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doi:10.1016/j.qu

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Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128

The Early Pleistocene development of the Gediz River, Western Turkey:An uplift-driven, climate-controlled system?

Darrel Maddya,�, Tuncer Demirb, David R. Bridglandc, Antonie Veldkampd,Chris Stemerdinka, Tim van der Schrieka, Rob Westawaye

aDepartment of Geography, University of Newcastle, Daysh Building, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UKbDepartment of Geography, Harran University, 63300 Sanliurfa, Turkey

cDepartment of Geography, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UKdWageningen University and Research Centre, Duivendaal 10, 6701 AR Wageningen, P.O. Box 37, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands

eFaculty of Mathematics and Computing, The Open University, Eldon House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE3 3PW, UK

Available online 18 September 2007

Abstract

This paper reports the latest details from an on-going investigation of the Early Pleistocene buried river terrace sequence of the Gediz

River �40 km upstream of the Alas-ehir graben in the Kula volcanic province, Western Turkey. Using clast lithology to characterise

sediment provenance, we demonstrate that the buried Early Pleistocene terrace sequence of the palaeo-Gediz is overlain by the deposits

of two carbonate-rich, northerly-derived, tributary systems. The surface form of these carbonate-rich deposits suggests deposition on

alluvial fans, an interpretation supported by limited palaeocurrent data and upwards-coarsening sequences, suggesting fan

progradation.

It is argued that the formation and preservation of the palaeo-Gediz terrace sequence is intimately related to fan deposition, fan head

entrenchment and fan progradation. Terrace formation is the result of incision in the main Gediz valley, a response to long-term uplift,

during periods of lower sediment supply. Under low sediment supply conditions inferred fan head entrenchment is associated with fan

toe progradation. This progradation would have led to the burial of the newly formed terrace of the Gediz. Subsequent higher sediment

supply conditions would have led to renewed fan deposition. The direct coupling of the fan system with the main Gediz River during

these periods would also result in deposition within the trunk river. The primary control of sediment supply is considered here to reflect

changing vegetation cover, a function of changing Quaternary climates. These inferred controls suggest that the Gediz Early Pleistocene

terrace sequence is an uplift-driven, climate-controlled system.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Fluvial sedimentary records have long been recognised asimportant repositories of palaeoenvironmental data. Flu-vial system responses both to climatic and tectonic changesare well documented within the fluvial sedimentary archive.In addition, these archives often also contain abundantfaunal and floral remains, which permit investigation ofpalaeoecology and the utilisation of biostratigraphy. Thesearchives have been extensively exploited within north-western Europe and North America (Bridgland, 2000;Bridgland and Maddy, 2002), but few studies have

e front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights re

aint.2007.08.045

ing author.

ess: darrel.maddy@ncl.ac.uk (D. Maddy).

investigated, in detail, records out with these areas. Onlyrecently has attention been drawn to the potential of thesearchives within the Mediterranean Basin (Macklin et al.,1995, 2002; Rose and Meng, 1999; Bridgland et al., 2003).Mediterranean fluvial sedimentary archives readily recordboth tectonic and climatic influences but rarely display thecomplications associated with glaciation, a factor that oftendominates northwest European rivers and often limits thelength of record observed.Most Mediterranean studies reported in the literature

concern the northwestern sector (principally Spain, Franceand Italy) with only a few studies of longer term recordsreported from Greece (Lewin et al., 1991; Woodward et al.,1995) and Crete (Maas et al., 1998). Only very recently theattention has turned to the potential of the fluvial records

served.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 1. General tectonic framework of Western Turkey (based upon Aksu et al., 1987). Black box indicates approximate position of study area. Grey

shaded areas designate Late Cenozoic grabens on land. Dotted lines represent major faults. Inset shows position of Fig. 1 in Turkey.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128116

of the Eastern Mediterranean e.g. Syria (Bridgland et al.,2003) and Turkey (Ozaner, 1992; Kuzucuoglu, 1995;Westaway et al., 2003, 2004; Demir et al., 2004; Maddyet al., 2005; Collins et al., 2005). Turkey, with its high ratesof tectonic activity and its sensitive location with respect tomajor Pleistocene climatic change, is particularly attractivefor investigation.

In this paper we report the latest details from our on-going investigation of the Early Pleistocene buried riverterrace sequence of the Gediz River �40 km upstream ofthe Alas-ehir graben in the Kula volcanic province (Fig. 1).

2. The Gediz River basin

The Gediz River, at 401 km in length, is one of theprincipal rivers of Turkey draining into the Aegean Sea.The total basin covers an area of �17,000 km2 (IWMI andGDRS, 2000) with the watershed delineated by mountainranges that exceed 3000m on both the southern andnortheastern edges of the basin. These mountains owe theirorigin to large-scale extensional tectonics. North-southcrustal extension in Western Turkey is accommodatedalong a series of east-west striking normal faults, whichdefine low-lying grabens separated by footwall mountainranges (Fig. 1) (Paton, 1992; Aksu et al., 1987).

