Gadung Dipakai Sbg Insomnia

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American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 3(4): 862-876, 2009

ISSN 1995-0748

© 2009, American-Eurasian Network for Scientific InformationThis is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

862

Corresponding Author: Professor Dr. Mohammed Rahmatullah, Pro-Vice Chancellor University of Development

Alternative House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new) Dhanmondi R/A, Dhaka-1205 BangladeshPhone: 88-01715032621 Fax: 88-02-815739E mail: [email protected]

A survey of medicinal plants in two areas of Dinajpur district, Bangladesh including

plants which can be used as functional foods

Mohamm ed Rahmatullah, Abu Noman, Md. Shahadat Hossan, Md. Harun-Or-Rashid,1 2 1 3

Taufiq Rahman, Majeedul H. Chowdhury, Rownak Jahan4 5 1

Departm ent of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Un iversity of Development Altern ative, Dhanmondi,1

Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh.

Department of Pharm acy, Un iversity of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh.2

Department of Pharm acy, Lin coln College, 74 A-C, Jalan SS21/62 , Damansara Utama, 47400 Pe taling Jay a,3

Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

Departm ent of Pharm aco logy, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK.4

New York City College of Te chnology The City Universi ty of New York 300 Jay Street , Brooklyn, NY 11201,5

USA.

Mohammed Rahmatullah, Abu Noman, Md. Shahadat Hossan, Md. Harun-Or-Rashid, Taufiq Rahman,

Majeedul H. Chowdhury, Rownak Jahan; A survey of medicinal plants in two areas of Dinajpur

district, Bangladesh including plants which can be used as functional foods; Am .-Eurasian J. Susta in.

Agric ., 3(4 ): 862-876, 2009

ABSTRACT

Dinajpur is one of the northernmost districts of Bangladesh. The predominantly rural population of thisdistrict is served by traditional medicinal practitioners (Kavirajes), who utilize medicinal plants for treatment

of various ailments. Since the medicinal plants used by the Kavirajes can vary from region to region depending

on the availability of plant species and the background training of the Kavirajes, it was the objective of the

present study to conduct an ethnomedicinal survey among the Kavirajes of Dinajpur district, Bangladesh to

gather information on the medicinal plants used by the Kavirajes of this district. A secondary objective of the

present survey was to de termine which medicinal plants can also serve as functional foo ds and can be tak en

on a regular basis for general well-being as well as treatment for ailments. A number of plants were found

that could serve this dual purpose. The plants included Am omum subula tum , Bixa orellana, Cajanus cajan,

Carissa carandas, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Coccinia grandis, Dillenia ind ica , Ferula

asafoetida, Manilkara zapota, Mentha arvensis, Moringa ole ifera , Nymphaea nouchali, Phyllanthus emblica,

Spilanthes acmella, Syzygium aromaticum, Terminalia belerica, and Terminalia chebula. Functional foods can

be impo rtant sources of macro- and micro-n utr ients and at the same time used for prevention or cure of

diseases. As such, the above plants can play important roles in the maintenance of body health, particularlyof the poorer sections of the population.

Key words: Medicinal plants, functional food, Dinajpur district, Bangladesh, ethnomedicine

Introduction

Plants, besides providing nutrition, have always formed an important source of chemical compounds, which

can be used for medicinal purposes. Human knowledge of the medicinal value of plants date back probably

for more than five thousand years (Sofowora, 1982). Even in recent times, plants have been an important

source of modern drugs like aspirin, ephedrine, digoxin, quinine and tubocurarine, to name only a few (Gilani,


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863 Am.-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric., 3(4): 862-876, 2009

2005). It has been noted that the original source of many important pharmaceuticals in current use have been

plants use d by ind igenous pe ople (Balick, 1996 ), who tra dit iona lly has been a rich source of knowledg e on

medicinal and edible plants or plant parts. It has been reported that about 64% of the total global population

remains dependent on traditional medicine and medicinal plants for provision of their health-care needs (Cotton,

1996). In recent years traditional medicine has become of interest to both scientists and the general populationfor a number of reasons, which include high price of allopathic drugs beyond the reach of the poorer segments

of society in almost every country, lack of access to medical clinics and hospitals by the rural population of

developing countries, the side-effects and toxicities of modern synthetic drugs, and the realization that

ph ytochemicals prese nt in plants can be effective therapeutic agents by themselves or serve as effective ad jun ct

therapies to modern drugs.

Along with the progress of human civilization and the accumulation of knowledge, people have become

more concerned with their eating habits. A concept of ‘functional food’ has taken place, which denotes food

that not only serves to provide nutrition but also can be a source for prevention and cure of various diseases.

In other words, these foods provide health benefits beyond their nutritive values. This is not totally a novel

concept for even in ancient times people added spices to their dietary items not only to impart color, taste or

flavoring, but also for their health benefits. Functional foods are often also termed ‘food supplements’ or

‘nutraceuticals’. In recent years, to consider just one country, the functional food market in Taiwan reached

US$ 1.78 billion in 2005 (Sun 2007).A number of plants or plant products have been demonstrated in scientific studies that they can be

classified as functional foods. These include both medicinal plants and commonly consumed plants or plant

products. To cite a few examples, ca rotenoids in gre en pepp er s (Capsicum annuum, which has been

traditionally consumed in Central and South American countries for thousands of years) has been shown to

demonstrate antimutagenic activity against some nitroarenes (Gonzaez, 1998). It may be noted that green

pe pp ers are also added to a varie ty of cooked food items and sna cks in vario us regio ns of the Indian sub-

continent. Chickpea, an edible vegetable (Cicer aretinum) is also considered a functional food and intake of

chickpeas has been recommended in humans with altered lipid profile such as type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia

and diabetes (Zulet, 1999). The functional properties of raw and processed pigeon pea, an edible vegetable

(Cajanus cajan) flour has also been reported (Okpala, 2001). Functional foods that have been found to be

po ten tially bene fic ial in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascu lar disorders inc lud e soybeans, oats,

psyllium , flaxse ed, garlic, tea, gra pes and nu ts (Hasler, 2000 ). It has been reporte d tha t bitte r herbs have been

consumed from ancient times to alleviate various dyspeptic conditions – a condition suffered by about 15-30%of adult population throughout the world (Saller, 2001). Garlic, a commonly used spice contains over 2,000

biolog ica lly active substances and is of importance in die toprophylaxis and dieto the rapy (Sw iderski, 20 07). Th e

organosulfur compounds present in garlic appear to be good agents for cancer chemoprevention through

multiple mechanisms like carcinogen metabolism modulation, DNA adduct formation inhibition and up-

regulation of antioxidant defenses and DNA repair systems (Nagini, 2008). The Zingiberaceae family contains

a number of plants whose rhizomes are eaten as vegetable or added to food items as spices. The family

contains commonly known spices like ginger and turmeric. A study conducted in Taiwan found good

antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in a number of Zingiberaceae plants found within the country (Chen,

2008). The Indian traditional medical systems use turmeric for a number of ailments like wounds, rheumatism,

gastrointestinal disorders, helminthiasis and rhinitis. Other spices used in traditional Indian cooking like onions

and ginger has been found to favorably modulate the process of carcinogenesis, while fenugreek seeds has been

reported to reduce blood glucose and lipids and can be used as an adjunct food in diabetes (Krishnaswamy,

2008). Bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva -ursi), garden pea ( Pisum sat ivum), Norway spruce ( Picea abies) andlarge-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos) extracts reportedly demonstrated inhibition of pancreatic lipase and so

can be considered promising sources for developing functional foods to decrease fat absorption (Slanc, 2009).

