A Historical Comparison: Britain's Cultural and Social Responses to Icelandic Volcanoes
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Transcript of A Historical Comparison: Britain's Cultural and Social Responses to Icelandic Volcanoes
Angus Berry
A Historical Comparison: Britain’s Cultural and Social
Responses to Icelandic Volcanoes.
Introduction
On the 14th of April 2010 the Icelandic volcano
Eyjafjallajökull erupted for the second time in a month
and ejected an ash cloud that spread across the European
continent. This grounded flights across the globe and
became one of the most reported environmental events in
recent history. The eruption, however, was relatively
small and its consequences much less severe than those
caused by the Laki volcano eruption in Iceland, 1783. The
Laki eruption killed between 20-25 per cent of Iceland’s
population and has been linked to deaths across the globe
during the late 18th century.1 This essay seeks to
consider the impacts of these two Icelandic volcanic
eruptions and how they have been reported in contemporary
accounts. There will be a focus on cultural environmental
history throughout the essay with the impact that both
eruptions had on British society the key consideration.
1 Jon Stiengrimsson and Keneva Kunz, Fires of the Earth: the Laki eruption, 1783-1784 (Iceland: Nordic Volcanic Institute, 1998)p.5
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People’s responses to both eruptions will be taken from
newspaper reports, diaries and, in relation to the
Eyjafjallajökull incident, Internet sources.
As an area of environmental history, the study of
volcanoes and their impact on people has been somewhat
neglected. Whilst there is an abundance of literature on
the impact of volcanoes on the material environment this
essay will seek to focus on the cultural and personal
impact of volcanic eruptions.2 Many prehistoric Icelandic
volcanoes have been investigated as has their role in
shaping the environment in Britain and Europe today,3 but
more recent eruptions and their impact on people requires
more attention. A comparison will be made in this essay
between the ways in which the two eruptions were reported
and how they better our understanding of the evolving
narrative of environmental history. There will be a dual
narrative throughout the essay concerning the social
response to these eruptions and at the same time
2 James R. Zimbelman and Tracey K.P. Gregg, Environmental Effects on Volcanic Eruptions: From Deep Oceans to Deep Space (New York:Springer, 2000).3 Jelle Zeilinga de Boer and Donald Theodore Sanders, Volcanoes in Human History: The Far-Reaching Effects of Major Eruptions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012) p.116
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assessing how this neglects the somewhat more damaging
impact that they had on the environment. First, however,
there will be a consideration of the hold that volcanic
eruptions have on the human imagination and why an event
such as Laki or Eyjafjallajökull can be seen with wonder
and appreciated as a natural beauty.
Volcanoes and the human imagination
“It has stranded travellers and crippled the airline industry, and
threatens to deposit a layer of toxic grit over Europe. But on the ground, most
people are just talking about how beautiful it is.”4
This response to the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull expresses both
the logistical and social problems that the eruption
caused whilst simultaneously highlighting the grip that
volcanoes have on the public imagination. The Telegraph
produced an article entitled the ‘art of volcanoes’ in
the aftermath of the 2010 eruption, which tracked the
historical hold on the imagination that volcanic activity
4 ‘Volcano captures global imagination, sparks fear and wonder,’ last modified 23 August 2011, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/volcano-captures-global-imagination-sparks-fear-and-wonder/article4315413/
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has had.5 Further to this Lopes writes that children are
as interested in volcanoes ‘as they are in dinosaurs and
space’.6 This fascination with volcanoes from an early age
transcends into a lasting sense of awe among many people.
Publications and the general public often speak of the
beauty of volcanoes with The National Geographic producing a
series of images of the 2010 Iceland eruption7. The images
captured the dramatic nature of the volcano and played to
the human sense of mystic and drama that eruptions evoke.
