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8-1986
Physiological Differentiation and Cognitive Discrimination of an Physiological Differentiation and Cognitive Discrimination of an
Olfactory Stimulus Produced under Stress Olfactory Stimulus Produced under Stress
Robert Gray Perra Western Michigan University
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PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND COGNITIVE DISCRIMINATION OF AN OLFACTORY STIMULUS
PRODUCED UNDER STRESS
by
Robert Gray Perra
A Dissertation Submitted to the
Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment for the Degree of Doctor of Education
Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology
Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan
August 1986
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PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND COGNITIVE DISCRIMINATION OF AN OLFACTORY STIMULUS
PRODUCED UNDER STRESS
Robert Gray Perra, Ed.D.
Western Michigan University, 1986
Humans may have ability to transmit, receive, and
react to biological information from other humans through
olfactory chemosensory communication. Two studies examined
human (1) ability to differentiate physiologically, via
olfaction, fresh stress produced sweat and (2) cognitive
discrimination, through smell, of "aged" stress produced
sweat. Four stress conditions were employed; (1) exercise,
(2) relaxation, (3) sexual arousal, and (4) repulsion.
Experiment I ; A male dyad participated— donor and
recipient. Donor was prepared to collect his axillary
secretion on gauze; following preparation donor was
stressed. After stressing, the gauze which was presumed to
contain a fresh non-odoriferous sweat, was removed,
sandwiched between two surgical masks, and refrigerated.
Within forty-five minutes the sample was placed over
recipient's nose and mouth and his physiological responses
were recorded on a polygraph. Recipient's polygraph record
during sweat introduction was compared with; (a) Donor's
record during the stress condition and (b) Recipient's
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baseline record. Results: Recipient's physiological
responses altered when Donor's stress produced sweat was
presented (e.g., relaxation sample produced muscle tension
reduction, heart rate reduction, GSR increase, breathing
becoming shallow and regular, and a skin temperature
increase; erotic sample produced muscle tension increase,
heart rate irregularity and increase, GSR decrease,
respiration becoming deeper and slower, and a skin
temperature decreasing; etc.) In all cases Recipient's
physiological responses yielded a similar pattern as
Donor's response pattern from the same stress condition.
Conclusions; Findings suggest that humans have an ability
to differentiate physiologically stress states via
olfactory chemosensory communication in a form of
"biological empathy."
Experiment II; A single subject provided the stress
related axillary secretions. Each sample was collected on
gauze. Following donor stressing, the sample was removed,
placed in a container, and refrigerated for circa twelve
hours; following "ageing," a group smelled the sample and
filled out a forced choice questionnaire asking: (a)
whether the container contained a sweat sample, (b) the
gender of the donor, and (c) the stress condition for
sweat sample production. Results: (a) 81.5% correctly
identified sample as sweat; (b) 63.3% accurately
identified gender; and (c) Ability to discriminate stress
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states was not determined. Conclusions. Results are
consistent with current literature.
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Perra, Robert Gray
PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND COGNITIVE DISCRIMINATION OF AN OLFACTORY STIMULUS PRODUCED UNDER STRESS
Western Michigan University Ed.D. 1986
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Copyright 1986
byPerra, Robert Gray
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Copyright by Robert Gray Perra
1986
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ACKNOW LEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the efforts of numerous
individuals who have assisted and supported me in this
dissertation and in my doctoral program. Foremost, I am
grateful for the endurance my wife, Annie, has shown in
putting up with the absurdities of a doctoral program, and
ask forgiveness of my son Jimmy who couldn't understand
why daddy couldn't, "come out and play." I am thankful for
the patience and support of my parents, my wife's parents,
my siblings, my wife's siblings, my nieces and nephews, my
colleagues, and family friends who lovingly listened with
"interest" as I talked about this study "ad nauseum."
I ain likewise grateful for the assistance and
direction given me by so many individuals in my academic
development and in the preparation of this document:
A special thanks to my Doctoral Committee: my
advisor, mentor, and friend, William Carlson; Frederick
Gault, whose friendship, input and assistance proved
invaluable, and without whose help this study would never
have been accomplished; and Thelma Urbick and Robert
Oswald who encouraged ine to continue when reason suggested
otherwise.
ii
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I would like to acknowledge and thank the following
independent readers and advisors, whose suggestions made
this document better: John Lynch, Joseph Sobota, Alistair
Smith, Henry Holzgrefe, and John Howie.
No document of this size would be possible without
the specialized assistance of research aides: The library
assistance provided by Helen Healy and the W.M.U. library
staff is noted and appreciated. Lastly the editorial
assistance of Paula Wissing is gratefully acknowledged.
Robert Gray Perra
iii
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T A B L E O F C O N TE N TS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................... i i
LIST OF TABLES..................... ..................... Vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS................................... Vi
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPH COLLECTIONS......................... vii
LIST OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDS.......................... vii
CHAPTER
I. LITERATURE REVIEW................................ 1
Preface......................................... 1
Introduction to the Problem.................. 2
Chapter Organization.......................... 5
Anecdotal Literature.......................... 6
Physiology of Biological Communicationvia Olfaction.................................. 14
Selected Studies............................... 36
Summary......................................... 60
II. METHOD............................................ 64
Chapter Organization.......................... 64
Purpose......................................... 64
Hypotheses...................................... 65
Subjects........................................ 67
Technical Considerations...................... 76
Procedure....................................... 89
iv
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Table of Contents— Continued
CHAPTER
III. RESULTS.......................................... 94
Chapter Organization... ...................... 94
Introduction................................... 94
Method and Data Analysis...................... 95
Results......................................... 96
IV. SYNOPSIS AND CONCLUSIONS....................... 154
Synopsis........................................ 154
Conclusions..................................... 159
REFERENCES................................................ 163
APPENDICES................................................ 178
A. Physiological Arousal Screening Form.......... 178
B. Olfactory Discrimination Survey................. 188
C. Modified Psycho-NeurologicalEvaluation Form.................................. 196
D. Adjective Check List............................ 208
E. Complete Physiological Record forSubject A and Subject B ......................... 210
BIBLIOGRAPHY................ 273
I
V
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L I S T OF T A B L E S
1. Summary: Exercise Condition..................... 139
2. Summary: Relaxation Condition................... 140
3. Summary: Erotic Condition....................... 141
4. Summary: Repulsive Condition.................... 142
5. Summary: Axillary IntroductionAll Conditions................................... 143
6. Sample Discrimination........................... 145
7. Axillary Sample Identification.................. 148
8. Axillary Sample Classification.................. 150
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. 1498 Woodcut/Mandrake Root...................... 8
2. 1588 Woodcut/Analogies Between Plantsand Animals....................................... 8
3. Chloe' Perfume.................................. 10
4. Jovan Cologne..................................... 10
5. Rhinecephalon and Gyrus Cinguli................ 26
6. Connections and Circuits of theRhinecephalon and Gyrus Cinguli................ 28
7. Procedure Outline................................ 92
vi
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L I S T OF PHO TO GRAPH C O L L E C T IO N S
1. Shielded Chamber and Polygraph.................. 79
2. Sexual Stimulus.................................. 82
3. Repulsive Stimulus.............................. 83
LIST OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDS
1. Exercise.......................................... 100
2. Relaxation........................................ 110
3. Erotic............................................ 121
4. Repulsive......................................... 132
vii
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C H A P TE R I
LITERATURE REVIEW
Preface
Until recently, our knowledge concerning human abili
ty to utilize olfactory information as a means of communi
cation has been confined to anecdotal material from folk
lore and the ethnographic literature. Olfactory communica
tion in animals is well-documented and is necessary to the
survival of the group; danger detection, reproductive rate
regulation, aspects of sexual receptivity, familial group
detection or recognition of non-group individuals, and
territoriality are among the areas in which olfaction
plays a demonstrated role. These observations, in addition
to the anecdotal material, have influenced the orientation
of the few studies we do possess regarding human
olfaction. The purpose of this literature review is to
examine the possibility and potential of communication of
emotional states between humans, via chemically mediated
stimuli, presumably detected by olfactory structures anal
ogous to those we know are used in sub-human species.
1
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2
Introduction to the Problem
The importance of olfaction as a means of chemo
sensory communication (both between individuals, as well
as for social regulatory purposes) among non-human mammal
ians is well established in the literature (Doty, 1981).
The probability that olfaction plays an important role in
the chemosensory communication of humans is strongly sug
gested in much of the research on humans, and in some of
the literature the role of olfaction is taken as axiomatic
(e.g., Wilson, 1970). Although human chemosensory commu
nication through olfaction is strongly suggested or as
sumed, systematic and conclusive research does not exist;
as a consequence, the limits of this phenomena are not
clea'rly delineated. The research that does focus on humans
lags behind the animal research.
It has been suggested that the "research lag" is due
to the subordinate place human olfaction has been given in
relation to the other senses, as well as to the continual
debate over the relative importance of olfaction in human
social interactions (cf. Bloch, 1934; Doty, 1976; Ellis,
1936; Kiell, 1976; Owen, 1980; Stoddart, 1982). Implicit
in the debate process concerning the relative importance
of olfaction is the inability of the scientific community
to come to an agreement on basic concepts such as
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3
olfaction (cf. Amoore, 1963; Geldard, 1972; Gesteland,
Lettvin, Pitts & Rojas, 1963; Tanabe, lino, & Takaga,
1975), emotion (cf. MacLean, 1958; Papez, 1938), stress
(cf. Goldberger & Breznitz, 1982; Kutash & Schlesinger,
1980; May, 1977; Selye, 1980; Selye, 1982), and
communication (cf. Bastian, 19 68; Batteau, 1968;
Burghardt, 1970a; Frings & Frings, 1964; Klopfer & Hatch,
1968; Lorenz, 1955; Mehrabian, 1969; Scott, 1968; Sebeok,
1968; Skinner, 1966; Stevens, 1950; Tavolga, 1968).
Ziporyn (1982) points to other reasons for the research
lag: (a) the anatomy of smell is extremely complicated,
and "the ... olfactory rods and sustentacular cells,
located in the olfactory cleft at the top of the nasal
cavity, were not even localized until the 19th century"
(p. 228); (b) "relatively little is known about therapy
for these conditions" (disorders of smell), and physicians
who hear patients' complaints dismiss them by telling
their patients to "live with" their problems (Ziporyn,
1982, p. 227). Ziporyn implies that research is linked to
clinical interest, which is frequently associated with
specific issues and questions.
There is little question that during the past several
decades there has been increased interest in the interre
lationship between exocrinology (olfaction) and endocrin
ology (chemical regulators in the body). These interests
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4
appear to be tied to the clinical needs of specific
disciplines rather than to the systematic acquisition of
knowledge in the global sense. For example, in medicine,
research has focused on the problem and use of smell for
d i a g n o s t i c p u r p o s e s : p h y s i c a l d i a g n o s i s : e.g.,
d i ph t h e r i a --" s w e e t i s h ", diabetic coma-- "fruity",
scurvy— "putrid", yellow fever— "butcher shop", typhoid
fever— "freshly baked brown bread", etc. (cf. Farber,
1978; Hayden, 1980; Liddell, 1976; Moschella, Pillsbury, &
Hurley, 1975), and psychiatric diagnosis: e.g., depres
sion, schizophrenia, etc. (cf. Bradley, 1984; Brass, 1970;
Liddell, 1976; Parkinson, 1969; Smith St Sines, 1960; Smith
& Thompson, 1969); in psychology, the interest in the in
terrelationship between exocrinology and endocrinology can
be seen in research on familial recognition (cf. Altmann &
Vinsel, 1977; Hall, 1966; Porter & Moore, 1981; Schleidt,
Hold St Attili, 1981), the effects of smell on performance
(cf. Cowley, Johnson & Brooksbank, 1977; Doty, Green, Ram
& Yankell, 1982; Rotton, 1983), and menstrual synchrony
(cf. Graham St McGrew, 1980; McClintock, 1971; Quadagno,
Shubeita, Deck St Francoeur, 1981), etc.; while in social
anthropology the issue emerges in discussions of the regu
lation of territorial and social space (cf. Calhoun,
1962a; Calhoun, 1962b; Christian, 1963; Hall, 1966;
Lorenz, 1955). Furthermore, the question appears in the
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5
fields of pharmacology, in work on the control of speci
fied affective disorders (cf. Liebowitz et al., 1985;
Mellman & Davis, 1985); and in occupational therapy, in
studies regarding the stimulation of the nervous system
(cf. Fox, 1966; Schwartz, 1979).
Animal studies have clearly and systematically demon
strated that most animals are able to determine informa
tion from body odor related to species and subspecies (see
Otte & Cade, 1976); kinship (cf. Hennessy, 1977; Kallquist
& Mossing, 1982); gender (cf. Connor, 1972; Drewett &
Spiteri, 1979), reproductive state (cf. Drewett & spiteri,
1979; Goddard & Beilharz, 1984); and emotional state (cf.
Collerain, 1978; Goddard & Beilharz, 1984; Zunino &
Landauer, 1980). Yet, studies on humans have left many of
these areas unexplored, so that information is limited
(Doty, 1981; Hold & Schleidt, 1977).
Chapter Organization
"Despite the relatively limited amount of information
on odor communication in humans,... studies ... suggest
that humans, like many mammals, have the potential for
communicating basic biological information via the smell
medium" (Doty, 1981, p. 373). The study that follows this
chapter focuses on the extent of physiological and cogni
tive discrimination of this "potential." This review
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6
examines the following areas: (a) anecdotal material
concerning the use of human secretion and excreta within
socialinteraction; (b) the physiological mechanisms of
communicating biological information via the olfactory
medium; (c) a review of selected studies which are
concerned with discriminating/communicating gender and/or
family recognition and/or emotional states; and (d) a
commentary on the research presented and its potential
pitfalls.
Anecdotal Literature
Folklore and customs are the common sense of a
people, the collective folk-belief of a society (Jung,
1934). A review of the anecdotal literature offers a
glimpse into the system of thinking shared by a socio
cultural group. Such a review offers a historical and
cross-cultural context in which to view the scientific
literature presented later in this chapter. Studies by
social anthropologists reporting on folklore and customs
show that many societies maintain that human odors from
excreta (i.e., urine, feces, sweat, etc.) have the power
to alter :he recipient's emotional state (cf. Davenport,
1965; Delaney, Lupton, & Toth, 1977; Himes, 1970). So
strong is this belief that when the actual human secretion
is not used, organic and mineral preparations are utilized
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7
to emulate, enhance, or mask the basic human odor(s). The
use of human excreta predominates, and these, along with
the organic and mineral human-like preparations, are em
ployed when basic human needs, such as protection, heal
ing, and/or basic mating behavior— either in a religious
or social context— are at issue.
Aphrodisiacs and Medicinals
Aphrodisiacs and medicinals that manifest "human or
human-like" properties have long been used (cf. Culpeper,
1826; Stark, 1980; Thomson, 1978). In Europe during the
Middle Ages it was the appearance of the plant or other
organic and/or inorganic substance (animal, human, or
mineral) that was the decisive factor in proving the
efficacy of the substance; those plants that in some way
resembled the human body (in whole or part) (e.g., man
drake root, belladonna, etc.), were accepted as effective
(Illustration 1).
The most noted formulation of this kind of logic was
developed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588. Known as
the "Doctrine of Signatures" (Thomson, 1978), it drew
strong analogies between plants and animals, and sug
gested that consuming a plant that resembles an animal
would produce the qualities of that animal (Illustration
2); in the case of plants that resemble human parts,
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Illustration 1. 1498 Woodcut/Mandrake Root: For the Middle Ages, a plant's appearance was decisive. The roots of the mandrake (Mandragora officinarium) resemble a human body, and often exaggerated in drawings of the plant, such as this fantastical woodcut from an herbal of 1498. (Thomson, 1978, p. 141).
Illustration 2. 1588 Woodcut/Analogies Between Plants and Animals: Giambattista della Porta's treatise on the Doctrine of Signatures draws analogies between plants and animals, suggesting that consumption of a particular plant would make a person either more energetic or calmer (Thomson, 1978, p. 143).
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9
produced the qualities of that body part.
This Doctrine of Signatures was extended by many to
include smells. Thus, substances that contained smells
that were classified as "human-like" (e.g., musk, can
nabis, crushed fish parts, etc.) were frequently used as
medicinals and sexual enhancers.
It is uncertain which variable— the association with
the body part or the association with the smell— was more
important in the development or reinforcement of this sys
tem of logic, but the same comparisons are used today in
the "modern" advertising of aphrodisiacs, perfumes, and
medicinals (Illustration 3 & Illustration 4).
As an aside, many of the herbs used in the past
because of their likeness to animals and/or humans have
been studied and found effective to some degree and are
used in Homeopathic Medicine and Natural Medicine (cf.
Boyd, 1981; Grieve, 1931; Julian, 1979; Pratt, 1980;
Stark, 1980).
Fish Odors to Attract Women
Davenport (1965) reports that some Southwestern
Pacific men use fish preparations that have a smell
similar to the odors produced by vaginal secretions
interacting with semen, as a method to attract women.
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Illustration 3. Chloe' perfume: Note the stopper. The left side of the stopper depicts the clitoral hood and the right side of the stopper depicts the penis gland.
Illustration 4. Jovan cologne: the bottles depict male and female figures.
