238 JEWELRY

1969 to 1982); the Churches of St. Thomas of the Germans (by Bahat and Reich in 1976) and St. Mary of the Germans (by Asher Ovadiah and Netzer in 1968); the Holy Sepulcher (by Corbo, Coiiasnon, Christos Katsimbinis from 1960 to 1969); the foundations of the chapel of St. Egidius (by Bahat in 1985); the cloister of St. Mary Magdalene (by Bahat in 1978); the Crusader royal palace (by Bahat and Broshi in 1970-1971; see their "Excavations in the Armenian Gar­den," in Yadin, ed., 1975, p. 56); the Templar wall, south of the Temple Mount (by B. Mazar from 1967 to 1978); and the Damascus Gate (by Hennessy in 1972).

Some 'Ayyubid remains have been uncovered as well. Many vestiges of this period are preserved in the city and are responsible for its special character. In 1961-1967, in the Armenian Garden, Tushingham found a large building in his area L that he interpreted as a caravanserai, although its plan may be better explained as an administrative structure. The building's centrality was underscored by the discovery of strong towers in the contemporary western and southern city wall built by the nephew of Salah edh-Din (Saladin) between 1202 and 1212. These towers (exca,:"ated by Btoshi in 1971-1972, Avigad from 1969 to 1982, Margowsky from 1969 to 1972, and Ben-Dov from 1973 to 1977) were incor­porated in a city wall of which only small sections are pre­served. However, Bliss and Dickie (from 1894 to 1897) dis­covered a city wall crowning Mt. Zion that can be identified with a wall the literary sources report was built by Salah edh­Din, who also excavated a moat in front of it. The north­western corner of the Old City preserves the remains of a tower and a section of the medieval city wall (explored by Bahat and Menashe Ben-Ari in 1972). Between 1968 and 1983 Michael H. Burgoyne did a survey of Mamluk build­ings in the city for the BSA}. The greatest change in the character of the city took place in the sixteenth century un­der the Ottoman sultan Silleiman the Magnificent. The city walls of Jerusalem (demolished by Saladin's nephew in the thirteenth century) were reconstructed, as were six foun­tains built by him in addition to the reconstruction of the aqueducts from Solomon's Pools south of Bethlehem. Pub­lic buildings were also added to the city and its present Mus­lim character was thus secured.

[See also Bibilical Temple.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amiran, David H. K., and Arie Shachar. Atlas of Jerusalem. Berlin and New York, 1973.

Avigad, Nahman. Ancient Monuments in the Kidron Valley. Jerusalem,

1954· Avigad, Nahman. Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville, 1983. Avi-Yonah, Michael. Sefer Yerushalayim (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Jerusa-

~1~ J Bahat, Dan. The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem. New York, 1990. Ben-Dov, Meir. In the Shadow of the Temple: The Discovery of Ancient

Jerusalem. Translated by Ina Friedman. New York, 1985.

Benvenisti, Meron. Jerusalem, the Tom City. Minneapolis, 1976. Bliss, Frederick Jones, and Archibald Campbell Dickie. Excavations at

Jerusalem, 1894-1897. London, 1898. Burgoyne, Michael Hamilton, and D. S. Richards. MamlukJerusalem:

An Architectur(ll Study. London, 1987. Conder, Claude R., and Charles Warren. The Survey of Western Pal­

estine, vol. 5, Jerusalem. London, 1884. Crowfoot, John W., and Gerald M. FitzGerald. Excavations in the Ty­

ropoean Valley, Jerusalem, 1927. London, 1929. Geva, Hillel, ed. Ancient Jerusalem Revealed. Jerusalem, 1994. Hamilton, Robert William. The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque:

A Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938-1942. London, 1949.

Hollis, F. J. The Archeology of Herod's Temple. London, 1934. Kenyon, Kathleen M. Jerusalem: Excavating 3000 Years of History. New

York,1967· Kenyon, Kathleen M. Digging Up Jerusalem. London, 1974. Lutfi, Huda. Al Quds al-Mamlukiyya. Berlin, 1985. Macalister, R. A. S., and Duncan J. Garrow. Excavations on the Hill of

Ophel, Jerusalem, 192]-1925. London, 1926. Mazar, Benjamin, and Eliat Mazar. Excavations in the South of the Tem­

ple Mount. Qedem, vol. 29. Jerusalem, 1989. Rosen-Ayalon, Myriam. The Early Islamic Monuments of al-Haram al­

Sharif. Qedem, vol. 28. Jerusalem, 1989. Shiloh, Yigal, et al. Excavations at the City of David, 1978-85. 3 vols. to

date. Qedem, vols. 19,30, 33. Jerusalem, 1984-1992. Simons, Jan Jozef. Jerusalem in the Old Testament. Leiden, 1952. , Sukenik, Eleazar L., and Leo Mayer. The Third Wall of Jerusalem: An

Account of Excavations. Jerusalem, 1930. Tushingham, A. D., et al. Excavations in Jerusalem, 1961-1967. Vol. 1.

