remained to appear but less in number than previous layers. Spherical shape from this layer is represented by 24 beads and straight square bicone is represented by 5 beads. Some of the shapes appeared in layers 7 and 6 were also found in this layer. These shapes are convex circular bicone (n=2), straight rectangular bicone (n=1). There are a few new types in layer 5 and they are convex circular cone (n=1), straight square cylinder (n=2), straight square cone (n=1), straight circular cone (n=1).

Layer 4 produced only 10 beads, without any new shape. The shapes in this layer are convex circular bicone (n=2), spherical (n=4), straight square bicone (n=2) and straight hexagonal bicone (n=1).

Layer 3 produced 26 beads. The maximum number of beads from this layer are of spherical shapes (n=17). The other shapes are convex circular bicone (n=3), straight circular cylinder (n=2), straight square bicone (n=2) and straight hexagonal bicone (n=2).

Layer 2 produced 54 beads. There are no new shapes from this layer. Spherical (n=31) and straight square bicone (7) continued to appear and are found more in number than layers 5, 4 and 3. The other shapes are convex circular bicone (n=1), convex square bicone (n=1), straight circular cylinder (n=4), straight square cylinder (n=2) and straight hexagonal bicone (n=7).

Layer 1 produced 36 beads. Straight circular bicone (n=2) shape which has not been found in other layers appeared in this layer. The other shapes are convex circular bicone (n=5), convex square bicone (n=1), straight hexagonal bicone (n=2). Spherical (n=20) and straight square bicone (n=6) continued.


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Table 2 Layer wise distribution of shapes found in Trench F Shapes/Layers Layer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Convex circular bicone

5 1 3 2 2 6 5 24

Spherical 20 31 17 4 24 53 34 183 Convex square bicone

1 1 2

Convex circular barrel

1 3 3 7

Convex hexagonal cone

1 1

Convex circular cone

1 1

Convex hexagonal bicone

2 2

Convex tabular bicone

1 1 2

Straight circular cylinder

4 2 3 9

Straight square cylinder

2 2 4

Straight circular bicone

2 2

Straight circular cone

1 1

Straight square cone

1 1

Straight rectangular bicone

1 1 2

Straight tabular bicone

2 2

Straight square bicone

6 7 2 2 5 23 21 66

Straight hexagonal bicone

2 7 2 1 2 3 17

Total 36 54 26 10 39 97 64 326

There is a consistency of appearance of convex circular bicone, spherical and straight square bicone shapes in all the layers. There is no consistency in the appearance of other shapes. However, Layer 1 produced straight circular bicone shape which has not been reported from other layers.


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Figure 13 Convex circular bicone bead of Mahurjhari

Figure 14 Flat hexagonal bicone bead of Mahurjhari

Figure 15 Straight square bicone bead of Mahurjhari


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Variability in Size

Frequency in the size variation of particular shape of bead is also measured. While measuring size of a bead; length (L) is considered distance between two ends or apexes of the bead as defined by Beck (Beck 1927). Diameter (D) is taken in the middle of the bead, which is equal distance from the both end of the bead. Moreover, measurement is considered to be in minimum range of in-between 1 mm. This range has been considered following Fladmark’s (1982) definition of microdebitage. According to Fladmark, all chipped stone debris less than 1 mm in maximum dimension is microdebitage. Micro chipping is one of the processes of bead manufacturing where “beads are given a definite pre intended shape by trimming the edges and surface with more controlled micro flaking. Sometimes, where the rough edges of the shapes appear deep flake-scars are removed by careful tri mming to refine the shape and the features of the faceted beads become clears, well demarcated and prominent (Mohanty 1999: 85)”, hence, may create variation in the standardised size. Therefore, following the Fladmark’s definition and looking at the bead manufacturing debitage from Mahurjhari 1 mm range of variation in the size is accepted for the present study. This is done to understand the consistency in size as manufacturing norm. This analysis has been done on the beads collected from Trench F and surface from Mahurjhari.