The path of the trunk river cuts across the principaltectonic structures of the region, rising in the north-easternmountains and then flowing westward through an upliftedfootwall block before entering the Alas-ehir graben where itflows along the flat central valley floor. The Alas-ehir

graben is one of the principal grabens of Western Turkeyand is believed to be a comparatively young feature havingdeveloped over the past �5Ma (Eyidogan and Jackson,1985; Bozkurt and Sozbilir, 2004). The graben is delineatedby a major southern fault zone, with the northern faultsrepresenting an antithetic fault system. Although thegraben structure originates in the Pliocene, significantdisplacement of Late Pliocene deposits along the mainsouthern faults suggests that significant footwall upliftoccurred during the past �1.6Ma (Bozkurt and Sozbilir,2004; Sarica, 2000). The area, both within and beyond thegraben, is still tectonically active occasionally producingdevastating high magnitude earthquakes e.g. the 27thMarch 1970 Gediz earthquake, of magnitude 7.3 (Ambra-seys and Tchalenko, 1970), and a magnitude 6.5 earth-quake occurring close to Alas-ehir on 28th March 1969(Eyidogan and Jackson, 1985).The development of this graben is critical to the

understanding of the evolution of the Gediz River system.Movements across the northern bounding faults of theAlas-ehir graben change the local base level to which theGediz upstream is adjusted. The evolution of the upstreamreaches of the Gediz River (including the area reported inthis study) is, at least in part, related to the slip on thesefaults. However, the displacement of the normal faults sofar recognised cannot account in total for the upliftrecognised within the northern footwall block. Westaway(1993) has suggested that regional uplift may also play asignificant role. Whatever the relative importance of thesetwo uplift mechanisms, repeated movement of the fault

ARTICLE IN PRESSD. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128 117

system, superimposed on a background of regional uplift,has resulted in progressive uplift-driven incision by theGediz into the northern footwall block during the past�5Ma.

3. Geology of the Kula region

The underlying geology of the study area is dominatedby the predominantly grey/white sediments of the MioceneInay Group (Seyitoglu, 1997). Within the study area,this group comprises a thick sequence of fluvial/colluvialclastic sediments (Ahmetler Formation, Ercan et al.,1983) overlain by continental carbonates of lacustrineorigin (Ulubey Formation, Ercan et al., 1983). Gravelswithin the Ahmetler Formation are typically sub-roundedto sub-angular and in places display imbrication thatsuggests a northward flow direction (Purvis and Robert-son, 2004). The Ahmetler Formation is interpreted asrepresenting the in-fill of an internally draining basinunrelated to the current Gediz drainage (Purvis andRobertson, 2004), with the Ulubey Formation representingthe final lacustrine phase of the infill. Subsequent uplift hasled to basin inversion and the progressive dissection of thissequence.

Fig. 2. Interpolated subsurface terrace map after (Maddy et al., 2005). Shaded

Dashed lines represent approximate level boundaries with level attribution sho

Arrows represent mean palaeocurrent vectors based upon gravel imbrication in

is Toytepe, b Burgaz Bagtepe and c Sarnıc- Bagtepe. The map grid projection is U

on the current Gediz River.

The resistant carbonates of the Ulubey Formationform a high-level plateau to the north of the studyarea (Fig. 3). Where the Ulubey Formation has beenremoved during dissection, the underlying AhmetlerFormation has been readily eroded to form extensivebadlands.In places the Inay Group has been removed, and the pre-

Inay landscape exhumed to reveal basement rocks com-prising ophiolites and metasediments. The basement rocksform distinct ridges formed by normal faults which trendNNW-SSE, a structural line that appears to relate to abend in the Alas-ehir graben (Richardson-Bunbury, 1996).These ridges coincide with the eastern and western water-sheds of the modern south-bank tributary drainagesystems.Superimposed on this landscape are the lava flows

of the Kula volcanic province. Volcanic activity aroundKula, which began �1.7Ma (Richardson-Bunbury,1996), produces alkali basalts closely associated with theactive rifting (Ercan, 1993; Ercan et al., 1983) andformation of the Alas-ehir graben. In total, �79 coneshave been identified (Erinc, 1970) albeit that the volumeof lava produced (�2.3 km2) is comparatively small(Richardson-Bunbury, 1996). A general decrease in theage of lavas southwards towards the graben suggests a

area represents basaltic plateaux. Observed section numbers are indicated.

wn as a roman numeral, I the lowest (youngest) to XI the highest (oldest).

the palaeo-Gediz gravels. The three principal volcanic necks are labelled, a

TM. The height reference point (datum) is shown by symbol�, a location

ARTICLE IN PRESSD. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128118

relationship with the antithetic faults (Richardson-Bunbury, 1996).

Beneath the highest lava flows of the Kula region(which form the high-level Burgaz and Sarnıc- plateaux,Fig. 2) are a series of relatively thin gravels that do notform part of the Inay Group. These gravels representdeposition by a palaeo-Gediz River system and itsnorthern tributaries (described below) and may, in part,correlate with the previously identified Asartepe Formation(Seyitoglu, 1997).