In Korea, the wild plant Adenophora triphylla is commonly used in food materials and traditional medicine

as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antitussive. Leaf extracts of this plant showed notable levels of total

phenol ics and flavonoids and demonstra ted good anti-o xid ant activities. The resul ts suggested tha t the plant

can serve the function of a food supplement (Kim, 2009). Overall, there is a growing realization about

medicinal plants that quite a number of them can serve as functional foods and so can be utilized both

nutritionally and medicinally.

Bangladesh is a developing country with a majority of rural population, who lack access to modern health-

care or cannot afford the cost of allopathic drugs. A sizeable section of the population is below the poverty

level of US$1 per day. As a result, malnutrition and diseases arising from malnutrition and poor hygienic

conditions of living are prevalent. The primary health care of the rural population and a substantial section of

urban population are provided by traditional medicinal practitioners or Kavirajes, who possess considerableexpertise on medicinal plants. The medicinal plants utilized by the Kavirajes are usually kept secret and so


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can vary considerably between Kavirajes of various regions or tribes. It was the objective of the present study

to conduct an ethnomedicinal survey among the Kavirajes of different areas in Dinajpur district, Bangladesh

to obtain information on medicinal plants used by them for treatment of diverse ailments. A further objective

of the study was to determine which plant or plant part can be used as functional foods. The criteria for

judging whether a medicina l plant can serve as a functional foo d were his tory of long-term edibili ty witho utany side-effects or toxicities, nutritive value of the plant, and whether the plant has been used by the Kavirajes

for considerable lengths of time for treatment of single or multiple ailments. It is expected that such studies

can make the particularly poorer sections of the people more conscious about consuming plants that can serve

as functional foods and so can be effective in providing nutrition and be of preventive as well as curative

values to people who can ill afford the cost of food and medicines.

Materials and Methods

2.1. Study area

Dina jpur district is one of the northern-most districts of Bangladesh and falls roughly between 88 20 -o

89 20 E and 25 10 - 26 05 N. The area is bounded by Nilphamari and Rangpur districts to the east, Westo o o

Bengal province of India to the west, Thakurgaon and Panchagarh districts to the north and Joypurhat districtto the south. The Atrai and the Punabhaba rivers are the major rivers flowing through the district. The survey

was conducted in and around the areas of Bhelamoyee and Shalbon in the district.

2.2. Data collection and sampling techniques

A total of 4 Kavirajes were interviewed for this survey. Informed consent was obtained from all Kavirajes

pr ior to intervie ws. Ka virajes were explain ed the reaso ns for conducting the survey and the information tha t

will be collected. A semi-structured questionnaire was used for the interviews. The basic survey method

followed was that of Martin (1995) and Maundu (1995). In this method, the informant takes the observer on

guided field-walks through areas from where the informant collects the medicinal plants. The plants are shown

to the observer along with providing information on plant name (local), plant parts used, ailments treated,

formulations, dosages and side-effects, if any. The information was later cross-checked and every item verified

in evening meetings held with the Kavirajes. Plant specimens, as pointed out by the informants (Kavirajes)were collected, pressed and dried on site. All collected specimens were later brought to the Bangladesh

National Herbarium for complete identifica tio n.

Results and discussion

3.1. Plants and their distribution into families

The result of the present study shows that 111 species of plants were used by the Kavirajes of Bhelamoyee

and Shalbon areas in Dinajpur district, Bangladesh. These medicinal plants belonged to 59 families (Table 1).

The Fabaceae family provided the largest number of species (12), followed by the Apocynaceae and

Euphorbiaceae families (7 plants each). The medicinal plants included a number of edible fruit plants. These

plants inc lud ed Carissa carandas, Bixa ore llana , Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula, Dillenia ind ica ,

Phyllanthu s emblica , Moringa oleifera , and Manilkara zapota . Fresh fruits were consumed when in season for their nutritive as well as medicinal values. During off-season, the Kavirajes were found to administer dried

fruits of plants like Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula, and Phyllanthus emblica . The seeds of Cajanus

cajan, which is cultivated like the above-mentioned fruit plants are cooked like pulses and eaten occasionally

by the general populat ion. A numb er of other plants were also cultivated because of their use as spices as well

as medicinal values. These plants were Mentha arvensis, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum,

Syzygium aromaticum, and Amomum subula tum . Nymphaea nouchali is an aquatic plant, which grows both in

the wild as well as planted in homestead ponds for ornamental purposes. The plant is cooked and eaten as

vegetable, mostly by the rural population.

3.2. Plant parts used and mode of preparation

The various plant parts used included leaves, roots, stems, flowers, fruits, barks, seeds, gum, and rhizomes.

Of these, leaves formed the part of the plant predominantly used (54.9%), followed by flowers (11.0%) andfruits (10.4%). Out of a total of 111 plants, it was observed that 60 plants had more than one plant part used


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Table 1: Medicinal plants used by Kavirajes of Bhelamoyee and Shalbon areas in Dinajpur district, Bangladesh for treatment of various

ailments.

Sl. Botanical name Family Local name Parts used Ailments treated and dosage

No .

1 An dr og ra ph is pa nic ula ta A ca nth ac ea e K alo me gh , Le af , s te m L on g- te rm f ev er , a ny ty pe o f s ev er e b od y p ai n.

Ne es Kalam nath, Mixture of leaves and ste ms is taken twice da ilyfor 14 days Kalpanathfor long-term fever. Leaf

juice is take n thri ce da ily for 21 days for bod y

pa in.

2 Ju sti cia ad ha tod a L. Acanthaceae Bashok, Leaf Coughs in human, any porcine diseases. Leaf juice

Dankuni, is taken for 7 days.

Harbaksho Any type of pain. Crushed leaves are applied to

affected area once daily for 7 days.

3 Ju sti cia ge nd ar us sa L. Acanthaceae Bishjaron Leaf Debility, pain. Juice from crushed leaves is taken

twice daily for 8 days.

4 Dra ca en a sp ica ta Roxb. Agavaceae Agunikundu Leaf Paralysis. Leaf juice is massaged to affected area

twice daily for 1 week.

5 Sansevieria roxburghiana Agavaceae Takbir mati Leaf Fever. Leaf juice is mixed with molasses and taken

Schultes & Schultes f. twice daily for 8 days.

6 Ae rv a sa ng uin olenta ( L.) Bl. Am aranthaceae Rong-chita Leaf Gout, gastric problem s, to stop bleeding from cuts

and wounds. Leaves are tied to areas affected

by gou t. Lea f jui ce is taken for 7 day s for gastric troubles. Paste of leaves is applied to

wounds to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds.

7 Am ar an thu s sp ino su s L. Amaranthaceae Kata-khora Root To stop frequent urination. Roots are taken on an

empty stomach for 7 days.

8 Crinum asiaticum L. Am aryllidaceae Bon piyaz, Leaf, fruit R heum atic pain, acidity, dysentery. Leaf juice

alt. Liliaceae Dhako-ali is slightly warmed and applied to affected area

twice daily for 4 days for rheumatic pain. Leaf

juice and fru it is taken on an em pty sto ma ch

thrice daily for 14 days for acidity and

dysentery.

9 Curculigo orchioides G aertn. Am aryllidaceae Talm uli Leaf, root Leucor rhea , leu kem ia. R oot ju ice is taken for 21

alt. Hypoxidaceae days for leucorrhea. Leaf juice is taken for 14

days for leukemia.