1 1
The Smell of "Calm Fear"
Several years ago, while in England, a tavern philos
opher expounded on local folklore. The resident stated
that local mythology maintained that the Hounds of
Dartmoor, or the Beasts of the god Wotan, would track
their enemy by the smell of their enemy's hate. When the
Hounds attacked, they spared the faithful because of the
smell of "calm fear" that they exuded. The faithful could
ensure the Hound's accuracy by using a preparation of
ethanol and lavender. It was propounded that drinking this
concoction would produce a sweat that would "calm
animals," During the conversation a local veterinarian
added the information that this was also a preparation
that new veterinarians fearful of a certain animal would
use prior to treating that animal.
No published accounts on any mythology that corre
sponded with the tavern philosopher's tale could be found,
yet parts of his story are familiar to the culture of the
region. Writers in the area have discussed demonic dogs
and beasts (see Doyle, 1953), and Wotan, the Old High
German form of the Scandinavian god Odin (Bulfinch, 1979),
has one or more Celtic quasi-equivalents (e.g., the god
Dagda or the god Lug; see Larousse, 1968 ). The point of
this anecdote lies not in the accuracy of the myth, but
rather in the medicinal recipe offered for "calm sweat."
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1 2
The use of lavender in the treatment of nervousness, neur
asthenia, states of exhaustion, and sleeplessness have
long been known; recently lavender has been analyzed for
its tranquilizing effect and found to have some signif
icant tranquilizing properties (Thomson, 1978). Empirical
observation and scientific research strongly suggest that
body secretions are altered in smell, taste, content, and
viscosity by food and drug intake (cf. Goth, 1978; Guyton,
1986; Hopson, 1979; Sastry, Buck, Janak, Dressier & preti ,
1980; Williams & Warwick, 1980). Alcohol consumption in
itially will flush the skin and promote a sweat (Liska,
1981). Viewing the ethanol/ lavender concoction in light
of this limited amount of information suggests that the
preparation might have some efficacy.
European Christian Modesty
The reason for extreme modesty in European Christian
sects was to disrupt the efficacy of human scent and avoid
the visual stimulus presented by the naked body. This
stance grew out of the need to combat non-christian rel
igious traditions and specifically, the Central European
cult of the Goat god. The liturgy of this Goat god cult
endorsed nudity and sexual expression (cf. Stark, 1980;
Summers, 1974) which the Christian found offensive.
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1 3
Sudan Love-Dance
In Nubia in the Sudan, during the annual love-dance,
the young female selects her mate by lifting one of her
legs and placing it on the shoulder of her chosen male who
is seated; this brings her ungarmented genitals close to
the face of the seated male. Since social etiquette
forbids the male to look upon the female genitalia, it is
supposed that an olfactory signal is being transmitted
(Morris, 1985). Most likely a bonding imprint of some
formulation is being attempted (see Morris, 1969),
Arab Evaluation of Acceptability
In Arab countries, human smell is used to judge the
"goodness" or "acceptability" of a potential mate. To en
sure a good marriage, an intermediary may request to smell
the girl. If she "does not smell good/' he may reject her
for marriage. This "smelling" also extends to everyday
forms of Arab interaction; males are taught to "breathe
onto" the person with whom they are interacting, which
allows for mutual assessment (Hall, 1966).
English Seduction Custom
Morris (1985), commenting on an English folk-custom
reports, "If a young man wishes to seduce a girl at a
dance he must place a clean handkerchief in his armpit,
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1 4
beneath his shirt, before starting to dance. Afterwards he
takes it out and pretends to fan himself with it in an
attempt to cool off. In fact what he is doing is wafting
his apocrine scent over the girl, who is promptly seduced
by its fragrance" (p. 140). Although this activity could
be interpreted in terms of nonverbal communication (see
Knapp, 1973, p. 220), such as a "sexual intention move
ment" (Morris, 1977, p.246) that may function as an
"invitation to sexual intimacy" (Morris, 1971, p. 35), in
the above case, Morris connects the activity with odor
transmission and odor reception.
Physiology of Biological Communication via Olfaction
Human Body Secretions and Odor Production
The sources within the human body that can provide a
medium for the communication of biological information are
varied and include breath, gastrointestinal gasses, and a
number of other excreta (i.e., urine, saliva, milk, sweat,
etc.). Studies concerning human to human chemosensory ol
factory communication tend to concentrate on skin secre
tions. Although there are studies that do not focus on
skin secretions, they are the exceptions to the trend.
This review of human body secretions shall concentrate on
studies dealing with skin secretions.
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1 5
Secretions to the skin surface have three primary
sources: (1) eccrine sweat glands; (2) sebaceous glands;
and (3) apocrine sweat glands. Each different gland type
produces an unique secretion that has a specialized
service function. Odors are formed from the bacterial de
composition of skin secretions (Moschella, Pillsbury, &
Hurley, 1975; Williams & Warwick, 1980). Although the
enact secretions and exact bacteriological agents involved
with body odor production are not fully understood, the
bacterial interaction with the apocrine gland secretion
has been identified as being most likely an important
source of body odor (Labows, 1979).
Eccrine : The primary service function of the eccrine
glands is thermoregulatory. These glands respond to any
rise or drop in ambient temperature, or an increase or
decrease in skin temperature caused by physiological
stressors or psychological stressors (Broek, Bradshaw, &
Szabadi, 1984; Sugenoya, Ogawa, Asayama & Miyagawa, 1982).
The eccrine glands are distributed over almost the entire
body surface, independent of the hair follicles. Their
secretion is made up of inorganic salt and amino acids
suspended in an aqueous solution. The eccrine gland is
frequently referred to as the "sweat gland."
Sebaceous: The service function of the sebaceous
glands is to keep the skin supple and waterproof. These
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1 6
glands are distributed over the body and are specialized
at all points of entry. The sebaceous glands secrete skin
lipids.
Apocrine; The specific service function of the
apocrine glands is unclear (lloschella et al., 1975). In
many mammals the service function of the apocrine glands
appears to be two-fold: (1) thermoregulatory— yet unlike
the case in non-human mammals, the apocrine sweat glands
in humans do not appear to serve a thermoregulatory
function (Doty, 1981); and (2) social regulatory and
communicatory— yet in humans this function is only
suggested and is currently under investigation (Williams
and Warwick, 1980). The apocrine glands seem to excrete
maximally during stress conditions (cf. Doty, 1981; Sastry
et al., 1980; Sugenoya et al., 1982), and Sastery et al.,
(1980) report that the apocrine gland in the axillary
region sweats freely in response to emotional stimuli. It
is postulated that the sweating mechanism of the apocrine
is under the control of the hypothalamus and the autonomic
nervous system and is either triggered by adrenergic
nerves or adrenaline (Evans, Smith, & Weil-Malherbe,
1956). Recently one clinician has written that, despite
the apocrine glands' "close embryological relation to
sweat [eccrine] glands, [they] are controlled by
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1 7
are controlled by the sympathetic [thoracolumbar] centers
of the central nervous system rather than by the para
sympathetic [craniosacral] centers" (Guyton, 1986, p. 691)
( [ ] within quote added for clarification).
The apocrine glands are localized in seven parts of
the body— the axillary region, the external auditory
canal, the eyelids, the anal area, the areola and nipple,
and in the female, the labia minora, and in the male, the
prepuce and scrotum. Their secretions vary according to
their anatomical positions (Williams & Warwick, 1980).
"The quantity of apocrine secretion is quite small, even
in the axilla where the apocrine glands are most numerous"
(Moschella et al., 1975, p. 50). "In the axilla, the
glands become distended with a proteinaceous milky fluid
containing various organic compounds including steroids"
(Williams & Warwick, 1980, p. 1226). The apocrine glands
develop in close association with hairs and hair duct-work
systems. "Apocrine glands are tubular in form, having an
extensive coiled secretory portion which may be up to two
millimeters across in in larger examples, leading into a
narrower straight secretory duct which runs parallel to
neighboring hair follicles" (Williams & Warwick, 1980, p.
1226 ) .
The apocrine glands differ from eccrine and sebaceous
glands in that the apocrine are localized, appear after
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1 3
puberty, are larger in the male than in the female, and
show involutional changes related to each menstrual cycle
in the female. Unlike the eccrine and sebaceous glands,
which tend to be the same among members of different
races, apocrine glands are more numerous in Negros than in
Caucasians (Homma, 1926) and are larger in Blacks than in
Whites (Doty, 1981; Hurley & Shelley, 1960; Moschella et
al., 1975; Thomas, 1975). Orientals, on the other hand,
lack apocrine glands in the axillary region almost
entirely (Morris, 1985).
Odor intensity from the bacteriological reaction with
the secretion from the apocrine gland is directly related
to gland size (Doty, 1981). The transmission quality is
affected by the quantity of surface area. Hair functions
as a trap for apocrine secretions and thus provides a way
of expanding the surface area for odor transmission (Doty,
1981; Morris, 1985).
Different opinions exist as to the odoriferous
quality of apocrine sweat as it appears on the skin.
Moschella et al. (1975) clinically report, "Within the
duct, apocrine secretion is sterile and odorless" (p. 50).
Leyden, McGinley, Holzle, Labows, and Kligman (1981) re
port that when the sweat appears on the surface of the
skin it is both sterile and odorless. Williams and Warwick
(1980) maintain that there is a "naturally occuring odour"
(p. 1226). And Guyton (1986) writes, "The apocrine glands
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1 9
secrete a thick, odoriferous secretion" (p. 691). All
sources appear to agree that the cause of the odor is bac
terial interaction with the apocrine sweat, but they seem
to differ as to when the contamination begins. No inform
ation is offered on the speed of the bacteriological de
composition and odor development. In an informal, sub
jective, unpublished examination of this author’s own
axillary secretion, no odor was observed in fresh axillary
secretion. Two samples produced under physical exertion
(jogging in place) were collected from the axillary region
on star lie 4 x 4 gauze pads. Each sample was placed in an
airtight non-odoriferous container. One sample was left to
sit at room temperature and the other was refrigerated. A
recording sheet that had a scale from one (1) to fifteen
(15) was used, with one (1) meaning no odor and 15 meaning
repulsive. Each sample was examined every five (5) minutes
for the first hour, every thirty (30) minutes for the next
six (6) hours, and then every hour for an additional seven
(7) hours. The sample left at room temperature (76°F)
developed a nondescript odor at ten (10) minutes; a char
acteristic musky and urinous scent was noted at about 25
minutes and became stronger as time went on. After three
hours the odor was clearly identifiable as body odor (no
longer sweet), while after five hours the sample was
subjectively rated as repulsive (rated at 15), and at 14
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2 0
hours the odor was noted to be even stronger and extremely
sour with a decaying smell. Holding a sample at a refrig
erated state (about 39°F) slowed down the odor— producing
process. At about one hour the nondescript odor noted at
ten (10) minutes in the non-refrigerated sample was ob
served. At nine (9) hours the odor level recorded at 25
minutes was observed, and at 13 hours the odor level re
corded for the room temperature sample at about one (1)
hour was observed. These data should be viewed with great
scepticism, but in the absence of research to the con
trary, this information has some limited use and purpose.
The exact microflora that interacts with the milky
colored apocrine secretion of protein and carbohydrates
that provides the distinctive body odor have not yet been
differentially isolated, but research has provided some
significant clues. Two odorous steroids (adrosterone and
androstenol) have been detected and are considered import
ant in contributing to the axillary odor (Bird & Gower,
1980). Leyden et al. (1981) have identified the resident
microorganisms that, when allowed to interact with apo
crine sweat are believed to aid in creating the distinc
tive body odor: a mixture of micrococcaceae, aerobic
diphtheroids, and propionibacteria. In the Leyden study,
the diphtheroids were identified and suggested as the most
significant produce in the production of the typical body
odor.
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2 1
Olfactory Chemosensory Reception in Humans
Little agreement exists as to the nature, form, and
method of chemical communication in olfaction. Opinions
range from the view that chemical communication is
mediated through the organum vomeronasal (Jacobson's
Organ) without the use of smell (a form of pheromone
theory), to the idea that chemical communication can occur
beyond the range of human smell and is processed through
the olfactory mechanisms (odor theory— continuous plane; a
form of pheromone theory), to the notion that chemical
communication is the transfer of information through odor
cues (learning theory). While some studies do not use the
terms "odor transfer" in their examinations of olfactory
communication (e.g., Graham & McGrew, 1980; McClintock,
1971; Quadagno et al., 1981; and others), others are based
on the assumption that odor plays a part in the olfactory
chemosensory communication process (e.g., Bloch, 1934;
Doty, 1981; Fox, 1966; Hold & Schleidt, 1977; Owen, 1980;
Parkinson, 1969; Porter & Moore, 1981; Russell, 1976; and
others). The largest share of the current research stems
from the premise that odor is or must be involved.
Organum Vomeronasal Chemosensory Reception. The
vomeronasal organ has been the object of dispute since its
identification in the early nineteenth century. Found in
every mammal except the porpoise, it has been considered
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2 2
by some to be a vestige, and by others to be the sensory
receptor for pheromones. Its anatomical placement, just
above the vomeronasal cartilage of Jacobson in the Nasal
Septum (Ballenger, 1969), puts this organ in a logical
site for chemoreception, but hard experimental evidence is
not available. What exists is speculation. "Mammals ...
which possess both the olfactory and Jacobson's organs
together" present a research problem, in that these organs
"are difficult to distinguish anatomically and func
tionally" (3urghardt, 1970b, p. 243). Rudolph (1980)
reports on the works of psychologist C. Wysocki stating,
The vomeronasal organ is "independent of the main ol
factory system, both anatomically and neurologically....
Jacobson's organ ...has intimate nervous connections with
the hypothalamus, which is the key regulator of hormonal
and reproductive activities.... When ... experimentally
interfered with,... behavior in animals is severely af
fected" (p. 108). V. Negus (biologist) is quoted by
Rudolph as saying, "The bilateral organ in question is so
beautifully designed that one cannot fail to ascribe a
purposive function to it. It seems incredible that a care
fully arranged system of specialized epithelium, with its
own nerve supply, with numerous glands emptying into it
and with a duct communicating to the exterior by a more or
less devious route, should not play some important role in
the animal economy" (Rudolph, 1980, p. 108).
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2 3
Odor Reception. The theoretical approaches that deal
with odor involvement in chemosensory communication in
olfaction have established no common ground, for "there
has never been general agreement about basic qualities of
smell, though not for lack of effort. Plato had only two
qualities in his scheme— 'pleasant' and 'unpleasant'—
while Aristotle, true to form, opposed his mentor and
proposed seven qualities" (Ziporyn, 1982, p. 279).
No general agreement exists concerning the mechanism
of smell. Two major viewpoints are reported in the
literature: (1) odors are perceived in terms of primary
scents, and mixtures of these scents establish the quality
of the smell, and (2) odors are on a continuous plane
(their exact variables still remaining to be identified)
(cf. Amoore, 1963; Geldard, 1972; Gesteland, Lettvin,
Pitts, & Rojas, 1963; Kalat, 1980; Schiffman, 1974;
Tanabe, lino, & Takaga, 1975; Zotterman, 1963).
Research associated with the "primary odor" theory
has raised interesting questions concerning the role of
olfaction in chemosensory communication. Amoore (1963) has
been examining anosmic conditions, and has found there are
certain individuals (about 2-3% of the population) who are
unable to smell specific odors. This inability does not
seem to effect the ability to smell other odors— a finding
that tends to lend support to the primary odor theory.
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2 4
Amoore has established that there are six odors which are
fairly common for specific anosmia: musky, fishy, sweaty,
urinous, spermous, and malty (cf. Amoore, 1967; Amoore,
1977). The odors that are identified are frequently asso
ciated with the reproductive process in mammals, which
opens up an interesting line of inquiry. Amoore associates
the "ability to smell" with the subject's ability to iden
tify a specific odor. However, the extent to which chemo
sensory communication depends on cognitive smell recogni
tion has not been established, and the need for an anosmic
to "smell" an odor in order to "react" or gain biological
information has also not been assessed.
From a physiological standpoint olfactory information
is capable of influencing large areas of the brain, al
though the actual process is not understood. The struc
tures of the olfactory system have been localized, yet no
unanamity of opinion exists concerning the exact relation
ship of the olfactory system with various parts of the
brain (Freeman, 1978). The olfactory rods and susten-
tacular cells line the mucous membrane located in the ol
factory clefts at the top of the nasal cavity. The two
olfactory clefts occupy an area of about 2.5 cm each
(Geldard, 1972); axons extend from the olfactory receptors
to the olfactory bulb, on the lower surface of the brain.
The olfactory bulb (also called the first cranial nerve)
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2 5
is found in the ventral anterior aspect of the brain just
above the cribiform plate through which project the fibers
from the olfactory mucosa. These fibers synapse in the
tangle of fibers in the bulb, which are termed glomeruli.