Toronto, 1985. Vincent, L.-H., and Felix-Marie Abel. Jerusalem: Recherches de topogra­

phie, d'archeologie et d'histoire, vol. 2, Jerusalem nouvelle. Paris, 1926. Wilson, Charles W. Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem. London, 1865. Yadin, Yigael, ed. Jerusalem Revealed: Archaeology in the Holy City,

1968- 1974. Jerusalem, 1975.

DANBAHAT

JEWELRY. Adornment and satisfying the wearer's van­ity are only two of the contributions jewelry makes to an individual's well-being. Some pieces of jewelry, many of them shaped like deities, their attribute animals, or symbols, are at the same time meant to protect the individual and to demonstrate one's piety. Jewelry shaped like flowers or fruit reflects the time-honored use of plants as personal orna­ment, as well as the symbolic significance of their shape or divine associations (e.g., McGovern, 1985). The materials (gold = sun, silver = moon) usually are also weighted with symbolic significance. When worn, jewelry also serves to ex­press human difference/inequality (see below). Lastly, jew­elry is an investment, and in precoinage times (and later) could be used as money: many types have a standard weight and gold/silver content, their value being enhanced by fine

(work, whether viewed as personal effects or as money. In the ancient Near East and elsewhere, the craving to

bedeck oneself with jewels transcended gender. Excavated finds on skeletal remains of known gender, as well as artistic representations, reveal that by their appearance alone it is

seldom possible to distinguish women's jewels from those of men (Marcus, 1993, p. 170). This may, at least in part, be an archaeological optical illusion: common sense suggests, and ample ethnological studies illustrate, that jewelry­along with other personal ornaments and accessories, cloth­ing, and tattooing-did express differences, of wealth, gen­der, family and social status, official function, and ethnos (cf. Marcus, 1993), and that some of it was intended for special occasions such as weddings and festivals. Possessed of emotions and desires on a majestic scale, many gods dis­playa knack for jewelry no less than that of mortals.

Jewelry is found least in habitational contexts-that is, on the floors; exceptions to this rule occur chiefly in cases of violent destruction not followed by plundering (Marcus, 1993, p. 159). Most jewelry is found in tombs, foundation deposits, temple favissae, or hoards.

While in the former three its function is plain enough, there are several possibilities for the preburial role of jewelry from hoards. It is often impossible to decide whether the pieces in a hoard belong to a jeweler/trader or are the prop­erty of a customer. Intact jewelry pieces may be identified as finished products/stock-in-trade of the former, and as personal ornaments or money of the latter. Broken jewelry pieces may be identified as spare parts/recyclables of the former, and as money of the latter.

Unfortunately, the archaeological context does not always permit one to distinguish a foundation deposit from a hoard, which might have been hidden in the face of danger. When it can be distinguished, a hoard will not only afford chron­ological, technological, and typological insight; it might offer an opportunity for economic interpretation (Balmuth, 1976; Curtis, 1984).

In Mesopotamia, archaeologists have unearthed the splendid jewelry of the third-millennium royal tombs ofUr; Egypt, in addition to the grave goods of Tutankhamun, has yielded a sizable sample of second-millennium and early first-millennium BCE royal jewelry. Students of ancient Pal­estinian jewelry have to content themselves with a far more modest corpus. In another contrast with Egypt there is hardly any piece that can be regarded as funerary in origin. Representational art (e.g. Neo-Assyrian reliefs) and textual mentions (like in Ex. 39 and Is. 3:18-24) complement the picture and lend it perspective.

Materials, Techniques, and Tools. The first known gold, usually considered to be of Egyptian origin (for a mod­est local source exploited much later, Wadi TawaJ:1in near Eilat, see Wolff, 1993, pp. 160-162), appears in Palestine in the Cha1colithic period. Copper, thought to have been mined locally at Feinan and Timna', makes its appearance in Palestine in the same period. Silver, probably coming from Anatolia, is first found in jewelry of the Early Bronze I period (see Prag, 1978). Bronze makes its debut in jewelry, as well as in tools and weapons, in the Middle Bronze I

JEWELRY 239

period (see Eisenberg, 1985). Iron was not a popular metal in jewelry making; personal ornaments in this metal belong chiefly to the early Iron II.

