Post on 30-Apr-2023
Lund University
Center for Middle Eastern Studies
VT 15
The Aga Khan Development Network Projects –
A Case Study of Karachi’s Health Service
A Research Proposal
MOSN08 Key Methods in Middle Eastern Studies Research
Handed in by Linda Hewitt
Lecture: Nina Gren
Word Count: 4292
Date: 29.05.2015
Abbreviations
AKDN - Aga Khan Development Network
AKHS - Aga Khan Health Service
AKRSP - Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
ANT – Agency Network Theory
VO - The Village Organization
1
Introduction
Prince Shah Karīm Al Ḥussaini known as his Highness Prince Aga Khan IV undemocratically
inherited the leadership of Nizārī Ismai’lism, a religious community that belongs to the Shi’a
sect. The Aga Khan is the 49th
Imam of the Nizārī Isma’ilis and represents an authoritative,
unquestionable religious leadership that is built upon his institutional work and ethical vision
along with his religious understanding. He is the leader of a minority Muslim community that
is spread all over the world with followers of more than 15 million believers1 (Poor 2014, 1-
2). Despite the lack of a territorial rule, he has a big transnational network of bureaucratic
institutions through the charitable Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), an independent
self-governing system of institutions, agencies, and programs that is integrated in the public
image of the Isma’ili imamate which represents the Aga Khan in his leadership role. The
Isma’ili imamate reconciles belief with the world, balances reason and revelation, and links
citizenship and identity (Poor 2014, 21). The AKDN serves as Isma’ili institution for cultural,
economic, and social service that reflects, but also expands the Aga Khan‟s vision of
improving the quality of life of his followers. The Aga Khan does not seek for being the head
of a state, but rather seeks for being the head of his network of institutions.
The discourse of modernity is incorporated in the AKDN through the usage of modern
technologies and emphasis of equality and liberalism. However, the Aga Khan highlights on
the perception of tradition and on the importance of pluralism within society. Hence, he
stresses that it is possible to combine Islamic discourses with secular or „modern‟ concepts
(Clarke 1976, 486). He aims to create a balance between the religious values and secular
world. The transformation of the community through the establishment of modern education,
health, housing, and economic institutions reflect a modern attitude in the community, despite
its preservation of spiritual and traditional values (Weisinger 2014).
Literature Review
There is a vast amount of literature about the history and creation of the Isma’ili branch and
their holistic view. Just to name a few significant scholars; Heinz Halm (1982; 1988; 1991;
Halm and Brown 1997), Farhad Daftary (Daftary 1992; 1996; 1998; 2004; 2005), Paul E.
Walker (2008; 2009) and Hamid Haji (2006) published several articles and books about the
historical events of the Isma’ili community and its formation. However, the contemporary
1 Since this community does not have an own nation state, various sources gave different numbers ranging
from 15 to 20 million believers.
2
development of the Isma’ili Muslim minority is scarcely studied and research on
contemporary communities‟ narrative and model of leadership is lacking. Even the
institutional research basis the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London published mostly
analyses of historical „dead‟ texts and has not developed an independent research field for
Isma’ili thoughts of present days, as it rather represents a glorified image of the present imam
in non-academic publications (Devji 2014, 57). Therefore, I decided to observe this case out
of a religio-sociological angle within a contemporary context.
The Isma‟ili community went through various phases of development in history which
influenced the office of the imamate in several ways. The Iranian Isma’ili Daryoush
Mohammad Poor recently published the book Authority without Territory (2014) that deals
with recent changes in the current Isma’ili imamate. His monograph examines the role of the
contemporary Isma‟ili leader the Aga Khan and the shift of authority and his style of
leadership. Poor defines the Aga Khan‟s role as a hybrid leadership in a modern Muslim
context (Poor 2014). Additionally, Poor analyses the Aga Khan‟s religious authority in
relation to the AKDN. He explains the shift of authority from “the person of the imamate” to
the institutionalisation of “the office of the imamate” through the activities of the AKDN in
order to connect the transnational community (Poor 2014, 79). Poor also explains the work of
the AKDN, its different sections, its role as a transnational NGO and its ethical framework
within a progressive Islam that combines modernity with traditional values (Poor 2014, Ch.