3.1. High-level fluvial sediments

High-level gravels, unrelated to and capping the InayGroup, can be observed at a large number of localitiesaround the eroded edges of the Burgaz and Sarnıc- plateaux(Fig. 2.). Table 1 shows the results of clast lithologicalanalysis undertaken at a number of locations. All thegravels comprise lithologies derived from local or sub-localsources. These lithologies can usefully be grouped into fourcategories:

Category 1: comprises lithologies derived from thebasement ophiolitic and metasediment complex togetherwith those from the Ahmetler Formation. The AhmetlerFormation is itself largely derived from the basementcomplex, as is reflected in the predominance of resistantlithologies in the Ahmetler Formation counts (AF1-AF3,Table 1);

Category 2: comprises lithologies derived from thelimestone-rich Ulubey Formation. These lithologies cur-rently crop-out to the north of the study area (Fig. 3);

Category 3: comprises Igneous lithologies. Basalt ispredominantly derived from the Quaternary lava flows;however, more acidic igneous clasts could be derived fromthe Ahmetler Formation (see count AF1);

Category 4: comprises lithologies which could not beassigned to any other category, either because they couldnot be identified or were too weathered to be certain ofclassification.

Fig. 4 shows how the relative proportions of thesecategories can be used to determine provenance. TheAhmetler Formation is almost entirely composed ofCategory 1 lithologies (AF1–AF3, Table 1). At the otherend of the spectrum relatively modern proximal alluvialfan sediments are composed almost entirely of carbonatelithologies (Category 2) derived from the Ulubey Forma-tion, (F1, F2, Table 1, Fig. 3). The interaction of alluvialfans, fan-fed tributary rivers (e.g. the Geren, Fig. 3) andthe trunk river lead to different sediment compositionalmixes across the valley floor dependent upon the domi-nant system. Carbonate clast proportions decline rapidlyaway from the scarp, dropping to o80% some 5 kmdownstream in the distal fan (F3, Table 1, Fig. 3) and downto o40% in a fan-fed tributary such as the Geren (LT2,Table 1, Fig. 3). The influence of tributaries on the mainGediz River can however be detected in the small amountsof limestone (o�20%) fed into the main valley, as shown

in the analysis of the low terrace of the Gediz River (LT1,Table 1, Fig. 3).Using this information it is possible to characterize the

different lithological mixes into a simple sediment classi-fication comprising:

�

gravels T with little or no northern tributary influence(o20% Category 2); � northerly-derived tributary stream or confluence T(f)

gravels (20–60% Category 2);

� alluvial fan distal F(d) gravels (60–80% Category 2) and � alluvial fan proximal F(p) gravels (480% Category 2).

Table 1 shows how each of the sampled gravels can becharacterized using this scheme. The implications of thisclassification will be discussed in detail below. In generalterms, however, we can distinguish on lithological groundsbetween the two end-members representing trunk GedizRiver deposits and deposition by northerly-derived alluvialfans systems. In between these two end-members a widerange of potential sediment mixes arise, a function ofprocesses acting within tributary river systems or at theirconfluence with the trunk river.

3.2. Palaeo-Gediz sediments

Palaeo-Gediz sediments (type T, Table 1), characterizedby their low-limestone content (o20%), comprise medium-coarse well-rounded to sub-rounded gravels up to 5m inthickness, although the deposits are generally o2m inthickness (Fig. 5B–D). The gravels typically have a reddishcolouration in contrast to the underlying predominantlygrey/white colouration of the Ahmetler Formation. Thinexposures tend to display massive gravel beds, which arepoorly sorted, with cobbles up to 20 cm in long axis. Thesemassive units often display shallow basal erosionalcontacts, suggesting preservation of lag gravels withinbasal scour hollows cut into the underlying AhmetlerFormation. Where thicker deposits are preserved theseoften comprise sub-horizontally bedded, stacked fining-upwards sequences, with medium gravel beds up to 20 cmthick overlain by thinner fine gravels and sands. At site 20(Fig. 2, Fig. 5C) cross-stratification is observed within thegravels, indicating the presence of some small migratory in-channel bedforms. Imbrication is well developed in thesegravels and shows flow generally aligned along the currenteast-west path of the Gediz River.No large-scale channel structures have yet been recorded

from within the gravel sequence but the lateral persistenceof sub-horizontal beds (in exposures up to 15m across e.g.Fig. 5B) suggests deposition on shallow gravel bars. Inplaces, finer Gediz sediments up to 1m in thickness overliethe gravel sequence (Fig. 5D). These thicker alluvialsediments, which are occasionally laminated, probablyrepresent overbank fines. Taken together these observa-tions indicate deposition in a gravel-bed river, although the

ARTIC

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PRES

STable 1

Clast lithological analysis results. Site numbers as shown in Figs. 2 and 3

Site

no.

Count

size

Strati-

graphic

unit

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Sediment

classifi-

cation

%

Quart-

zose

%

Grey

quartz

%

Quartz

schist

%

Sand-

stone

%

Schist

%

Jasper

%

Chert

%

Marble

%

Ophiolite

%

S%

Limestone

%

Calcareous

sand/

mud-stone

%

S%

Igneous

%Basalt % ?

Weathered

igneous

% ?