Receiving the incoming fibers are two main types of cells:
(1) mitral cells, which project to the prepyriform cortex
along the lateral olfactory tract; and (2). tufted cells
whose axons project via the medial olfactory tract to the
septum (in humans the subcallosal gyrus) and to the con
tralateral olfactory bulb. Lying in the prepyriform and
pyriform area and in the subcallosal gyrus is the ol
factory cortex. The pyriform cortex communicates directly
with the amygdala which lies beneath it. The subcallosal
gyrus communicates with the cingulate cortex and, via the
cingulum, with the hippocampus. Located in the septal area
is the anterior terminus of the medial forebrain bundle,
which runs through the hypothalamus and terminates in the
limbic midbrain area. Throughout the length of the fore
brain bundle interconnections and two-way communications
are found (Illustration 5 & Illustration 6) (cf. Changeux,
1985; Gault, 1986; Geldard, 1972; Kalat, 1980; Lorenzo,
1963; MacLeod, 1971; Truex & Carpenter, 1969; Winson,
1985).
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I
26
Illustration 5. Rhinecephalon ("Viscerl" Brain) and the Gyrus Cinguli:
FRONTAL PARIETALG Y R U S C IN G U L I
S U P R A C A L LO S A L G Y R U S
pilluadum
—£ K \ C0\ \ mammilla' r.\\ xn-/ boi
m am m illary
IS TH M U S FASCIOLACINEREA
■ r f y - ' ^ f y ' - F A S C I O L A R GYRUS
HIPPOCAMPU
f im b r ia
UNCUSAMYGDALA
PERIRHINALENTORHINALTEMPORAL
c e o t a i SUBCALLOSAL GYRUS OCH body)A R E A | PAROLFACTORY A R E A
O R B ITA L
O L F A C T O R Y BULB O LFA C T O R Y T R A C T
A N T . PERFORATED SUBSTANCEL IM E N INSULAE
E3 ARCH! - &. PAL EO C O RT EX□ M ESO C O R TEX(transifional)□ N E O C O R T E X
OCCIPITAL
HIPPOCAMPALGYRUS
r h i n a l f issure
qqrus rectus- .ant. / Vparolfactory
f iss u re. Wpa rot fa d o r y
fissure \j\R4ROlMa:.J l A
AREAT R IG O N E 7 /p r j _MEDIAL / / J \STR/A /J r . 1
lamina fcrminalis
I chiasm a n t commissure / \ z n d a f subcallosal qgrus
/ ( di agonal band)
L*
O LFA C T O R Y BULB
~ \ \ rostrumo f carpus Callosum
• OLFACTORY TR A C T
A N T . P E R F O R A T E D S U B S TA N C E
LATERALS T R IA
IN T ER M ED IA T E OLFACTORY STRIA
M EDIAL \OLFACTORY STRIA i },.
olfacton/ "rfl Ab u lb V Y X y —
.. v U 0 ;D;oToc r ib r i f o r m ' i • i
p la te
olfadori( —- --------C_!—1Vme-mbrana '
quruscinquh
genu (o f corpus callosum
Subcallosal gyrus
pqro/fb Clary area
olfacton/ trigone
ant . 'commissure an t perforated ' substance.diaqanal band
Y. AMYGDALA
otfactor/ tract
LATERAL OLFACTORY
S T R IA
olfactory cell nerve.
I I m a n insu la a
hippocampal qgtUS
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27
♦ Panel A: Depicts the cortical types found in the limbic system. Note tne distinction between Archicortex anc. Mesocortex. Arcnicortex has. three layers, while Mesocortex has four or five, and Neocortex has six layers. The fewer layered cortexes are considered more primitive in that they are found in animals who lack a Neocortex (e.g., amphibians).
♦ Panel B: A ventral view of the brain showing therelationships of the various components of the olfactory system. The diagnoal band forms a two way path between the septal area and amygdala.
♦ Panel C: A lateral view of the lateral and medialolfactory systems.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Source: Hausman (1960); used with permission.
Text: Gault (1986); used with permission.
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/
28
Illustration 6. Connections and Circuits of the Rninencephalon and the Gyrus CingulL:
corpus callosum
LATERAL OLFACTORY S T R IA
OLFACTORY BULB with tnifralcalk & qlomcruli
C R IB IFO R M PLATE------
OLFACTORY MUCOSA-
"□yoiiijuio ^ ' p h i a n 'a ' ! 1'o ao . /S - U J limn
i/lsulae
to hqpothalamic nuclei
S T R IATE R M IN A L IS
/ ^ \ ^ to prroptic nuclei
V \ " v ■ cmqqdalcid nucleus uncus hippocampalqqrus■
P Y R IF O R M AREA
STRIA MEDULLARIS T H A L A M I
ant,camn\issura am u l
I N T E R M E D I A T E 0 /ia b i n u h rOLFACTORY S T R IA f \ \ / j qqnqhon
----—L- 27 L ->
t h a l a m o c i n g u l a r f i b e r s
a n te r io r . uuic
luclcus
ta.<fm&nfal nucUus
I H A B E N U L O I P E D U N C U L A R FIBER
inter peduncular qanqlionPEDUNCULOTECMENTAL
FIBERB. P A R T of
DORSAL LONGITUDINAL FASCICULUS
$manifvi! COMimA'SUlU J
qqrus cinquli MAMMILOTRALAMIC
FIBER / /
uncus/ / FORNIX
hippocampus ' (jar](^ q(/ms
CINGULOUIPPOCAMPAL FIBER
qcnu o f corpus cal losum
C O L U M N Of LEFT F O R N IX
an te rio r commissure
lam ina lo rm in u lisoptic chiasm
liqpophijs ie
Mtuuf 0 *
B O D Y o f R IG H T F O R N I X
7 hippocampal commissure
T r 'C R U S o f
R IG H T F O R N IX
r iq h f hippocampal qqrus
fimbria of le f t h ippocam pus
L E F T H IP P O C A M P U S
la,ft hippocampal qqrus
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I I
29
□ Panel A: Presents a diagram of the Lateral OlfactorySysytem. The primary olfactory nerves are located in the olfactory mucosa located in the top of the nasal cavity just below the cribiform plate through which they send fibers into the Olfactory Bulb (OB). The OB is known as the first cranial nerve (N-i) although it is actually a projection of the brain tissue.
In the OB the nerve fibers enter spherical tangles of fibers known as GLOMERULI (singular glomerulus) where they synapse eith witn Mitral Ceils (they resemble a Bishop's Mitre) or tufted cells.
Mitreal cell axons pass centrally via the Lateral Olfactory Tract in which they might synaps or pass directly to the pre-pyriform cortex and the centro-medial portion of the Amygdala. The principal outflow of the amygdala is the Stria Terminalis which projects to the hypothalamus.
□ Panel B: Presents the Medial Olfactory Tract (MOT)which carries the axons of tufted calls to the Septal area and to the Anterior Commissure be which means some fibers pass to the contralateral OB. The Stria Medularis Thalami projects from the septal area to the HabenuLar nuclei which in turn projects caudally via the Habenulointerpeduncular tract to the Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus (DLF). The DLF also carries a major portion of the descending fibers from the Hypothalamus.
□ Panel C: Depicts the connections of the hippocampus.The major outflow of the hippocampus is via the Fornix which forms a large sweeping loop which passes downward just behind the Anterior Commisure with some fibers terminating in the Septal Area and some in the Mammillary Bodies (MB). The MB project to the Anterior Thalamus which in turn projects to the hippocamus via the Cingulum (Cingulohippocampal).
□ Panel D: Depicts the relationships of the Fornix. Theprinciple difference between this illustration and Panel C is the inclusion of the hippocampal commissure which interconnects the right and left hippocampus.
Source: Hausman (I960); used with permission. Text: Gault (1986); used with permission.
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30
Physiological Response, Stress, and Emotion
The suggestion that the limbic system plays a role in
the modulation of motor activity, behavior, and emotional
bias is important in relation to questions of the purpose
and need for physical response patterns from external
stressors and internal emotions. The theoretical construct
that states that the "purpose of physical response" arises
from the need for "life to be adaptive" has been pondered
and discussed since Hippocrates (ca. 370 B.C.), and ad
vanced through the centuries by many (cf. Bernard, 1879;
Cannon, 1939; Darwin, 1890; May, 1950; May, 1977; Selye,
1952). Bernard (1879) goes so far as to distinguish life
from inanimate objects by its adaptability to change.
Fredericq in 1885 clearly links the "adaptation process"
to purpose when he writes, "The living being is an agency
of such sort that each disturbing influence induces by
itself the calling forth of compensatory activity to neu
tralize or repair the disturbance" (cited in Goldberger &
Breznitz, 1982, p. 8). Cannon (1939) advanced this concept
of adaptation by coining the term "homeostasis" (from the
Greek homoios and and stasis, literally "similar state"),
which can be defined as a need to maintain position and
balance.
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3 1
Stress
The interrelationship between stress and physical
response has long been studied, yet the scientific concept
of stress "has suffered from the mixed blessing of being
too well known and too little understood" (Selye, 1980, p.
127). Selye (1956) has defined stress as the "nonspecific
response of the body to any demand". He includes both
physical stressors, such as heat, cold, muscular exertion,
drugs and hormones; and emotional states, such as sorrow
and joy (Selye, 1980). He reports that these agents have a
common function: "They increase the demand for readjust
ment, for performance of adaptive functions 'which re
establish normalcy" (pp. 127-8). Selye (1946) identified a
syndrome with which he could explore and examine the en
tire adaptation process in scientific terms. He called
this the General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S.), and distin
guished three stages within it: (1) Alarm reaction— the
response of an organism to a sudden stimulus to which it
has not been previously adapted; (2) Stage of Resistance—
the adaptation of an organism to a stimulus; and (3) Stage
of exhaustion— the breakdown of an organism due to its
inability to continue to adapt to a stimulus (see Selye,
1946; Selye, 1952). May (1977) cautions that Selye's
G.A.S. is appropriate to physiological behavior, but not
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3 2
to psychological function. May questions the tendency for
psychologists to use stress as a synonym for anxiety; He
writes, "I do not believe 'stress' encompasses the rich
meaning of anxiety" (p. 110). In reviewing Selye, May's
argument does not appear to make any logical sense.
Selye's use of terms denoting emotions to designate stress
agents, and May's interpretation that emotional states are
closer to anxiety states than to "stress" is certainly
problematic, since May goes on to say that he is unwilling
to define emotion. Three states of "being" related to ad
aptation have been differentiated in common usage—
stress, emotion, and anxiety— and to reject the notion of
stress because many psychologists use the term incorrect
ly, as May suggests, seems too hasty a response to the
difficulty.
Emotion
The fact that there is a relationship between the
physical and the emotional is self-evident, yet its nature
has not been understood. Much of the confusion stems from
problems in defining emotion. To date no clear and accept
able definition has been established.
It has been demonstrated that emotional responses
play an important role in human physiological response
patterns, whether as a result of a psychological
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3 3
predisposition (Darwin, 1890), or an emotional pee-
disposition affecting the healing process or thermo
regulatory function of the body in the recovery of an
injury (Sampson, 1984). In all cases the concern is
intra-organistic rather than inter-organistic.
Several theories attempt to deal with the basic ques
tion of emotion and physical response. Two theoretical
approaches in particular have grown in popularity, a mech
anical and a neuro-biological theory. These positions are
presented in the forms taken by (1) the theory developed
by James (.1884), and (2) the theory developed by Papez
(1937), and later refined by MacLean (1958).
James-Lange Theory: James (1884) suggested that be
havior changes and body function changes cause emotions.
That is, there is a directional correlation between the
body's physiological presentation and emotions. About one
year later, K. Lange independently published a similar
position paper (Kalat, 1980). 3oth men were treating a
theme in vogue at that time. It was not surprising that a
number of writers dealt with the issue. Eight years
earlier Maudsley (1876), presented a similar theory that
showed the strong relationship between emotion and be
havior, writing, "the emotion is intensified and made de
finite by the bodily action". Influenced by Maudsley's
work, Darwin (1890) supported this thinking, and writes,
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3 4
"He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his
rage....These results follow partly from the intimate re
lation which exists between almost all the emotions and
their outward manifestation" (p. 382).
Cannon (1927) disputed this theory, pointing out that
several emotional states obtain the same physical res
ponses (heart rate, body temperature, breathing, blood
sugar level, etc.). Cannon defined the physical response
pattern for a specific emotion, replicated the pattern
artificially and then questioned the subject. Each of his
subjects reported only arousal, and no emotion, unless
they were in some special setting. Cannon's criticisms
were not conclusive, however. Carlson (1981) writes, "More
recent evidence shows that Cannon underestimated the
sensitivity and complexity of afferent feedback from the
visceral organs....It is a common assumption that the ex
pression of emotional behavior is synonymous with feelings
of emotion. However, this is not always the case" (p 505);
in addition Cannon appeared to underestimate the impor
tance of the physical setting in establishing an emotion,
even though he made a direct reference concerning setting.
Papez-MacLean Theory*. Papez (1937 ) postulated that
emotions depend on a circuit of structures near the "brain
center" (limbic system). "Papez proposed that the limbic
system constituted a neuroanatomical substrate for emo
tional behavior. This speculation was based largely upon
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3 5
the alterations in emotional behavior subsequent to limbic
system damage" (Gault, 1986). Papez suggested that the
"brain center" would send impulses to the cerebral cortex
and thus add "feeling tones" to the actual cognition. For
Papez, emotions were the product of processing three
"streams" of input: (1) movement, (2) thought, and (3)
feeling. Papez believed that these three "streams" were
divided by the thalamus, and were then processed through a
circuitry that eventually united in the cerebral cortex.
MacLean (1958), refined Papez's theory to take into
account current understanding of the structure of the
human brain, distinguished by the interrelationship of
three structures: (1) the reptilian brain, in control of
reflexive and vegetative behavior; (2) the limbic system,
in control of emotional behaviors (note: it is MacLean who
has been referenced as referring to the limbic system as
being involved in the "Four ' F's of Survival— Feeding,
Fleeing, Fighting, and Reproduction" (Gault, 1986)); and
(3) the cerebral cortex, in control of intelligent and
rational behaviors.
Summary
The suggestion that the limbic system plays a role in
chemosensory communication seems to require the adaptation
process of at least two specific stimuli, stress and emo
tion. For our purpose, we can define stress most simply as
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3 6
an external stimulus making demands on the homeostasis
process/ and emotion as an internal stimulus making de
mands on the homeostasis process, with both processes
(stress and emotion) most likely being modulated by vari
ous parts of the limbic system (Carlson, 1981).
Selected Studies
Animal Studies
The ability of animals to communicate basic biologic
al and social information through olfactory cues is well
established. What is communicated includes information
pertaining to the subspecies (cf. Epple, 1974; Otte &
Cade, 1976) and the individual (cf. Hudson & Distel, 1983;
Kallquist & Mossing, 1982), as well as territory (cf.
Calhoun, 1962a; Calhoun, 1962b; Christian, 1961;
Wynne-Edwards, 1962), social status (cf. Thiessen & Rice,
1976; White, Pishcher, & Meunier, 1984), gender (see
Whitten & Bronson, 1970), recognition of environmental
status (e. g., safety, general frustration, recent kill,
etc.) (cf. Calhoun, 1962b; Feldman & Conforti, 1980; Gabba
& Pavan, 1970; Hall, 1966; Hediger, 1955; Hediger, 1950),
emotional state (cf. Carr, Roth, & Amore, 1971; Schultz &
Tapp, 1973; Sprott, 1969; Valenta & Rigby, 1968), and
hormonal conditions, including sexual receptivity in
females (Epple, Golob, Cebul, & Smith, 1981; Freeman,
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3 7
1978) producing a reproductive priming activity on the
part of males (Bronson, 1974; Cheal, 1975; Mykytowycz,
1970) .
Animal studies reveal limited mechanisms that would
enable us to determine whether the biological information
transmission is associative learning or a pheromone phe
nomenon (no prior learning); however, "memory function
which suggests that in some cases associative learning may
play an important role, has been observed. Bertrand (1969)
reports that in some primates, kin recognition from sixty
(60) meters away after a year of absence has been noted;
Bertrand in 1971 writes, "Un singe capable de reconnaitre
un congenere ou un observateur a plus de soixante metres,
et apres un an d'absence, s'obstinera a le flairer des
qu'il sera en contact avec lui" (p. 29).
The media for information transmission appear to fall
into three categories: (1) urine marks— a complex scent
mark consisting mainlly of the secretion of special cir-
cumgenital skin glands and some urine (cf. Doty & Dunbar,
1974; Epple et al., 1981; Kessler, Harmatz, & Gerling,
1975); (2) skin secretions— odors produced by sweat (most
likely apocrine) glands and deposited on the skin surface
and interacting with skin bacteria (cf. Sawyer, 1980;
Sprott, 1969; Thiessen & Rice, 1976; Thomas, Riccio, &
Ilyer, 1977; Valenta & Rigby, 1968); and (3) bloodmarking—
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3 8
alterations in the blood chemistry that, when spread
through a kill, leave an odorous message (see Feldman &
Conforti, 1980) .
Thomas, Riccio and Myer (1977) have shown that these
olfactory cues are "time bound." Their study focused on
avoidance response memory (Kamin effect) in rats to a spe
cific fresh stress produced odor cue and an old stress
produced odor cue (produced six hours previously). Rats
tested in the presence of the aged odor produced a less
pronounced avoidance response than did rats tested in the
presence of fresh odor.