4).
Jonah Steinberg Isma‘ili Modern: Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community
is one of a few ethnographic works on contemporary Isma‟ili communities (2011). This
monograph talks about transnational organization and expansive practices of identity in the
processes of globalization. He documents the emergence of various networks that connect the
Isma’ili community and analyses the formation of a transnational identity, what he calls
global Isma’ilism, through its institutions (Steinberg 2011, 3). Steinberg emphasizes on the
importance of those projects in order to create a unified Isma’ili community. In the first part
of the book, Steinberg analyses the different institutions with a discursive analysis by using
documents of the institutions. He examines textual representations by the AKDN and the
Institute of Ismaili Studies itself. In the second part, he complements these documents with
interviews and observations from his fieldwork in Pakistan and Tajikistan.
These publications give me a good overview about the Isma’ili community, their
history, bureaucratical organisation of the AKDN and structure of their development projects.
3
Both authors believe that the Aga Khan aims for progress and development within Islamic but
also liberal modernist values. Yet, the literature lacks precise ethnographic examples and
personal opinions by local participants of how they perceive religious values and the Isma’ili
discourse which could give a more profound insight into the Isma’ili’s everyday life and
personal views on the AKDN.
Virginia Sales‟ essay stresses on the Aga Khan Education Service (AKES)
programmes in Northern Pakistan which tries to meet especially females‟ need for localized
training. She emphasises a gender-aware approach to teacher education and states that “AKES
schools not only compensate for the lack of Government provision, but […] provide a better
service than the impoverished and demotivated Government sector.” (Sales 1999, 409). The
AKES provides a programme of teaching and education development that adapt to village
norms (Sales 1999, 420). The projects mostly operate in Isma’ili communities who are
influenced by the AKDN. Also, the importance of the presence of women‟s teachers in a
gender segregated society is highlighted as there are not enough female instructors available
(Sales 1999, 410). Her study is based on fieldwork of the AKES in Northern Pakistan,
whereby she used observation methods and semi-structured interviews in order to explore
perception of individuals within the education system.
Additionally, in cooperation with Jonah Steinberg, Emily Manette conducted
ethnographic research in Northern Pakistan about The Village Organization (VO) an Aga
Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP). That focuses on rural development especially in
Isma’ili communities (Manetta, Emily and Steinberg, Jonah 2008). This paper examines how
the AKDN through the VO forms a new kind of civil society, meaning that it creates an
alternative conceptualization of citizenship and local political participation in a transnational
network (Manetta, Emily and Steinberg, Jonah 2008). Since the AKRSP also worked in India
and Tajikistan it establishes “a new mode of shared experiences across Himalayan borders”
(Manetta, Emily and Steinberg, Jonah 2008). The authors explain the work of the VO, its
dependence on the AKDN, the local political work and financial contributions and the VO‟s
ideology. As I also intend to do a “context-specific exploration of conditions within one
particular community […]” (Sales 1999, 410) those articles are significant in observing the
social and economic development of projects in the Himalayan region as comparable data.