Weathered

basalt

%

Tuff/

Pyro-

clastic (?)

%

S%

Weathered

rock

% Others/

unknown

%

S

1 261 1 49.43 18.01 0.00 1.15 7.28 12.26 6.13 0.00 1.92 96.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.30 0.00 1.53 1.53 T

2 266 1 33.46 16.92 0.75 0.38 6.02 7.89 5.26 0.38 2.63 73.68 21.80 0.00 21.80 0.00 1.88 0.38 1.50 0.75 4.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 T(f)

2 257 1 3.11 0.78 0.00 0.00 0.39 0.78 0.78 0.00 0.78 6.61 93.00 0.00 93.00 0.00 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

3 267 1 33.71 11.99 0.00 0.37 5.62 4.87 10.86 3.00 1.87 72.28 18.35 0.37 18.73 2.62 2.25 2.25 0.00 0.75 7.87 0.00 1.12 1.12 T

3 252 1 9.13 2.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.98 3.97 0.00 0.40 17.86 80.16 0.79 80.95 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.00 0.00 1.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

4 290 1 56.21 2.76 0.00 0.00 8.28 2.76 3.10 0.00 1.38 74.48 21.38 0.00 21.38 0.00 0.69 2.07 0.00 0.00 2.76 0.00 1.38 1.38 T(f)

8 264 3 37.88 15.15 4.17 0.38 8.71 5.68 2.27 2.27 3.79 80.30 15.91 0.00 15.91 0.00 2.27 0.76 0.00 0.76 3.79 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

8 245 3 43.27 14.29 0.00 0.00 4.08 10.61 5.31 0.41 2.86 80.82 12.24 0.41 12.65 0.41 1.22 2.86 1.22 0.00 5.71 0.00 0.82 0.82 T

9 250 3 48.00 6.80 0.00 0.00 0.40 6.40 2.80 0.00 1.60 66.00 32.00 0.00 32.00 0.00 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60 0.00 0.40 0.40 T(f)

12 271 4 44.28 16.61 0.00 0.00 12.55 5.90 4.80 0.00 7.01 91.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.58 6.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.86 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

12 285 4 17.89 3.86 0.00 0.00 1.05 4.21 4.91 0.00 1.05 32.98 64.56 0.00 64.56 0.35 2.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(d)

14 242 4 54.55 17.77 0.00 0.00 3.31 9.09 8.26 0.00 6.20 99.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

22 313 5 52.08 15.34 2.56 1.28 8.63 6.07 6.07 0.00 3.19 95.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 4.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.47 0.32 0.00 0.32 T

25 254 5 47.64 29.53 0.00 0.00 3.15 5.51 7.87 0.00 3.15 96.85 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.97 0.39 0.00 0.00 2.36 0.00 0.79 0.79 T

26 314 5 60.83 3.82 0.00 0.00 1.27 2.55 1.27 0.32 1.91 71.97 25.80 0.32 26.11 0.00 0.00 0.64 0.32 0.32 1.27 0.00 0.64 0.64 T(f)

50 254 5 41.73 15.75 0.00 0.00 12.99 9.06 5.91 0.00 2.36 87.80 0.79 0.00 0.79 2.76 5.51 0.00 2.36 0.00 10.63 0.00 0.79 0.79 T

29 259 6 54.83 15.44 0.00 0.39 6.18 10.04 5.02 0.00 3.09 94.98 0.77 0.00 0.77 0.00 0.39 3.47 0.39 0.00 4.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

29 297 6 49.49 7.41 0.00 0.00 6.73 10.77 2.69 0.34 4.04 81.48 14.81 0.00 14.81 0.00 1.68 1.68 0.34 0.00 3.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

29 279 6 0.72 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.79 97.85 0.00 97.85 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

30 269 6 42.38 19.33 0.00 0.37 2.23 7.06 4.83 0.37 3.72 80.30 17.84 0.00 17.84 0.00 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.74 1.12 0.00 1.12 T

B1 263 9 0.76 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.52 98.48 0.00 98.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

46 281 10 54.09 14.23 0.00 0.00 4.27 15.30 7.47 0.00 1.78 97.15 1.07 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.71 1.07 0.00 0.00 1.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

46 269 10 53.16 19.70 0.00 0.37 3.72 8.55 6.32 0.00 3.35 95.17 1.12 0.00 1.12 0.00 1.49 1.49 0.00 0.37 3.35 0.00 0.37 0.37 T

46 257 10 45.53 10.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.28 7.78 0.00 0.39 75.88 23.35 0.00 23.35 0.00 0.00 0.78 0.00 0.00 0.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 T(f)

47 254 11 45.28 14.57 0.39 0.00 2.36 9.84 5.91 0.79 1.57 80.71 14.17 0.00 14.17 0.00 4.72 0.00 0.00 0.39 5.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 T

47 255 11 0.00 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.39 99.61 0.00 99.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

AF1 252 50.40 0.40 0.00 0.00 36.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 87.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.51 0.00 1.19 0.00 0.00 12.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 Inay

AF2 300 22.00 1.67 0.00 0.00 22.67 1.00 0.33 45.67 4.67 98.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.67 0.33 2.00 Inay