10 Semecarpus anacardium L. Anacardiaceae Bhela Leaf Jaundice. Leaves are boiled in water and then

strained followed by drinking of the juice for

14 days.11 Al sto nia sc ho laris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Chatim Leaf Coughs, mucus, colds. Paste of leaves is taken

with honey in the morning and evening on a

full stomach for 7 days.

12 Carissa carandas L. Apocynaceae Koromcha Leaf, fruit Appetite stimulant. Leaves are boiled in water to

make a syrup and then taken twice daily for 7

days. Fruit is edible.

13 Catharanthus roseus A po cyn ac ea e N oyo n ta ra Le af , f lo we r A nti -c an ce r, d ia be te s, b ac te ri al d is ea se s, a dd ed a s

(L.) G.Donn. perfume to other medicines. Crushed leaves and

flowers are heated and the decoction taken twice

daily for 9 days. 1-2 fresh leaves are also

swallowed with water daily to keep blood sugar

under control during diabetes.

14 Hola rrhe na pu be sc en s Apocynaceae Kurchi Leaf Hypertension, dysentery. Powdered leaves are boiled

Buch.-Ham. Wall. in water to extract juice followed by drinking

Ex G. Don of the juice twice daily for 12 days.

15 Ne riu m ind icu m M ill. Apocynaceae Korobi Leaf Any type of skin disorders. Crushed leaves are applied to affected areas of skin once daily for

10 days.

16 Ra uw ol fia se rp en tina B en th . A poc ynace ae S harp ag on dh a Leaf, s te m H yp erten sion, m en tal in sta bi lit y. Pills m ad e fro m

crushed or powdered leaves and stems are taken

thrice daily for 14 days.

17 Tabernaemontana divaricata A poc yn ac ea e B on korob i, Lea f, flow er U sed as p er fu me.

(L.) Roem. & Schult. Bon togor

18 Scindapsus officinalis Araceae Takbir gach Leaf Fever, rheumatism, pain. Powdered leaves are taken

(Roxb.) Schott for 21 days for fever and pain. Warmed leaves

are applied to affected area for rheumatism.

19 Typhonium trilobatum Araceae Cham ghas Leaf Appetite stimulant. Leaves are cooked and taken

(L.) Schott as vegetable.

20 Ar istoloc hia indic a L. Aristolochiaceae Ishwarm ul Leaf, root Allergy, skin diseases. Leaves and roots are boiled

together to extract juice. Juice is applied twice

daily for 7 days.


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Table 1: Continue

21 Calotropis gigantea A sc le pia da ce ae B or o a ko nd o Le af , s te m B od y p ai n, as th m a. Le av es an d s te ms a re m ix ed

(L.) R.Br. together, powdered and pills made from the

powder. For body pain, pills are taken once

daily for 7 days. For asthma, pills are taken

once daily for 14 days.22 Hem ide sm us ind icu s R.B r. A sclepiadaceae A nantam ul Leaf, r oot N erve weakness, debility. Juice from mixed leaves

and roots is taken for 7 days.

23 As pa ra gu s ra ce mo su s W illd. Asparagaceae Shotom uli Leaf, root Physical and m ental w eakness. Leaves and roots

alt. Liliaceae are boiled together to make a syrup and taken

twice daily for 14 days.

24 Mika nia co rd ata A ste rac eae / A ss am lo ta Le af, f low er S kin d is ea ses . J uic e fr om lea f an d f lo wer is

(Burm. f.) B. L. Robinson Compositae applied to affected area.

25 Spilanthes acmella M urr. Asteraceae/ Rakhal-porni, Leaf, flow er Stop bleeding from gum s, dysentery, anti-

C om pos ita e R os hu n s ha k b ac te ri al, a ne m ia . L ea ve s a re b oi le d i n w at er

followed by gargling with the water for stopping

blee din g from gum s. Leaf jui ce is tak en for 7

days for dysentery. Leaf juice is also used for

bac teri al infect ion s. Lea f and flow er ju ice is

taken on a regular basis for anemia.

26 Wedelia chinensis Asteraceae/ Mohabhringoraj Leaf, f lower S top hai r loss , p romote g rowth. Juice f rom

(Osbeck) Merr. Compositae leaves and flowers is applied to hair for 7 days.27 Xa nthiu m indic um J. Asteraceae/ Hagra, Leaf To induce blood clotting. Leaf paste is

Koenig ex Roxb. Compositae Ghaghra applied to cuts and wounds.

28 Oroxylum indicum Vent. Bignoniaceae Kanai-dingi Fruit Jaundice. Fruit juice is taken twice daily for 14

days.

29 Bi xa orellan a L. Bixaceae Lotkon Leaf, fruit Appetite stimulant, aids digestion, debility. Pills

made from a mixture of leaf and fruit is taken

thrice daily for 1 week. Fruit is edible and

consumed when in season.

30 Bo mba x ce iba L . Bombacaceae Shimul Leaf, root Debility, to increase growth. Leaves and roots are

boiled and the juice extracted. Extracted juice

is taken thrice daily for 3 weeks.

31 Opuntia dillenii Cactaceae Monsha-debi Leaf Paralysis. Leaf juice is massaged on the paralyzed

(Ker-Gawl) Haw. area twice daily for 4 weeks.

32 Mesua na ga ss ar ium Clusiaceae Ashar pata, Leaf, bark Cons tipa tion . A mixture o f leaf and bark i s

(Burm.f.) Kosterm. alt. Guttiferae Nageshwar taken twice daily for 1 week.

33 Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae Ulot chandal Leaf Skin diseases, rheumatism, leucorrhea. Powderedalt. Liliaceae leaves are mixed with warm oil and applied to

affected area for 21 days.

34 Terminalia arjuna B edd. Combretaceae Arjun Bark Heart diseases, rheumatism. Pills made from bark

powder is taken twice daily for 21 days.

35 Terminalia belerica Roxb. Com bretaceae Bohera Leaf, fruit Impotency, coughs, indigestion. Leaves and fruits

are boiled to extract juice. Juice is taken thrice

daily for 7 days. Fruits are edible and consumed

when in season to maintain healthy body

conditions.

36 Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae Horitoki Leaf, fruit Bacterial diseases. Crushed leaves are boiled and

juice extracted. Juice is taken thrice daily for 8

days. Fruits are edible and consumed when in

season to maintain healthy body conditions.

37 Ipom oe a ma ur itia na J ac q. C on volv ula ce ae B hu i-k um ra Lea f, roo t Le uc orr he a, s exu ally tr ans mit te d d is eas es . Lea ve s

and roots are boiled in water to extract juice.

Extracted juice is taken twice daily for 21 days.38 Costus speciosus Costaceae alt. Keu, Leaf, stem (1) Rheumatism. Powdered leaf and stem is

(Koen.) Sm. Zingiberaceae Basukoron mixed with mustard oil and applied to affected

area.

(2) To hypnotize somebody, debility. Leaf juice

is taken twice daily for 14 days.

39 Ka lan ch oe pin na ta Crassulaceae Pathorkuchi Leaf Kidney stones, any type of wounds, indigestion.

(Lam.) Pers. Juice from leaves is taken thrice daily for 21 days.

40 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Cucurbitaceae Telakucha Leaf H ypertension, diabetes. Leaf juice is taken thrice

daily for 7 days. Leaves are also chewed every

morning to keep blood sugar under control

during diabetes.

41 Cyperus scariosus Br. Cyperaceae Nagarmotha Leaf, Debility, fever. Juice from crushed leaves, stems

s tem, root and roo ts a re mixed toge ther and t aken .

42 Dille nia ind ica L. Dilleniaceae Amortishar Leaf, fruit Dysentery. Leaf juice is taken twice daily for 21

days. Fruits are edible and consumed when in

season.


