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PENGANTAR SOSIOLOGI

Drs. Arinto Nurcahyono, M.Humartnur@gmail.com

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Kemunculan Istilah Sosiologi

Istilah sosiologi munculpertama kali pada tahun1839 pada keterangansebuah paragraf dalampelajaran ke-47 Cours de laphilosophie (kuliah filsafat)karya Auguste Comte.

Secara Etimologi sosiologiberasal dari akar kata Latinsocius (masyarakat) danlogos (ilmu).

Arinto Nurcahyono 2004

Sosiologi Sebagai Ilmu Pengetahuan

Ilmu Pengetahuan adalah pengetahuan (knowledge)yang tersusun secara sistematis dengan menggunakankekuatan pemikiran dan selalu dapat diperiksa danditelaah dengan kritis oleh setiap orang yang inginmengetahuinya. Ciri-ciri Ilmu pengetahuan adalah:1. Sistematis 4. Empiris2. Metodis 5. Umum3. Rasional 6. Akumulatif

Sosiologi merupakan ilmu sosial yang objeknya adalahmasyarakat. Ciri-ciri utama sosiologi sebagai sebuahilmu adalah:1. Bersifat Empiris2. Bersifat Teoritis3. Bersifat Kumulatif4. Bersifat Non etis

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Definisi SosiologiIlmu pengetahuan yang mempelajari hubungan timbalbalik antara aneka ragam gejala-gejala sosial (PitirimSorokin: 1928)Ilmu yang mempelajari hubungan antara manusia dalamkelompok-kelompok. (Roucek & Warren: 1962)Penelitian Ilmiah terhadap interaksi dan hasilnya yaituorganisasi sosial. (William F Ogburn & Meyer F.Nimkoff: 1964)Ilmu pengetahuan tentang struktur-struktur danproses-proses kemasyarakatan yang bersifat stabil.(J.A.A. van Doorn & C.J. Lammers: 1964)Ilmu yang mempelajari struktur sosial dan proses-proses sosial, termasuk perubahan-perubahan sosial .( Selo Soemardjan & Soelaeman Soemardi: 1974).

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Pengertian Lanjut Sosiologi

Sosiologi yang inheren adalah pengakuannya yangrendah hati terhadap realitas dan sifatnya yangsubversif. Sosiologi selalu tidak percaya pada apayang tampak sekilas dan selalu mencoba menguakserta membongkar apa yang tersembunyi (latent) dibalik realitas nyata (manifes) karena sosiologiberkeyakinan bahwa “dunia bukanlah sebagaimanayang nampaknya”, tetapi dunia yang sebenarnya barudipahami jika dikaji secara mendalam dandiintepretasikan (Berger dan Kellner, 1985)

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Pengertian Lanjut Sosiologi

Kekhususan sosiologi adalah bahwa perilaku manusiaselalu dilihat dalam kaitannya dengan struktur-struktur kemasyarakatan dan kebudayaanya yangdimiliki dan ditunjang bersama (Veeger, 1985)

Sosiologi memperlajari perilaku sosial manusiadengan meneliti kelompok yang dibangunnya.Kelompok tersebut mencakup keluarga, suku bangsa,komunitas dan pemerintahan, dan berbgai organisasisosial, agama, politik, bisnis dan organisasi sosiallainnya.

Sosiologi mempelajari perilaku dan interaksikelompok, menelusuri asal-usul pertumbuhannyaserta menganalisis pengaruh kegiatan kelompokterhadap anggotanya (Occoputional OutlookHandbook, 1980)

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Objek Sosiologi Objek sosiologi adalah masyarakat yang dilihat dari

hubungan antar manusia dan proses yang timbul darihubungan manusia di dalam masyarakat.

Pengertian masyarkat itu sendiri adalah:1. Suatu sistem dari kebiasaan dan tata cara, dari

wewenang dan kerja sama antara berbagai kelompokdan penggolongan, dan pengawasan tingkah laku sertakebebasan-kebebasan manusia. (Macher & Page: 1961)

2. Setiap kelompok manusia yang telah hidup dan bekerjabersama cukup lama sehingga mereka dapat mengaturdiri mereka dan menganggap diri mereka sebagai suatukesatuan sosial dengan batas-batas yang dirumuskandengan jelas. (Ralp Linton: 1936).