AF3 254 14.96 3.54 0.39 0.00 27.95 0.39 0.39 48.03 1.97 97.64 0.39 0.00 0.39 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.39 0.79 1.18 0.00 1.18 Inay

LT1 275 29.82 13.09 1.09 0.00 5.09 5.45 5.82 5.82 6.91 73.09 20.00 0.36 20.36 0.36 2.55 1.09 1.09 0.73 5.82 0.00 0.73 0.73 T

LT2 269 17.84 2.97 0.00 0.74 10.04 0.37 0.37 15.61 2.23 50.19 37.55 0.00 37.55 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.74 11.52 0.00 11.52 T(f)

F1 258 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 97.29 2.71 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

F2 275 0.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.73 95.64 3.64 99.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 F(p)

F3 249 13.65 4.82 0.00 0.00 0.40 1.20 0.80 0.00 0.40 21.29 77.51 0.00 77.51 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.40 0.40 F(d)

Classification

T Terrace gravel

T(f) Northerly-derived tributary gravel

F(p) Fan proximal

F(d) Fan distal

D.

Ma

dd

yet

al.

/Q

ua

ternary

Intern

atio

na

l1

89

(2

00

8)

11

5–

12

8119

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 3. Field area including the source area for the north-bank Geren and Hudut tributaries. Block patterns show outcrops of Miocene carbonate deposits.

Cross (+) shading represents the outcrop of basement metasediments. Dark grey shading represents basaltic plateaux. Areas with no shading are

underlain by Miocene clastic sediments. The cross-section A0-A is shown in Fig. 7. Lithological sample points (Table 1, Fig. 4) are shown as follows: F1/F2

represents relatively recent fan-proximal sediments with F3 representing fan-distal sediments. LT1 is a low terrace of the Gediz and LT2 is a low terrace of

the Geren. Sample B1 is a gravel sample taken from a location that is presently not accurately heighted.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128120

precise planform cannot yet be confirmed with confidencefrom any of the exposures observed.

Maddy et al. (2005) report that the detailed surveying ofthe heights of the basal contact of these gravels with theunderlying Ahmetler Formation reveals a step-like drop inaltitude of the contact southwards towards the present river.These steps are interpreted as terrace bases. In total elevenseparate levels are identified beneath the plateaux (Fig. 2.).The consistency of terrace base heights across the plateauxsuggests deposition by a low-gradient river system. Accuratedetermination of terrace gradients is difficult due to theuncertainties of unknown channel distance between loca-tions and the measured �2–3m variability in terrace baseheight within relatively short distances. A gradient of�0.47mkm�1 was suggested by Maddy et al. (2005) forthe lowest terrace level and presumed to be similar to that ofthe higher levels.

3.3. Northerly-derived carbonate-rich sediments

The palaeo-Gediz gravels are, in many places overlain bylimestone-rich gravels of type T(f), F(d) or F(p) andcarbonate-rich fines (e.g. Fig. 5B–D). The predominance offine-grained sediments in the exposures precludes extensivepalaeocurrent analysis but the three available data sets(Fig. 6), obtained from imbrication directions in gravelbodies, are consistent with a general north-south flowdirection. The superposition of carbonate-rich sedimentsabove the Gediz sediments reflects a change in theprovenance of the depositional system, from a Gediz-fedsystem to a drainage system fed by tributaries emanatingfrom the north.The carbonate-rich sediments reach a maximum thick-

ness of �14m at location 47 (Fig. 5A) and generally thinrapidly towards the south. However, this trend is

ARTICLE IN PRESS

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Inay

Gediz (LT)

Geren (LT)

Fan (distal)

Fan (proximal)

Category 1

Category 2

Category 3

Category 4

Fig. 4. Relative proportions of lithologies based upon caterories defined

in the text.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128 121

complicated by the nature of the irregular base. Wherethese sediments lie close to the back-edge of a terrace theythicken substantially. Furthermore, non-systematic east-west variations in sediment thickness reflect the complexnature of deposition.

Fig. 6 shows a reconstruction of the upper surface of thenortherly-derived sediments based upon the accuratelysurveyed height of the bounding surface contact betweenthe fan sediments and the overlying volcanic sequence. Thisreconstruction uses a kriging algorithm with an exponentialsemivariogram model function. The interpolated surfaceshows the presence of high points with heights falling off inall directions and hence displays a fan surface geometry.The overall impression is one of two major interlocking fan-systems that coalesce perhaps to form a bajada. The easternfan appears to be larger than the western fan, which mayindicate that the eastern fan is fed by a larger headwatercatchment (Harvey, 1990; Mather et al., 2000). The gradientof the upper surface on the Burgaz plateau fan, whenextrapolated across the area to the north (Fig. 7), connectsthis surface with the carbonate outcrops of the northernplateau escarpment.