Many publications are not very critical regarding the work of the AKDN and voices of
Isma’ilis, thus people who are affected by the projects seem very unobtrusive. I believe that
there are issues that remain unaddressed such as inequalities when it comes to
4
power/hierarchical structures, access of income, decision-making processes etc. Devji is one
of a few scholars who analyses the Isma’ili leadership a bit more critically. He states that most
analyses on Isma’ilism “tend to result in a scholarship that is about an increasingly narrow
classification of differences” (Devji 2014, 51). He believes that the original thinking of
Isma’ilism as a “form of thought” (Devji 2014, 51) is slowly destroyed by the current
leadership that praises for a progressive Islam and forbids certain traditional Shiʿa narratives
that represent failure e.g. mourning for the martyrdom of Imam Ḥussayn or wearing black to
honor it (Devji 2014, 54). Thus, the community would rather focus on the present and their
devotion to the present imam. Devji claims that this turns “Ismailism into a secular cult of
personality in process” as the AKDN is neither a religious body nor does it benefit only
Isma’ilis (Devji 2014, 54). Even though the AKDN aims a secular expression within a
religious obligation Devji states that “[…] it is not clear what kind of religion lies behind the
AKDN”, as it seems rather like a NGO that uses religious bureaucracy to create work (Devji
2014, 55). He criticises the dependency of the imam who is the first and final objective of any
claim or conflict within the community as people within the institutions are unable to exercise
authority and due to the imam‟s meager availability in person, the field of religious thought
seem to be unfilled (Devji 2014, 56). Especially when Isma’ilism and the Aga Khan
emphasise its stands for the „West‟ due to liberal approaches this shows that the autonomy has
lost its original form of thought which produces clashes with Sunni societies (Devji 2014, 61).
The above mentioned studies can be useful for my analysis as comparative material, as
well as examining the discourse of the AKDN. I believe these works give a good background
on the topic, but can also serve as good guideline for my study and supplement my
ethnographic research.
Research Aim
In my research I will examine the role of the Aga Khan‟s divine authoritative
leadership through the AKDN and his influence on the Isma’ili community through
development projects. Thus, I want to observe which and how religious values are carried out
in combination with „modern‟ secular values and how employees of the AKDN perceive
Islamic principles. In order to carry out the research, I decided to do a case study and thereby
chose the Aga Khan Health Service (AKHS) institution in Karachi. The first AKHS opened in
1924 in Pakistan and was a maternity hospital. Since then the health service focuses on
maternal and child health service and reaches over 1.1 million people by offering superior and
cost-effective health care with specialists in obstetrics, gynaecology and paediatrics (Aga
5
Khan Health Services 2007). It is the largest not-for-profit private health care system in
Pakistan and seeks to complement Pakistan‟s health care provision. In order to narrow down
my narrative I will focus on employees of the AKHS which is affiliated to the Aga Khan
University Hospital in Karachi. The main task of my research is to focus in-depth on the
ethnographic results. I want to examine how the employees agree or disagree with the
project‟s values. How do they relate to the idea of modern, transnational identity and perceive
the Aga Khan as their leader that combines modernity and development within traditional
Islamic values? Are they aware that they are subject of a larger connection system? Do they
experience that connection? In my research, I will observe the work of the institution, its
bureaucratical organisation, influence on the community, employees‟ commitment and
competence as well as perception of religious values within their everyday work life. Thereby,
I want to look at two angles:
a) How do employees define Islamic values, tradition and modernity and how do they
combine those values in their work with patients at the AKHS?
b) How is the project associated with the society that it serves? Does the AKDN take
into consideration local opinion when implementing development projects?
I believe that this study can be beneficial for Middle Eastern contexts as comparative material
with other AKDN projects such as Egypt or Syria in order to see how religious values and
modernity are framed but also combined. Since “Post-Islamism” and “modern Islam” are
noteworthy topics in the Middle East these days.
Theoretical Framework
The role of discourses of modernity is important to mention in the case of the Isma’ili
community as the Aga Khan emphasizes the development and innovation of the Isma’ili
community. Combining modernity with tradition and „Eastern‟ with „Western‟ ideologies
creates a transformation of authority. Hence, my theoretical part will focus on modernization
discourses, as well as pluralism within religion i.e. Islam in order to understand my question
in relation to others and contextualise the issue.