3. Orang-orang yang hidup bersama , yang menghasilkankebudayaan. ( Selo Soemardjan: 1968).

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Komponen-komponen Dasar Masyarakat

a. Populasi, yakni warga suatu masyarakat yang dilihat dari sudutpandangan kolektif, maka yang dipertimbangkan adalah: Aspek-aspek genetik yang konstan. Variabel-variabel genetik Variabel-variabel demografis.

b. Kebudayaan, yakni hasil karya, cipta dan rasa dari kehidupanbersama yang mencakup: Sistem lambang-lambang. Informasi.

c. Hasil-hasil kebudayaan material.d. Organisasi sosial, yakni jaringan hubungan antara warga

masyarakat yang bersangkutan , yang mencakup: Warga masyarkat secara individual Peranan-peranan Kelompok-kelompok sosial Kelas-kelas sosial

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Teori (Sosiologi) What is Theory:

Teori merupakan hubungan antara dua variabel atau lebih, yangtelah diuji kebenarannya.

Kegunaan Teori pada Sosiologi:1. Teori merupakan ikhtiar dari hal-hal yang telah

diketahui dan diuji kebenarannya.2. Memberi petunjuk thd kekurangan-kekurangan

pada orang yg mempelajari sosiologi.3. Mempertajam atau mengkhususkan fakta yg

dipelajari oleh sosiologi.4. Dapat mengembangkan suatu sistem klasifikasi

fakta, membina struktur konsep sertamemperkembangkan definisi-definisi.

5. Memberikan kemungkinan-kemungkinan untukmengadakan proyeksi sosial.

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Perkembangan Sosiologi

Faktor yang menelatar belakangi kelahiran sosiologiadalah karena adanya krisis-krisis yang terjadi didalam masyarakat. Laeyendecker (1983) melihatkrisis tersebut di Eropa Barat terhadap:

Tumbuhnya kapitalisme pada akhir abad 15. Perubahan-perubahan di bidang sospol, perubahan

berkenaan dengan reformasi Martin Luther. Meningkatnya individualisme. Lahirnya ilmu pengetahuan modern. Berkembangnya kepercayaan pada dirinya sendiri. Revolusi industri pada abad ke-18. Revolusi Perancis 1789

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Pemikiran Pra August Comte

Jauh sebelum August Comtememproklamirkan kelahiran sosiologi,orang-orang telah memiliki pengetahuanakan kehidupannya yang diperoleh daripengalaman. Cuma, karena belum terumusmenurut metode-metode yang mantap.

Para filsuf Yunani, sperti Plato danAristoleles umumnya berkeyakinanbahwa seluruh tertib dan keteraturandunia dan masyarakat langsung berasaldari suatu tertib dan keteraturan yangadimanusiawi, abadi, tidak terubahkan,dan ahistoris.

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August Comte (1798-1857)

Mencetuskan pertama kali nama sosiologydalam bukunya yang tersohor PositivePhilosophy (1838).

Di dalam hierarki ilmu, sosiologi menempatiurutan teratas-diatas astronomi, fisika, kimiabiologi

Pandangan Comte yang dianggap baru padawaktu itu adalah ia percaya bahwa sosiologiharus didasarkan pada observasi dan klasifikasiyang sistematis, dan bukan pada kekuasaanserta spekulasi

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Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Istilah sosiologi menjadi lebih populer setengahabad kemudian berkat jasa Herbert Spencerfilsuf dari Inggris dalam bukunya Principles ofSociology (1876).

Spencer menerapkan teori evolusi organik padamasyarakat manusia dan mengembangkan teoribesar tentang evolusi sosial yang diterima secaraluas beberapa puluh tahun kemudian.

Evolusi sosial pd dasarnya berarti bertambahnyadiferensiasi dan integrasi, peningkatan pembagiankerja, dan suatu tarnsisi dari keadaan homogenke keadaan heterogen.

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Emile Durkheim (1855-1917)

Dalam bukunya Rules of Sociology Methode iamenguraikan pentingnya metodologi ilmiah di dalamsosiologi untuk meneliti fakta sosial.

Tugas sosiologi adalah mempelajari apa yang ia sebutsebagai fakta-fakta sosial, yakni sebuah kekuatandan struktur yang berdasarkan eksternal, tetapimampu mempengaruhi perilaku individu.