YouTube channels have been devoted to ‘volcano chasers’;
people who rush to the site of a volcanic eruption to
experience the effects first hand.8An example of someone
that wants this level of connection with volcanoes is
‘Martin Rietze who spent three sleepless nights huddled
next to a large boulder’ within a few hundred meters of5 “The Art of Volcanoes”, The Telegraph [Online], available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/picturegalleries/7906109/The-art-of-the-volcano.html (accessed 10 November, 2013).6 Rosaly M. C. Lopes, The Volcano Adventure Guide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) p.57 ‘Iceland’s Resilient Beauty,’ last modified 24 April 2010, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/05/iceland/haarberg-photography#/01-eyjafjallajokull-volcano-lava-670.jpg8 ‘Martin Rietze’ last modified 1 November 2013, http://www.youtube.com/channel/UC5LzAA_nyNWEUfpcUFOCpJw
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the Eyjafjallajökull epicentre.9 Whilst modern
communication methods and advancements in photography
have made volcanoes come to life for people around the
world, the fascination with these eruptions is rooted in
history. Both Roman and Greek mythology had a God for
volcanoes thus suggesting that ancient civilizations both
feared and embraced volcanoes as part of their lives. The
Romans worshiped Vulcan in the hope that they would be
saved from the effects of volcanoes, this creates the
notion that these people saw volcanoes as something that
was in the hands of Gods and not a natural occurrence.10
The evolving narrative of volcanic eruptions has taken
away the Godly element, but the sense that they are out
of one’s hands still plays a role in the human
imagination. It is this hold within the human psyche that
volcanoes have which causes the social response to
eruptions that this essay is going to assess.
9 ‘Volcano chasers have a red-hot passion for eruptions,’ last modified 26 March 2010, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2010-05-27-Volcano_chasers27_ST_N.htm10 Georges Dumezil, Archaic Roman Religion: Volume One, trans. Philip Krapp (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press) p.320-321.
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The 1783 and 2010 eruptions in British media
It is widely acknowledged that the 1783 eruption of the
Laki fissure in Iceland was one of the most significant
episodes of volcanic activity in the modern era.11 This
section of analysis will explore the cultural and social
impact that this eruption had on Britain, in a time when
global communication was almost non existent, especially
at today’s speed. There will be an investigation into how
the eruption entered in the public lexicon and how this
shaped a social response to a then unknown natural event.
First it is important to recognise the scale of the 1783
Laki eruption and the wide scale impact that it had on
the environment. The eruption brought about the death of
around 25 per cent of the Icelandic human population
whilst also decimating agricultural animals and crops. 79
per cent of sheep, 76 per cent of horses and 50 per cent
of cattle died in the wake of the eruption.12 Furthermore
the ash cloud that the Laki fissure produced caused crop11 John Grattan and Mark Brayshay, “An Amazing and Portentous Summer: Environmental and Social Reponses in Britain to the 1783 Eruption of an Iceland Volcano,” The Geographical Journal 161 (1995): 125.12 A. E. J. Ogilvie, “The Climate of Iceland 1701-1784,” Jokull 36 (1986): 60
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failing across Europe, most profoundly in Britain and
Scandinavia.13 In terms of historical volcanic eruptions
the 1783 explosion places itself amongst the most
devastating. Compared to the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull
eruption, Laki accounted for much more severe physical
damage. It is beyond these environmental impacts that
there has been little attention and it is the impact the
eruption had on society, people and imagination that will
be assessed from now on.
The main source of contemporary accounts and reports on
the ways in which the Laki eruption affected people in
Britain comes from newspapers, personal diaries and
letters. Poet William Cowper observed, “so long in a
country not subjected to fogs, we have been covered with
one of the thickest I remember.14” What this insight
reveals is that without the knowledge of the volcanic
eruption the affects of the following ash cloud from the
Laki explosions created a sense of unknowing within the
13 S. Thorarinnson, “Greeting from Iceland: ash falls and volcanic aerosols in Scandinavia,” Geographical Annul 63A (1981): 11414 J King and C. Ryskamp, The letters and prose writings of William Cowper, Vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 117
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British public. Indeed the media did little to dispel the
sense of panic and in fact provoked further uncertainty.