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Table 1: Continue

43 Dios co re a hi sp ida D en nst. D ios core ac ea e B on-a lu , K ulu Le af, r oo t, M ole , in se ct bit es, in som nia . Le af, root, tu be r a nd

tuber, upper upper part of tuber are boiled in water and the

pa rt of tub er juice ta ken twice d aily in the morn ing and e ven ing

on a full stomach for 7 days.

44 Dios co re a bu lbi fer a L. Dioscoreaceae Shorochman Leaf Elephantitis. Leaves are boiled and the juice fed thrice daily for 10 days.

45 Dios co re a pe nta ph ylla L. Dioscoreaceae Thubri Leaf, vine Paralysis. Juice from leaf and vine is applied.

46 Croton tiglium L. Euphorbiaceae Jaipal Leaf Body pain, swelling. Juice from crushed leaves

is taken for 7 days as remedy for body pain.

Slightly warmed leaves are applied to affected

areas to reduce swellings.

47 Eu ph or bia hir ta L. Euphorbiaceae Dudhi Leaf, flower M ucus in stool. Paste of leaf and flower is taken

with molasses.

48 Gelonium multiflorum A. Juss. Euphorbiaceae Bar-dal Leaf Dysentery. 3 drops of leaf juice is taken for 7 days.

49 Ja tro ph a go ssyp ifo lia L. Euphorbiaceae Jam al-gota, Fruit, seed (1) Constipation. Powdered fruit or seed is taken

K en dar , on a f ull s tom ac h for 7 d ays .

Majon gach (2) Tooth decay. Leaf juice is applied to teeth for

1 week.

50 Ph yllan thu s em bli ca L. Euphorbiaceae Amloki Leaf, Hair loss, indigestion, debility. Crushed leaves and

bar k, fru it bar ks are boi led to ex trac t juice. Jui ce is tak en

thrice daily for 14 days. Fruits are edible andconsumed when in season to maintain healthy

bod y con dit ions.

51 Ph yllan thu s nir ur i L. Euphorbiaceae Bhui-am la Leaf, flower M ucus in stool. Anti-bacterial, analgesic. Paste

of leaf and flower is taken with molasses for 7

days.

52 Ri cin us co mmu nis L. Euphorbiaceae Verenda, Leaf, root Analgesic. Juice from leaves and roots is taken.

V en na A t th e sa me tim e, a p in ch of s alt is mix ed with

leaf paste, slightly warmed and applied to areas

of pain.

53 Ba uh inia ac um inata L. Fabaceae Shet-kanchan Leaf Preparation of Ayurvedic medicines. Leaf juice

is added as an ingredient for good mixing in

Ayurvedic medicines.

54 Bu tea mon os pe rm a F ab ace ae P olas h Le af, gu m H elm in tic in fec tion s, w ou nd s. Le af j ui ce is ta ken

(Lam.) Taub. for 7 days for helminthiasis. Gum is applied to

wounds for healing.

55 Caesalpinia bonduc Fabaceae Natai Leaf, fruit Skin diseases, debility. Leaves and fruits are mixed(L.) Roxb. and boiled in water followed by drinking of the

decoction twice daily for 3 weeks.

56 Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Fabaceae Arhor Leaf, Jaundice. Juice from leaves and flowers is taken

flower, seed thrice daily for 21 days. Seeds are cooked and

eaten as pulses.

57 Cassia alata L. Fabaceae Dadhmordon, Leaf Scabies, skin diseases. Leaf juice is applied to

Dadhmonijol affected area thrice daily for 10 days; alternately

twice daily till cure.

58 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae Shonalu, Leaf, fruit Long-term coughs, nervous weakness, constipation.

Banor lathi Juice from leaves and fruits is taken thrice daily

for 14 days. Leaf juice is taken thrice daily for

2 weeks for constipation.

59 Cassia occidentalis L. Fabaceae Boro kalo- Leaf Eczema, gastric problems. Paste of leaf is applied

kashunda to eczema for 21 days. Juice of leaves is taken

in the morning and evening on a full stomach

for 14 days for gastric disorders.60 Cassia sophera L. Fabaceae Thon-thoni Leaf Pain-killer, insect and snake bites. Leaves are

chewed with salt and applied to bitten area.

61 Cassia tora L. Fabaceae Chakinda Leaf Itches, eczema. Juice from leaves is m ixed with

oil and applied to affected area for 7-14 days.

62 Desmo dium mo toriu m Fabaceae Turog-chandal Leaf Frequent urination. The leaves are chewed and

(Houtt.) Merr. the juice taken every morning on an empty

stomach for 5 days.

63 Mim osa inv isa Fabaceae Shada Leaf, bark Pain, skin diseases. A paste of leaf and bark

C. Martius ex Colla lajjaboti is applied to affected area for 2 weeks.

64 Saraca asoca Fabaceae Ashok Leaf White discharge. Juice from leaves is taken thrice

(Roxb.) De Wilde daily for 8 days.

65 Flac ou rti a se pia ria Roxb. Flacourtiaceae Bayuch, Leaf, Leucorrhea. Juice from leaf, fruit and flower

P rem ka ta , f ru it, is tak en fo r 7 d ays.

Helahuta flower

66 An iso mele s ind ica (L.) Gobura, Ish-langol Leaf Tearing of internal organs during delivery.

Kuntze Labiatae Leaf juice is taken for 7 days.


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Table 1: Continue

67 Le uc as as pe ra (W illd.) Link Labiatae Kashta phol, Leaf, Bone fractures, debility, asthma, respiratory

Cheton kumar root, flower difficulties, coughs. Leaf paste is applied to bone

fractures. Root juice is taken for debility. Flowers

are mixed with root juice from Ocimum

tenuiflorum and honey and taken for asthma andrespiratory difficulties. Flower juice is taken for

coughs.

68 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Labiatae Tulshi Leaf, Coughs, anti-bacterial, asthma, respiratory

alt. Lamiaceae stem, root difficulties, mucus, leucorrhea. Juice from leaf and

stem is considered anti-bacterial. Root juice is

mixed with flowers of Le uc as as pe ra and

honey for asthma and respiratory difficulties.

Leaf juice is taken for coughs, mucus, and

leucorrhea.

69 Men tha ar ve ns is L. Lamiaceae Pudina Leaf, stem Dysentery, indigestion, stomach pain. Leaf juice

is taken thrice daily for 7 days. Leaves and

stems are also used as spice.

70 Cinnamomum camphora Lauraceae Korpur Leaf, bark Skin diseases and toothache. Powdered leaves and

(L.) J. Presl barks are applied to affected areas of skin and

gums.

71 Cinnamomum tamala Lauraceae Tejpata Leaf Coughs, colds. Leaves are chewed; alternately, pills Ne es and Eberm. ma de fro m pow der ed leav es are taken for 4 days.

Leaf is also used as spice.

72 Cinnamomum zeylanicum Lauraceae Daruchini Bark Debility, dysentery, growth retardation. Pills made

Blume from bark powder is taken twice daily for 13 days.

Bark is also used as spice.

73 Li tse a ch inen sis Lamk. Lauraceae Pipul-jongi, Leaf, flower (1) Burning sensations during urination. Paste of

Kak-jonga, flower along with juice of leaves boiled in water

Bijla is taken for 7 days.

(2) To increase physical strength, constipation.

Leaves are boiled in water and the extracted

juice taken onc e eve ry mo rning for 21 day s.