Isma’ilism has different meanings for each individual and need to be contextualised,
yet it constitutes an identity through its networks and community centres. The Isma’ili
discourse promotes welfare for his followers and a regulative principle of worship (Clarke
1976,485). Clarke states that many Isma’ilis perceive themselves as a member of Isma’ili
6
community rather than being „a Muslim‟ which defines a heterogeneous, complex, and
diverse community, while Isma’ilis prefer to be seen as a unit. Hereby, I will borrow
Varisco‟s claim that emphasises the dynamic of various Islamic beliefs and behaviours,
whereby he sees the religion of Islam as a faith that is diverse in its various aspects (Varisco
2012). He states that the representations of „Islam‟ often lack a related complexity and many
important facts remain hidden. Because every Muslim community has certain values it shares
with other Muslim communities, yet each community and individual has its own way of
living and practice their everyday-life differently along those shared values (Varisco 2012). In
the context of Isma’ilism, Varisco‟s argument can be mentioned to the extent that there are
divine experiences within Islam that Muslims from different sects and also other believers
might share, yet there is no universal Islamic understanding. Furthermore, Varisco (2012)
states that the image of „Islam‟ is often misrepresented by anthropologists and ethnographers
without acknowledging the various forms. Varisco believes that anthropologists cannot
observe Islam as such, yet they can observe a certain group of Muslims in their way of
articulations and expressions, while „Islam‟ as a religion can only be represented. Scholars
need to contextualize their observation (Varisco 2012). I agree with Varisco‟s view that this
universal approach of „Islam‟ does not necessarily help to understand the behavior of
„Muslims‟ who act on their norms, since the cultural, political, historical, traditional, ethnic,
and sectarian as well as social background needs to be taken into account. Yet, observations
of certain communities can serve as a descriptive guide and provide anthropologists with a
wider knowledge of various religious behaviors in order to understand the inner and outer
aspects of Islamic values. This theory will help me to see how and which beliefs of the
Isma’ili community in Karachi are implemented in practice through actions of the AKDN.
There are different alterations within Islamism which Bayat calls “post-Islamism”. He
stresses that Islamism is in the process of integrating into notions of democracy and pluralism.
Thus, post-Islamism is an attempt to conceptualise the rational and modalities of transcending
Islamism in social, political, and intellectual domains (Bayat 2005). Post-Islamism does not
suggest being anti-Islamic or secular; a post-Islamist movement dearly upholds religion but
also highlights citizens‟ rights. It aspires to a pious society within a democratic state, thus it
fuses religiosity with rights and liberty (Bayat 2005). Rights, plurality, historicity and rather
the future than the past become important. Post-Islamism can be seen as an „alternative
modernity‟ which can be expressed through social practices, political ideas, movements,
feminist approaches or theological standpoints (Bayat 2005). Even though Bayat emphasises
on movements, I believe the approach of Islam, democracy and pluralism can be useful for
7
my analysis of the AKDN‟s aim to fuse religious values with „modern‟ principles. Yet this
brings up the question of what does “modern” mean?
Scholars define modernisation in many different ways and there is little agreement of a
precise definition of modernity. However, theorists agree that society passes through a period
of modernity and that modernity contrast archaic past (Latour 1993, 10). To understand the
discourse of modernity, I will look at Gidden‟s and Latour‟s theoretical definitions of
modernity. Giddens considers modernity as inevitable dynamic which can result in
advantages but can also pose dangers for society. He does not equate liberalism and
capitalism with modernity but believe that they provide important features as a framework for
understanding modern societies (Giddens 1995). Another modernity concept that is useful for
my analysis is Latour‟s approach of modern epistemology and the actor-network theory
(ANT) (Latour 1993). ANT sees objects as part of social networks whereby relations are
perceived as material (things) and semiotic (concepts), thus ANT explores social connections
within a network. ANT also look into how certain strategies connect different elements into a
network in order to form a coherent whole through continuous performances (Latour 2005).
Latour states that modern constitutions are characterized by purification (distinction of zones)
and hybridization and the division of humans and non-humans, nature and society that “mark
the arrow of time” (Latour 1993, 10-11, 67). Those concepts cannot be separated, yet
contemporary issues of globalized societies mix politics, science and specialist discourse that
nature-culture contrast is not possibly anymore. Even though pre-modern people did not
separate between these two concepts. Latour argues that we have to rethink the division and
definition of modernity between „Us‟ and „Others‟ and hybrid/reconnect natural and social
phenomena (Latour 1993, 142-144). Within this theory I will exemplify how the narratives of
my research may relate to the broader pattern of ANT.