Whilst today instant communication allows the world to be
informed of volcanic activity, in 1783 Iceland was cut
off from mainland Europe meaning the reasons for an
‘unprecedented spell of extreme weather’ was for some
time unknown.15 Contemporary newspaper accounts speculated
about the link between intense thunderstorms, ‘a
sulphurous stench’ and high temperatures.16 The Sherborne
Mercury reported to its readers on 21 July that:
“The flashes of lightning were remarkably sulphurous, and peals of
thunder loud and awful. It was felt all over Buckinghamshire… and the
lightening fell towards the earth, which rendered its effects more alarming17”
This description is matched by a large amount of other
local and national newspapers during July 1783. It
highlights the alien nature of the atmospheric activity
on the imagination of the public. Whilst newspapers
continued to report thunderstorms and abnormal weather
15 Grattan and Brayshay, “An Amazing and Portentous Summer,” p.12716 Ibid, p.12817 Sherborne Mercury (Sherborne: Dorset), July 21, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
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activities with what has been described as ‘literary
hyperbole’, the hold this creates on the public
imagination serves to suggest that volcanic activity,
whether passively or activity acknowledged, is a
recurring theme in the narrative of public reactions to
Icelandic volcanoes.18 This translates itself in 2010 with
the Eyjafjallajökull eruption and the subsequent media
storm that prevailed. During the immediate aftermath of
the eruption the twitter hashtag ‘#ashtag’ was trending
worldwide,19 whilst newspaper websites such as The
Guardian set up a live blog about the disruption caused
by the volcanic eruption.20 It is clear from this
abundance of activity in social media and within the
traditional media itself that volcanoes and volcanic
activity has an ingrained history in the public
imagination. The continuation of societies’ engagement
with Icelandic volcanoes allows us to suggest that the18 Grattan and Brayshay, “An Amazing and Portentous Summer,” p.13119 ‘Results for #ashtag’, Twitter, 10 November. Available at:https://twitter.com/search?src=typd&q=%23ashtag (Accessed: 10 November 2013 16.24)20 ‘Iceland volcano 2010 (Eyjafjallajökull)’, The Guardian, 10 November [Online]. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/iceland-volcano (Accessed 10 November 2013)
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social response to volcanoes is as important as the
material environmental fallout from volcanic activity.
Given that the 1780’s represented a time by which
newspaper circulation had increased significantly, we can
assess the extent to which the public would have been
aware of the events that resulted from the Laki eruption.
As had been discussed there was no knowledge of the Laki
eruption in the immediate aftermath, rather the violent
weather storms and changing atmosphere were the first
public engagement with the eruption. Following an
extensive study of newspaper reports between June and
September 1783 Grattan concludes that there were 183
adjectives used to describe weather events.21 The top
three adjectives used were: violent, tremendous and
dreadful, suggesting that the media were playing somewhat
to the imagination of the public when describing the
affects of the ash cloud on the British ecosystem.22 By
1780 it was estimated that there was at least 11 million
newspaper copies per week in circulation in Britain,
21 Grattan and Brayshay, “An Amazing and Portentous Summer,” table III on p.13122 Ibid, p.132
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which allows us to consider the idea that descriptions of
the weather events in Britain were read by a large
audience.23 This assimilation of ideas through newspapers
caused widespread alarm and panic among the people of
Britain. The Bristol Journal on 19 July 1783 reported
that:
“The inhabitants of this place were alarmed with a most awful
appearance of lightening… exhibiting a wonderful spectacle of dreadful
magnificence… this scene of inconceivable horror continued for near an
hour24.”
This type of report was common among British newspapers
and represents a quintessential response to affects of
the volcanic activity on Britain and the unknown origins
of this phenomenon. The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption,
whilst being in a time of unrivalled communications,
continued to play on people’s imagination as being
otherworldly. Time magazine produced an article and
accompanying photographs titled ‘Otherworldly images from the
eruption at Eyjafjallajökull’. This serves to remind us that, even23 Hannah Barker, Newspapers, Politics and English Society, 1695-1855 (London: Longman, 2000) p.256 24 Bristol Journal (Bristol, England), July 19, 1783, availableat: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
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in an age of advanced scientific discovery, events such
as volcanic eruptions still evoke feelings of phenomenon
and wonder.25
Laki and Eyjafjallajökull’s impact on society and social
practices
The media attention given to the 2010 eruption was less
focused on the weather that it caused but more fixed on
the disruption that it caused to air travel - an effect
of volcanic activity that was relatively new in the
history of social responses to volcanoes. Some 313
airports were closed ‘or around 80% of the European
aviation network’, the level of disruption this caused
was more than that which followed the 9/11 terrorist
attacks.26 ‘100,000 flights were cancelled and around
10,000,000 passengers were stranded, and airlines’
25 “The Eerie Beauty of Iceland’s Volcano: Otherworldly images from the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull.” Time, November 2010, accessed November 10, 2013. http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1982747,00.html 26 K. A. Lund and K. Benediktsson, “Inhabiting a risky earth: The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010 and its impacts.” Anthropology Today 27 (2011): 7, accessed November 2, 2013, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8322.2011.00781.x
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financial losses reached around US$2 billion.’27 These
wide spread consequences go someway to represent the vast
impact that volcanic activity can have on society. It
also raises the wider issue of the way in which people
use the environment around them. The Eyjafjallajökull
eruption impacted in the heart of a modern post-
industrial world and ‘disrupted its slick yet fragile
order.’28 The culture of instant travel and mobility was
at particular risk from a natural event. The way society
engages with nature has changed and as systems are put
into place to avoid the travel disruption of 2010 we can
be seen to be replacing one risk (that of the natural
environment) with another (society’s demand to overcome
natural disasters). This poses the question of whether we
are, in a time of instant gratification and mobility,
putting society and people at risk by taking the natural
world for granted? As Latour articulates ‘suddenly under
crisis you realise that all along you have been
inhabiting the earth.’29 This emphasises the point that27 Ibid, p.8 28 Ibid, p.929 B. Latour, “A plea for earthly sciences” (paper presented at the British Sociological Association, East London, April 2007).