74 Ba rr ingto nia ra ce mo sa Lecythidaceae M oha sam udra, Leaf Stop bleeding from gum s. Leaf p aste is

(L.) Spreng. Dudh-kuruj applied to gums.

75 Aloe ba rb ad en sis M ill. Liliaceae Ghrito-kumari Leaf Leucorrhea. Leaves are boiled with water and sugar

and the juice extracted. Extracted juice is taken

thrice daily for 14 days.76 Ly go diu m fle xu os um Lygodiaceae Kukur m utha, Root Dysentery. Juice from warm ed roots is taken

(L.) Sw. Kukur shuka, on a full stomach in the morning and evening

Bon tamak for 14 days.

77 Sida rhombifolia L . Malvaceae Pith-berela Fruit Leucorrhea, wet dream. Juice from crushed fruits

are taken in the morning and evening on a full

stomach for 7 days.

78 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Bon-okra Leaf Skin diseases. Leaf juice is applied to affected area.

79 Stephania japonica Menispermaceae Takamuti, Leaf, Bone fractures, debility. Leaves are tied around

(Thunb.) Miers Makondi flower fractured area. Leaves or flowers immersed in warm

water are taken for 7 days for debility.

80 Tinospora crispa (L.) M enisperm aceae Guloncho-ban Leaf, stem R heum atism , body pain. Leaf and stem juice is

Miers ex Hook. f. & m assaged onto the affected area twice daily for

Thoms 7 days.

81 Mim osa pu dic a L. Mimosaceae Shada lojjaboti Leaf Rheumatic pain. Juice is taken thrice daily for 7

alt. Leguminosae days.

82 Fi cu s his pid a L. Moraceae Kak-dumur Leaf Jaundice. Leaves are boiled in water and taken twice daily for 3 weeks.

83 Mor inga ol eif era Lam. Moringaceae Sajna Leaf, fruit Chicken pox, body pain. Pills are made from a

paste of leaves and fruits and taken thrice daily

for 8 days. Leaves and fruits are edible; they are

cooked and eaten as vegetable. Leaves are hung

around the walls and consumed by household

members as a preventive measure against

chicken pox.

84 Myr ist ica fra gran s Houtt. Myristicaceae Joiphol Fruit White discharge in urine. Fruits are taken.

85 Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Labanga Leaf, Coughs, debility, increase mental strength.

(L.) Merr. & Perry flower, Crushed leaves and flowers are taken with honey

flower bud for 7 days. Dried flower bud is used as spice.

86 Syzygium fruticosum Myrtaceae Bonjam, Leaf Appetite stimulant. Leaf juice and molasses

Roxb. DC. Kathjam are mixed together and taken twice daily for 7

days.

87 Ny mph ae a no uc ha li Nymp hae ace ae Lal shapla, Tuber Cance r. Tuber s are eat en. Tub ers are alsoBurm. f. Shaluk cooked and eaten as vegetable.


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Table 1: Continue

88 Pipe r ch ab a W. Hunter Piperaceae Mach- Leaf Debility, rheumatic pain. Leaves are fried in oil

machunda and taken twice daily for 7 days.

89 Pipe r cu beba L. Piperaceae Kababchini Leaf, stem Rheumatism. Juice from leaf and stem is applied

to the affected area twice daily for 7 days.

90 Pipe r lon gu m L. Piperaceae Pipul Leaf, flower Indigestion, stomach disorders. Juice from leaves and flowers is taken on an empty stomach

thrice daily for 7 days.

91 Cymbopogon citratus Poaceae Lemon ghas Leaf Bleeding from wounds. Juice from crushed

(DC.) Stapf alt. Gramineae leaves is applied to wounds to stop bleeding.

92 Hed yo tis co ry mb os a R ubiaceae Khetpapra Leaf, flow er To prom ote grow th. Juice from leaves an d flowers

(L.) Lam. are taken thrice daily for 7 days.

93 Ra nd ia du me tor um Rubiaceae Dhonkata Leaf, stem Bone fractures. Paste of leaves and stem s is applied

(Retz.) Lam. to fractured area for 2-3 weeks.

94 Clausena heptaphylla Rutaceae Pan-porag Leaf Toothache. Leaf juice is applied thrice daily to

(Roxb.) Hook. f.) affected area for 7 days. Leaf is also chewed

occasionally as preventive measu re for tooth decay.

95 Santalum album L. Santalaceae Shet chandan Leaf, stem Dysentery. Leaves and stems are crushed and boiled

to extract juice. Juice is taken twice daily for 7

days.

96 Man ilkar a za po ta Sapotaceae Sofeda Fruit Diseases arising out from malnutrition. Fruits are

(L.) P. Royen edible and eaten.97 Scoparia dulcis L . Scrophulariaceae Bon-dhone, Leaf, flower To dissolve gall bladder stones. Juice of leaf and

Chini-dhonia flowers is taken for 7-15 days.

98 Smilax macrophylla Roxb. Sm ilacaceae Kum ari lota Leaf, stem Rheum atism , body pain. Crushed leaves and stem s

alt. Liliaceae are applied to affected area.

99 Datu ra mete l L. Solanaceae Dhutura Leaf, flower Joint pain, pain in leg. Leaves are soaked in oil,

warmed and applied to areas of pain.

100 Ph ys ali s micran tha Link. Solanaceae Bon-tepari, Fruit Debility. Dried and powdered fruits are kept beside

Shod-tepari the head.

101 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Kakmachi Leaf Jaundice, debility. Leaves are boiled to extract juice.

Juice is taken thrice daily for 7 days.

102 Ab ro ma au gu sta L.f. Sterculiaceae Ulot-kombol Leaf, Leucorrhea, menstrual problems. Juice from leaf

root, flower and flower is taken for 7-14 days for leucorrhea.

Small pieces of roots are taken for 7 days for

menstrual problems.

103 Sterculia villosa Roxb. Sterculiaceae Udal Leaf Cleansing of gastric tract. Leaf juice is taken every

morning on an empty stomach for 7 days.104 Aq ui lar ia ma lac cens is Lamk. Thymelaeaceae Agor Leaf, bark Headache. Paste of leaf and bark is applied to the

forehead.

105 Fe ru la as afo etida L. Umbelliferae Hing Leaf, Asthma. Juice from leaf, flower and seed is mixed

flower, seed together and taken twice daily for 7 days. Seed

is also used as spice.

106 Clerodendrum indicum Verbenaceae Bam onhati Leaf Skin infections in throat of children. Leaf

(L.) Kuntze. alt. Lamiaceae juice is taken twice daily on a full stomach.

107 Clerodendrum viscosum Verbenaceae Bhati, Foksha Leaf, f rui t Helminthiasis , dysentery, jaundice. Juice is

Vent. alt. Lamiaceae extracted from powdered or crushed leaves and

fruits and taken thrice daily for 7 days for

helminthiasis and dysentery. Leaf juice is taken

thrice daily for 14 days for jaundice.

108 Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae Nishinda Leaf, Dental and skin diseases, fever. Juice from leaf,

root, fruit root and frui t is taken twice daily for 21 days.

109 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Harjora Leaf Bone fracture. Crushed leaves are applied to

fractures.110 Le ea mac ro ph yll a Vitaceae Hosti-korno Leaf Rheumatic pain. Leaves are shredded, mixed

Roxb. ex Hornem. -polash with mustard oil and heated. The m ixture is

applied to affected areas for 21 days.

111 Am om um su bu latum Roxb. Zingiberaceae Elach Leaf, seed Coughs, sexually transmitted diseases. Ashes of

burned leaves are mixed with mustard oil and

taken twice daily for 7 days. Seeds are used as

spice.