Fakta sosial merupakan cara-cara bertindak,berpikir, dan berperasaan, yang berada di luarindividu, dan mem punyai kekuatan memaksa danmampu mengendalikannya.

Yang dimaksud fakta sosial tidak hanya bersifatmaterial tapi juga nonmaterial seperti kultur, agamaatau institusi sosial.

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Max Weber (1864-1920)

Sebagai ilmu yang mencoba memahami masyarakatdan perubahan-perubahan sosial yang terjadi didalamnya, sosiologi tidak semestinya berkutat padasoal-soal pengukuran yang sifatnya kuantitatif dansekedar mengkaji pengaruh faktor-faktor eksternal,tetapi penting sosiologi bergerak pada upaya memahimakna, dan mencoba mencari penjelasan pada faktor-faktor internal yang ada dalam masyarakat itusendiri.

Weber mengajak para sosiolog keluar dari pikira-pikiran ortodoks yang acapkali terlalu menekankanpada objektivitas dan kebenaran eksklusif dan secaraterbuka mengajak untuk mengakui relativitasentepretasi

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Sosiologi Abad 20

Fokus minat sosiologi bergeser dari structures keagency dari masyarakat yang dipahami terutamasebagai seperangkat batasan eksternal yangmembatasi bidang pilihan yang bersedia untukanggota-anggota masyarakat tersebut, dan dalambebrapa hal menentukan perilaku mereka, menuju kearah baru; memahami latar belakang sosial sebagaisumber daya yang diambil oleh aktor-aktor untukmengejar kepentingan-kepentingan mereka sendiri.Dipelopori oleh Anthony Giddens.

Sosiologi juga menerima pandangan heurmenetika,menekankan bahwa realitas sosial secara instrinsikadalah bermakna (diberi makna oleh yangmemproduksinya) dan untuk memahami realitastersebut maka seseorang harus merekonstrksimakna yang diberikan aktor tersebut.

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Era tahun 2000-an Perkembangan sosiologi semakin mantap diakui banyak pihak

memberikan sumbangan yang sangat penting bagi usahapembangunan dan kehidupan sehari-hari masyarakat.

Kajian sosiologi semakin variatif dan menmbus batas-batasdisiplin ilmu lain.

Horton dan Hunt (1987) mencatat sejumlah kajian sosiologidiantaranya : Sosiologi industru Perilaku kelompok Sosiologi kesehatan Sosiologi hukum Sosiologi politik Perilaku menyimpang Sosiologi perkotaan/pedesaan. Sosiologi agama dsb.

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Introduction to Sociology

Chapter 1THE BASICS OF SOCIOLOGY

Kathy S. Stolley

Introduction

The study of sociology starts from the basicpremise that human life is social life (Rebachand Bruhn 2001, 5).

Most of us are constantly involved ininteractions with other human beings. From thefamilies we are born into, through school, work,and play; retirements; and even the gatheringsthat memorialize our deaths, we spend ourlives within a tapestry woven of interlockingsocial arrangements.

Sociology focuses on these arrangements,including how they are created, how theychange, and how they impact our lives,opportunities, and options (Rebach and Bruhn2001, 5).

The word sociology itself actually derives fromthe Latin word socius (companion) and theGreek word logos (study of ).

Thus, sociology is most literally the study ofcompanionship (Abercrombie, Hill, and Turner2000, 333).

A textbook definition often expands that literaldefinition of sociology to read something closeto the scientific study of the development,structure, interaction, and collective behavior ofsocial relationships.

But so what? What does that definition actuallymean? Why is sociology important? Why shouldanyone study sociology? What does sociologyoffer to us in our personal lives? And what doesit offer to wider society?

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People who practice sociology are calledsociologists. In his classic work Invitation toSociology, Peter Berger describes a sociologistas someone who is “intensively, endlessly,shamelessly interested” in the doings ofhumans (1963, 18).

To the sociologist, the social world is “a livinglaboratory [and] a moving picture that neverstops” (Rebach and Bruhn 2001, 7).

Because any aspect of the social world is fairgame for sociological study, the potential topicsof study are limitless. Simply put, “being asociologist means never having to be bored”(Kimmel 1998, 8).