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the cultural interactions with volcanic eruptions have
somewhat superseded the environmental concerns that arise
from volcanic activity.
Whilst the 1783 Laki eruption came too early to bring
down flights, the impact that it had on agriculture and
the enduring image it left on the people of Britain
represents a level of continuity in the social affects
that these two Icelandic volcanoes had. Whilst the
origins of the affects of the volcanic ash cloud were at
the time unknown, it still resulted in an articulation of
social responses to extreme weather. Newspaper accounts
often alluded to God’s divine judgement or a supernatural
aspect being behind the violent storms and strange
weather. The Exeter Flying Post reported that:
‘The women, shrieking and crying, were running to hide themselves,
the common fellows fell down on their knees to prayers… the Final Day of
Judgement had come30’
Poet William Cowper directly referenced the idea of the
common folk supporting a narrative of superstition and
30 Exeter Flying Post (Exeter: Devon), August 14, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
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divine judgement as the cause of the extreme weather.
Cowper wrote that some ‘assert with great confidence that
the day of Judgement is at hand,’ the religious overtones
in both Cowper’s writing and in the media are clear.31
They represent the consuming power that volcanic activity
has on the public. The saturation of reports on the
strange weather within the media following the 1783
eruption draws parallels with the media coverage of the
2010 eruption. Volcanoes and their affects have a hold on
the public and the impact that they have on society, from
a sense of unknowing and destruction of crops to grounded
flights and stranded holiday makers, suggests that
Icelandic eruptions have an impact on the cultural
narrative of Britain’s interaction with nature. Whilst
both the Laki and Eyjafjallajökull eruptions have had
material consequences on the environment of Britain,
through an analysis of media coverage and the direct
impact on society of both eruptions, it is clear that the
cultural impact of volcanic activity is more far reaching
and relevant to the people of Britain.
31 King and Ryskamp, The letters of William Cowper, p. 175
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Icelandic volcanoes in popular culture
In this final section of analysis there will be a
consideration of how British society has, over time, used
the effects and images of Laki and Eyjafjallajökull to
provoke the imagination. Poets and influential writers of
the late 18th century have provided us with some of the
key descriptions of the effects of the Laki eruption.
Their eloquent and detailed descriptions of the violent
storms and extreme weather, whilst in a different form,
draw similarities with the photography of the 21st
century. The National Geographic (See appendix 1) feature on
the beauty of Eyjafjallajökull,32 along with The
Guardian’s eyewitness (See appendix 2) spread on the 2010
eruption highlights the way in which humans have
historically engaged with volcanic activity.33 It also
serves to make the larger point that humans have long
engaged with nature and environment with a sense of awe
32 ‘Iceland’s Resilient Beauty’33 “Eyewitness: Ice on Fire,” The Guardian, April 16, 2010, accessed November 6, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/picture/2010/apr/16/iceland-volcano-pictures-guardian-eyewitness
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and unknowing. The words of English naturalist Gilbert
White express the engagement with the human imagination
that the effects of Laki had on Britain:
‘It was a most extraordinary appearance, unlike anything known
within the memory of man34’
When you couple this eloquent description with artists’
attempts to draw the Laki (See appendix 3) eruption,
there becomes an understanding that the beauty and danger
of volcanoes is something that society has tried to
capture throughout history.35 By tracing the historical
origins of this we can recall the interaction of ancient
Roman and Greek societies with volcanoes and natural
disasters. Their worship of volcanic Gods reiterates the
notion that humans appreciate the aesthetic beauty of
volcanic eruption but also fear the impacts that they can
have. The documentary series Life on Fire showcased human
interaction with volcanoes.36 The Laki eruptions features
34 G White, The natural history of Selbourne (London: Penguin, Reprinted in 1977), p.37.35 Alexandra Witze, “Laki: the forgotten volcano”, AlexandraWitze wordpress, 6 July, 2013, available at http://alexandrawitze.wordpress.com/2013/06/07/laki-the-forgotten-volcano/, accessed 10 November, 2013. 36 Life on Fire (2013) PBS, January 2, 2013.