Spherical beads were produced various measurements. Table 3 shows variability in size of spherical shapes of beads from the trench F. The minimum variation in length and diameter of spherical shape from trench F ranges between 3 to 4 mm in length and 3 to 4 mm in diameter and maximum variation is 29 to 30 mm in length and 29 to 30 mm in diameter. This shape is also made in between variations of minimum and maximum measurements in length and diameter. Variations in diameter from 5 to 6 mm and 7 to 8 mm in length has representation of 36 beads of this shape. Likewise, variations in diameter from 6 to 7 mm and 8 to 9 mm in length has representation of 35 beads. The Table 3 shows that spherical shapes were more frequently produced having variation in diameter from 4 mm to 12 mm and in length 4 mm to 15 mm. However, spherical shapes ranging from 7 to 10 mm in length and diameter are more recurrent.

Table 4 shows variation of length and diameter of convex circular bicone shape of beads. The Table 4 indicates that diameter between 6 and 7 mm has maximum occurrence with length variations ranges from 8 to 9 mm, 9 to 10 mm, 10 to 11 mm 12 to 13 mm and 13 to 14 mm. The maximum length ranges between 23 and 24 mm, with the diameter range of 7 to 8 mm. The minimum length recorded is between 8 and 9 mm with the diameter of 4 to 5 mm.

The variations in length and diameter for the convex circular barrel shape are given in Table 5. Except diameter ranging from 5 to 6 mm, there is no repetition of the same variant in diameter. Similarly, length ranging from 18 to 19 mm occurred twice. The minimum diameter for convex circular barrel recorded is between 5 and 6 mm having length between 8 and 9 mm. The maximum diameter recorded is between 10 and


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11 mm having the length of 18 to 19 mm. Table 5 indicates that this shape was made in different dimensions for the long type beads of Beck's classification.

Table 6 shows variations in length and diameter for straight hexagonal bicone shape. The recurrent diameter for this shape ranges between 4 and 5 mm and length ranges between 3 to 4 mm and 6 to 7 mm. The maximum length recorded is between 8 and 9 mm having diameter between 8 and 9 mm. The minimum length recorded is between 3 and 4 mm with the length between 3 and 4 mm. The Table 6 indicates that these shapes are produced mostly in standard size (length and diameter) which fulfils Beck classification of standard type bead.

In case of straight circular cylinder, the most preferred diameter is between 5 to 6 mm and 7 to 8 mm. The length which is recurrent with the diameter range of 5 to 6 mm. Table 7 suggests that they are of standard type and long type, but most of them are longer types.

The straight flat hexagonal bicone beads (Fig. 14) were most preferably made in the diameter range of 6 mm to 9 mm. This diameter range falls within the variation in length ranges from 15 mm to 20 mm. The minimum diameter variation recorded is 7 to 8 mm with the length variation of 13 to 14 mm. The Table 8 indicates that flat hexagonal bicone shape represents only the long type of bead.

The straight square bicone (Fig. 15) beads are more in between diameter ranges from 7 to 8 mm, 8 to 9 mm and 9 to 10 mm. These variations of diameter frequently occurs with the length ranges from 12 to 13 mm, 13 to 14 mm, 14 to 15 mm, 15 to 16 mm, 16 to 17 mm, 17 to 18 mm and 18 to 19 mm. The recurrent variations in length are 15 to 16 mm, 16 to 17 mm and 18 to 19 mm. The Table 9 shows that all these straight square bicone beads are of long type beads.

Figure 16 Distribution of raw material on spherical shape beads


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Relation between shapes and raw materials

The association between shapes and raw material has been analysed to understand if any correlation exists. The Fig. 16 shows distribution of raw materials on which spherical beads from Trench F were made. Out of 183 spherical beads, 151 are made on carnelian, 16 on quartz, 6 on agate, 3 on jasper and 7 on chalcedony.

All the straight square bicone beads collected from Trench F and surface context are made on opaque carnelian. There are 66 specimens from Trench F and 49 collected from surface. The flat hexagonal bicone beads collected from surface are 188 in number, and they are also made on opaque carnelian. The straight hexagonal bicone of standard type are mostly on carnelian. Out of total 17, carnelian constitute 11 of them from the trench F. Quartz and red jasper constituted 4 and 3 examples, respectively. The straight circular cylinder from trench F are made on carnelian and agate. Out of 11 straight circular cylinder beads, 7 are of carnelian and 4 of agate. The 11 straight ciruclar bicone beads collected from the surface are also made on carnelian. There are a number of other shapes in negligible quantities.