Animal— Human Studies
Studies have shown that animals are able to utilize
their olfactory abilities and receive biological informa
tion from other species, including humans. Data on the
scope of biological information received by animals from
humans is limited, hov;ever. Individual scents, emotional
states and territory are three areas that have been iden
tified (cf. Kalmus, 1955; Lorenz, 1955; Schmid, 1935;
Smith & Sines, 1960; Smith St Thompson, 1969;
Wynne-Edwards, 1962).
The works of Schmid in 1935 and Kalmus in 1955 have
shown that dogs are able to identify specific humans
through scent cues provided by clothing worn by a
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3 9
particular individual. The use of tracking dogs has long
been recognized as an effective method of locating a
specific person. Experimental studies (cf. Bradley, 1984;
Brass, 1970; Liddel, 1976; Parkinson, 1969; Smith & Sines,
1960; Smith & Thompson, 1969) and empirical observation
have suggested that different emotional states in humans
are detectable by non-human mammals. Smith and Sines
(1960) reported that rats readily distinguish between the
smell of schizophrenic and non-schizophrenic patients.
Animal capacity to detect the territory of a human has
long been noted (cf. Lorenz, 1955; Wynne-Edwards, 1962).
In the book Never Cry Wolf, a study on the behavior of
wolves, the author (Mowat, 1984) reports that he staked
out his territory by marking the perimeter of his
campsite with his urine. The wolves respected the markings
and remained outside the marked territory.
There are few studies that examine human response to
animal biological information transmission. Only one study
was found, in which human response patterns were examined
when subjects were presented 5-alpha-androst-16-en-3-one
(androsterone) produced by Sus Scrofa (Pig) (Filsinger,
Braun, Monte, & Linder, 1984).
In the Filsinger et al. study (1984), subjects (98
males and 102 females) were assigned to one of four odor
conditions (androsteone, methyl anthranilate, skatole, and
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4 0
a no-odor control). Photographs of a inale were used as the
stimulus. Each subject was asked to rate the photographs
and rate their mood in the presence of one of the odors.
Subjects who were presented 5-alpha-androst-16-en-3-one
from Sus Scrofa responded in a significant fashion that
was attributed to the compound, and differently to the
other substances/odors, "Males in the androsterone condi
tion rated the stimulus male photographs as more passive,
and females in the androstone condition rated themselves
as less sexy" (Filsinger et al., 1984, p.221).
Human Studies
A limited number of studies that examine the rela
tionship of chemosensory communication in humans and phys
iological response paterns to airborne compounds exist.
They appear to fall into four categories: (1) chemosensory
transmission of biological information which is not depen
dent on odor, (2) chemosensory transmission of biological
information dependent on smell, (3) clinical studies con
cerning excited hyper-domaminergic states, and (4) physi
ological response patterns to non-biologically produced
inhalants (Odorous and non-odorous).
Studies Not Dependent on Smell
Studies concerned with response patterns to olfactory
stimuli are limited, and their focus is either on mood
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4 1
alteration and performance effects (cf. Benton, 1982;
Cowley, Johnson, & Brooksbank, 1977; Kirk-Smith, Toller, &
Dodd, 1983), or menstrual synchrony (cf. Graham & McGrew,
1980; McClintock, 1971; Preti et al., 1984; Quadagno et
al., 1981; Russell, Switz & Thompson, 1980). Several
studies concerned with behavioral response patterns have
used compounds present in human axillary secretions, or
the secretion itself. Most attention has been given to
5-alpha-16-en-3-one and its related alcohol (androstenol).
Mood and Performance Effects: Cowley, Johnson, and
Brooksbank (1977) had subjects conduct a mock job inter
view while wearing paper surgical masks impregnated with
either a mixture of fatty acids (found in the vaginal se
cretions of primates), or androstenol (5-alpha-16-en-3-
ol), or with no substance (clean mask). Results suggested
that the masks with the impregnated preparations in
fluenced the assessments made by females interviewers, yet
did not significantly affect the assessments made by male
interviewers. The female interviewers wearing the masks
impregnated with the fatty acids gave opposite evaluations
of the job candidates than interviewers wearing masks sat
urated with androstenol. "The androstenol is associated in
a direction which is opposite of the fatty acid mixture. A
favorable assessment in the presence of the androstenol is
accompanied by a less favorable assessment in the presence
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4 2
of the fatty acid mixture" (Cowley, Johnson, & Brooksbank,
1977, p. 170).Benton (1982) reported that 18 female subjects rated
their mood daily for a month. Each morning subjects placed
either 5-alpha-16-en-3-alpha-ol (androstenol) or a placebo
on the upper lip; each evening the subjects would rate
themselves on five scales: (1) submissive/aggressive, (2)
happy/depressed, (3)lethargic/lively, (4) sexy/unsexy, (5)
irritable/good-tempered. The results of the records for
four of the five scales were not significant. The scale
that did show significance was the submissive/aggressive
scale; subjects exposed to androstenol tended to rate
their moods as more submissive than aggressive.
A specific study to note under the sub-section of
Mood and Performance Effects does not deal with androsten-
one, rather it is a study that deals with ease of aversion
conditioning through pairing a neutral airborne medium
with a mildly stressful task. Kirk-Smith, Toller, and Dodd
(1983) found that aversion conditioning by pairing a low
intensity neutral odor (trimethylundecylenic aldehyde
(TUA)) with a mild stress condition was easily obtainable.
Two groups, of twelve females each, were given "a stress
ful task involving the completion of 11 WAIS Block
Patterns*" (abstract) under a time limitation (*Note: the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Block Design
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4 3
subtest contains only ten design pictures, it is uncertain
if the authors created an eleventh design or if the report
was in error). One group engaged in the stressful task in
the presence of low level TUA, the other group engaged in
the same stressful task in the absence of TUA. Several
days later both groups were asked to complete a mood
rating scale and then enter a room where a low level of
TUA was present. Once in the room the subjects were asked
to evaluate a series of photographs and then complete a
second mood rating scale. Subjects that had experienced
the stressful condition in the presence of TUA reported a
greater anxiety level on the mood rating scale following
the photograph judging. It was reported that the subjects
did not perceive any odors during the experiment. Findings
‘"demonstrate how odors might acquire values through pair
ing with emotionally significant events" (abstract).
Menstrual Synchrony. That physiological response pat
terns can be altered through the presence of an olfactory
medium has been shown in studies concerned with menstrual
synchrony. McClintock (1971) was the first to report that
a dominant female will affect the menstrual cycle of other
women living with her.
Russell, Switz, and Thompson (1980) reported that
they were able to shift the menstrual cycle of a group of
women subjects by using the axillary secretion of a single
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4 4
donor over time. Two groups were employed, a treatment
group and a control group. The treatment group rubbed al
cohol and axillary secretion (from a single donor) on
their upper lip. The menstrual cycles of the women in the
treatment group began to modify in conformity to cycle of
the donor subject. Although Russell, Switz, and Thompson
concluded that odors produced from the axillary secretion
of one woman may influence the menstruation of another,
they also acknowledge that it may have been the non-
odorous properties of the stimuli that induced menstrual
synchrony.
Studies Dependent on Odor
Studies on gender recognition, family recognition,
and emotional and physiological response patterns are con
sidered below. In addition to work focusing on olfactory
cues produced by skin secretions (e.g., Hold & Schleidt,
1977; Porter & Moore, 1931; Russell, 1376; Schleidt, Hold
& Attili, 1981), researchers have examined responses to
breath odor (Doty et al., 1982) and breast milk (Russell,
1976); the Doty study and Russell study will be examined
below.
Gender Recognition: Several experiments have attempt
ed to determine to what extent humans are able to identify
gender via olfactory cues (cf. Doty et al., 1982; Hold &
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4 5
Schleidt, 1977; Porter & Moore, 1981; Russell, 1976).
Russell (1976) had 29 subjects (16 males, 13 females)
not use body deodorant for twenty-four hours prior to the
study, and then wear white undershirts for a twenty-four
hour period. Following the time period, each subject was
given a three-choice discrimination test where he/she was
asked to examine three undershirts and indicate which
shirt was his/her own, which was a strange female, and
which was a strange male. Russell reports that 13 of the
16 males and 9 of the 13 females answered correctly.
Hold and Schleidt (1977) conducted a similar experi
ment with twenty-four married couples, which produced less
convincing results than those of the Russell (1976) study.
The subjects wore cotton undershirts for seven consecutive
nights. During the test period each subject was allowed to
smell each of the groups' shirts (10 shirts) on three oc
casions. Only one third of the .subjects- were-able to id
entify their odor or the odor of their partner correctly
and only about one third were able to identify the correct
gender of the donor. The Hold and Schleidt study reported
that both sexes involved more often rated odors that were
subjectively considered pleasant "female" and odors that
were subjectively considered unpleasant "male," regardless
of the actual gender of the donor.
Doty et al. (1982), studying the communication of
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46
gender from human breath odors, recorded observations
similar to those of Hold and Schleidt in regard to subjec
tive responses of pleasant versus non-pleasant. Their
findings suggest that subjects assign weaker and less un
pleasant odors to the female category and stronger and
less pleasant odors to the male category. Nonetheless, the
assignment of correct gender by the subjects was at a fre
quency greater than chance (females seemed to to be more
accurate in regard to the gender assignment). During five
consecutive days five men and five women sampled breath
odors from 14 males and 19 females (the donors were on a
"no oral hygiene" regimen). The donors sat behind a ply
wood barrier in a well-ventilated room. The evaluation
took place between 07:00 and 09:00. The subjects were
asked to assess the gender of the donor and the relative
(subjective) intensity and pleasantness. The authors sug-
.gest. that, differences ejia-st between -the -breath of males .........
and females, and that humans are able to assess gender
from oral odors.
A cross-cultural study by Schleidt, Hold, and Attili
(1981) showed that gender identification varied according
to culture and race, or at least the concept of "pleasant"
and "unpleasant" differs. Italians, Germans, and Japanese
were studied. The ability of each group to identify gender
successfully was as follows: Italian subjects— 20%; German
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4 7
subjects— 30%; and Japanese subjects— 60%. Across culture,
80% of the subjects were able to identify their partner's
odor. Cultural differences were also noted in the rating
of odors us pleasant and unpleasant. Italian, German, and
Japanese men rated their partner's odor as being pleasant.
Italian and Japanese women, on the contrary, rated their
partner's odor as unpleasant, while German women rated
their partner's odor as pleasant.
Family Recognition. Studies in family/kin recognition
suggest that humans may be able to identify family members
by smell (cf. Hold & schleidt, 1977; Porter & Moore, 1981;
Russell, 1976; Schleidt, Hold, & Attili, 1981).
Russell (1976) reported that 60% of the infants that
he studied were able to distinguish their mother's milk
from that of another donor or raw cow's milk by the age of
six weeks. In Russell's simple study, ten full-term
breast-feeding neonates and their mothers were employed.
The infants were exposed either to a clean breast pad,
their own mother's breast pad, a strange mother's breast
pad, or a pad with raw cow's milk. The neonate's pattern
of orienting and sucking was examined and recorded. At two
days old, the infants showed general arousal when exposed
to milk; at six weeks, six (6) of ten (10) could discrim
inate their mother's milk through odor.
In a cross-cultural study reviewed under "Gender
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4 8
Recognition" above, Schleidt, Hold, and Attili (1981) re
ported that 80% of the subjects were able to identify
their partner's odor.
Porter and Moore (1981) report that family members
are able to identify correctly other family members
through olfactory cues, and that mothers are able to dis
tinguish between children through the same olfactory cues.
In this unique study the researchers examined familial
recognition using children from a family unit. The study
consisted of each child wearing an undershirt; then the
undershirts were examined by siblings and mothers. The
author's abstract reported, "T-shirts worn by individual
children were correctly identified by the siblings and
mothers of those children through olfactory cues alone.
Parents correctly distinguished between the odors of
otherwise identical shirts worn by 2 of their own
children".
Emotional Response Patterns. Studies concerned with
emotional response patterns to human olfactory stimuli are
uncommon. In fact, only one study could be found: a doc
toral dissertation by Owen (1980), reported later by Owen
and Lawlis (1981).
Owen (1980) assessed the imagery of subjects who
smelled axillary secretions produced under different emo
tional states (relaxation, anxiety, sexual arousal). Her
study produced mixed results in the subjects' ability to
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4 9
identify, through imagery and through the judge's percep
tion of pleasantness, the different emotional state-
related secretion. Owen stated that her judges were able
to detect the anxiety-producing odorant of her Black
donors differentially on an unpleasantness scale; and were
able to detect anxiety and relaxation on a "free imagery"
task. Four donor subjects, two Black and two White fe
males, were employed. Each subject was prepared for axil
lary secretion collection by washing her underarm with
Ivory Soap (contents: tallow (lard), coconut oil, perfume,
preservatives). Following the washing a four inch square
gauze pad was taped to the underarm area of the left arm.
A pad was worn throughout each image induction that was
reported to produce the intended emotional affect. Follow
ing the image induction the gauze pad was removed and
’ "placed* Into" a clean 30 mi test tube and covered with two
(2) clean gauze pads; four (4) drops of ethenol were
placed on the pads in the test tube to slow down bacteri
ological decomposition., and then the test tube was
corked, wrapped in aluminum foil and frozen on dry ice.
This procedure was repeated for each donor and under each
image induction task. Sixteen white male subjects were
asked to evaluate the twelve samples. Four judges were
assigned to each donor subject's axillary samples. The
judges were given instructions to relax and to report any
immediate images, feelings, and sensations they might ex-
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5 0
perience following smelling each odor sample; this free
imagry task lasted for two minutes per sample. Following
the free imagry task a second phase "required the 16
judges to make magnitude estimates of the hedonic quality
of each odor sample. Judges were asked to rate how un
pleasant each test tube odor smelled" (p. 39).
Hyper-Domaminergic States
Hyperosmia has been noted in clinical literature. The
intensification of the sense of smell has been associated
with excited hyper-domaminergic states, as with some post
encephalitic patients on L-Dopa, and some Tourette Syn
drome patients. It has been debated whether these "hyper-
osmic states" are an intense olfactory hallucination or
.......... £.Q.iusjLon,, or. a, truei generalized^ intensification of smell.
The following is a case study that supports a belief of
true hyperosmia.
The physician of record is a neurologist, 0. Sacks;
Sacks (1985) reports of a 22 year old male medical student
who sustained a temporary state of hyperosmia. Hyperosmia
was a result of the use several different drugs (cocaine,
phencyclidine & amphetamines); the intensification of
smell lasted for about three weeks. Sacks (1985) reports
that the subject could distinguish his friends and the
patients he (the subject) attended by smell alone; this
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5 1
neurologist goes on to state that his patient informed
him, "I went into the clinic, I sniffed like a dog, and in
that sniff recognized, before seeing them, the twenty pa
tients who were there. Each had his own olfactory physiog
nomy, a smell face" (p. 150). As commentary Sacks writes,
"He (the patient) could smell their (friends and patients)
emotions— fear, contentment, sexuality— like a dog. He
could recognise every street, every shop, by smell— he
could find his way around New York, infallibly, by smell"
(P. 150).
Inhalants and Physiological Response
The literature is scanty concerning the differential
responsiveness of physiological activity from different
non-human odorous compounds. Yet, limited as they are,
‘studies have shown that muscle activity, body movement,
respiration, and heart rate can be differentially affected
by exposure to different odorous compounds (cf. Anderson,
1954; Engen, Lipsitt, & Kaye, 1963; Komisaruk, 1974;
MacLeod, 1971; Schwartz, 1979; Self, Horowitz, & Paden,
1972; Steiner, 1974) and empirical literature suggests
that different odorous compounds can elicit strong me
mories (Fenchiel, 1945; Freud, 1930; Jung, 1934).
Engen, Lipsitt, and Kaye (1963), Steiner (1974), and
Self, Horowitz, and Paden (1972) in studying newborn
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5 2
humans have shown that different patterns of response are
elicited by different odorous substances introduced to the
neonate. The scope of reaction seems to be on the con
tinuum of "pleasant" to "unpleasant." Bananas and vanilla
evoked positive responses, while odors of shrimp and rot
ten eggs elicited adverse responses from the neonates
(Steiner, 1974). Habituation to novel odorous stimulus has
been explored, and habituation seems to occur with some
odors, but not with others (cf. Engen, Lipsitt, & Kaye,
1963). These types of olfactory communication studies seem
to suggest some type of rapid neuro-recognition associa
tion process, with the proposed limbic system involvement
affecting the endocrine system (Freeman, 1978).
Physiological changes directly concerned with non-
odorous inhalants have also been examined in the litera
ture, but these studies have been confined to circulatory
system involvement. Carbon monoxide, for instance, is
known for its toxic effect on the human system, but the
toxic effect is predicated on the percentage of carboxy-
hemoglobin in the blood (Berkow, 1977); it is not suggest
ed that olfaction and limbic system involvement are asso
ciated with the physiological reaction, per se, but rather
the nasal cavity acts only as point of entry for the
toxin. It is totally unclear what, if any, immediate ol
factory system-to-limbic system involvement there may be.