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as an example of how a natural event can be experienced
without knowledge of the event and appreciated as a force
that people are powerless to stop. The final part of the
documentary series questions the fragile nature of post-
modern society much in the same way that Lund does.37
Whilst artists, poets and photographers can revere
volcanic activity and its impacts on society, there are
already attempts to conquer the effects of Icelandic
volcanoes; this is shown, again by Lund, who argues that
procedures are already in place to stop the impacts of
volcanic ash clouds on European societies.38For example,
new technologies being implemented on aircraft, which
allows planes to fly through airspace that has been
affected by ash clouds from volcanic eruptions.39
It is important to note that not all descriptions of the
effects of Laki were positive or eluding to the majestic
nature of the volcano. The Edinburgh Advertiser produced
a harrowing account of the death of two children as a
37 Lund and Benediktsson, “Inhabiting a risky earth,” p.9 38 Ibid, p.939 BBC News, Richard Lister, “Flying through ash clouds,” last modified December 8, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-16077139, accessed 10 November 2013.
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result of the violent weather caused by the Laki ash
cloud:
‘The girl’s whole body remained soft for fours hours, though none of
her bones were broken… A gardener tried to bleed the boy, but without effect.
Their whole bodies soon grew black40’
This account serves to raise the physical impact of the
1783 eruption and how this was translated to the general
public. The reporting of these deaths highlights the role
that society plays in the interaction with natural
disasters. Through the use of media the effects and
impact of the Laki eruption were spread across Britain
and in doing so served to raise public awareness of
dangers of volcanic activity. This interaction between
nature and culture is a chronic theme in environmental
history and in particular volcanic history.
Conclusion
There exists a recurring theme throughout environmental
history that humans want a managed wilderness or a
created environment. William Cronon raises this idea
40 Edinburgh Advertiser (Edinburgh, Scotland), July 15, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
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that, for society, nature is something that needs to be
tamed.41 Even when people experience what they consider to
be the wild or true nature they are in fact getting a
created or managed experience. In terms of Icelandic
volcanoes this translates itself into the idea that for
every one photograph that is produced, highlighting the
beauty of Eyjafjallajökull, there will be someone trying
to put in place measures to stop the effects of an ash
cloud. This dichotomy directly expresses the role that
society plays in the environment and the impact that
people have had throughout history on the natural world.
What also becomes clear is that despite the devastation
and disruption that volcanoes can cause, there is an
enduring appreciation of the beauty and affects of that
volcanic activity: from the Laki eruption in 1783
prompting poets and naturalists to produce pieces of
writing that speak of the beauty and wonder, to 2010,
when magazines and newspapers celebrated the spectacle of
the eruption in photographs. It is perhaps the untameable
nature of volcanoes that has created a narrative41 William Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature,” Environmental History 1 (1996): 8.
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throughout history that has seen a cultural appreciation
of volcanic activity. This analysis of two Icelandic
volcanoes and their impact on a society far away from the
source of eruption has provided the evidence that social
interaction with volcanoes is a vital element to our
understanding of how people interact with nature. Whilst
there is a saturation of literature on the material
environmental impacts of volcanic eruptions, often in the
words of ecologists and geographers, there is now an
awakening, an understanding that volcanoes and people
have a prominent role in the narrative of environmental
history. What has been shown is that throughout history,
here focused on Icelandic volcanoes in 1783 and 2010,
there has been an engagement with nature that has
filtered into society, dominating the media, the public
imagination and now the writings of historians. My
conclusion is that whilst volcanic activity plays a major
role in the material environment, the impact its has on
society is just as important, and for the people
themselves their engagement with nature has a lasting
impact on the way they lead their lives.