This comparison suggests that spherical beads were made on varity of raw materials, but carnelian seems to be the most preferred raw material. In case of straight square bicone and straight hexagonal bionce, carnelian seems to be the standard raw material. These two shapes are not found on any material other than carnelian. The straight hexagonal bicone was made on carnelian, quartz and jasper. Such preference of raw material over shapes seems to be a charecteristic feature for certain shapes. This probably reflects the standardisation in shapes and raw material used.

Conclusions

The study of finished and unfinished beads along with associated debitage from Trench F indicates that bead manufacturing at the site existed from the beginning and it became as one of the organised stone production centres in Peninsular India during the Early Historic period. There was kind of standardisation in shape and size produced and raw material used in certain beads. It was also organised in terms of labour and skill with the stages of production. Such kind of standardisation is a characteristic of centrally controlled bead manufacturing centre (Kenoyer et al. 1991). Mahurjhari as bead manufacturing centre played important role in distribution of finished produced during the Early Historic period (Mohanty 2008). It is likely that bead manufacturing centre at Mahurjhari existed during the Early Iron Age Megalithic period. A comparative study of Mahurjhari beads and Megalithic beads may focus more light on this issue (Thakuria and Mohanty 2005).


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Table 4. Size variation of convex circular bicone shape beads from Mahurjhari

Diameter ( mm) Length ( mm) 4>5 5>6 6>7 8>7 10>11 11>12 15>16

Total

6>7 2 2 7>8 1 1 5 7 8>9 1 1 1 3 9>19 4 1 1 2 8 10>11 1 3 4 11>12 1 1 2

12>13 1 3 1 5 13>14 3 1 4 15>16 17>18 18>19 1 1 2 27>28 37>38 40>41 Total 1 3 13 5 10 3 2 38

Table 5. Size variation of convex circular barrel shape beads from Mahurjhari

Length ( mm)

Diameter ( mm)

7≥8 5≥6 6≥7 7≥8 8≥9 9≥10 10≥11 Total

8≥9 1 1

9≥10

11≥12 1 1

12≥13 1 1

13≥14

14≥15 1 1

16≥17 1 1 2

18≥19 1 1

19≥20 1 1

20≥21

21≥22 1 1

22≥23 1 1

Total 3 1 1 1 2 2 10


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Table 6. Size variation of straight hexagonal bicone shape beads from Mahurjhari

Diameter ( mm) Length( mm) 3≥4 4≥5 4≥5 5≥6 6≥7 7≥8 8≥9 9≥10 10≥11 Total 3≥4 1 1 1 3

4≥5 4 4

5≥6 3 3

6≥7 2 2 4

7≥8 1 1

8≥9 1 1

9≥10

10≥11

11≥12

12≥13 1 1 2

13≥14 1 1

14≥15

Total 1 1 8 3 4 1 1 19

Table 7. Size variation of straight circular cylinder shape beads from Mahurjhari

Diameter ( mm)

Length ( mm) 5≥6 7≥8 9≥10 10≥11 11≥12 Total

8≥9 1 1

9≥10 3 3

10>11 1 1

11>12 1 1

13≥14 1 2 1 1 5

14≥15

21≥22 4 5 1 1 1 11

Total 8 10 2 2 2 24


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Table 8. Size variation of straight flat hexagonal bicone shape beads from Mahurjhari

Diameter ( mm) Length ( mm) 5>6 6>7 7>8 8>9 9>10 Total 10>11 11>12 12>13 13>14 1 1 14>15 3 3 15>16 7 9 2 1 18 16>17 9 23 4 36 17>18 5 25 11 41 18>19 2 20 18 1 40 19>20 2 9 19 30 20>21 7 9 1 17 21>22 3 2 5 Total 25 99 62 5 191

Table 9. Size variation of straight square bicone shape beads from Mahurjhari

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