WHAT SOCIOLOGY OFFERS

A sociological look at the world providesa number of unique benefits andperspectives.

Sociology provides an understanding ofsocial issues and patterns of behavior. Ithelps us identify the social rules thatgovern our lives.

Sociologists study how these rules arecreated, maintained, changed, passedbetween generations, and sharedbetween people living in various parts ofthe world.

They also study what happens whenthese rules are broken.

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Sociology helps us understand theworkings of the social systems withinwhich we live our lives.

Sociologists put our interactions withothers into a social context. This meansthey look not only at behaviors andrelationships, but also how the largerworld we live in influences these things.Social structures (the way society isorganized around the regulated wayspeople interrelate and organize social life)and social processes (the way societyoperates) are at work shaping our lives inways that often go unrecognized.

Because of this perspective,sociologistswill often say that, as individuals, we aresocial products.

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Sociology helps us understand why we perceivethe world the way we do.

We are inundated with messages in a variety offorms about how we, and the world around us,both are and should be. These messages come informs as diverse as guidance from parents andteachers, laws handed down by religious andpolitical entities, and advertisements rangingfrom pitches for athletic shoes to feeding hungrychildren.

Sociology helps us examine the types ofmessages we are constantly receiving, theirsource, how and why they influence us, and ourown roles in producing, perpetuating, andchanging them.

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Sociology helps us identify what we have incommon within, and between, cultures andsocieties.

Sociologists know that, although people indifferent parts of the city, country, or world dressdifferently, speak differently, and have manydifferent beliefs and customs, many of the sametypes of social forces are at work shaping theirlives.

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Sociology helps us understand why and howsociety changes.

Obviously, the social world is constantlychanging. This change has been a major interestto sociologists from the beginning of thediscipline.

However, many sociologists believe thatsociology should not stop with only explainingsociety and how and why the world changes.

They argue that sociologists also have anobligation to act, using their unique skills andperspectives to work to improve the world.

Sociology, they argue, is a “field ofsimultaneously concerned with understanding,explaining, criticizing, and improving (italicsmine) the human condition” (Restivo 1991, 4).

Sociology provides us theoretical perspectiveswithin which to frame these understandings andresearch methods that allow us to study sociallife scientifically.

Sociology is a social science. That meanssociologists work to understand society in verystructured, disciplined ways.

Like scientists who study the physical world,sociologists follow scientific guidelines thatincorporate an assortment of theories andmethods that provide for accuracy in gathering,processing, and making sense of information.

Sociology is not just common sense. Results of sociological research may be

unexpected. They often show that things are notalways, or even usually, what they initially seem.“People who like to avoid shocking discoveries,who prefer to believe that society is just whatthey were taught in Sunday School, who like thesafety of the rules and maxims of what AlfredSchultz . . . has called ‘the world-taken-for-granted’, should stay away from sociology”(Berger 1963, 24).

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HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is rooted in the works ofphilosophers, including Plato (427–347 B.C.),Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), and Confucius (551–479 B.C.).

Some other early scholars also tookperspectives that were sociological.

Chinese historian Ma Tuan-Lin developed, inthe thirteenth century, a sociological history bylooking at the social factors influencing historyin his general-knowledge encyclopedia WenHsien T’ung K’ao (General Study of the LiteraryRemains). Ibn

Khaldun (1332–1406), profiled below,conducted studies of Arab society (Restivo1991, 18–19).

Enlightenment Thinkers

Enlightenment thinkers also helped set thestage for the sociologists that would follow.

The Enlightenment “was the first time in historythat thinkers tried to provide generalexplanations of the social world. They wereable to detach themselves, at least in principle,from expounding some existing ideology and toattempt to lay down general principles thatexplained social life” (Collins 1994,17).

Writers of this period included a range of well-known philosophers, such as John Locke; DavidHume; Voltaire (the pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet); Immanuel Kant; Charles-Louisde Secondat, Baron de La Brède et deMontesquieu; Thomas Hobbes; and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Term Sociology

The term sociology was coined by Frenchphilosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), whowould become known as the “Father ofSociology.” Comte is profiled below. He firstpublicly used the term in his work PositivePhilosophy (1896, orig. 1838; Abercrombie,Hill, and Turner 2000, 67).

Three Intellectual Stages

Comte saw history as divided into threeintellectual stages.