At present the area to the north of the Burgaz plateau isdrained by two tributaries of the Gediz, the Hudut to theeast and the Geren to the west. A minor un-namedtributary drains between the basalt plateaux (Fig. 3). TheHudut system, the larger of the two tributaries, has itsupper reaches in an extensive limestone plateau area to thenorth-east of the Burgaz plateau. The Geren currentlydrains a badlands area to the north of the Sarnıc- plateau,its headwaters stretching to the foot of the current scarp. Itis therefore possible that the two point sources for thelimestone-rich gravels shown in Fig. 6 are pre-cursors tothe Geren and Hudut systems.

The eruption of lava into these early southwardsdrainage systems would have initially dammed them.

Subsequent lake overflow would, most likely, haveexploited the edges of the lava flows, leading ultimatelyto the re-establishment of drainage via diversion aroundthe edges of the flow. It is probable that drainage from theupper basin of the palaeo-Geren was redirected westwardaround the end of the Toytepe flows, while the upper basindrainage of the Hudut may have been redirected to the eastof the Burgaz flows. Fig. 8 shows the inferred position ofthe pre-basalt drainage systems superimposed upon aSPOT satellite image.The limestone-rich gravels are overlain by lacustrine

sediments, tephra deposits of varying thickness (up to13m) and basaltic lava flows. The presence of extensivelacustrine facies indicates an early damming of the fluvial/fan system prior to the eruption of the Burgaz and Sarnıc-cones. Work is still on going to accurately log the natureand distribution of carbonate-rich fan and lacustrinematerials. Early indications point to significant fan-deltaand lacustrine influence on the latest generation of fansedimentation. This lacustrine phase, caused by thedamming of the sequence by lavas downstream, will bediscussed in more detail in a future paper.

4. Gediz–fan coupling: a climate-controlled sediment

system?

We consider that a dynamic relationship exists betweenfan development and trunk river activity (Fig. 9). Graveldeposition occurs upon the fan surface during periods ofhigher sediment supply, (Fig. 9A). Coupling of the fan-main channel system results in higher sediment flux fromthe fan to the main channel system resulting in depositionwithin the trunk river. The fan system and trunk systembecome periodically decoupled during periods of reducedsediment supply. Fan head entrenchment leads to limiteddown-fan sediment transport and up-fan migration of thechannel-fan surface intersection point. This leads to fanprogradation, evidenced by limited deposition on andbeyond the former fan toe, resulting in burial of thesurviving trunk river terrace remnants. Meanwhile thereduced sediment load of the main system leads to itsincreased ability to erode and thus adjust to the on-goingregional uplift via incision. This latter process leads to newterrace formation and the establishment of an activefloodplain at a lower altitudinal level (Fig. 9B) in thetrunk valley. Incision of the trunk river may also help toamplify fan progradation by generating some fan-toeincision.Evidence for fan progradation is seen at a number of

locations where coarsening upwards beds are observed. Atlocation 29 (Fig. 2) this process is also demonstrated by aprogressive increase in the proportion of Category 2lithologies up through the sequence (Table 1). Thisprogressive increase suggests a transition from fan-distalto a more fan-proximal position.The alluvial fan sediments therefore play a key role in

the preservation of the palaeo-Gediz terrace system.

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Fig. 5. Example exposures. (A) Thick northerly-derived sediments rich in Cateory 2 lithologies at Site 47 (Fig. 2). (B) Clear distinction between Gediz

sediments (lower) and overlying gravels rich in Category 2 lithologies at Location 40 (Fig. 2). (C) Gediz sediments displaying cross bedding overlie

Miocene Inay clastics and are overlain by sediments rich in Category 2 lithologies at Site 20 (Fig. 2). (D) Basal Gediz gravels are overlain by �1m of

laminated fines. Sediments rich in Category 2 lithologies cap the Gediz sequence and are in turn overlain by basalt at Site 12 (Fig. 2).

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128122

Progressive southward shifting of the palaeo-Gediz courseduring the period of floodplain incision and terraceformation is probably the result of preferential erosion.The clastic sediments of the Ahmetler Formation, whichwould have formed the southern valley side, are more

readily erodible and susceptible to gullying than the fan-protected terrace sediments to the north.This landscape dynamic appears to have led to a cyclic

response in sedimentation-incision cycles both within thefan systems and the main channel system. Sediment supply

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Height (m)

<150 151 - 160 161 - 170 171 - 180 181 - 190

191 - 200 201 - 210 211 - 220 221 - 230

Fig. 6. Interpolated pre-volcanic sequence landscape based upon a kriging algorithm utilising accurately surveyed contact heights at the points shown.

Arrows represent mean palaeocurrent flows based upon 25 imbrication measurements at each locality (47, 40 and 25 Fig. 2.). All heights are relative to the

height reference point shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 7. Cross-section (as indicated in Fig. 3A–A0) shows projection of upper fan surface across the current eroded scarp foot area. Volcano feeder pipe

dimensions are inferred.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128 123

changes could have resulted from a number of mechanismsthat govern sediment availability. The most commonlycited causes involve allogenic influences such as tectonicsand/or climatic changes (e.g. Bull 1964, 1977; Harvey 1984,1990; Lustig, 1965) or some interaction of the two.However, fan development can show similar patterns ofbehaviour resulting from autogenic change, with thepassing of internal thresholds resulting in complex responsemechanisms (Schumm et al., 1987).