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2) Eyewitness – Ice on Fire – The Guardian
3) Alexandra Witze – Laki fire fountains
Bibliography
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Primary Sources
Newspapers
Bristol Journal (Bristol, England), July 19, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers. Edinburgh Advertiser (Edinburgh, Scotland), July 15, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
Exeter Flying Post (Exeter: Devon), August 14, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
‘Iceland volcano 2010 (Eyjafjallajökull)’, The Guardian, 10 November [Online]. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/iceland-volcano (Accessed 10 November 2013)
Sherborne Mercury (Sherborne: Dorset), July 21, 1783, available at: 17th and 18th Century British Library Newspapers.
Personal Accounts
King J. and Ryskamp, C. The letters and prose writings of William Cowper, Vol. II. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.
White, G. The natural history of Selbourne. London: Penguin, Reprinted in 1977.
News Websites and Social Media
BBC News, Richard Lister, “Flying through ash clouds.” Last modified December 8, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-16077139. Accessed 10 November 2013.
‘Results for #ashtag’. Twitter. 10 November. Available at: https://twitter.com/search?src=typd&q=%23ashtag. Accessed: 10 November 2013 16.24.
Secondary Sources
Books
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Barker, Hannah. Newspapers, Politics and English Society, 1695-1855. London: Longman, 2000.
Dumezil, Georges. Archaic Roman Religion: Volume One. Translated by Philip Krapp. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
Lopes, Rosaly M.C. The Volcano Adventure Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Mauch, Christof and Pfister, Christian. Natural Disasters, Cultural Responses: Case Studies Toward A Global Environmental History. Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2009.
Stiengrimsson, Jon and Kunz, Keneva. Fires of the Earth: the Laki eruption, 1783-1784. Iceland: Nordic Volcanic Institute, 1998.
Zeilinga de Boer, Jelle and Sanders, Donald Theodore. Volcanoes in Human History: The Far-Reaching Effects of Major Eruptions. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012.
Zimbelman, James R. and Gregg, Tracey K.P. Environmental Effects on Volcanic Eruptions: From Deep Oceans to Deep Space. New York: Springer, 2000.
Journal Articles
Cronon, William. “The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature.” Environmental History 1 (1996): 7-28.
Grattan, John and Brayshay, Mark. “An Amazing and Portentous Summer: Environmental and Social Reponses in Britain to the 1783 Eruption of an Iceland Volcano.” The Geographical Journal 161 (1995): 125-134
Lund K.A. and Benediktsson, K. “Inhabiting a risky earth:The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010 and its impacts.” Anthropology Today 27 (2011): 6-9. Accessed November 2, 2013. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8322.2011.00781.x
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Ogilvie, A.E.J. “The Climate of Iceland 1701-1784.” Jokull 36 (1986): 57-73
Thorarinnson, S. “Greeting from Iceland: ash falls and volcanic aerosols in Scandinavia.” Geographical Annul 63A (1981): 109-118
Paper Presented at Conference
Latour, B. “A plea for earthly sciences.” Paper presentedat the British Sociological Association, East London, April 2007.
Websites
“The Art of Volcanoes”. The Telegraph [Online]. Availableat: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/picturegalleries/7906109/The-art-of-the-volcano.html. Accessed 10 November, 2013.
“The Eerie Beauty of Iceland’s Volcano: Otherworldly images from the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull.” Time, November 2010. Accessed November 10, 2013. http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1982747,00.html
“Eyewitness: Ice on Fire.” The Guardian. April 16, 2010. Accessed November 6, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/world/picture/2010/apr/16/iceland-volcano-pictures-guardian-eyewitness.‘Iceland’s Resilient Beauty.’ Last modified 24 April 2010. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/05/iceland/haarberg-photography#/01-eyjafjallajokull-volcano-lava-670.jpg
USA today. ‘Volcano chasers have a red-hot passion for eruptions.’ Last modified 26 March 2010, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2010-05-27-Volcano_chasers27_ST_N.htm
Blogs
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Witze, Alexandra. “Laki: the forgotten volcano.” Alexandra Witze wordpress. 6 July, 2013. Available at http://alexandrawitze.wordpress.com/2013/06/07/laki-the-forgotten-volcano/. Accessed 10 November, 2013.
Youtube Channels
‘Martin Rietze.’ Last modified 1 November 2013. http://www.youtube.com/channel/UC5LzAA_nyNWEUfpcUFOCpJw
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