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5 3
Commentary on the Research and its Potential Pitfalls
Some of the work reviewed above must be accepted with
reservations because of methodological limitations (e.g.,
questionable sample collection in Hold & Schleidt, 1977
and Owen, 1980; lack of a single or double blind in
Russell, 1976; failure to use "neutral" control odor in
Cowley, Johnson & Brooksbank, 1977). Moreover, studies
that use smell as a mechanism for gender and kin identifi
cation must be accepted with caution, since human odors
are altered by food intake, and one would suppose that
families would eat similar food products. The conclusions
of these studies could be seen as an artifact of familial
and/or culturally biased eating styles.
In reviewing the literature, two key problems seem
inherent in the nature of research into chemosensory com
munication via olfaction among humans: (1) the effects of
external factors on human excreta and (2) the definition
of the concept of chemical communication. Both areas are
examined below:
Effects of Specific Factors on Human Excreta
"Literally thousands of volatiles, many with odors,
are excreted or secreted from the human body. These chemi
cals reflect, in varying degrees, (a) environmental
factors (e.g., chemicals in the air, drinking water, diet,
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5 4
drugs, and personal hygiene products) and (b) organismal
factors (e.g., the individual's gender, reproductive
state, race, age, health, exercise schedule, hygiene and
emotional state" (Doty, 1981, p. 359). Almost every normal
life activity affects them. These volatiles are excreted
or secreted from many bodily sources, and include sweat
(see Sastry et al., 1980).
Individual physiology and emotional states are sus
pected to have significant impact on odor differences
(Doty, 1981; Owen, 1980; Owen & Lawlis, 1981; Sastry et
al., 1980). Kuno (1956) reports on anecdotal and empirical
evidence indicating that humans give off species-specific
odors, and that the quality and quantity of odor produc
tion varies among individuals. Montagna (1962) states that
the quality and quantity of odor production has recogniz
able racial differences, and physiological differences are
noted in the apocrine gland of the different races (Doty,
1981; Morris, 1985; Thompson, 1973). As for differences
that can be attributed to emotional states, research done
by physicians studying patients institutionalized in
mental hospitals (Bradley, 1984; Brass, 1970; Liddell,
1976; Smith & Sines, 1960; Smith & Thompson, 1969) sug
gests the odor of psychiatric patients differs in quality
and quantity from that of the "normal" population.
The role of external factors must be taken into con
sideration in evaluating the results of the studies dis-
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5 5
cussed in the preceding section of this chapter; both ex
ternal factors that constrain the subject, as well as ex-
.ternal factors placed on the experiment by the researcher
must be taken into account (investigator experimenter ef
fects; Barber, 1976). Russell's experiment on neonate re
sponses to mother's milk (1976) did not include monitoring
the mothers' food intake; thus there is no way to deter
mine the effect of dietary habits on milk recognition.
Similarly, in Doty's 1982 study on gender recognition from
breath, the donors' food and drug intake was not reported;
thus the precise effects of these factors cannot be ascer
tained. Hold and Schleidt (1977) collected their sample
over a fifty-six hour period, in eight hour intervals,
with sixteen hour breaks between the eight hour collection
periods; a question of when a sample becomes rancid due to
bacteriological decomposition was never addressed, thus
confounding the results. Owen's study (1980) presents such
a wide variety of potential problems that her study must
be reviewed with great skepticism; first, Owen arbitrarily
collected her samples from only the left axilla— no
studies are available to allow researchers to accept as
axiomatic that humans sweat differentially, based on neur
ological dominance or any other factors; second, Owen had
her subjects wash their axillary area with a soap made up
of tallow (lard), coconut oil, perfume, and preservatives,
substances known to leave a heavy scum— sample contamina
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5 6
tion; third, Owen used ethenol directly on what she stated
was apocrine gland secretion to slow bacteriological de
composition— ethenol has its own smell and is known to
break down carbohydrates, a structure known to be present
in apocrine gland secretion; and fourth, Owen froze her
sample on dry ice for later use— freezing will denature
(shatter) protein molecules, a structure known to be
present in apocrine gland secretion.
Definitional Problems
The terms "chemical communication," "chemosensory
communication ■■ "animal communication," "pheromonic com
munication ■ » etc. have become popular in discussions of
research concepts, yet in their presentations researchers
often act on the assumption that everyone "intuitively
knows what communication is." This vagueness renders their
conclusions almost meaningless. While attempting to
develop an understanding of these terms, Burghardt (1970a)
soon discovered that he was confused, and that many other
researchers faced the same difficulty. He writes, "I
rapidly approached the point where 'animal communication1
seemed merely one of the latest 'in' or 'vogue' fields
labeled with a phrase which very well might turn out to be
meaningless in the sense of being a scientifically valid
or useful concept" (p. 6). There have been several efforts
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5 7
to resolve this problem of definition; some of the more
significant attempts are offered below:
Discrimination. The proposal that communication "is
the discriminatory response of an organism to a stimulus"
(Stevens, 1950) is probably the most elementary definition
we have. This view presupposes that the recipient is able
to discriminate on some level, and therefore, according to
Burghardt (1970a), communication is the same as "stimulus
control".
Information Transfer. Communication is defined as the
"transfer of information from one carrier to another"
(Batteau, 1968). This idea focuses on the recipient's
ability to perceive stimuli from the environment and react
and/or respond to it. A basic problem emerges, however,
for in the terms of this definition, seeing a tree and
walking around it would constitute "communication." Others
have attempted to refine this basic concept by establish
ing restrictions. For example, the Organism Restriction
states that two organisims must be involved in either the
stimulus control or information transfer (see Scott,
1968). Animal Restriction extends the restriction to in
clude a. stimulus arising from one animal and eliciting a
response in another (see Scott, 1968). Further restric
tions have also been made on the extension, in the sugges
tion that the information transfer must occur between
species members (see Frings & Frings, 1954; Sebeok, 1968).
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5 8
Yet despite these alterations to the basic theory, the
same concern as to the scientific meaning of the term
"communication."
Levels of Communication. Tavolga (1968) attempted to
resolve the problems arising from the Information Transfer
theory by defining communication, implying that since the
complexities of different organisms suggest different
needs, caution should be taken in attempting to offer a
single definition. Instead he proposes a hierarchical de
finition comprising the following levels of interorgasmic
interaction: vegetative, tonic, phasic, signal, symbolic
and language; of the six levels of interorganismic intera-
tion, only the last three are said to be communication.
Within the last three levels presented an interaction be
tween two organisms are implied with the emitter possess
ing a specialized stimulus producing mechanism, the
stimulus occupying a narrow portion of the connecting
pathway or spectrum, and the receiver possessing a spe
cialized receptor so as to respond in a specialized fash
ion.
The problem of definition is further compounded by
the tendency, seen in the Information Transfer model and
Levels of Communication View, to refer to or presuppose
the construct of "chemical communication."
Pheromonic Concept. The term "pheromone" implies the
concept of chemical communication. Pheromones are sub
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5 9
stances used by an organism to relay biological informa
tion among members of the same species. Learning and/or
prior experience with the odoriferous substance seem to
play no part in the efficacy and potency of the compound.
Implied in this concept of chemical communication is that
the transfer of information does not rely on the sender
nor the receiver, but rather maintains some adaptive value
(Freeman, 1978).
Multi-criterion Approach. Lorenz (1965), Skinner
(1966), and Klopfer and Hatch (1968) stipulate that no one
definitional criterion is sufficient to describe chemical
communication, since communication of this type is a pro
duct of natural selection. Klopfer and Hatch (1968) sug
gest behavior must be evolutionarily adaptive, and that
for chemical communication to take place, it must be used
by an organism to relay biological information in such a
way that the survival value and reproductive success of
the organism must be enhanced. The major distinction be
tween Lorenz (1965) and Skinner (1966) is whether the
process of chemical communication is "innate" or
" learned. "
Summary. The underlying assumptions regarding the
nature of "communication" found in the theories presented
under the heading of Definitions vary, except to the ex
tent that it can be said that communication relies on the
"intent" of an organism to impart information. Efforts to
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6 0
clarify the terminological muddle have resulted in further
specifications (e.g., the intent must be evolutionarily
adaptive and does not necessarily have to be conscious/
intentionally aware) . Certainly, studies of non-verbal
behavior have clearly demonstrated that species transmit
information unconsciously/unintentionally aware (cf.
Knapp, 1978; Mehrabian, 1969; Morris, 1977; Scheflen,
1973). To attempt to resolve the definitional problems
related to the concept of chemical communication is beyond
the scope of this review. The purpose here is to present
the confusion as it currently exists and present a tem
porary definition that will suit the needs of the research
study which will be presented in the chaapter to follow.
For the purpose of the study to follow, chemical com
munication will be defined simply as the act of discrimi
nation, be that discrimination cognitive or physiological.
Summary
The importance of olfaction as a method of chemo-
sensory communication is well established for animals and
has been strongly suggested for humans. It has been clear
ly and systematically demonstrated that most animals can
determine a variety of information from body odor. How
ever, the research on humans has yet to explore many of
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6 1
these areas. Despite the limited extent of the research on
odor communication in humans, the work that has been done
suggests that humans may have the potential for communi
cating basic biological information via olfaction, such as
family recognition, gender recognition, and emotional
state recognition. Folk beliefs in modern England and
ethnographic reports from a variety of cultures indicate
that many societies believe that human odors from excreta
reveal information about others and have the power to
alter the emotional state of another individual. Such an
ecdotal material is useful in scientific study, as it of
fers limits to this as yet largely unstudied communicatory
potential.
Transmission of these olfactory cues in both animals
and humans appears to occur via a number of forms, such as
breath, urine marks, blood marking, and skin secretions.
These cues are "time bound," and may change in potency,
efficacy, and purpose over time.
Among humans, research suggests that skin secretions
are the primary source for information transmission via
olfaction. They have three main origins: (1) eccrine sweat
glands; (2) sebaceous glands; and (3) apocrine sweat
glands. Each gland produces a different secretion, with
the apocrine gland secretion identified as a likely source
of body odor. The function of the apocrine glands is un
clear; unlike the case for many mammals, the apocrine
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6 2
gland in humans does not appear to serve a thermoregula
tory function and seems to excrete maximally during stress
conditions.
No general agreement exists about the precise nature
of smell. Two major viewpoints are reported in the litera
ture: (1) odors are perceived in terms of primary scents,
and mixtures of these scents establish the quality of the
smell; and (2) odors are on a continuous plane (the exact
variables as yet unidentified). Despite confusion as to
the actual nature and mechanism of information transmis
sion, the structures of the olfactory system have been
localized. But no unanamity of opinion exists concerning
the relationship of the olfactory system and various parts
of the brain. The suggested thalamic connection to the
neocortex raises the possibility of greater complexity and
association with other stimulus events than older anatom
ical evidence would have implied.
Further problems in the field are due to a lack of
agreement among researchers on such fundamental concepts
as stress, emotion, and chemical communication. Selye
(1946) has defined stress in relation to the adaptation
process (General Adaptation Syndrome); his work has been
contested by May. Two theoretical approaches in particular
treat the question of emotion: a mechanical theory, devel
oped by James (1884), and a neuro-biological theory, de
veloped by Papez (1937) and later refined by MacLean
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6 3
(1958), both of whom are Interested in behavior and its
relationship to brain function. Here, the basic difference
noted between stress and emotion is the locus of origin;
stress is a product of external stimuli and emotions are a
product of internal stimuli. It must be emphasized that to
be able to explore the potential of chemosensory communi
cation via olfaction requires an awareness of the precise
applications of the above-mentioned terms.
Although they posit varying notions of what consti
tutes communication, most theories of chemical communica
tion rely on the concept of intent as a fundamental at
tribute of the organism. Pheromone research (on olfactory
communication) implies that neither learning nor prior
experience play an essential role in the process. It is
also suggested that human pheromones are productions of
the apocrine glands, which produce odorless sweat. This
possibility opens up the field to a line of inquiry aimed
at determining whether physiological response patterns can
be elicited through the olfactory-limbic system by means
of exposure to an "odorless scent." For the purpose of
this study "chemical communication" will be defined
strictly by the act of discrimination— physiological dif
ferentiation and/or cognitive discrimination— of a human
axillary secretion produced under different stress/
external conditions.
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C H A P TE R I I
METHOD
Chapter Organization
Chapter two is divided into six major sections cover
ing the pertinent aspects of the study: (1) Purpose; (2)
Hypotheses; (3) Subjects, including solicitation, screen
ing, selection and description of same; (4) Technical Con-•»
siderations, including subject briefing and preparation,
axillary sample production, axillary sample collection and
treatment; (5) Data Collection and Instrumentation; and
(6) Procedure with schematic (see p. 92).
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the extent of
human ability to differentiate and discriminate emotional
states from body excreta through olfactory chemosensory
communication. It will consider both physiological differ
entiation and cognitive discrimination of the olfactory
stimuli presented. To this end eight hypotheses were de
veloped for examination— five for the examination of phys
iological differentiation and three for the examination of
cognitive discrimination.
64
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6 5
This project has been designed in the hope of acquir
ing information that is both global (pertinent to more
than a single discipline), as well as clinically useful
within the field of Counseling Psychology. Two experiments
are presented: a primary study concerned with the ability
of a subject to differentiate physiologically among four
samples of fresh axillary secretion, each of which was
produced under a different stress condition; and a second
ary study concerned with the ability of a subject group to
discriminate cognitively among four samples of body odor/
aged axillary secretion, again with each sample being
produced under a different stress condition.
Hypotheses
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)
Null Hypothesis Number 1 : There is no empirical
difference for Subject B in the physiological baseline
record and the physiological record taken during the
introduction of the axillary secretion collected from
Subject A, during the condition labeled "Exercise."
Null Hypothesis Number 2 : There is no empirical
difference for Subject B in the physiological baseline
record and the physiological record taken during the
introduction of the axillary secretion collected from
Subject A, during the condition labeled "Relaxation."
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66
Null Hypothesis Number 3 ; There is no empirical
difference for Subject B in the physiological baseline
record and the physiological record taken during the
introduction of the axillary secretion collected from
Subject A, during the condition labeled "Erotic."
Null Hypothesis Number 4 : There is no empirical
difference for Subject B in the physiological baseline
record and tne physiological record taken during the
introduction of the axillary secretion collected from
Subject A, during the condition labeled "Repulsive."
Null Hypothesis Number 5 : There are no empirical
differences among any of Subject B's physiological
records, taken during the introduction of any of Subject
A's axillary secretions.
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)
Null Hypothesis Number 6 : There is no descriptively
significant aptitude noted in the group subjects' ability
to correctly identify a sample as containing human
axillary secretion.
Null Hypothesis Number 7 : There is no descriptively
significant aptitude noted in the group subjects' ability
to accurately identify the gender of the sample donor.
Null Hypothesis Number 8 : There are no descriptively
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6 7
significant differences noted in the group subjects'
ability to identify the actual condition the donor subject
experienced in producing each of the samples.
Subjects
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)
Solicitation
The subjects were selected from a group of thirty-two
volunteers solicited from an advertisement in an
university student newspaper. As an incentive to attract
participants, subjects were given a small stipend for
taking part in the study. The amount of the stipend was
related to the amount of time each volunteer would need to
expend.
Screening, Screening Criteria, and Selection
The screening and selection process consisted of four
phases: (1) an application to participate/fact sheet,
consent form, and questionnaire; (2) administration of the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (M .M .P .I . ) ;
(3) a clinical interview and modified neuro-psychological
evaluation; and (4) a urine screening for drug use, and a
smell threshold sensitivity evaluation.
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68
Application to Participate/Study Fact Sheet, Consent
Form/ and Questionnaire (Appendix A). This phase consisted
of (a) a general description of the demands the study
would make on the subject, (b) a descriptive outline of
the screening process, followed by an explanation of the
experimental design, (c) a subject research consent form,
and (d) a questionnaire on general background of the po
tential participant. Selection Criteria: The participants
selected to continue on to phase two of the study were all
required to be Caucasian males over the age of eighteen,
who stated that they met the following criteria: they did
not smoke; they had not taken any drugs or medicines for
14 days prior to filling out the questionnaire; they had
no medical problems (i.e., allergies, skin conditions,
heart conditions, smell and/or taste dysfunction); they
were able to be sexually aroused by the opposite sex; they
had no emotional and/or mental disorders; and did not use
deodorants, body oils, after shaves, and colognes during
their normal hygiene routine.)
Twelve (12) of the original thirty-two (32) subjects
were permitted to continue to the next phase, eight (8)
elected to continue.
Administration of the M.M.P.I. Subject answers to
specific questions on the M.M.P.I. were used to judge
which subjects would be continued to phase three. Selec
tion Criteria: Subjects giving the following answers were
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6 9
dismissed: TRUE to question # 34 ("I have a cough most of
the time"); FALSE to question # 51 ("I am in just as good
physical health as my friends"); TRUE to question # 69 ("I
am very strongly attracted to members of my own sex");
TRUE to question # 108 ("There seems to be a fullness in
my head or nose most of the time"); FALSE to question #
131 ("I do not worry about catching diseases"); TRUE to
question # 210 ("Everything tastes the same"); TRUE to
question # 334 ("Peculiar odors come to me at times");
FALSE to question # 430 ("I am attracted by members of the
opposite sex"); FALSE to question # 508 ("I believe my
sense of smell is as good as other people's"); and/or TRUE
to question # 535 ("My mouth feels dry almost all the
time").
Five (5) of the eight (8) subjects were allowed to
continue to phase three, four (4) subjects elected to con
tinue.