These modernity theories will help me to understand the infusion of modern
ideologies, liberal humanism and rational individualism that is part of the agenda of the
AKDN‟s social service and „Islamic Modernism‟, a movement that attempts to reconcile
Islamic faith with „modern‟ (Western) values of civil rights, nationalism, democracy, equality
and progress (Kennedy 1996, 83). A focus on „modernity‟ is useful to contrast pre-modern
(traditional) and modern (post-traditional) culture as the AKDN institutions are influenced by
both.
8
Choice and Implementation of Research Methods
I decided to focus on an singular case study research design as a qualitative approach while
working with the AKHS in Karachi (Creswell 2013, 74). For the data collection I will use
multiple sources of information i.e. observation, interviews, and relevant documents
(Creswell 2013, 75).
I will engage in a participant observation, as grounded theory (Burawoy 1998, 27), by
interacting with the community, attending meetings, talking to patients and employees
(directors, members), but also non-members of the AKDN. As Okely (2012) states
“[p]articipation through shared action brings vital insights and instrumental acceptance among
the people themselves.” (Chapter 4). Thereby, I can study customs, behaviour and mentality
of people within the institution which gives me the opportunity to learn “beyond the verbal
and cerebral” (Okely 2012, 77) in order to understand the contextual sensitivity. The
observation will take place over an eight-week period from October to December 2015. I will
observe how employees and volunteers work with and in that project, their relationship
among each other (is there are hierarchy?) but also with patients. Furthermore, I want to
observe how patients are socially treated and incorporated in the center and what values are
important to that center.
Additionally, I will conduct semi-structured interviews with project members and
employees of different political affiliations and social backgrounds. When arranging the
interview I will use O‟Reilly‟s guideline of how to plan an interview in order to be prepared
(O'Reilly 2009, 139-156). While conducting the interview I will keep Hermanovics‟ interview
strategies in mind i.e. listen, react, respond and understand. If needed, I will hire an interpreter
for the conversations. I decided to use semi-structured interviews to minimize my influence in
order to get a deeper insight into the perception of the work in the institution and their
personal values (Hermanowicz 2002, 488). I believe one strength of semi-structured
interviews is that it gives insight on personal experiences and different perspectives can help
the researcher to keep issues in mind that the researcher might have found irrelevant before or
would not have considered at all. Semi-structured interviews can provide enriching; original
voices that can be used to construct research narratives and similar perspectives of
participants may help analyzing the context of a case study because narratives reflect a
dynamic interplay between life, experience and story (Eastmond 2007, 248). This method
within a religio-sociological and cultural context can give valuable insights, meaning and
quality to the topic. Also, face-to-face interviews give the researcher the opportunity to
9
develop a relationship with the participant which can be beneficial for further research (The
American Anthropological Association), but also allows me to observe the interviewee and
her/his reactions. This is what O‟Reilly calls, an ethnographic interview (O'Reilly 2009, 115).
For the interview participants I will use snowball sampling which means I will need a
gatekeeper who will get me in touch with others in order to initiate this method. The flaw of
snowball sampling is that my research will be dependent on the initial gatekeeper who can
recommend me through her/his personal network to other research participants that are
willing to engage with the study. This creates a degree of selection bias based on the initial
gatekeeper, yet I believe that despite the limitation, this method will help me to gain access to
the local community (Cohen and Arieli 2011, 428).
By analyzing the interview atmosphere there is a thin line between critical realism and
constructivist perspectives as the researcher tends to analyse the atmosphere out of its own
perspective. Interviews are mostly based on values and assumptions that influence the study
and thus those need to be questioned to clarify research decisions (Clough and Nutbrown
2002, 17 and 22). However, I believe conducting interviews and letting participants speak is
important as it can generate rich data, gives a better understanding of others‟ perceptions even
if the data can be analysed in different ways (which can also be enriching). Thus, I will not
claim any expected outcome or results beforehand as I believe this would influence my
personal behavior towards certain agents and my interview performance.