Stones were valued chiefly for their colors, not because they refracted light (precious stones, such as diamonds and rubies, were not yet used). Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and turquoise from Sinai, so popular in Egypt-the former also in Mesopotamia-were rare in Palestine. Carnelian (quartz with iron minerals, from the surrounding sandstone deserts) was used abundantly in Palestine in beads from the late Neolithic onward. Other quartzes, such as amethyst (quartz with manganese minerals, from near Aswan, Egypt), are found less frequently from the EB I onward. Animal and plant products were always available locally and were in use as jewelry long before the Cha1colithic period-such as wood, Mediterranean and Red Sea shells, ostrich-egg shell, and bone (e.g., in the PPNB NaJ:1al I:Iemar cave, Bar-Yosef and Alon, 1988, pp. 19-20). Elephant ivory, coming from Egypt and possibly Syria, and hippopotamus ivory, available also locally, was used in Palestine since the Cha1colithic, and amber since the Late Bronze. The source of the latter seems to be the Baltic region, probably attesting to indirect trade, with Greece the last leg of the relay before Syria-Palestine; the local amber product was of low quality (Todd, 1985; Bass, 1986, p. 286; Harding, 1987; Pulak, 1988, pp. 24-25; Sherratt, 1995).

Manufactured materials used in jewelry production in­cluded the alkaline glaze on "soapstone" beads, known since the Cha1colithic period; glazed faience (since EB I); and glass (since MB IIA; cf. McGovern et a1., 1991, and the section on MB IIA below). Glass, like stones, was valued for its colors. A twelfth-century BCE sizable glass ingot dis­covered at Ashdod may attest to the local manufacture.

Innovative methods and technological breakthroughs in metallurgy are detectable in jewelry. In the Cha1colithic pe­riod, soldering and lost wax casting were introduced; since EB II-III (and possibly earlier) chasing and repousse are employed to enhance pieces; in the MB lIB granulation, which depended on fine soldering, and cloisonne techniques appear in Palestine for the first time (on granulation see Hoffmann and Davidson, 1965, p. 46; Carroll, 1974); filigree is found rarely since the LB period, like gilding in Iron II (the exact technique for the latter is still unclear).

Jewelers used drills, anvilll (Potts, 1985, p. 186), chasing hammers, doming blocks, and drawplates; the latter two are still missing from the archaeological record of Palestine, but hardstone beads are a possible alternative for drawplates. Also employed were stone dies for impressing a pattern into sheet metal, and stone molds (distinguishable by their pour­ing channels from dies) were probably used only for casting wax in the lost-wax technique. The finest soldering was done employing a brazier and blowpipe (documented in Egyptian tomb paintings of jewelers).

240 JEWELRY

Chalcolithic Period. Until the fifth millennium (pre­Ghassulian cultures) jewelry finds consist mostly of beads and pendants, such as the carnelian, garnet and other stone beads from Kabri in Israel. From the Ghassulian Chalcol­ithic heavy gold rings (ingots?) were found in the Nahal Qana cave (Gopher et a1., 1990), which is roughly contem­porary with the elite cemetery at Varna (Bulgaria), and its gold jewelry. Although no jewelry was recovered in the Nal,tal Mishmar "Cave of the Treasure," there was ample evidence among the metal objects discovered for sophisti­cated soldering and the lost-wax technique (Shalev et a1., 1992,1993; Tadmor et aI., 1995). A double-spiral wire pen­dant was discovered within a small copper hoard at Neve Nay near Beersheba, closely related to the Na~al Mishmar finds (Baumgarten and Eldar, 1985; Negbi, 1976, pI. 47, shows how it was worn). A pendant with the same double­spiral motif in relief was found at Biq<at <Uvda in the south­ern Negev desert (Avner, 1984, pI. 16:2). This motif was widespread in the ancient Near East and in Old Europe and was probably related to fertility (Keel, 1987). An ivory hair­pin surmounted by a bird was found among other ivories of Egyptian inspiration at Beersheba (Perrot, 1955, pp. 171-172, pI. 22B), and there is a similar example from Shiqmim. Unique among the finds from Palestine is a beadwork purse(?) from a cave in Na~al $e<elim in the Judean Desert, made of white- and blue-glazed stone beads (Aharoni, 1961, p. IS, pI. 7A). Bracelets, of a type found also around much of the Indian Ocean rim, cut from Red Sea shells like Lam­bis truncata sabae, continue from the Chalcolithic (Levy and Alon, 1985, pp. 129-130) into the EB (Schaub and Rast, 1989, pp. 310-312).