Clinical Interview and Modified Heuro-psychological
Evaluation (Appendix Q ) . The M.M.P.I. was scored for each
of the subjects who continued to phase four and the pro
files were used as part of the clinical interview. Each
interview took two (2) hours— a mental status examination
was conducted, a Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test was
administered, and a modified neuro-psychological
evaluation including an examination of lateral dominance
and an examination of Cranial Nerves I, IX, X, and XII was
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7 0
conducted (Bigler, 1984). To ensure that no subject would
be morally offended by the use of sexually explicit mater
ials in the experiment proper, each subject was asked at
this time if he was morally offended or physically repuls
ed by visual sexually explicit material. Selection Cri
teria : Subjects whose evaluations suggested acute psycho
pathology and/or organic brain dysfunctions (evaluated
through the use of the M.M.P.I., the Visual Motor Bender
Gestalt Test, and the clinical interview), and/or mixed
lateral dominance, and/or who had remarkable findings on
the mental status examination and/or cranial nerve evalua
tions would be excused.
All four (4) subjects were found suitable to con
tinue; three (3) subjects elected to continue.
Urine Screen/Smell Evaluation. Phase four was made up
of two parts: (1) a urine screen for drug usage and (2)
the establishment of a smell sensitivity threshold for
each subject.
(1) Urine Screen: A qualitative urine drug screen
was conducted. The following compounds were sought:
Barbiturates: Allobarbital, Amobarbital, Aprobarbital,
Barbital, Butabarbital, Mephobarbital, Pentobarbital,
Primidone, Phenobarbital, Secobarbital. Antidepressants:
A m i t r i p t y l i n e , D o x e p i n , I m i p r a m i n e . S e d a t i v e s :
Carbamazepine, Ethchlorvynol, Meprobamate, Methyprylon,
M e t h a q u a l o n e , P y r i l a m i n e . S y m p a t h o m i m e t i c s :
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7 1
C h l o r p h e n d r i n e , D i p h e n h y d r a m i n e , d , I - E p h e d r i n e .
Analgesics: Acetaminophen, Acetylsalicyate, Ibuprofen,
Meperidine, Methadone, Opiates (by class), Phenylbutazone,
Propoxyphene, Salicylate. Stimulants: Amphetamine,
Chloramphetamine, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Nicotine,
P h e n c y c l i n d i n e , P h e n y l p r o p a n o l a m i n e , Strychnine,
Theobromine, Theophylline. Minor Tranquilizers; Diazepam,
C h l o r o d i a z e p o x i d e , F l u r a z e p a m , O x a z e p a m . Major
T ra nq u i l i z e r s : Chlorop r o m a z i n e , P r o c h l o rperazine,
Thioridazine. Other; Tetrahydrocannabinol. The evaluation
of the urine was conducted by Medical Laboratory Network
in California. The methods employed in the drug screen
were Thin-Layer-Chromatogrophy (TLC), Gas-Chromatogrophy
(GC), and Enzyme-Multiplied-Immuno Technique (EMIT). Sel
ection Criteria: Any subject whose urine sample was found
to have a remarkable lab result would be excused. Results:
No remarkable findings were obtained from the laboratory.
(2) Smell Evaluation: Each of the three subjects
underwent an odor sensitivity procedure by smelling ten
samples containing different concentrations of butyl al
cohol; after smelling each sample the subjects were re
quired to indicate which sample had an odor. This proce
dure was repeated three times. Selection Criteria and Sub
ject Assignment; The subject who displayed the lowest
threshold of sensitivity by most frequently selecting the
sample with the lowest concentration of buytl alcohol was
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7 2
designated the recipient subject (Subject B) in the
primary study. The subject who had the second lowest
threshold sensitivity was designated the donor subject
(subject A); and the third subject was retained as an al
ternate .
Description of Subjects
Subject A (Donor Subject). Subject A was a twenty-one
(21) year old (D.O.B. 26 July 1964), single, Caucasian
male, five feet five inches in height, weighed 120 lbs.,
indicated that he grew up in a rural area, and was judged
as athletic and well-built by the interviewer. No remark
able findings concerning this subject were noted from the
clinical interview, mental status examination, and modifi
ed neuro-psychological evaluation. Subject A was noted to
maintain a right hand, right eye, and right foot domin
ance. The results from the M.M.P.I. did not appear remark
able: anxiety index (1.33D+Pt)-(.66Hs+.66Hy) = 55; inter
nalization ratio (Hs+D+Pt)/(Hy+Pd+Ma) = 1.005714; expres
sive-repressive index (L+K+Hy)-(Pd+Ma) = 34; frustration
tolerance index (Ma+Pd)/(Hy+D) = 1.081031; passive-aggres
sive index (Hy+100) -(Pd+2Pa) = -24; mean neurotic triad
(Hs+D+Hy)/3 = 57; mean psychotic triad (Pa+Pt+Sc)/3 = 61;
and triad elevation index (Hs+D+Hy)/3- (Pa+Pt+Sc)/3 = -4.
Subject A reported that his health was excellent and that
his last physical examination was in the fall of 1984.
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7 3
Subject B (Recipient Subject) . Subject B was a
twenty-seven (27) year old (D.O.B. 12 September 1957),
single, Caucasian male; subject was 6' 2" in height,
weighed 195 lbs., and was judged by the interviewer as
being normally built with no outstanding features. No
remarkable findings concerning Subject B were noted from
the clinical interview, mental status examination, or from
the modified neuro-psychological evaluation. Subject B was
noted to maintain a right hand, right eye, and right foot
dominance. The results from the M.M.P.I. did not appear
remarkable: anxiety index (1.33D+Pt)-(.66Hs+.66Hy) = 67;
internalization ratio (Hs+D+Pt)/(Hy+Pd+Ma) = .8619048;
expressive-repressive index (L+K+Hy)-(PdMa) = 44;
frustration tolerance index (Ma+Pd)/(Hy+D) = 1.068182;
passive-aggressive index (Hy+100)-(Pd+2Pa) = -83; mean
neurotic triad (Hs+D+Hy)/3 = 62; mean psychotic triad
(Pa-t-Pt+Sc)/3 = 71; and triad elevation index (Hs+D+Hy)/
3-(Pa+Pt+Sc)/3 = -9. Subject B reported his health as
excellent with his last physical examination "being
sometime in the summer of 1984," and conducted by the U.S.
Air Force medical staff; Subject B indicated that his
adenoids and tonsils were intact.
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7 4
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)
Solicitation
Donor Subject. Refer to the solicitation process out
lined above under Primary Study, page 67.
Group Subjects. Subjects were solicited from a five
hundred-level undergraduate/graduate psychology course in
Human Sexuality at Western Michigan University. The stud
ents were a mixture of upper level undergraduate students
and graduate students.
Screening/ Screening Criteria, and Selection
Donor Subject. Refer to the screening process,
screening criteria, and selection process outlined above
under Primary Study, page 67.
Group Subjects. A survey (Appendix C) was adminis
tered to any interested party. The survey contained (a) an
explanation of the study, (b) consent form, (c)
participant background sheet, and (d) survey recording
form. Any individual over the age of eighteen and
interested in participating in the project was accepted as
a subject.
Description of Subjects
Donor Subject. Refer to the description of Subject B
(Recipient subject) outlined above under Primary Study,
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7 5
page 73 (Subject B functioned as the donor subject for the
axillary secretions used during the secondary study).
Group Subjects. The pool of subjects totalled
thirty-eight (38) individuals: thirty-two (32) females,
ranging in age from 18 to 52 years, with an average age of
29.8 years; and six (6) males, with an age range of 20
years to 49 years, and an average age of 29.3 years. Of
the 38 subjects in the pool 68.4% were non-smokers; 86.8%
reported their health as very good or excellent, with 7.9%
rating their health as good and the remaining 5.3% leaving
the question blank; 76.4% reported their race as White,
10.5% reported their race as Black, 13.1% reported their
race as "other"; twenty-six (68.4%) of the 38 subjects
indicated that they did not have sinus condition and 27 of
the subjects (71.1%) stated they did not have any
allergies; and 86.8% reported no use of any types of med
ication on the dates of the study, with 92.1% (35
subjects) reporting no use of nasal type medications for
two weeks prior to the study. When asked' where the
subjects were reared, 26.3% reported an urban area, 44.7%
reported a suburban area, and 29.0% reported a rural area.
From the core pool of participants four groups were as
sembled, one group for each of the samples of axillary
secretion produced under different stress conditions—
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7 6
Group 1 : 12 August 1985/axillary sample from condition
Exercise, N=33; female subjects = 28, male subjects = 5;
Group 2 : 14 August 1985/axillary sample from condition
Relaxation, N=25; female subjects 24, male subject = 1;
Group 3 : 19 August 1985/axillary sample from condition
Erotic, N=32; female subjects = 27, male subjects = 5;
Group 4 ; 21 August 1985/axillary sample from condition
Repulsive, N=34; female subjects 29, male subjects = 5.
Technical Considerations
Subject Briefing/Preparation
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)
Three weeks prior to the collection of data, the sub
jects were gathered together three times to desensitize
them to the overall experimental design. This process in
cluded desensitization to the method of sample collection,
the area where the study was conducted, and the equipment,
electrodes, and wires attached to the body. During the
first gathering the following instructions concerning
hygiene, diet, and use of medication were given.
Hygiene. The subjects were asked only to shower and
were restricted from using any soap; as a soap substitute
each subject was given a non-medicated "Buff Puff" (a
rough sponge of man-made material) to clean the skin. To
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7 7
protect the axillary region, hair washing was to be con
ducted in the sink. No deodorants, antiperspirants,
colognes, oils, and/or body powders were permitted.
Shaving of the face was permitted for the three weeks
prior to data gathering (a non-medicated, non-mentholated
shaving foam was supplied) but no shaving was permitted
for twenty-four hours prior to data collection.
Diet. For three weeks prior to the data collection
subjects were asked to avoid spicy foods (e. g. Mexican,
Italian, etc.). In addition to the general "spicy food"
restriction, the following foods were not allowed: garlic,
asparagus, artichokes, radishes and raw onions. Each sub
ject was asked to keep a log of his food intake.
Medication. Subjects were informed that the use of
over-the-counter medications was not permitted. This re
striction also included any vitamin and/or mineral supple
ments. If a subject's physician ordered any medication
during the study, this fact was to be reported to the re
searcher .
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)
Ho subject briefing/preparation necessary.
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7 8
Axillary Sample Production
Research Environment
A 5 X 9 foot shielded enclosure was employed to
minimize influence from electric, magnetic, or radio fre
quency, or interference from the 60 cycle AC lines, and
electric devices. The polygraph, located outside the
shielded room, was appropriately grounded. Within the
shielded enclosure was placed a comfortable padded chair,
an exercise cycle, and a movie screen at one end. The room
was arranged so that the researcher was able to project
visual material on the screen from a projection station
outside of the room (Photograph Collection 1).
Stress Conditions
Four stress conditions were employed throughout this
research project: (1) Exercise, (2) Relaxation, (3) Sexual
arousal, and (4) Repulsion. Once the subject was prepared
as described in Axillary Sample Collection (see page 87),
he was seated and a baseline was established. The fol
lowing stressing method were employed:
Exercise. After his baseline was recorded, the sub
ject was placed on a "National Cyc-O-Line 1200" exercise
cycle. Once he was in place a second baseline was estab
lished; then the subject was told to ride the cycle for a
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7 9
'J '. j j i lU L I J! ] l J J C B I) B E J t BM j S M M W j j j
SMzm
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Phot
ogra
ph
Coll
ecti
on
1: Shielded
room
and
poly
grap
h.
8 0
pe ~od of five minutes on a tension level of three, main
taining a speed of between 15 to 30 Km/h.
Relaxation. After his baseline was taken, the subject
was asked to sit in as comfortable position as pcssible
and listen to an audio tape. The subject was informed that
an audio recording that has been known to help people
relax was going to be played. He was given to understand
that no response was required of him except to listen. An
audio tape (Hiller, 1980) using mental imagery to produce
a relaxation response was played for the ten-minute
period.
Sexual Arousal. After his baseline was recorded, the
- subject was informed that no specific response was
required of him except to watch a twelve-minute color
film. He was informed that the visual material presented
has been known to elicit sexual arousal responses from
male viewers. The subject was left to sit in the darkened
room for three minutes before the projector was engaged;
once the projector started, the film continued for the
full twelve minutes. The visual stimulus employed was a
combination of two standardly available pornographic
films; Valerie and Love At First Stroke, which presented
scenes of a single male and one female followed by scenes
with one male and two females engaged in different sexual
activities including, but not limited to, copulation,
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8 1
masturbation, fellatio, and cunnilingus. The material pre
sented would be classified as normal sexual behavior and
contained no material which would be classified as sexual
perversions. The films were spliced together with only one
modification. The ejaculatory phase presented in the first
film, Valerie, was removed and spliced into the end of the
second film, Love At First Stroke to avoid any potential
break in the arousal phase. To review the relative attrac
tiveness of the individuals who participated in the film
note Photograph Collection Number 2.
Repulsive. After his baseline was taken, the subject
was informed that no specific response was required of him
except to sit and watch a slide show. He was informed that
the slides that he was to see were known to make people
uncomfortable, and that he should not turn away but make
every attempt to view each slide for its full five-second
presentation. After the instructions were given the motor
governing the automatic presentation of the slides was
engaged. Thirty-two color slides taken from a surgical
atlas (Walker, 1976) served as the stimulus. The slides
were presented every ten seconds for a five-minute period;
the screen was left dark for five seconds between each
slide presentation. For an examination of the order and
subject matter of the material presented, refer to Photo
graph Collection Number 3.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 2
Photograph Collection. Sexual Stimulus.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 3
I l l
©Photograph Collection 3. Repulsive Stimulus,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Photograph Collection 3— Continued
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Photograph Collection 3— Continued.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Photograph Collection 3— Continued.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 7
Axillary Sample Collection and Treatment
Axillary Sample Collection
Upon arrival at the lab, each subject rinsed the un
derarm area with distilled water. After the subject was
properly connected to the polygraph, the axillary regions
were wiped with distilled water for a second time by the
researcher. Then each of the subject's axillary regions
were covered . with a 4 X 4 sterile gauze pad, taped in
place and covered with a 6 X 6 piece of plastic film. The
plastic film was secured with hypoallergenic plastic tape.
Axillary Sample Treatment
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation). Once
the axillary sample was produced under each stated condi
tion by subject A, the 4 X 4 cotton gauze pads were remov
ed from subject A's axillary area and sandwiched between
two paper surgical masks, wrapped in plastic film, and
placed in the refrigerator for later use.
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination). Once sub
ject B has produced the axillary sample under each stated
conditions, the 4 X 4 gauze pad was removed and placed
into a non-ordorous, sealable, hard plastic container that
had been rinsed with distilled water. After the sample was
placed in the moist container and sealed, it was refriger
ated for later use.
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Data Collection and Instrumentation
88
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)
Physiological Data. Heart rate, respiration rate and
quality, skin resistance (GSR), and muscle activity (EMG)
were recorded on a Grass Model Seven polygraph (Quincy,
.MA) with modular unit pre-amplifiers. The polygraph used a
pen and ink system for a direct write-out on continuous
paper and produced a direct record for each of the bio
logical functions monitored. Skin temperature was recorded
with a Norelco digital thermometer (serial No. HT 986).
Electrodes; When appropriate, silver-chloride disposable
electrodes pre-prepared with a hypoallergenic medium were
used. Skin preparation: The areas selected for electrode
placement were first rinsed with distilled water, dried,
lightly sanded with an extra fine piece of sandpaper and
wiped clean with a 4 X 4 gauze pad that had been rinsed in
distilled water— alcohol was not used due to its strong
smell. Electrode/instrument Placement: Heart rate— arm to
arm (Lead I) and chest lead (Lead V-2); Respiration rate
and quality— a thermistor was taped in place below the
left nasal opening in such a fashion as to allow the sub
ject's breath to flow freely over the thermistor;
GSR— first and third fingers left hand; EMG— frontalis;
skin temperature— probe tip was placed on the skin surface
at the head of the fibula.
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8 9
Psychological Data. Empirical observations were re
corded by the researcher from the time each subject ar
rived at the lab until his debriefing and dismissal. In
addition to the empirical observations, an adjective check
list (Appendix D) with "feeling terms" was employed
through out the study.
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)
Data were collected on a paper and pencil survey form
(Appendix C) . Subjects were given the following verbal
directions: "On the table you will see a 'smelling box.1
You are asked to smell the sample and indicate whether the
smelling box is 'empty/no perceivable odor' (contains no
'real' sample), or 'loaded' (contains a 'real' sample); if
you believe that the smelling box is loaded, you are asked
to identify the smell as Rest Smells, Sexual Smells, Work
Smells, Fear Smells; then label the loaded sample as
pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant, and indicate if the
donor was male or female."
Procedure
Both the primary study and the secondary study con
cerned physiological reactions or cognitive responses by
subject(s) to a sample of axillary secretion produced
under four different stress conditions (exercise, relaxa
tion, sexual arousal, and repulsion).