No te tha t bold lett ering ind ica tes plants where whole plant or plant par ts can ser ve as fun ctio nal foo ds.

in combination for medicinal purposes. 14 plants had uses of a combination of leaves with flowers, 10 plants

had uses of a combination of leaves with fruits, and 9 plants had combined uses of leaves with roots. Other

pl an t parts used in combination were lea ves with stems, leaves with barks, leaves with gum, fru its with seeds ,

and leaves with seeds. In the case of several plants, three plant parts were administered in combination to treat

ailments. These combinations included leaves with stems and roots (Cyperus scariosus), leaves with fruits and

flower ( Flaco urtia sepiaria ), and leaves with roots and fruits (Vitex negundo). In most cases, juice was

extracted from the plant part(s) and taken orally or applied topically. Other modes of oral administration were


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bo iling the plant part in water an d dr inking the syrup (e.g. Carissa carandas), direct taking of the plant part

(e.g. root of Am aranthus spinosus), taking pills made from dried plant part (e.g. Terminalia arjuna) or cooking

the plant part and taking it as vegetable (e.g. Typhonium trilobatum). Other modes of topical applications also

included application of crushed plant part to affected area (e.g. Justic ia adhatoda), mixing powdered plant parts

with mustard oil followed by topical application (e.g. Costus speciosus) or mixing plant part paste with saltfollowed by topical application (e.g. Ricinus comm unis).

3.3. Medical applications

With one exception, in all cases, a single plant was used by the Kavirajes to treat one or multiple

ailments. The exception was the use of a combination of Leu cas aspera flowers with Ocimum tenuiflorum root

juice for treatment of asthma and respira tory diffic ulties . Tabernaemontana divaricata did not have any

medicinal use; its leaves and flowers were used as perfumery. Bauhinia acumina ta also did not have any direct

medical use; the leaves of this plant were used by Kavirajes as an ingredient or base for good mixing of

Ayurvedic medicines. It is to be noted in this regard that Ayurvedic medicine is one of the oldest form of

traditional medicine practiced in the Indian sub-continent. The practitioners of Ayurvedic medicine are also

known in Bangladesh as Kavirajes. The Kavirajes interviewed in the present survey though practiced what is

generally referred to as ‘folk medicine’, which while having certain similarities with Ayurvedic medicine isquite different in its simplicity and plant choice.

3.4. Plants which can be classified as functional foods

A number of plants were found among the 111 medicinal plants shown in Table 1 in which plant parts

can serve both nutritive and medicinal purposes and so can be classified as functional foods. These plants were

Am omum subulatum, Bixa orellana, Cajanus cajan, Carissa carandas, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum

zeylanicum , Coccinia grandis, Dillenia ind ica , Ferula asafoetida, Manilkara zapota, Mentha arvensis , Moringa

oleifera , Nymphaea nouchali, Phyllanthus emblica, Spilanthes acmella, Syzygium aromaticum, Terminalia

belerica , and Terminalia chebula. The edible parts of these plants along with the ailments that are treated or

prevented with the ed ible parts are sho wn in Ta ble 2. It is to be noted tha t Ta ble 2 is no t confined to the

present survey only but also presents informa tio n ob tained thus far in our ongoing ethnobotanica l surveys

conducted in different regions and among different tribes of Bangladesh.It can be seen from Table 2, that the eighteen plants listed as food supplements are also in use in other

regions of Bangladesh by Kavirajes, albeit to treat different ailments. The ailments for which the plant parts

were used were diverse and ranged from disorders of body organs to parasitic diseases and diseases arising

from bacterial, viral and fungal infections. Two plants appear unique (at least in our ethnobotanical data

collected thus far) in their use by the Kavirajes of Dinajpur district. These plants are Ferula assafoetida and

Mentha arvensis . Although our available data does not indicate the use of Ferula asa foe tida and Mentha

arvensis in other regions of Bangladesh (note that gathering of more ethnobotanical data may change this

picture) , a related species of Mentha arvensis, namely Mentha spicata was found to be commonly used by

Kavirajes in other regions of the country. While Mentha arvensis was used by the Kavirajes of Dinajpur

district for dysentery, indigestion, and stomach pain, uses of whole plant or leaves of Mentha spicata included

treatment for cancer, nerve disorders, bronchitis, anorexia, indigestion, dysentery, stomach pain, vomiting,

diabetes, edema, fever, headache, lack of appetite, stomach and intestinal diseases, helminthiasis, bloating,

typhus, dermatitis, and seizures, and use as an appetizer (data not shown).Besides curative purposes, the plants indicated as functional foods also can provide nutritive values, and

regular consumption can have a preventive role against a number of ailments or to maintain healthy body

organs. The most notable plants that we observed in this regard were Coccinia grandis (leaves are chewed

every day by diabetic patients to keep blood sugar under control), Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia belerica

and Terminalia chebula (fruits are consumed to maintain healthy body conditions), and Spilanthes acmella

(leaves and flowers are taken on a regular basis both to prevent and to treat anemia). Plant parts from other

plan ts like Mentha arvensis , Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Syzygium aromaticum, and

Am omum subula tum are added to cooked food items as spices by the general population on an almost daily

ba sis and can pla y a preventive role in the occurrence of gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory prob lem s, and

through increasing palatability and flavor of foods make them more digestible and serve to maintain good

health. It is further to be noted in this regard that Mentha arvensis is usually taken after partaking of meat and

fatty items or items highly rich in calories, where digestibility may be of concern.


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Table 2: Medicinal plants of Dinajpur district ind icating p lant parts which can be classified as functional foods based on their edibility

and preventive or curative effects of various ailments.

P la nt na me E dib le p ar t A ilm en ts for w hic h plan t p ar ts a re us ed to p rov id e p re ventive or cur ative ef fec ts (in clu de s

data from ethnobotanical surveys conducted in other regions of Bangladesh)

Am om um su bu latum Seed Acne, gout, spasm s, indigestion, cardiac arrhythm ia.

Bi xa orell an a F ru it C an ce r, g on orr he a, k id ne y d is ea se s, m a la ri a, c oli c, d ig es tiv e aid , de bi lit y, a pp et it e s ti mu la nt , gastric ulcer, cuts or wounds on hands or feet.

Cajanus cajan S ee d J au nd ic e, co ug hs , b ro nc hi ti s, itc he s, as tr in ge nt, ed em a, t um o r, s na ke bi te , s tim ula nt , e de ma ,

diarrhea, skin disorders.

Carissa carandas F ru it M ala ria , e pile ps y, ne rv e d is or de rs , p ain , he ad ac he , f ev er , in sa ni ty, an or ex ia , ap pe ti ze r, b lo od

purifier, myopathic spasm, dog bite, coughs, colds, itches, leprosy.

Cinnamomum tamala Le af D ia be te s, fla tu le nc y, so re th ro at , t um or , c ou gh s, co ld , to ma in ta in st ro ng te et h, im po te nc y,

hypocholesterolemic, stimulant, itches, astringent, colic, antidote to poison, scars, anorexia,

indigestion, diarrhea, piles, dermatitis, jaundice, indigestion, carminative, biliary disorders.

Cinnamomum B ark T on ic , h yp oc ho le st ero le mi c, ca rd ia c d is ord er s, d eb ilit y, dy se nt er y, gr ow th p ro mo te r, a pp et it e

ze yla nic um stimulant, laxative, anorexia, low sperm count, rheumatism, biliary disorders, diabetes, to

reduce nervous tension, to increase memory, colds, to stop vomiting, headache, rheumatic

pain.