Early Bronze Age. Among the rare gold finds from the EB I are wire spiral hair(?) rings (also found in electrum and silver) from tombs at Azor (Ben-Tor, 1975, p. 24; and ex­cavation by A. Druks, exhibited in the Israel Museum, Je­rusalem, unpublished), and a wire ring (earring?) and seam­less, seemingly soldered tube from Tell en-Na~beh. Some of the earliest silver finds from the Levant are a pin (hair­pin?), unearthed in an EB I tomb at Bab edh-Dhra' in Jordan (Schaub and Rast, 1989, pp. 312-313), and the items from Azor just mentioned. From a tomb at Azor two oblate am­ethyst beads (finished Egyptian imports) were among the twelve hundred beads found (Ben-Tor, 1975, p. 23). From an EB I tomb at Tell el-Assawir and from a contemporary domestic context at <Ein-Besor come Egyptian or egyptian­izing Ram's(?)-head pendant beads (Gophna, 1980, p. 15, pI. III:4). Faience beads were recovered in quantity from EB I tombs, e.g. atJericho, that may have been produced locally.

Splendid isolated EB II-III finds hint at the richness and diversity of the jeweler's craft. In an unexpected find-spot, a modest habitational site at out-of-the-way <Ein ha-Me<ara in the western Negev, were discovered three drop-shaped, hollow, gold pendant-beads (exact date within the EB un­certain; Haiman, 1989, p. 180), with comparable finds but

not exact parallels in Egypt. In a late EB II or early EB III tomb excavated in 1941 at Kinneret, a locality on the Sea of Galilee, the finds include a repousse gold disk, of uncertain use, and beads attesting to the advanced technology of the day: hollow cylinders with closed ends, thick ones whose soldering is visible and thin ones that may have covered now-decayed faience beads; tubular carnelian beads with gold caps and a band (with comparisons in contemporary Egypt and Mesopotamia); and a barrel-shaped elecrrum(,) bead with what may be hammered-on gold caps (Mazar et al., 1973; Amiran, 1993; see figure I). Similar material­cylindrical gold beads and two repousse gold plaques-was recovered from an EB III charnel house at Bab edh-Dhra< (Rast and Schaub, 1987, p. 48; Schaub and Rast, 1989, pp. 468-469). The jewelry from Kinneret was believed to show Anatolian inspiration, but when considered together with the Bab edh-Dhra' finds local origins are suggested. Three star-shaped spacer beads were found at Jericho in Tomb A (Garstang, 1932, pI. XXII); it is not clear whether they are local or imported. An ivory hairpin surmounted by an ani­mal shape was found at Megiddo, stratum XVIII (Loud, 1948, pI. 201). Although granulation and cloisonne are known in third-millennium Mesopotamia, and cloisonne is known in contemporary Egypt, these two techniques are un­known in the EB II-III Levant. Nor are finger rings found in the region before the MB I.

Middle Bronze 1. In this period bronze is introduced and is employed inler alia in jewelry and personal accessories, such as toggle pins. In fact the laner, used to fasten gar­ments, made their debut in this period-in Mesopotamia toggle pins are found already in the Early Dynastic III pe­riod. MB I toggle pins made of bronze come, for instance, from <Einan. At the same site copper bracelets were found in situ on a woman's arm, as were finger rings, two of them in situ on the middle finger of a woman's right hand, and

JEWELRY. Figure I. Gold, silver. and carnelian beads. From an EB tomb at Kinneret. near the Sea of Galilee. (IAA 41.488, 4J.498. 41.500,41.501,41.503.41.516; courtesy Israel Antiquities Authority)

JEWELRY 241

JEWELRY. Figure 2. Three views of a gold and glass earring. From a mid-second-millennium BCE

tomb at Megiddo. (lAA 36.196; courtesy Israel Antiquities Authority)

spiral hair rings (Eisenberg, I985, pp. 7I-72) . An MB I cop­per diadem was found on the skull in a tomb atJericho (Ken­yon, 1965, fig. 41:8), and an amethyst bead, a rare Egyptian import, at Ma'abarot (Dar, 1977, pp. 35-37). A silver brace­let was unearthed in a tomb of the same period at Hazorea' (Meyerhof, 1989, p. 106, pI. 37), a very rare find in this metal besides the celebrated 'Ain es-Samiyeh goblet (Tad­mor, 1986, 100-102).

Middle Bronze IIA. The MB IIA royal tombs at Byblos revealed the fi rst Syro-Palestinian gold granulation, some of it made into elaborate figural motifs never since repeated (Maxwell-Hyslop, I97I, p . 103). Little jewelry datable to this period was recovered in Palestine. (Aphek in the Sharon, the type-site for the stratigraphy and pottery chro­nology of the Palestinian MB ITA, yielded hardly any jewelry at all.) T he earliest glass find from Palestine belongs to this period: a bead from T el Dan (Ilan et aI., 1993); it is roughly contemporary with the substantial find from Assur (Wartke, in Harper et aI., 1995, pp. 54, 106).