The first, or theological, stage includedthe medieval period in which society wasseen as reflecting the will of a deity.

The second, or metaphysical, stagearose during the Enlightenment andfocused on forces of “nature,” ratherthan God, to explain social events.

Comte considered his own time periodthe third stage, which he termed thepositivistic, or scientific, stage.

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These “early founders of sociology all had a visionof using sociology” (Turner 1998, 250).

Sharing Comte’s belief, many early sociologistscame from other disciplines and made significantefforts to call attention to social concerns andbring about social change.

In Europe, for example, economist andphilosopher Karl Marx (1818–83), teamed withwealthy industrialist Friedrich Engels (1820–95),to address class inequality.

In Germany, Max Weber (1864–1920), wasactive in politics. In France, Emile Durkheimadvocated for educational reforms.

Sociology In the United States

In the United States, social worker andsociologist Jane Addams (1860–1935), becamean activist on behalf of poor immigrants.

Addams established Chicago’s Hull House, asettlement house that provided communityservices such as kindergarten and day care, anemployment bureau, and libraries.

Sociologists are also responsible for some of thenow familiar aspects of our everyday lives.

For example, sociologist William Foote Whyte(1914– 2000), improved restaurant service bydeveloping the spindles that waitstaff in manydiners use to submit food orders to the kitchen(Porter 1962).

Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), developed theconcept of what would become the focus group,now widely used in the business world.

Sociologists have also been actively involvedthroughout the civil rights movement. Ida B.Wells-Barnett (1862–1931) who is profiled below,published and spoke out against lynching.

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963), was involved formost of a century in studying race and socialactivism.

Gunnar Myrdal’s An American Dilemma (1944)focused public attention on race.

The voter-rights efforts of Charles G. Gomillion inthe 1940s and 1950s were in-strumental in theU.S. Supreme Court decision that defeatedgerrymandering that had excluded almost allMacon County blacks from voting (Smith andKillian 1990, 113).

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SOCIOLOGISTS IN SOCIETY

Contemporary sociologists are continuing theearly sociologists’ tradition of using sociology tomake differences in diverse areas of society.

Many sociologists are, of course, teachers andresearchers. However, sociologists are activelyusing their skills throughout society in waysthat extend well beyond academics and theclassroom.

Applied or Clinical Sociologists

Some sociologists, called applied orclinical sociologists, use their skills tofind answers to practical problems. Forexample: They apply their unique perspectives on

conflict and social life to finding new ways toassist in mediation and dispute resolution.

Improving community services (e.g., findingways to extend phone service to thespeechdisabled.

Improving help for victims of violence oreven in designing more effective socialsettings for human interactions from child-care centers to offices to night clubs.

Beyond their accomplishments in theentertainment and sports arenas, sociologistshave made many world-changing contributionsto society.

Saul Bellow won the 1976 Nobel Prize inLiterature, and Jane Addams and Emily Balchboth won the Nobel Peace Prize.

The civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.and the Reverend Jesse Jackson studiedsociology.

So did Frances Perkins, an industrial sociologistwho fought to improve conditions in early-twentieth-century textile mills. president of theUnited States, also had a sociology degree(Dreier 2001).

A number of other notable politicians, includingShirley Chisolm and Maxine Waters, studiedsociology.

THE SOCIOLOGICALIMAGINATION

Sociologists talk about the connectionbetween learning to understand andthen change society as being thesociological imagination. C. WrightMills (1916–62).

The sociological imagination is the abilityto see the interrelationships betweenbiography and history, or theconnections between our individual livesand larger social forces at work shapingour lives (e.g., racism or politicalagendas).

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Mills urged us to understand that our ownpersonal fortunes or troubles (e.g., gain/ lossof a job, divorce) must be understood in termsof larger public issues (e.g., the health of theeconomy, societal changes in the institution ofmarriage). They cannot be fully understoodoutside of this social context.

Without a sociological perspective, wemight tend to think of these personalexperiences primarily in individual terms.

We might locate both the source of aproblem and the solution to that problemas lying within individuals.

Unemployment, for example, is anindividual problem for the unemployedperson that may be due to his or hercharacteristics such as work ethic, jobskills, or opportunities.

As Mills puts it, “The very structure ofopportunities has collapsed” (1959, 9).