Choice and Implementation of Analysis of Data
After the documentation of observation through my field notes as well as organizing
and transcribing the collected interviews, I will undertake a qualitative analysis of the field
notes and in-depth analysis of my interview notes. I will also consider political, social-cultural
and institutional settings in order to contextualise the collected data. If necessary, I will relate
them with comparative analyses of projects in the Himalayan region (Tajikistan and Northern
Pakistan). I will examine the discourse of the AKDN through their own publications and
representation on their website and look if the Aga Khan‟s aim is fulfilled through my chosen
project. As an analytic strategy I will look for common themes that transcend the case and
may identify an issue of the case to give the report a meaning (Creswell 2013, 75). In the
analysis I will keep Varisco‟s idea of Islamic pluralism in mind and will use the previous
mentioned discourses of modernity as a framework.
10
Limitations, Practical Problems and Difficulties
Period restrictions require less time than it may be ideal for an ethnographic study. A longer
research period would improve the results, but by being bound to the two month internship
only some aspects of leadership practice, organizational culture and team communication may
be unrevealed during my observation period. I am aware that being an outsider with a non-
local appearance and who does not speak the local language will limit possible revelations.
My presence as Western female researcher may raise suspicion, hence, trust needs to be
gained and also maintained through respect and professionalism. Furthermore, participants‟
opinions need to be valued throughout the whole process. I will observe the rules of the
ethical code, meaning that I will inform participants about the nature of my research, assure
that they participate voluntary and that it will not harm the participants in any way (The
American Anthropological Association). Another issue that may arise is that employees of the
health care center are bound to the AKDN, hence they may not dare to reveal negative aspects
of this network as they might fear losing their job. Employees of the center may be instructed
beforehand how to and what (and what not) to talk about with me. This is what Denscombe
calls the interviewer effect, as some participants may answer in a way they think the
interviewer wants to hear (Denscombe 2007, 184). Also, sex, age and ethnical background of
both interviewer and participant can influence how much the participant is willing to reveal to
the interviewer and in which (s)he expresses her/himself, as some topics may be ethically
sensitive. Thus, some responses may be influenced by the situation and some responses may
be partial, incomplete or distorted (Gunaratnam 2003, 20). Consequently, every research has
its biases, evasion, limitation and selective interpretation that need to be taken into account
(Gunaratnam 2003, 23).
Tentative Time Plan
The following table is a broad time plan that I calculated2, but will probably change and adapt
accordingly. Yet, it gives me a good overview of planning my research and helps me to keep
track on my progress. During the summer, I will start the reading list that I agreed upon with
my supervisor. In the beginning of September, I will start the literature review before I start
my field work. From September until beginning of December, I will do my field work and
collect my interviews and field work notes which I will analyse right after my observation
starting beginning of December. During my field work, I will keep up with my reading list
2 In collaboration with a fellow student.
11
and meanwhile prepare the assignment for the methodological course. After Christmas the
writing and analysing part will be more intensive as I intend to send the first draft to my
supervisor by end of January and the second draft by end of February. By the end of March I
will send a complete draft to my supervisor and will use the month of April for editing and
include my supervisor‟s advice. Thus, I intend to complete my final report by the 16th
May
2016.
List of tasks
14/0
6/20
15
28/0
6/20
15
12/07/20
15
26/0
7/2015
09
/08
/2015
23/08
/2015
01/0
9/20
15
20/0
9/20
15
4/10
/2015
12/10/20
15
18/10
/2015
1/11/2015
15/11/2015
29/11/20
15
06
/12/2015
13/12/2015
27/12/2015
10/0
1/2016
24/0
1/2016
7/02/20
16
21/02/20
16
6/0
3/2016
20/0
3/2016
3/04
/2016
17/04
/2016
01/0
5/2016
15/05/20
16
Initial Reading Period
Provisional Bibliography
Literature Review
Internship/Field Work
Field Report + Analysis
Methodological Course
Specific Reading
First Chapters Draft
Data Analysis
Second Part Draft
Complete Draft to Supervisor
Add in Comments
Final Editing
Reading
Writing
Editing
Planning/Submissions
Data Collection
Non-Thesis Tasks
Literature
Aga Khan Health Services. 2007. Accessed May 22, 2015. http://www.akdn.org/akhs_countries.asp.