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9 0
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)
The primary study focused on physiological different
iation. The donor subject (Subject A) was prepared so that
his axillary secretion could be collected on cotton gauze
pads. Then he was attached to several physiological mon
itoring devices connected to a Grass Model Seven Poly
graph/ and put in a shielded chamber. Following the es
tablishment of a baseline subject A filled out an adjec
tive check list (Appendix D) and then experienced one of
the four stress conditions. After the stress condition his
axillary sample was collected and placed between two paper
surgical masks, wrapped in plastic film and placed in a
refrigerator for later use. Once the axillary sample was
collected, Subject A was given the adjective check list
for a second time, was disconnected from the monitoring
devices, debriefed, and dismissed. The chamber was aired
out and the recipient subject (Subject B) was prepared in
the same manner as Subject A (placement of axillary area
pads and connection to the polygraph). Once seated in the
chamber, two clean surgical masks with a clean cotton
gauze pad sandwiched between them were placed on Subject B
and a baseline was then recorded. Once a baseline was
taken, subject B was asked to fill out an adjective check
list while the prepared mask was taken from the refrigera
tor. The clean mask was removed and replaced with the
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9 1
prepared mask. Subject B was asked to relax and breathe
normally through his nose. Subject B's physiological
responses (heart rate, skin temperature, respiration rate,
and respiration quality, skin resistance (GSR) , and
muscle activity (EMG)) were recorded. The mask was
removed and discarded, and Subject B was given the
adjective check list for a second time. Subject B then
experienced the same stress condition as Subject A.
Subject B then filled out the adjective checklist for the
third time. The cotton pads were removed from Subject B's
underarms, placed into a sealable non-odorous plastic
container that had been rinsed with distilled water,
sealed, and placed in the refrigerator for later use.
Subject B was then disconnected from the monitoring
devices, debriefed, and dismissed (see Illustration 7).
This procedure was repeated for each stress condition.
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)
The secondary study focused on cognitive discrimina
tion. The sample produced by Subject B during the primary
study was employed later during the same day of collection
(within twelve hours) . Four groups were assembled from a
core group of thirty-eight (38) volunteer subjects re
cruited from a class on Human Sexuality. All subjects were
asked to fill out a background sheet on themselves, smell
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Seco
ndar
y Study
Primary
Stud
y Subject "A* Baseline -> Subject "A"
Stress condition & Sweat Collection
Subject "B* Baseline
Introduction to Group of
Sweat collected from subject "B" for cognitive
study
Subject "B" Stress Condition
& Sweat Collection
Introduction to Subject B" of
Sweat collected from Subject “A" for physiological
study
!
Illustration 7. Procedure Outline.
9 3
the sample, and fill out a questionnaire. Each subject
was given as much time as he/she wished to smell the
sample, but on the average each subject took less than ten
(10) seconds. Each subject was asked if the sample they
smelled was "empty/no perceivable smell" or "loaded (con
tains a 'real' sample)." If the subject response given was
"loaded," the subject was asked to describe the sample as
"Rest Smells," "Sexual Smells," "Work Smells," or "Pear
Smells" and rate the smell as pleasant, neutral, un
pleasant, and then was asked to indicate the gender of the
subject.
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CHAPTER III
RESULTS
Chapter Organization
This chapter is divided into four sections: (1) Introduction; (2) Method of Data Analysis; (3) Experimental
Outcome/Results; and (4) Summary.
Introduction
In attempting to determine the range of the human
capacity to recognize and distinguish various emotional
states from body sweat through olfactory chemosensory com
munication, both physiological differentiation and cogni
tive discrimination of olfactory stimuli have been ex
amined. To direct this study the eight hypotheses present
ed in Chapter II were formulated. In this chapter the out
come of the experiment is outlined as it relates to each
hypothesis. The chapter will conclude with a summary in
which the limits of some aspects of human ability to
utilize olfactory chemosensory communication will be ad
dressed .
94
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9 5
Method of Data Analysis
Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)
The data from the Primary Study consist of physiolog
ical records produced under different stress conditions.
To analyze these data an empirical/observational compar
ison of the physiological record focusing on the physi
ological record of Subject B chronicled during two phases
of the study was used: the baseline phase and the phase
following the introduction of the axillary secretion pro
duced by subject A under a stated stress condition. After
an intra-record examination of each record produced under
different stress conditions was made, an inter-record
examination was conducted.
Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)
The data from the Secondary Study consist of reports
of cognitive discrimination of an olfactory sample re
corded on a "forced choice" questionnaire/survey form. In
the secondary study the responses given by the group were
examined with three factors in mind: the accuracy of the
group responses in cases where an actual sample was used;
the gender of the subject; and the relationship of the
responses to the actual stress conditions that produced
the axillary sample, with particular attention paid to the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9 6
background information given by each respondent. The mean
was employed as the descriptive statistic.
Results
In this section first the hypothesis examined is
listed, followed by the related data, the data abridgment
and analysis, and then the findings and interpretations.
Null Hypothesis Number 1
"There is no empirical difference for Subject B in
the physiological baseline record and the physiological
record taken during the introduction of the axillary sec
retion collected from Subject A, during the condition
labeled Exercise."
The procedure to examine Null Hypothesis Number 1
took place on 12 August 1985, from 09:40 to 11:50. Mo
problems were noted during the execution of the procedure.
Data
Psychological Report, Subject A (Donor Subject) :
(a) Arrival: Subject A arrived at 09:10. Having come
by bicycle. He entered the lab with the bicycle seat in
his hand. He was evaluated upon arrival. No remarkable
information was noted; the subject appeared to be in good
humor and freely willing to enter conversation. It was
noted that the subject was oriented and most alert. The
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9 7
subject was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to ar
rival. He indicated that he had. Since he had arrived on a
bicycle he was asked to rerinse in the bathroom v/ith
distilled water and change into a set of gym clothes
(shorts and tank top).
(b) Following Baseline Record on the Exercise Cycle:
The subject reviewed the adjective check list and chose
the following terms to describe his mood: excited, happy,
tired, and apathetic.
(c) During Procedure: The subject did not appear
taxed by the exercise. It was most apparent that he was an
avid cyclist and once he began to exercise he quickly
established a rhythm.
(d) Following Procedure: The subject selected the
following terms on the adjective check list: excited,
happy, tired, and apathetic.
(e) Debriefing: Subject reported no unusual feel
ings or thoughts following the exercise. However, when
asked about his response "tired" on the adjective check
list, he defined "tired" as sleepy, rather than fatigued.
Psychological Report, Subject B (Recipient Subject).
(a) Arrival: The subject arrived at 10:30, alert
and somewhat talkative. He was in good humor and stated
that he was enthusiastic about being a subject. Subject B
was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to arrival. He
indicated that he had, his underarm areas were wiped clean
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9 8
with distilled water, and then he was instructed to change
into the gym clothes provided.
(b) Following Baseline Record on Exercise Cycle,
Prior to Sample Introduction: The subject reported on his
mood by selecting the following descriptors on the adjec
tive check list: calm, hopeful, comfortable, apathetic,
anxious, relaxed, and indifferent.
(c) During Sample Introduction: No remarkable obser
vations were noted.
(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to
Exercise: The subject picked the following descriptors on
the adjective check list to reflect his mood: excited,
restful, calm, hopeful, comfortable, and anxious.
(e) During Exercise: The subject appeared physically
"out-of-shape" and appeared to find the exercise most tax
ing, he appeared to maintain good humor.
(f) Following Exercise: The subject indicated that
he was tired, fatigued, and anxious from the exercise; he
also reported his mood as hopeful on the adjective check
list.
(g) Debriefing: During the debriefing session, the
subject reported no unusual thoughts or feelings following
the experimental procedure. VJhen questioned if he knew
which stress condition would be employed, he indicated
that he did not.
Physiological Record/Data. Five one-minute segments ••
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9 9
from the physiological records produced by both Subject A
and Subject B were selected for comparison. Two one-minute
segments from the physiological record were selected for
Subject A, and three one-minute segments were selected for
Subject B. The segments selected from the full physi
ological record reflecting the different phases of the
study were: (a) Subject A during baseline, (b) Subject A
during the exercise condition exercise, (c) Subject B
during baseline, (d) Subject B during the introduction of
the axillary secretion, and (e) Subject B during the ex
ercise condition (Physiological Record 1). The entire
record can be studied in Appendix E; the one-minute seg
ments were selected as representative of the record pro
duced during each phase of within whole record.
Data Abridgment and Analysis
From a comparison of the record produced by Subject B
during the baseline phase and the record produced during
the introduction of the axillary secretion phase for the
same subject the following observations are noted:
Psychological Report. No marked alterations and/or
changes in behavior during the procedure were noted.
EMG. A minimal increase in muscle tension is noted.
Heart. The chest lead (Lead I) record showed an in
crease in response patterns; the arm-to-arm (V-2) record
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100
12 August 1985
EMG
<53h i“ 9CGI3<0
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 ^ v /cm
HEART Arm to Arm
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
f-
10:09 | | ' i 10:10nimlu}i|tiiilnnlliH liil‘llllll||lllllllllllllllll|ii --
W m M f M I l
Skin 94.2° F Room 72 .0° F @
BASELINEP h y s i o l o g i c a l R e c o r d 1 . E x e r c i s e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
00000102020200010100020202020202020100000101
101
Physiological Record 1— Continued
CONDITION: EXERCISE12 August 1935
<h-OLU“Dm3CO
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /cv/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
*10*20 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 ' 10:21h I i i i i I i MIL m ill i l l ln i l l l i l l l l l l l lJ I t l l lU lU lL ILanin-----------
Skin 98.6° F Room 74 .0° F
EXERCISE
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SUBJECT B
102
Physiological Record 1— Continued.
CONDITION: EXERCISE12 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec. 11:10 I 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! ! ! 1 ! H 'H
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /«v/cm
HEART Arm to Arm jW M .... -
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE Skin 92.2° F Room 76.0° F ©
BASELINE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJECT B
Physiological Record 1— continued
CONDITION: EXERCISE12 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /uvlcm
HEART Arm to Arm
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
Tt*21 i « • i ’ i i • t I i ! 11*22 I. .....
Skin 93.0° F Room 76.0° F
INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected
from Subject A
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6372557178^7
1 0 4
Physiological Record 1— Continued
CONDITION: EXERCISE12 August 1985
GQ
53LUCQZD05
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 A'v/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
» t, 11::l u i i i t o t t o j i i u i m U m i u u i i i 1i i l n i m i --------------
I l i M i '
p
Skin 93.8° F Room 78 .0° F f i I
EXERCISE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
showed an increase in response. The changes noted in the
records are clearly observable.
Respiration*. Obvious changes in the quality and
quantity of respiration are noted. The difference is
judged to be empirically significant.
Body Temperature: In comparing subject B's record
during the introduction of the axillary secretion with his
record during the stress/exercise phase an increase in
skin temperature of ,8°F is noted. Although the increase
is consistent between baseline and introduction of sweat,
and between sweat introduction and exercise, this rise in
temperature is to small to suggest that it was a result of
the experimental treatment.
Findings and Interpretations
A comparison of the baseline record and the record
during the introduction of the axillary secretion suggests
that Null Hypothesis Number 1 should be rejected. Observ
able differences in the records are clearly noted, most
predominantly in the evaluation of the cardiac record and
the respiration record; although the temperature record
was not judged to be great enough to stand as "different"
on its own merit, temperature increase supports the other
findings.
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1 0 6
Null Hypothesis Number 2
"There is no empirical difference for Subject B in
the physiological baseline record and the physiological
record taken during the introduction of the axillary sec
retion collected from Subject A, during the condition
labeled Relaxation."
The procedure to examine Null Hypothesis Number 2
took place on 14 August 1985, from 08:30 to 11:00. No un
usual occurrences were noted during the execution of the
procedure.
Data
Psychological Report, Subject A (Donor Subject).
Arrival: Subject A arrived at 08:00. Upon ar
rival he was evaluated; no marked abnormalities were
noted. The subject appeared sleepy, yet entered easily
into conversation. The subject was oriented. The subject
was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to arrival. He
indicated that he had, his axillary regions were wiped
clean with distilled water and then he changed into a set
of gym clothes.
(b) Following Baseline Record: The subject reviewed
the adjective check list and chose the following terms to
describe his mood: restful, tranquil, happy, tired, calm,
comfortable, and relaxed.
/
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 0 7
(c) During Procedure: The subject appeared to become
more relaxed when listening to the relaxation tape, than
he had been at the start of the stress condition.
(d) Following Procedure; The subject selected the
following terms on the adjective check list: restful,
tranquil, happy, calm, comfortable, (very) relaxed, and
indifferent.
(f) Debriefing: The subject reported no unusual
feelings or thoughts following the relaxation condition;
when asked if he found the audio tape relaxing, he re
sponded that he was relaxed by the tape.
Psychological Report,'Subject B (Recipient Subject).
(a) Arrival: The subject arrived at 09:30, was alert
extremely talkative and friendly. He reported that he had
showered/rinsed prior to arrival, his underarms were wiped
clean with distilled water and he changed into gym
clothes.
(b) Following Baseline Record, Prior to Sample
Introduction: The subject described his mood with the
following descriptors on the adjective check list: ex
cited, restful, tranquil, calm, hopeful, comfortable, an
xious, and relaxed.
(c) During Sample Introduction: No remarkable occur
rences were noted.
(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to Relaxa
tion Condition: The subject chose the following terms on
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 0 8
the adjective check list to reflect his mood: confused,
restful, tranquil, happy, calm, hopeful, comfortable, an
xious, and relaxed.
(e) During Relaxation Condition: No remarkable com
ments were recorded.
(f) Following Relaxation Condition: The subject in
dicated the following terms on the check list: restful,
calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and relaxed.
(g) Debriefing: During the debriefing session, the
subject reported no unusual thoughts or feelings following
the experimental procedure. It is worth noting that the
subject reported that the audio tape was a distraction
while he was attempting to relax. When questioned if he
was aware of the stress condition to be employed prior to
arrival, he indicated that he did not.
Physiological Record/Data. Five one-minute segments
from the physiological records produced by both Subject A
and Subject B were selected for comparison. Two one-minute
segments from the physiological record were selected for
Subject A and three one-minute segments were selected for
Subject B. The segments selected from the full physi
ological record reflecting the different phases of the
study were: (a) Subject A during Baseline, (b) Subject A
during the stress condition relaxation, (c) Subject B
during Baseline, (d) Subject B during the introduction of
the axillary secretion, and (e) Subject B during the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 0 9
stress condition relaxation (Physiological Record 2). The
complete record can be found in Appendix E; the one-minute
segments vere selected as representative of the record
produced during each phase of the entire record.
Data Abridgment and Analysis
A comparison of the record produced by subject B
during the baseline phase and the introduction of the
axillary secretion phase generates the following observa
tions :
Psychological Report. No alterations and/or changes
in the subject's behavior were noted during the relaxation
condition. During the debriefing session Subject B
indicated that he found the audio tape/relaxation condi
tion distracting rather than relaxing.
EMG. A marked reduction in muscle tension is noted
between the record of Subject B's baseline and his sweat
introduction record. The decrease is clearly and observab
ly different.
Heart. Little or no observable differences are noted
in the cardiac record taken from the chest lead (Lead I)
during the baseline and introduction of the axillary sec
retion were noted. The cardiac record taken from the
arm-to-arm lead (V-2) shows a small reduction in
"intensity" without any apparent movement on the part of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
110
14 August 1985
<Sm” 3m
co
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /t&vlcm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
9*24 i I I I ' 1 ' 1 I 1 I 9*25 — uIuiiIiuuhiiIhhhihIiiiiIiiiiIhiiIiiiiImiiIiiiiII' —
iMifdiUluUiWiHtiKniHinSlp
5.70
- M W ^ M U U k L
Skin 93 .0° F Room 78 .0 ° F @
BASELINE
Physiological Record 2. Relaxation.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
05757655480586^3
393150^01933
Ill
Physiological Record 2— Continued
CONDITION: RELAXATION14 August 1985
Oin—»t n3<0
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 ^v /cm
HEART Arm to Arm
itetiipmilutuMjHUvWt'tviil
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
9:38|n n it i it l im li in ln t i lm ii im lin l lm iin i l l i i l l l iL
9:39
15.95
A A J U U U U U A A A A M J -
Skin 93.8° F Room 80.0° F
RELAXATION
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
^
02020100010000020200000200020100020102020201
112
Physiological Record 2— Continued,
CONDITION: RELAXATION14 August 1985
I2Q(3LLiGQ3(/}
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 A v/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
i i i i i i i i i i i i l i in l i i i i i i i i i l i i i i l i i i i l i i i i t i i i i l im h ti i l 10:20XL.
7.15-
Skin 90.6° F Room 80 .0° F ©
BASELINE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJECT B
1 1 3
Physiological Record 2— Continued.
CONDITION: RELAXATION14 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /tvlcm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
10.27 10-28
9.30
Skin 91.2° F Room 80.0° F (20
INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected
from Subject A
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 4
Physiological Record 2— Continued
CONDITION: RELAXATION14 August 1985
02h“oLLl“ 9m3C/J
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 stvlcm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
10:45i i lm i . i i . . |< .n l i i i i l i i i l | i i i lL n ll l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l ln iu ,
10:46
8.20*
Skin 90.4° F Room 82.0° F @
RELAXATION
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
020102010100006402010100230202
1 1 5
the subject. The most noteworthy difference in Subject B's
cardiac record is the change in the regularity of heart
rhythm during the introduction of the sweat produced by
Subject A, when compared to Subject B's baseline. The
changes noted in the cardiac record of Subject B when com
pared to baseline record are observably different.