Coccinia grandis L ea f D ia be te s, e de ma , e ye d is ea se s, c ar min at iv e, h yp er te ns io n, f ev er, i nf la mm ati on , h ea da ch e,

typhoid, sunstroke, coughs, nerve depressant, jaundice, stomach pain, dizziness, mental

disorders, respiratory disorders, eczema, acne, leucorrhea, diarrhea, dysentery, blood

dysentery, increased temperature of hands or head, bloating, blood disorders, dermatitis,myopathic spasm, baldness, scars, leukoderma, lesions of the tongue, burning sensations in

hands or feet, insanity, bed wetting in children.

Dille nia ind ica F ru it C ho le ra , p ur ga ti ve , a nt id ot e to po is on , a nt i-h em or rh ag ic , a no re xi a, dy se nte ry, ap pe tiz er ,

abortifacient, stomach pain, astringent, fever, coughs, appetite stimulant, acidity, rheumatoid

arthritis, rheumatic pain, epilepsy, to increase lactation, low sperm count, boils, sprains,

debility, headache, hypertension, food toxicity.

Fe ru la as afo etida Seed Asthma.

Man ilkar a za po ta Fru it Hepa tic d isorde rs , dysen te ry , ton ic , appet izer , hyper tens ion, d iseases a ri sing out o f ma lnut ri tion ,

astringent, fever.

Men tha ar ve ns is Le af, s te m D ys en te ry, in dige stion , s tom ach p ain .

Mor inga ol eif era Leaf, f rui t Colds, fever , joint pain, gout , hypertension, constipation, acidi ty, epilepsy, skin eruptions,

leukoderma, tonic, helminthiasis, body pain, chicken pox, stimulant, vomiting-induced stomach

pain, emetic, carminative, toothache, cracked foot, sterility, cancer, skin lesions, constipation,

indigestion, edema, wounds, eczema, boils, myopathic spasms, night blindness, dermatitis,

hernia, cardiovascular disorders, snake bite, paralysis, tetanus, rheumatoid arthritis, waist pain,

spleen enlargement, sedative, cathartic, diabetes, leprosy, conjunctivitis, pain. Ny mp ha ea no uc ha li Leaf, s tem Indigest ion, cardiovascular disorders , ant i-hemorrhagic, s tomach pain, cancer , menstruation

control, astringent, diarrhea, indigestion, diabetes.

Ph yll an thu s em bli ca F ru it A pp etiz er, g on orr he a, to oth ac he , itc he s, leu co rr he a, a rt eri os cle ro si s, d ia be te s, j au nd ic e, e ye

diseases, heatstroke, edema, gastrointestinal disorders (stomach pain, acidity, constipation,

diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion), body ache, appetite stimulant, impotency, debility, anemia,

fever, sudden unconsciousness, alopecia, skin diseases, to maintain healthy hair, hair loss and

graying of hair, to maintain strong teeth, fistula, sore throat, pain, sex stimulant, jaundice,

to strengthen body organs (heart, stomach, liver, muscle, nerves), hepatitis, cold, loss of taste,

anorexia, burning sensations during urination, acne, marks on face, to increase facial

complexion.

Spilanthes acmella Le af To stop ble ed in g from g um s, dys ente ry, an em ia , tooth ach e, ora l le sion s, sto ma ch pa in ,

gastrointestinal problems, insect repellent, erectile dysfunction, to increase sperm count, head

infections.

Syzygium aromaticum F lo we r b ud C ou gh s, de bi li ty, to in cre as e m en ta l a le rtn es s.

Terminalia belerica F ru it C on st ip at io n, s ex ua l d is ea se s, le pr os y, p ile s, d ia rr he a, d ys en te ry, b lo od d ys en te ry, to ni c, fe ve r,

erectile dysfunction, coughs, indigestion, impotency, sex stimulant, edema, respiratory pro blem s, ha ir ton ic, app eti te stimu lant , acidity, ne rve stimu lan t, ed em a, inf lam ma tion , to

increase sensitivity of the senses, anorexia, headache, nerve stimulant, hernia, typhus,

stimulant, intestinal infection, skin diseases, constipation, asthma, allergy, to maintain healthy

bod y organs (he art , lungs, live r), lung pro blems , live r dys fun ctio ns, bloa ting , un tim ely

graying of hair.

Terminalia chebula Fru it Cancer, j aund ice, b ronchit is , ind iges tion , p ile s, syphi li s, leucor rhea , con junc tivi ti s, tumor, it ches ,

cardiovascular disorders, tuberculosis, heatstroke, ulcer, energy stimulant, burns, low sperm

count, debility, inflammation, purgative, coughs, urinary troubles, carminative, asthma, biliary

pro blem s, jau nd ice , stimu lation of ap pe tit e, dig est ive aid , acidity, bloatin g, con stipat ion , ha ir

loss, leprosy, edema, malaria, hepatitis, hoarseness, sore throat, leucorrhea, helminthiasis,

pain, hep ati c dis ord ers , res pir ator y pro blem s, acn e, ma rks on fac e, to impro ve fac ial

complexion.

Discussio n

A number of plants classified as functional foods (Table 2) have been studied scientifically for their

nutritional content and pharmacological activities. This discussion will provide an overview of some of the


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more important plant species. The leaves of Spilanthes acmella and Dillenia ind ica are consumed by Khasi

tribal women of India as unconventional wild edibles to supplement their regular diet (Agrahar, 2006). In the

Sri Lankan traditional medicine, Spilanthes acmella flowers are used for their diuretic effects; this has been

confirmed in scientific studies conducted in rats using cold extract of flowers (Ratnasooriya, 2004) and thus

can have therapeutic uses in edema. Ethanol extracts of flower buds of the plant reportedly exhibited inhibitoryactivities on pancreatic lipase and so can be a potential source to reduce obesity (Ekanem, 2007). N -isobutyl-

4,5-decadienamide isolated from the flowers of the plant has been reported to possess analgesic activity

(Ansari, 1988). In Taiwan, the plant is used as a common spice and has been administered for years in

traditional folk medicine to cure toothache, stammering, and stomatitis. A bio-active compound, spilanthol has

been iso lated from the plant which demonstra ted anti-inflammatory ef fect on murine macrophages by down-

regulating lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory mediators (Wu, 2008 ). Other reported bio-active compounds

with good anti-oxidant activities, isolated from volatile oil from fresh leaves of this plant include germacrene-

D, trans-b-caryophyllene, b-elemene, nor -copaanone and bicyclogermacrene (Kawaree, 2008). Antioxidant and

vasorelaxant activities of extracts of the plant have also been demonstrated (Wongsawatkul, 2008). In Thai

traditional medicine, the plant is used to treat toothache, rheumatism, and fever. A number of bio-active

compounds isolated from chloroform and methanol extracts of the plant showed inhibitory activities against

a number of microorganisms like Corynebacterium diptheriae and Bacil lus subti lis. The compounds included

phenolics like vanillic acid, trans-ferulic acid, and trans-isoferulic acid; couma rin (scopoletin); and triterpenoidslike 3-acetylaleuritolic acid, b-sitostenone, stigmasterol and stigmasteryl-3-O-b-D-glucopyranosides, in addition

to a m ixture of stigmasteryl- and b-sitosteryl-3-O-b-D-glucopyranosides (Prachayasittikul, 2009). Taken together,

it may be concluded that the available studies justify the use of this plant has a functional food.