Middle Bronze lIB to Late Bronze I. T hroughout the second millennium gold finds outnumber silver in Syria-Pal­estine. The richest fi nd in Palestine in the late MB/early LB period and the one that comes nearest to royal jewelry, Of.,

rather, princely jewelry was made at Tell el-'Ajjul (Negbi, 1970, using outdated chronology; Ziffer, 1990, pp. 54*-63* [English], 63-78 [Hebrew]) . Egyptian influence, expressed for instance in scarabs mounted in gold and silver and in the use of amethyst (Ziffer, 1990, p. 74), is present amongst the mostly local work of the 'Ajjul assemblages, much of it ex­hibiting great skill in execution, such as in the fine granu­lation. T here are partial parallels to the 'Ajjul material in the princely tombs at Ebla, with a few further comparisons from

the Uluburun shipwreck, and at Tell ed-Dab'a in the eastern Nile Delta. In this period (late MB/early LB) toggle pins became elaborate in design (Ziffer, 1990, p. 71). Crescent pendants, which began as an open form, gradually closed in the course of the Late Bronze Age (Ziffer, 1990, p. 58*; Tadmor and Misch-Brandl, 1980, p. 78) . Solid crescentic (or "boat") earrings began to appear then and continued as a popular form for more than a millennium. Legume-shaped sheet-gold earrings from Tell el-'Ajjul have symbolic signif­icance because of their crescentic shape (Negbi, 1971). One pair was provided with a unique sliding lock (Ziffer, 1990, p. 55*). By adding a head and tail, and decorating the cres­centic base-form in a semblance of feathers, the same shape was transformed into a bird with outspread, raised wings (Ziffer, '990, pp . 65 vs . 64), tentatively identified by Tufnell (I983) as a wryneck. Most of these legume-shaped and bird­shaped earrings are decorated with granulation and wire (Li­lyquist, 1993) . Fly and fly-larva pendant beads (Tadmor, I986, p . I23 bottom left) , and flamboyant glass-inlayed mul­tiple-eye (blue and yellow concentric circles) earrings wi th rams' heads soldered at the bottom have also been found at Tell el-'Ajjul (Ziffer, 1990, pp. 56*,66), and a similar pair turned up at Megiddo (see figure 2). Also from 'Ajjul are neck ornaments or belts made of multiple, hinged parts (Zif­fer, 1990, p. 69) and a diadem or choker in the shape of a gold strap with evenly spaced tubes that may have held now­vanished gold flowers (Ziffer, 1990, p. 68, comparable to an intact item from Egypt, ibid., p. 67). In Megiddo was found a complex hinged silver bracelet of the late MB or early LB (Guy and Engberg, I938, pI. I45:22). Sheet-metal repousse pendants are rather common in Syria-Palestine, continuing from the MB II well into the LB period: circular examples

242 JEWELRY

with a "Cappadocian symbol" or double thunderbolt, the symbol of the storm god (e.g., from late MB Shiloh, Fin­kelstein and Brandl, 1985, pp. 23-24), or with an eight­pointed star, the symbol of the goddess Ishtar, and drop­shaped pendants with the schematic image of a naked goddess (examples of latter two from Tell el-<Ajjui, Tadmor, 1986, pp. 123, 125).

Late Bronze II to Early Iron I. Just as MB lIB and LB I jewelry are inseparable, so the jewelry items of the four­teenth-twelfth centuries fonn a fairly coherent group. Jewelry lists were found for instance in Syria in the Ningal Temple at Qatna, and in the AmaIna letters. Gold ingots were recov­ered at Beth-Shean, and bivalve stone molds (see above) for casting several items each---earrings, beads, pin-were found at Hazer stratum XIV (Yadin et aI. , 1961, pI. 158:31); Tell Abu Hawam stratum V (Hamilton, 1935, p. 58, no. 359); and Beth-Shemesh (Grant, 1931, pI. 13). Jewelry in the Late Bronze Age II reflects a mixture of local types-traditional plus innovative designs-and Egyptian types. Circular and goddess-shaped pendants begin to appear in glass (Megiddo, Lachish, Dan, Tel Mevorakh). Pomegranate-bud pendant earrings with the hoop separate are new, and have as their provenience Deir el-BalaJ: (Dothan, 1979, pp. 74, 76), a hoard from Beth-Shemesh (Tadmor and Misch-Brandl, 1980, p. 77; see figure 3), Tell el-Far'ah (South) , Tel Narni