Bayat, Asef. 2005. „What is Post-Islamism?“. In ISIM Review 16(1).
Burawoy, Michael. 1998. „The Extended Case Method.“ In Sociological Theory. 16(1), 4–33.
Clarke, Peter B. 1976. „The Ismailis: a Study of Community.“ In British Journal of Sociology Volume. 27(4), 484–94.
Cohen, Nissim and Arieli, Tamar. 2011. „Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges and snowball sampling.“ In Journal of Peace Research. 48(4), 423–35.
Creswell, John W. 2013. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. 3rd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
Daftary, Farhad. 1996. Mediaeval Ismaʻili history and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Daftary, Farhad. 1992. he Ism ʻ l s heir history and do trines. 1st ed. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
———. 1998. A short history of the Ismailis: Traditions of a Muslim community. Islamic surveys. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
———. 2004. Ismaili Literature. A Bibliography of Sources and Studies. London: I.B. Tauris Publishers.
———. 2005. Ismailis in medieval Muslim societies. Ismaili heritage series 12. London, New York, London, New York: I.B. Tauris; in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies; Distributed in the USA by St. Martin's Press.
Denscombe, Martyn. 2007. The Good Research Guide: For Small-scale Social Research. 3. Aufl. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Devji, Faisal. 2014. „The Idea of Ismailism.“ In Sects. Bd. 10, hg. v. Ziauddin Sardar und Robin Yassin-Kassab, 51–62. Critical Muslim 10. London: C Hurst & Co.; Muslim Institute.
Eastmond, Marita. 2007 . „Stories as Lived Experience: Narratives in Forced Migration Research.“ In Journal of Refugee Studies. 20(2), 248–64.
Giddens, Anthony. 1995. Konsequenzen der Moderne. 1. Aufl. Suhrkamp-Taschenbuch Wissenschaft 1295. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
Gunaratnam, Yasmin. 2003. Researching Race and Ethnicity. London: SAGE Publications.
Haji, Hamid. 2006. Founding the Fatimid State. The Rise of an Early Islamic Empire: An annotated English translation of al-Qadi al-Nu'man's Iftihah al-Da'wa. London, New York: I.B. Tauris Publishers.
Halm, Heinz. 1982. Die islamis he Gnosis Die extreme S hia und die ʻAlawiten. Die Bibliothek des Morgenlandes. Zürich: Artemis Verlag.
———. 1988. Die Schia. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
———. 1991. Shiism. Islamic surveys. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Halm, Heinz und Allison Brown. 1997. Shi'a Islam: From religion to revolution. Princeton series on the Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers.
Hermanowicz, Joseph C. (2002) . „The great interview: 25 strategies of studying people in bed.“ In Qualitative Sociology. Vol. 25 (4), 479–99.
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Kennedy, Charles. 1996 . „Islamization of Laws and Economy, Case Studies on Pakistan.“ In Institute of Policy Studies, The Islamic Foundation.
Latour, Bruno. 1993. We have never been Modern. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
———. 2005. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford.
Manetta, Emily and Steinberg, Jonah. 2008. „Localizing modernity: The Aga Khan Foundation and the global dissemination of the Village Organization.“ University of Vermont.
Okely, Judith. 2012. Anthropological Practice - Fieldwork and Ethnographic Method. London, New York: Berg.
O'Reilly, Karen. 2009. Ethnographic Methods. London, New York: Routledge.
Poor, Daryoush M. 2014. Authority without Territory. The Aga Khan Development Network and the Ismaili Imamate. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sales, Virgina. 1999 . „Women teachers and professional development: gender issues in the training programmes of the Aga Khan Education Service, Nothern Areas, Pakistan.“ In International Journal of Education Development. Bd. 19, 409–22.
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