Finding solutions to these large-scaleproblems requires examining the structureof society (Mills 1959).

SOCIOLOGY AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE Economics was the first social science. It grew

out of the practical application of gatheringfactual information for business and taxationduring the 1700s.

In the early 1800s, history developed as anacademic discipline.

Psychology then grew out of medicine,philosophy, and pedagogy.

Anthropology developed from the Europeandiscoveries of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

Sociology is one of the youngest academicdisciplines, established as a distinct field of studyin Europe only during the 1800s.

It was at first indistinguishable from politicalscience, and most early sociologists wrote aboutpolitical issues outside of academics (Collins1994, 30–32).

The earliest sociologists discussedthroughout this book came to sociologyfrom a variety of disciplines. Emile Durkheim and Max Weber had studied

law. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929), was an

econo-mist. Lester Ward (1841–1913), was a biologist. Georg Simmel (1858–1918), was a

philosopher. Even today, sociologists come to the

discipline from varying backgrounds, such asAndrew M.

Greeley (1928–), a Catholic priest turnedsociologist profiled in chapter 10.

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The Sociological Focus as Compared with Other Social Sciences

SocialScienceDiscipline

DisciplineFocus

Share Interestswith Sociology

Differential FocusTaken bySociology

Economic Structure of MaterialsGood, financial market,transaction

Social Consequen-ces of productionand distribution

Focuses beyond aSingle Structure

History Context of past eventrelationship

Establishing SocialContext

Focuses on thePresent

PoliticalScience

Group Competition ofPower and scarceresources of conduct inpolitics or government

Patterns andConsequences ofGovernment

Focuses beyond aSingle Structure

Anthropology Variations betweenculture

Patterns of culturetype andconsequences ofinteraction andcommunication

Focusesindustrializedrather than praindustrial society

Psychology IndividualisticPerspective

Adjustments to lifesituation

Influence externalto the individual

SOCIOLOGY IN A CHANGINGWORLD

Changes in our social world have requiredsociologists to focus attention in new ways.

Among these changes are the growth ofinternationally connected systems and thetechnologies that increasingly allow ourinteractions to be conducted in ways other thanface to face (e.g., the Internet and e-mail).

Although more than 6 billion people now live onEarth, many sociologists and others haveargued that the advent of jet airliners,telephones, the Internet, and around-the-clocknews services beamed by satellite around theworld have made the world a smaller place, atleast in a social sense.

They often argue that a process of globalization isat work. With globalization, geographicalconstraints on social and cultural patterns arediminishing, and people are becomingincreasingly aware of those changes (M. Waters2001).

Globalization is demonstrated through events asdiverse as the growing popularity of soccer in theUnited States—a sport largely imported fromoutside—the demand for American movies, bluejeans, and athletic shoes around the world, theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),and even the attacks of September 11, 2001.

Other terms that refer to forms of globalizationinclude the world-economy, world-market, andworld-system. These terms are often used torefer to the economic aspects of globalization.

Sociologists have been studying these networksat least since the early 1970s (Chase-Dunn andGrimes 1995, 387–88).

The ways in which technologies change social interactionhas long been an interest for researchers.

Communication and information technologies contribute toglobalization and increase the complexity of our social lives.They also often lead to unanticipated effects.

In recent years, sociologists have given much attention tothe innumerable implications of the Internet to society.From its initial use by a relatively small, computer-literatepopulation of users, the Internet grew rapidly beginning inthe 1990s (Abbate 1999; Castells 2001).

It is now used for social interaction, business andcommerce (legitimate and illegitimate), education,research, news, propaganda, entertainment, and more.

There is widespread agreement among sociologists andothers that the Internet and other communicationtechnologies are vastly changing society.

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Metode-metode Dalam Sosiologi

Metode Kualitatif1.Metode Historis2.Metode Komparasi3.Metode Studi Kasus

a. Interviewb. Questionnairesc. Participant observer technique

Metode Kuantitatif Metode Deduksi dan Induksi Metode Empiris dan Rasional Metode Fungsionalisme

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Observation (obtrusive andunobtrusive)

SurveysExperimentsHistorical ComparisonCross-Cultural ComparisonArchival Research

METHODS of STUDY

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PerubahanSosial

InteraksiSosial