(unpublished), Megiddo, and Ugarit. Beads and pendant­beads in palmette, drop, lotus-seed, and Egyptian nefer (hi­eroglyph denoting "good[ly]") shapes, made of gold, carnel­ian, and faience, and belonging to Egyptian-type necklaces or broad collars, were found at Deir el-BalaJ: (where red-tinted gold was also used; Dothan, 1979, pp. 78-80; Tadmor, 1986, p. 133), Dhahrat el-Humraya, Beth-Shean (Tadmor, 1986, p. 135) and Lachish. Inscribed massive Egyptian-type finger rings in metal, stone, and faience are known from several sites: from <Ajjul comes a gold ring with the name of Tu­tankhamun; in Judur, Aphek, and Azor were discovered fin­ger rings inscribed with good wishes in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Granulation in the LB II is less widespread than in the pre­ceding period; whether this reflects a real decline of the tech­nique or only the chances of discovery cannot be said. One example in silver or electrum, a pair of bracelet centerpieces, comes from Kamid el-Loz (Hachmann, 1983, p . 157); a pair of gold bracelets from the tomb of Tutankhamun constitutes a close parallel (Andrews, 1990, p. 157 right). The earliest known appearance of cloisonne is certainly inspired by Egypt (where this technique is at home), but the jewelry pieces thus made have a possibly local origin: isolated examples have been found at Lachish (Tufnell, 1958, pI. 25:9); Megiddo (Loud, 1948, pI. 224:27); and Kamid el-Loz (Miron, 1990, pp. 45, 168, 171, pI. I). An LB II filigree bead in gold from

JEWELRY. Figure 3. Par! of a jewelry hoard. Beth-Shemesh; thirteenth century BeE. Also shown is the ceramic vessel in which the hoard was found . (Courtesy Israel Antiquities Authority)

JEWELRY 243

JEWELRY. Figure 4. Two vievJS of a pair of gold ean"ngs. Tell Jemmeh, early first millennium

BeE. (IAA j. 1006; courtesy Israel Antiquities Authority)

the Beth-Shemesh hoard is the only local example of this rare technique (Tadmor and Misch-Brandl, 1980, p. 75). The bead has exact parallels in d,e Valley of the Kings in Thebes, Egypt, in a tomb of a daughter of Queen Tawosert (1188-[[86 BGE) (Andrews, 1990, p. 127), and from Tell el-'Ajjul comes an imitation in faience (Petrie 1933, no. 10 on p. 5, pis. 8, 10). Tapering metal-band finger rings in the Hittite style appear at Tell el-Farah (South) (petrie, 1930, pl. 36; Macdonald et al., '932, pl. 51) and Tel Nami (Singer, 1993). The earliest-known amber beads in Palestine, of Baltic origin, were found at Tell Abu Hawam and a few other sites in LB II contexts (Sherratt, 1995, p. 202; more references in "ma­terials" section above). In early Iron I, LB traditions initially were continued, as is evidenced, for instance, at Tell el-Far'ah (South), where Flinders Petrie found a late twelfth- or elev­enth-century gold crescent pendant and carnelian lotus-seed beads (petrie, 1930, pis. 36,37, 39)·

Late Iron I to Early Iron II. As far as jewelry is con­cerned this period, the eleventh-ninth centuries, is to be re­garded as a continuum. New local jewelry types introduced, perhaps by the Sea Peoples, are known chiefly from the Tell el-Far<ah (South) cemeteries. Tassel earrings in gold, elec­trum, silver, and bronze, whose prototype probably was fto­ral (Maxwell-Hyslop, I971, p. 225, photographs 198,200), are also known, in addition to Tell el-Farcah, from Madaba (Harding, 1953, p. 32, nos. 197-198), Timna' (Rothenberg, 1988, pl. 55:15), the Judean Desert (unpublished), and Ta­wilan, the latter in a sixth-fifth-century context (Bienkowski, '991, p. 102). Early examples of "basket" earring(?) pen­dants were unearthed in eleventh-ninth-centuries contexts, an example in gold at Tell el-Far'ah (South) (Petrie, 1930, pis. 36, 39) and in silver at Beth-Shean; these finds herald the much later Phoenician type (see below). The earliest examples of massive bracelets, armlets and anklets, the latter two distinguished by their size, also appear in late Iron 1: iron examples were found at Tell el-Farah (South) and Tell Qasile (Mazar, 1985, p. 8--9).