In tectonically controlled fan systems, in front of fault-controlled mountain ranges, increased fault movementresults in uplift that increases stream power and thussediment transport rates. As such movement is aperiodic,cycles of fan aggradation and dissection can result.However, in the Kula examples the scarp of the limestoneplateau is not fault controlled. Sediment supply from theupper catchment (upstream of the fan head) is thus not afunction of tectonics. Indeed the whole catchment lies

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 8. Inferred palaeo-Hudut (H) and palaeo-Geren (G) drainage

responsible for the two buried fans reconstructed in Fig. 6 superimposed

on a SPOT satellite image. Dashed box (a) represents the area shown in

Fig. 3.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128124

within the uplifting block and there is no evidence ofrelative movements across the east-west scarp front.

Climate changes during the Quaternary have, however,been significant. These changes not only result in hydro-logical regime changes but also lead to major changes invegetation type and areal cover. Although no pollenrecords are yet available spanning this interval in Turkey,inference concerning vegetation changes can be made usingpalynological records from nearby Greece. Using the lastcycle record from Kopais in central Greece, Tzedakis(1999) demonstrates that cold–warm oscillations arereflected by open vegetation (grasses, chenopods andsagebrush) with increased erosion during the cold phasesand forested (high oak) vegetation during the warmerphases.

As vegetation stabilisation of banks and slopes is perhapsthe most important control on sediment supply, thecomparatively bare slopes of the cold stages of thePleistocene, coupled with pre-weathered bedrock exposures,would have undoubtedly promoted higher sediment supplyconditions relative to the vegetation and soil-stabilisedconditions of the warm stages (Atalay, 1992). However,sediment transport would have only been readily achievedduring high magnitude flood conditions. Such conditionsmay not have arisen during the coldest phases, whenwidespread aridity would have inhibited river discharge, butmay have arisen during the warm–cold transition andduring less arid phases when enhanced spring run-off, theresult of increased winter snow-pack storage, may havecontributed to greater discharge. Conversely, in-comingvegetation during cold-warm transitions would have

inhibited sediment supply to the channel, while run-offremained high, provoking fan head entrenchment and fantoe progradation, along with trunk river incision andterrace formation.It is conceded that the observed changes could result

from complex responses triggered by the exceeding of aninternal fan slope threshold. However, as the observationsappear to be applicable to both fan systems, this wouldrequire both fans to respond in an identical way to thepassing of internal thresholds despite their obviousdifferences in catchment area and sediment transportcapabilities. This latter scenario does not seem as plausibleas the more regional climate control and thus at present theclimate-controlled sediment supply mechanism is consid-ered the most reasonable interpretation.

5. Obliquity-driven climate sediment supply cycles?

Maddy et al. (2005) suggest an age model for the terracesequence based upon age-estimates that delimit thetemporal extent of the sequence. The destruction of thisearly system can readily be ascertained by reference to thegeochronology of the capping lava flows. An Ar/Ar ageestimate of 1.24570.13Ma has been obtained from theBagtepe neck on the Burgaz plateau (Fig. 2) (Richardson-Bunbury, 1996) and unspiked K/Ar dating of lavas on theSarnıc- plateau has yielded a mean age of 1.26470.015Ma(Westaway et al., 2003).An age estimate for the earliest preserved terrace is

however more difficult to establish. Maddy et al. (2005)suggest that the onset of terracing relates to incision that istriggered by increasing uplift rates. Significant graben faultmovement (along the southern main fault system) has beensuggested to occur post �1.6Ma (Sarica, 2000) on the basisof offset Early Pleistocene (based on its enclosed faunalassemblage) sediments. This chronology is significant as theearliest recorded volcanism in the Kula province (some30 km downstream of the current field area), which isbelieved to result from increased tectonic activity, has beendated by a series of K/Ar ages estimates on individualamphibole crystals to yield a mean age of 1.6770.22Ma(Richardson-Bunbury, 1996), although the validity of thisdate has been questioned (Westaway et al., 2004). If weaccept the link between terrace formation and increasinguplift rates then this age estimate can, perhaps, be usedas a minimum age for the onset of terracing. However,it is acknowledged that the preserved sequence maynot be complete i.e. higher and older terraces could havebeen lost.The available geochronology therefore suggests that this

terrace flight spans the interval between �1.67Ma and�1.245Ma. Using these constraints Maddy et al. (2005)suggested a height–age model based upon a simple linearinterpolation (Table. 2). Comparing this independent modelwith a regional climate signal, ODP967 (Kroon et al.,1998) they demonstrated an intriguing coincidence of

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Fig. 9. Cartoon demonstrating the relationship between fan systems and trunk River. (A) During non-vegetated periods, high sediment supply together

with competent discharge leads to fan aggradation and an active fan surface distributary channel network. Coupling of the channel-fan system leads to

high sediment loads and main channel floodplain aggradation. (B) During periods of vegetation cover, lowered sediment supply and lowering magnitude

of flooding events lead to fan-head channel entrenchment and lobate fan progradation within the fan toe area occupied by the active channel. Decoupling

of the fan-main river system leads to reduced sediment supply to the valley floor, which together with enhanced bank stabilisation promote incision and

terrace development.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128 125

obliquity-driven d18O changes in the Eastern Mediterraneanand the terracing of the Gediz in the Kula region (Fig. 10).