Partaking of Triphala (formulation from the dried fruits of three plants Phyllanthus emblica , Terminalia

belerica and Terminalia chebula) has been described in the ancient Indian Ayurvedic medicine to be good for

maintaining healthy heart conditions as well as a therapeutic agent for heart diseases. Since then, numerous

reports have been published on the preventive and curative properties of the fruits of these plants taken in

combination or individually. Feeding of a dried powder of fruits from the three plants have been shown to

reduce total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides in hypercholesterolemic rats and to increase excretion

of bile acids (Nalini, 1999). When administered individually, the fruits of the plants were found to reduce

cholesterol in cholesterol-induced hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in rabbits (Thakur, 1988). The

methanolic extract of fruits of the three plants, individually or in combination, reportedly showed antioxidant

po ten tial in vitro and anti-diabetic activities in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Sabu, 2002). Both acetone andmethanol extracts of Terminalia belerica and Terminalia chebula reportedly showed a broad spectrum of

antibacterial activity including inhibition of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (Aqil, 2005). Pre-

treatment of mice with aqueous extract of Terminalia belerica fruits has been shown to confer protection

against experimental Salmonellosis and result in total survival of animals when challenged with lethal doses

of Salmonella typhimurium (Madani, 2008). Alcoholic extracts of fruits of Phyllanthus emblica and Terminalia

belerica conferred protective effects in isoproterenol-induced myocardial necrosis in rats (Tariq, 1977). The

antioxidant potential of Terminalia belerica (fruit), Terminalia chebula (fruit), and Nymphaea nouchali (flower)

has been reported and attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds like hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives,

hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, flavonol aglycons and their glycosides (Saleem, 2001). Gallic acid, present

in fruits of Terminalia belerica has been found to have a protective effect against carbon tetrachloride-induced

hepatotoxicity and kidney damages in rats (Shukla, 2005; Jadon, 2007).

Analysis of Terminalia belerica fruits indicated that they are enriched in iron, phosphorus, cobalt and

selenium (Garg, 2005). The fruits of Terminalia chebula have been found to be enriched in magnesium (Garg,2007). It has also been reported that the fruit tissue of Terminalia chebula contained 10.3 and 14.5 times more

vitamin C and protein, respectively when compared with commercial apples. The recommended dietary

allowance for selenium, potassium, manganese, iron and copper can also be met if 100g of the raw fruit is

taken (Barthakur, 1991). The fruits of Terminalia belerica and Terminalia chebula have been found to be rich

sources of gallic acid; the leaves and fruits of Terminalia belerica for ellagic acid; and the leaves of Moringa

oleifera for kaempferol (Bajpai, 2005). All the above three compounds are bio-active, with gallic and ellagic

acid being strong anti-oxidants and so can serve as preventing damages caused by cardiovascular disorders,

hypertension, diabetes and a host of other disorders. In fact, the ripe fruits of Terminalia chebula have been

po stulated to possess the po tential to play a role in the hepatic prevention of ox idat ive damage in living

systems (Lee, 2005). Chemical analysis of edible fruit tissues of Phyllanthu s emblica showed that it had,

respectively, 3-fold and 160-fold protein and ascorbic acid concentrations than present in apples (Barthakur,

1991). The ascorbic acid (vitamin C) was found to be exceptionally stable in both fresh and dried fruits

(Shishoo, 1997). The fruits also contain flavonoids, which have been shown to inhibit hepatic HMG CoAreductase activity and reduce lipid levels in serum and tissues of rats with hyperlipidemia (Anila). Powdered


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dried fruits of Phyllanthus emblica has been suggested to become a useful remedy for Alzheimer’s disease on

account of its various beneficial effects such as improving memory, cholesterol lowering property and

anticholinesterase activity (Vasudevan, 2007); pre- and post-supplementation of fruit extract of the plant has

also been shown to significantly reduce arsenic-induced oxidative stress in liver (Sharma, 2009).

The fruit juice of Manilkara zapota has been shown to be one of the rich sources of sugars, proteins,ascorbic acid, phenolics, carotenoids, and minerals like iron, copper, zinc, calcium and potassium; apart from

the nutrients, the fruit juice also showed antioxidant activity (Kulkarni, 2007). Activity-guided fractionation of

a methanol extract of fruits of this plant also revealed presence of a number of polyphenols with aniti-oxidant

activity; the highest activity was demonstrated by Me-4-O-galloylchlorogenate (Jun, 2003). The fruits of

Dillenia ind ica have also been found to be rich in phenolics with good antioxidant and free radical scavenging

activities (Abdille, 2005).

Among five Cinnamomum species studied, Cinnamomum zeylanicum leaves demonstrated highest DPPH

(1,1 -diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity, total antioxidant activity and reducing power, while

Cinnamomum tamala leaves exhibited highest superoxide anion scavenging activity (Prasad, 2009).

Consumption of Cinnamomum species thus can be of beneficial effect for both preventing and ameliorating

diseases like cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, and diabetes for their antioxidant properties. Oleoresins

obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum also showed excellent antioxidant activity as demonstrated

through inhibition of primary and secondary oxidation products in mustard oil. Volatile oils obtained fromleaves and barks of this plant were also highly effective against a number of fungi tested (Singh, 2007). The

plant is enriched in mic ro-nutr ien ts like iron, coba lt, chromiu m, so dium, po tas sium, phosphorus and zin c

(Singh, 2006). Eugenol, linalool, b-caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide has been reported to be the major

components in the leaf oil of Cinnamomum tamala (Baruah, 2005; Ahemd, 2000). Eugenol is an antioxidant

and is known to protect nicotine-induced superoxide mediated oxidative damage in murine peritoneal

macrophages in vitro (Kar, 2009). Linalool has been reported to possess antiinflammatory and antinociceptive

proper ties including attenuation of allod ynia in neuro pa thic pain induced by spinal nerve ligation in mic e

(Berliocchi, 2009). Thus the leaves of this plant, which are used as spice can be of both protective and curative

values in different sorts of ailments causing pain or oxidative damages. Additionally, the leaves of this plant

are known to contain a number of bio-active flavonoids like kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol-3-O-

rhamnoside and quercitrin (Singh, 2002). The antioxidant property and presence of polyphenols (which are

antioxidants) have been confirmed in leaves of this plant using rat brain synaptosomes from control and

streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats as a model system (Devi, 2007). Taken together, the various Cinnamomumspecies, which has been used as spices for hundreds of years in the Indian sub-continent and elsewhere can

be effective foo d sup plements and so can be character ized as functional foods.

The seeds of Cajanus cajan, which are eaten as pulses throughout Bangladesh are known to have a high

content of potassium and phosphorus and moderate content of calcium and magnesium. The seeds also contain

iron, zinc, copper and manganese. Also because of its protein content (19.34%), it is considered as a most

important grain legume for human nutrition in the protein-deficient countries of the world (Nwokolo, 1987).

Since the seeds of the plant are used in the folk medicinal system of Bangladesh to combat diverse ailments

like jaundice, coughs, bronchitis, itches, astringent, edema, tumor, snake bite, stimulant, edema, diarrhea, and

skin disorders, this plant can also be considered an important functional food.

For a developing country like Bangladesh, it is important to identify functional foods, which can be

consumed on a regular basis by the population to serve both nutritional and medicinal purposes. The present

survey, besides collecting information on medicinal plants, also analyzed those plants with the objective of

determining which medicinal plant can serve as a functional food. Since a number of plants have beenidentified, which can serve the dual purposes of medicinal and nutritive values they can be targeted for mass

cultivation and conservation. At the same time, the population can be made aware of the consumption values

of these plants or plant parts, which in turn can lead to reduced health costs, prevention and cure of a number

of prevalent diseases, and an improved diet.

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