Iron I types continued into the Early Iron II, pre-Assyrian period, as noted, and new developments are discernible. At Eshtemoa' a silver hoard was recovered (Yeivin, 1990) and at Tell Jemmeh there were silver and gold finds (Petrie, 1928), both apparendy from the ninth century. Elongated gold crescent earrings with a herringbone wire decoration and a loop to hold a pendant, the latter now lost, were dis­covered at Tell Jemmeh (see figure 4), and silver specimens come from Arad and Eshtemoa'. Other earrings from Tell Jemmeh and elsewhere display a flattened crescentic hoop decorated with a row of granules (Yeivin, 1990, fig. 16: I I), and use is made of granulation on items from the Eshtemoa< hoard (Yeivin, 1990, fig. 17:7). Iron and bronze bangles were found at Lachish and at other sites, but while the use of the bronze specimens continues, the interest in iron ban­gles appears eventually to diminish. Subsequently, at Tell el-Mazar, a burial was found with both bracelets and ank.1ets in situ on the skeleton (yassine, 1984, p. 93). Fibulas, in­vented in the Late Bronze Age Aegean, began to replace toggle pins in Syria-Palestine in the Early Iron II or perhaps as early as Iron 1. Fibulas were also used for securing a seal with a chain, and there is a type of fibula which is cast in one piece with a seal (Curtis, 1994; Curtis, in Curtis and Reade, 1995, p. 174).

Late Iron II. From this period mosdy silver jewelry is found; gold is rare. There appears to be little cloisonne work, though cloisonne decoration of ivory and wood carving is popular. New shapes in jewelry proliferated, displaying Syro-Assyrian and Phoenician as well as local styles. The former is probably the result of Assyrian deportations, cer­tainly of Assyria's imperial rule, and one may be entitled to speak of a Syro-Assyrian koine, encompassing most of the Near East: parallels to jewelry finds from Palestine exist as far afield as Karmir Blur in Urartu. Late Iron II jewelry finds in the southern Levant are mainly from inland sites, e.g., Ketef Hinnom, Kamid el-Loz (Hachmann and Kuschke, 1966), Meqabelein, and Tel <Ira. Some types continue into

244 JEWELRY

the sixth-fifth centuries, or else are difficult to differentiate; there are, for example, mixed seventh-fifth-centuries tombs in Jerusalem (Ketef Hinnom) and Amman (Adoninur). Abundant use is made of hollow shapes embellished with granulation and wire decoration, mainly in earrings. Cloi­sonne is found in Amman (the tomb of Adoninur) andMeq­abelein in ring bezels. In Palestine, at Tel Miqne/Ekron, a sheet-silver pendant, incised with the images of Ishtar and a worshiper (Gitin, 1995, fig. 4.14), is a provincial rendering of North Syrian work paralleled at Zincirli. Triangular eye beads made of glass, of Assyrian type, were found at Gezer and other sites (Reich and Brandl, 1985, p. 49).

Though artifacts coming from or inspired by Phoenicia are common in Iron II Palestine, Phoenician influence in jewelry (some of it egyptianizing) has been first observed only in work done in the early 1990S on late Iron II finds from the coastal sites of Achziv and Tel Miqne/Ekron (for­mer unpublished, latter in Gitin, 1995, fig. 4.12); inland jew­elry shows Syro-Assyrian influence (see above). Parallels to the Miqne and Achziv jewelry come mainly from the Phoe­nician West. Among the finds are elaborate earrings, includ­ing some with multiple pendants (basket and lotus flower), and a rare example of gilding was observed on silver Horus eyes from Miqne. A silver finger ring from the same site, with a hieroglyphic inscription, should be noted. Few Phoe­nician/egyptianizing finds are also known from inland sites, such as a gold finger ring from Samaria, that has a parallel in a bracelet of Sheshonq found at Tanis. At Achziv a lion­shaped pin-head made of Baltic amber was found (Sherratt, 1995, p. 202; more references in "materials" section above).

Multiple hollow-ball earrings are probably of local inspi­ration, an offshoot of the MB-LB granule-cluster earrings, unless the Iron Age version was made by Iranian deportees to Palestine-somewhat similar earrings of the early first millennium BCE are known from Marlik and Hasanlu in Iran (Maxwell-Hyslop, 1971, photographs 135, 144). Examples of the local type found in a seventh-century BCE tomb at Tel 'Ira (Beit-Arieh, 1985, p. 23) testify to the date of their in­troduction; when they appear elsewhere it is often in post­Iron II or mixed contexts, e.g., at KetefHinnom and Kamid el-Loz (Hachmann and Kuschke, 1966, p. 64, fig. 20:6-7). Also found only locally are hoops of several earring types decorated with wound wire and tiny hollow balls.