Having dismissed the tectonic control over the sedimentbudget cycles, climate control remains the most plausible

alternative. The climate changes (inferred from the d18Ochanges of ODP967) during the Early Pleistocene wouldresult in significant vegetation controlled sediment supplychanges similar to those observed in the sequence. The role

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Table 2

Buried terrace attributes (after Maddy et al., 2005)

Average terrace base height above

reference point (m) (min–max)

Level

reference

Location Height

change (m)

Estimated age

Linear age-height

model (103 yr)

ODP967 d18O minima

(103 yr)

141.72 (139.41–143.48) I 1–4 1245a 1232

�6.10

147.82 II 5 1283 1280

�4.71

152.(151.09–154.08) III 6–9 1312 1312

�6.34

158.87 (156.60–161.53) IV 10–16 1352 1350

�6.76

165.63 (162.93–168.65) V 17–27 1394 1400

�7.22

172.85 (171.95–174.43) VI 28–31 1439 1448

5 �8.60

181.45 (179.74–182.84) VII 32–35 1493 1473

�4.93

186.38 (184.69–188.37) VIII 36–40 1524 1517

�7.12

193.50 (192.02–194.87) IX 41–43 1568 1564

�6.92

200.42 (197.91–201.29) X 44–46 1611 1606

�9.34

209.76 XI 47 1670a 1641

Level reference as in Fig. 2. Height reference point (datum) as in Fig. 2.aAge limits using the K/Ar system (Richards-Bunbury, 1997; Westaway et al., 2003).

0

50

100

150

200

250

1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

He

igh

t a

bo

ve

re

fere

nc

e p

oin

t (m

)

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

59

S22 S52

3739 41

4345

4749

51

5355

57

XIVIIIVIIVIVIVIIIIIII X X

Age (ka)

18O

(o/ o

o)

Fig. 10. Terrace base heights plotted as black shaded circles (scale on primary axis) against time using a linear age model based upon dated lava flows

(after Maddy et al., 2005). The marine ODP967 oxygen isotope record (scale shown on secondary axis) is plotted against time based upon the published

age model (Kroon et al., 1998). Marine isotope stages are numbered for interglacials only. Black diamonds indicate the timing of sapropol formation

identified in the Mediterranean basin.

D. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128126

of climate-induced vegetation and discharge regime changein controlling sediment supply and transport is reflected inriver activity across the Mediterranean during the LatePleistocene (Macklin et al., 1995, 2002). There is no reasonto consider that this relationship did not have a significantrole in the Early Pleistocene.

6. Conclusions

The coupling and decoupling of Gediz River andnorthern tributary alluvial fans has led to a complexstratigraphical sequence that reflects a response of thisdynamic interaction to changing sediment supply and

ARTICLE IN PRESSD. Maddy et al. / Quaternary International 189 (2008) 115–128 127

hydrological regime conditions. Sediment deposition, bothin the main river and fan system, occurs in response tohigher sediment supply conditions, with fan entrenchment/progradation and main river incision and terrace formationoccurring during periods of lower sediment suppliescoupled with high run-off conditions. The principal controlon sediment supply is believed to be slope stabilisation byvegetation. Hydrological regime change is a response notonly to changing precipitation but also to the vegetationchange implications for run-off routing and the changes inwinter snow-pack storage release. As vegetation change is aconsequence of climate change, both sediment supply andhydrological regime change are a direct result of changingclimates. This underlines the inferred climate control onthis system.

The progressive incision of the Gediz to form a flight ofriver terraces however requires a further stimulus. TheGediz flows across an actively uplifting footwall block andthus in order to move towards an equilibrium profile it mustconstantly attempt to adjust its gradient by incising.Incision however, is difficult under conditions of highersediment supply and thus adjustment to uplift is largelyrestricted to periods of lower sediment supply. Thereforethe terraces are formed during these periods. The terracingand progressive valley incision is uplift-driven although thetiming of incision and accommodation of the uplift issediment-supply controlled and thus climate-controlled.These two conclusions support the inference that this isan uplift-driven, climate-controlled fluvial system (cf.Maddy, 1997).

The preservation of this sequence is somewhat fortuitous.The combination of relatively high uplift rates, progressivesouthward migration of the palaeo-valley floor and sub-sequent capping by overlying fan sediments and resistantlava flows has produced a remarkably complete sequence.This archive now presents a unique opportunity to study theEarly Pleistocene in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the support ofNERC (via a small Grant NER/B/S/2000/00678 to DM)and the University of Newcastle Research Fund during thisstudy. The British Institute at Ankara is also thanked forthe loan of equipment, without which this work would nothave been possible. This work forms a contribution toIGCP449 ‘Global correlation of Late Cenozoic fluvialdeposits’. Prof. Salomon Kroonenberg and Dr. SalikByraktutan are thanked for their constructive commentson an earlier manuscript.

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