An abundance of inexpensive Egyptian faience amulets in the shapes of deities and their symbols, such as Horus eyes (Herrmann, 1994), and local carved bone "club" and "ham­mer" pendants (Platt, 1978; Herrmann, 1994, p. 814) have been found, for example, at Lachish.

[See also Bone, Ivory, and Shell; and Metals. In addition, many of the sites mentioned are the subject of independent en­tries.]

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BENJAMIN SASS

JEWISH PALESTINE EXPLORATION SO­CIETY. See Israel Exploration Society.

JEZREEL, TEL, a Is-acre mound situated in the east­ern part of the J ezreel Valley on a ridge extending along its southern side. The site's a commanding position offers a breathtaking view of the valley. Although there is a large spring, 'Ein Jezreel, in the valley to the northeast, it seems that the numerous rock-cut cisterns that collected rainwater at the site and in its immediate surroundings served as the settlement's main water source.

Development works carried out nearby in 1987 revealed Iron Age monumental remains. Following limited salvage excavations by the Israel Antiquities Authority, systematic excavations were started by David Ussishkin and John Woodhead, on behalf of Tel Aviv University and the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, respectively. Six large­scale seasons of excavation took place between 1990 and

1995· A few Late Neolithic flint implements of the Wadi Rabbah

culture are the earliest finds collected at the site. A consid­erable number of Early Bronze Age I and III pottery frag­ments were also recovered on the surface and a few Middle Bronze Age II sherds were found. A considerable amount of Late Bronze Age pottery concentrated in the construc­tional fills of the Iron Age gate indicates the existence of a settlement in the central part of the mound during that pe­riod. The existence of a Canaanite settlement at Jezreel has a bearing on the origins of the name of the site and the valley, which first appears in late biblical accounts. Jezreel was lo­cated in the tribal inheritance of Issachar aos. 19:18). It is mentioned in the list of Solomon's district officers (I Kgs. 4:12). Iron I pottery found in the constructional fills of the later Iron Age indicates that Jezreel was probably settled during the period of the United Monarchy.

During the reign of the Omride dynasty (882-842 BeE), Jezreel became a royal center of considerable importance in the kingdom of Israel, and a large enclosure was built there. The site's importance during this period is attested in two biblical stories: I Kings 21 describes the story of Naboth the Jezreelite who had an orchard near King Ahab's "palace," and 2 Kings 9-IO relates in detail the story ofJehu's revolt in 842 BeE. It was there that he received the decapitated heads of the members of Ahab's family sent to him from Samaria. Hosea (1:4) mentions "the blood of Jezreel upon the house of Jehu"-a possible indication that Jehu de­stroyed Jezreel at that time.

The royal enclosure, built on a grand scale and according to a uniform plan, is rectangular and surrounded by a case­mate wall with projecting towers at the corners. Its outer maximal measurements are about 332 X 184 m, and the area inside the enclosure is about 45 dunams (II acres). One of the long sides follows the slope and faces the valley. The gate, of the six-chambered type, is located in the opposite long side. The casemate wall is supported by a massive earthen rampart. On three sides-but not on the long side facing the valley-a rock-cut moat forms the outer ring of the fortifications. The moat is about 8-12 m wide and, at one point at which its bottom was reached in excavation, it is about 6 m deep. It was estimated on the basis of presently available data that about 26,800 cu m of rock were quarried in the moat and that at least 23,300 cu m of material were dumped in the ramparts. The area of the enclosure is largely destroyed or covered with later remains, and relatively little is known about the buildings inside. Remains of a domestic character were found in the casemates and adjoining struc­tures.

Iron Age domestic remains probably dating to the eighth century BeE were found superimposed on the enclosure's ruined walls, an indication that it had only been used for a brief period. To this later settlement should be assigned a handle of a royal Judean storage jar; it bears a stamp with a two-winged emblem and the city name m[mst], which dates to the time of Sennacherib's campaign in Judah in 701 BeE. The distribution of royal storage jars was limited to Judah, which makes this particular handle significant. [See Seals; Judah.]

A number of suggestions have been raised regarding the role ofJezreel in the period of the Omride dynasty. Accord­ing to one, Israel had two capitals then-Samaria and Jez­reel, one Samaria may have served as a "summer" capital and Jezreel in the winter. [See Samaria.] It has also been suggested that the kingdom had two religious centers-one Israelite and the other, Phoenician, the latter having been promoted by Jezebel, Ahab's wife. The present excavators have raised the possibility that Jezreel was built as a central military base for the royal Israelite army at the time of the Omride kings. This view is supported by the nature of the enclosure, the unusually massive fortifications, the poor

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