GSR. A change is noted in galvanic skin response, as
recorded during the sweat introduction from 7.15 on the
baseline record to 9.30 on the sweat introduction record.
Of interest is the slight drop in the GSR that is noted
when comparing 9.30 during the sweat introduction record
to 8.20 during the relaxation condition. This decrease
corresponds with subject B's verbal report of finding the
audio tape distracting when attempting to relax. The in
crease in GSR noted in comparing Subject B's baseline with
Subject B's response to sweat introduction shows an ob
servable difference between the two records.
Respiration. The differences are clear between the
baseline record and the record of the introduction of
sweat. During the introduction of the sweat the subject's
breathing became more regular and more shallow, a clear
difference.
Body Temperature. An increase in skin temperature is
noted, from 90.6°P during the baseline record, to 91.2°F
during the introduction of sweat record. Of import, is the
drop in temperature from 91.2°P to 90.4°P during the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 6
record taken while subject B was listened to the relaxa
tion tape, even though there was an increase in room tem
perature from 80.0°F to 82.0°F; this decrease corresponds
with the psychological report. The overall temperature
increase noted between the sweat introduction record and
the baseline record clearly shows a change from one record
to the other.
Findings and Interpretations
A comparison of the baseline record and the record
produced during the introduction of the axillary sec
retion suggests that Null Hypothesis Number 2 should be
rejected. Observable differences are clearly noted
throughout the entire record. Changes are found in the GSR
record, respiration record, and temperature record. It
should be noted that Subject 3 appeared to find the
axillary secretion from Subject A more "relaxation
producing" than the audio tape.
Null Hypothesis Number 3
"There is no empirical difference for Subject B in
the physiological baseline record and the physiological
record taken during the introduction of the axillary
secretion collected from Subject A, during the condition
labeled Erotic/Sexual Arousal."
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 7
The procedure to test Null Hypothesis Number 3 took
place on 19 August 1985, from 11:00 to 13:00. No unusual
occurrences were noted during the execution of the proce
dure.
Data
Psychological Report, Subject A (Donor Subject).
(a) Arrival: Subject A arrived at 09: 00 and was
asked to return at 10:30 due to technical difficulties.
When he returned at 10:30 he was evaluated psychologically
and appeared in good humor, but was somewhat quiet. It was
noted that the subject was oriented and most alert. The
subject was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to ar
rival. He indicated that he had, the axillary areas were
wiped clean with distilled water and he changed into a set
of gym clothes.
(b) Following Baseline Record: The subject reviewed
the adjective check list and chose the following terms to
describe his mood: restful, tranquil, tired, calm, com
fortable, apathetic, relaxed, and indifferent.
(c) During Procedure: The subject appeared somewhat
uncomfortable during the erotic condition/film, but he did
not verbalize this.
(d) Following Procedure: The subject chose the fol
lowing terms on the adjective check list: excited,
repulsed, apathetic, anxious, and indifferent.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 8
(e) Debriefing; The subject reported that during the
viewing of the film he went through several different sets
of emotions and feelings. During the first part of the
film (about the first nine minutes) he reported that he
felt sexually aroused and sustained a flaccid erection,
but during the last three minutes of the film (the
ejaculatory segment of the film) the subject indicated
that he found the film too graphic, and more distressing
than arousing.
Psychological Report, Subject B (Recipient Subject).
(a) Arrival; The subject arrived at 10:30 and was
talkative. He reported that he was out the previous
evening at a party; he took the time to indicate that he
did not drink at the party. He was asked to return at
11:30 due to technical difficulties; he complied. Prior to
establishing a baseline, the subject was asked if he had
showered/rinsed prior to his arrival. He indicated that he
had, the subject's underarms were wiped down with
distilled water.
(b) Following Baseline Record, Prior to Sample
Introduction: The subject described his mood with the fol
lowing selections on the adjective check list: restful,
tranquil, happy, calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and
relaxed.
(c) During Sample Introduction: No remarkable com
mentary was recorded.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 9
(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to Erotic
Condition; The subject picked following descriptors on the
adjective check list to reflect his mood: restful,
tranquil, calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and
relaxed.
(e) During Erotic Condition: The subject appeared to
be enjoying the erotic film.
(f) Following Stress Condition: The subject reported
his mood as excited, happy, comfortable, anxious, sexy,
relaxed, and horny on the adjective check list.
(g) Debriefing: During the debriefing session, the
subject reported that he was highly sexually aroused by
the film, sustaining an erection throughout the film; ac
cording to his self-report, the subject found the experi
mental procedure to be most pleasurable. When questioned
if he knew which condition was going to be employed prior
to the exposure, he indicated that he did not.
Physiological Record/Data. Five one-minute segments
from the physiological records produced by both Subject A
and Subject B were selected for comparison. Two one-minute
segments from the physiological record were selected for
Subject A and three one-minute segments were selected for
Subject B. The segments selected from the full
physiological record reflecting the different phases of
the study were: (a) Subject A during baseline, (b) Subject
A during the erotic condition, (c) Subject B during base
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
120
line, (d) Subject B during the introduction of the
axillary secretion, and (e) subject B during the erotic
condition (Physiological Record 3). For an examination of
the entire record, review Appendix E. The one-minute seg
ments were selected as representative of the record
produced during each phase of the complete record.
Data Abridgment and Analysis
From a comparison of the record produced by Subject B
during the baseline phase and the introduction of the
axillary secretion phase the following observations are
noted:
Psychological Report. No marked alterations and/or
changes in behavior during the procedure were noted.
EMG. There is an observable increase in muscle
tension seen when the baseline record is compared with
the sweat introduction record. This increase in muscle
tension is sufficient to be considered clearly observable.
Heart. The record from the chest lead (Lead I) shows
no changes in regularity and/or magnitude; the arm-to-arm
leads (V-2) record displays little difference with respect
to the same measures. The most interesting aspects of
these records are noted when compared with Subject A's
record produced during the stress condition. As can be
observed, during the erotic/stress period for Subject A an
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJECT A
121
19 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /nvlcm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
11:19 • I I : I • : ’ i • ; 11:20iiinMiiiiiiiiiin.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiLiiiimiiiiiiim------
6.45
■ ^ r o T >o r T Y N V ^ n r n r \ r -
Skin 95.8° F Room 72.0° F
BASELINE
P h y s i o l o g i c a l R e c o r d 3 . E r o t i c .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Physiological Record 3— Continued
CONDITION: EROTIC19 August 1985 .
oLLS“ DgoZDi n
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 Av/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
TI I
3.55
Skin 95.0° F Room 72.0° F
EROTIC
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 2 3
Physiological Record 3— Continued
CONDITION: EROTIC19 August 1985
OQI—OI I Iffl
</)
BASELINE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /Kv/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
* * /
12*14 t I i I ’ I 1 1 I 12:15 Hlntl Illlllll-----
m6.95
Skin 94.2° F Room 75.0° F
1 2 4
Physiological Record 3— continued.
CONDITION: EROTIC19 August 1985
<3LU” 3CQZDC0
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
[ a S00 rnAv/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
4-
12*20 12*21 ' ■ 1111111! n i n n 1111111 mil li i-- !- - -
4.20
Skin 93.8° F Room 75.0° F
INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected
from Subject A
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1 2 5
Physiological Record 3— Continued
CONDITION: EROTIC19 August 1985
mhoHICQZDCO
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 m/ev/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
.. .llll—i • y- k . IV'.
4.20
i ,2.50
Skin 93.4° F Room 74 .0° F
EROTIC
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42193519^^95
^
1 2 6
anormal heart rhythm was noted, which was not noted for
Subject B during Subject B's baseline record. When Subject
B was introduced to the axillary secretion produced by
Subject A under the erotic condition, Subject B started to
"echo" or "copy" subject A by producing a cardiac record
that appeared to be similar to that of Subject A's. Like
subject A, Subject B showed no unusual heart responses
during the baseline record. When Subject B's record taken
during the introduction of the axillary secretion is com
pared with Subject A's record taken during the erotic con
dition, Subject B's record appears to maintain the same
patterns produced by Subject A. The differences in Subject
B's baseline record when compared with Subject B's sweat
introduction record are observably different, including
some form of physiological emulation of subject A's un
usual cardiac record.
GSR. A drop from 6.95 on the baseline record to 4.20
on the sweat introduction record is noted; this drop is
judged to be an observable change from subject B's base
line record and the record taken during the introduction
of he axillary secretion produced by Subject A during the
erotic condition.
Respiration. An observable change in respiration is
noted, with subject B's breathing going from a regular
pattern noted during the baseline record to a more erratic
and deeper pattern of breathing during the sweat
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1 2 7
introduction record. The alteration in breathing is
clearly an observable difference.
Body Temperature. A drop in skin temperature from
94.2°F, taken during the baseline record, to 93.8°F during
the sweat introduction record, is registered; A comparison
of Subject B's sweat introduction record with the record
taken during the erotic condition for the same subject
shows a drop in skin temperature also. This drop in skin
temperature is also present in comparing Subject A's
baseline record with Subject A's stress condition record.
The drop in skin temperature is not sufficient alone to
suggest a clinical change in comparing the records, yet
with the decrease noted in Subject A's records and Subject
B's response to the actual stress condition, the
difference needs to be noted.
Findings and Interpretations
A comparison of the baseline record with the record
during the introduction of the axillary secretion suggests
that Hypothesis Number 3 should be rejected. Observable
changes are noted in all systems recorded.
Null Hypothesis Number 4
"There is no observable difference for Subject B in
the physiological baseline record and the physiological
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 2 8
record taken during the introduction of the axillary
secretion collected from Subject A, during the condition
labeled Repulsive."
The procedure to examine Null Hypothesis Number 4
took place on 21 August 1986, from 08:00 to 10:30. No
remarkable occurrences were noted during the execution of
the procedure.
Data
Psychological Report, Subject A (Donor Subject).
(a) Arrival: Subject A arrived at 07:30 and was
evaluated and appeared sleepy. It was noted that the
subject was oriented. The subject was asked if he had
showered/rinsed prior to arrival. He indicated that he
had, his underarms were wiped clean with distilled water
and changed into a set of gym clothes.
(b) Following Baseline Record: The subject reviewed
the adjective check list and chose the following terms to
describe his mood: restful, tranquil, happy, tired, calm,
comfortable, apathetic, relaxed, and indifferent.
(c) During Procedure: The subject did not appear
overly uncomfortable during the repulsion condition.
(d) Following Procedure: The subject selected the
following terms on the adjective check list: happy,
comfortable, and relaxed.
(e) Debriefing: The subject reported no unusual
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 2 9
feelings or thoughts during or following the stress condi
tion. When asked about the repulsive stimuli (color
slides), he indicated that he found them to be
"interesting," stating that he did not find the slides
overly distressing.
Psychological Report, Subject B (Recipient Subject).
(a) Arrival: Subject arrived at 09:00, alert and in
very good spirits, and stated that he was enthusiastic
about being there. It was noted that the subject had
appeared to have some nasal congestion. The subject was
questioned as to whether he had showered/rinsed prior to
his arrival to the lab. He indicated that he had, the
axillary regions were wiped clean with distilled water.
(b ) Following Baseline Record, Prior to Sample
Introduction: During the baseline record the subject
became quite uncomfortable, finding it difficult to breath
through his nose. The procedure was halted and the subject
was allowed to blow his nose. A second baseline was taken
and no remarkable information was noted. The subject
described his mood with the following descriptors on the
adjective check list: excited, restful, tranquil/ happy,
calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and relaxed.
(c) During Sample Introduction: The subject almost
immediately became agitated and yelled at one point, "Why
in the F... is this taking so long!;" he appeared more
hostile than agitated.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 3 0
(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to
Repulsive Slides/ Repulsion Condition; The following terms
were recorded as responses on the adjective check list:
confused, restful, tranquil, happy, calm, hopeful,
anxious, and relaxed. After listing these terms the
subject added an additional one: agitated.
(e) During Repulsion Condition: The subject
appeared not to be affected by the repulsive slides.
(f) Following Repulsion Condition: The subject
reported his mood as restful, repulsed, tranquil, calm
(taking a deep cleansing breath), comfortable, and relaxed
on the adjective check list.
(g) Debriefing: During the debriefing session, the
subject reported that he found the slides to be most
distressing. When he was asked if he was aware which
experimental procedure was going to be conducted on that
date, he indicated that he was aware it was going to be
the repulsive condition, since it was the only stress
condition left.
Physiological Record/Data. Five one-minute segments
from the physiological records produced by both Subject A
and Subject B were selected for comparison. Two one-minute
segments from the physiological record were selected for
Subject A and three one-minute segments were selected for
Subject B. The segments selected from the full
physiological record were: (a) Subject A Baseline; (b)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 3 1
Subject A during the stress condition; (c) Subject B
during the Baseline record; (d) Subject B during the
introduction of the axillary secretion produced by Subject
A; and (e) Subject B during the stress condition
(Physiological Record 4). The complete record can be found
in Appendix E. The one-minute segments were selected as
representative of the record produced during each phase of
the entire record.
Data Abridgment and Analysis
From a comparison of the record produced by Subject B
during the baseline phase and that of the introduction of
the axillary secretion phase the following observations
are noted:
Psychological Report. Upon arrival Subject B was
judged to be in good spirits; a marked behavior change
(yelling) was noted almost immediately after the sweat was
introduced.
EMG. No observable differences were noted.
Heart. No observable differences were noted in the
records from the chest lead (Lead I) or the arm-to-arm
leads (V-2). Noted was some "echoing" of Subject A's
unusual cardiac record, as outlined previously in the
sexual arousal condition.
GSR. A minor increase in GSR (7.20 to 7.60) was noted
between Subject B's baseline record and the record taken
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 3 2
21 August 1985
<<3LLi” 3CQ=>CO
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 A v/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
-------------1-— .................. .........— ------------------ —
®*21 iilmiliiiiiimlimlmilmiliHiliMiliiJmillitili1
. jiiL
limiu
0.84,__ ,
Skin 94 .6° F Room 70.0° F ( g
BASELINE
Physiological Record 4. Repulsive.
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SUBJECT A
Physiological Record 4— Continued
1 3 3
CONDITION: REPULSIVE21 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEARTChest Lead
| = 500 /ttv/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
8-30 ■ 11 n ■ 111111111 nlli 111 m I [i 111111 n 111111111111111 j 11 n 111.
4.60.
5.56
Skin 92.6° F Room 70.0° F
REPULSIVE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJECT B
Physiological Record 4— Continued
CONDITION: REPULSIVE21 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 ^ v /cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
9-45 ,i|||,i|||,i|,i,,||,ii|nii|||||||inllul|iniliiiiliiiim.9:46
I-
Skin 95.4° F Room 72 .0° F ©
BASELINE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJECT B
Physiological Record 4— Continued
CONDITION: REPULSIVE21 August 1985
EMG
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead
| = 500 /ev/cm
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
1 0 .0 2 iilim lnniniilim liiiiln iiliiiiln iilnn ln iilin iln 1 ,9 :2? .
7.60
.AA/WWVVYVYYVWiSkin 90.2° F Room 72 .0 ° F
INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected
from Subject A
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SUBJ
ECT
B1 3 6
Physiological Record 4— Continued
CONDITION: REPULSIVE21 August 1985
E M G
TIME LINE/Sec.
HEARTChest Lead
A iik .| = 500 m /»v/cm
- - Wp w Iw W W P
HEARTArm to Arm
— l i l m
GSR7.52
RESPIRATIONm w w w w w t
TEMPERATURE Skin 89.6° F Room 72 .0° F ©REPULSIVE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 3 7
during the introduction of the axillary secretion. A very
slight decrease in the GSR (7.60 to 7.52) was noted
between the record produced during the introduction of the
axillary secretion and the record produced when Subject B
experienced the stress condition, repulsion.
Respiration. Breathing patterns were observably
different for Subject B between the baseline record and
the record illustrating the introduction of the axillary
secretion; respiration during the introduction of the
axillary secretion was shallower and more rapid. A
comparison of the breathing record taken during the
introduction of the axillary secretion for Subject B, and
the record taken during the experiencing of the stress
condition by Subject B suggests a physiological movement
in a similar direction, as if the subject were experi
encing the same stress condition in a less intense fashion
when introduced to the sweat sample. The results of the
comparison of the entire respiration record are observably
different.
Body Temperature. A 5.2°F drop was noted. Subject B's
baseline record was 95.4°F; Subject B's temperature drop
ped to 90.2 F when Subject B was subjected to the axillary
secretion. In comparing Subject B's record taken during
the introduction of the axillary secretion to Subject B's
record taken during the time he experienced the repulsive
condition, a 0.6°F drop in skin temperature from 90.2°F to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 3 8
to 89.6°F is observed. The results show a marked dif
ference, since they reflect an alteration of the record in
the same direction.
Findings and Interpretations
A comparison of the baseline record and the record
during the introduction of the axillary secretion suggests
that Null Hypothesis Number 4 should be rejected. The
respiration changes noted in Subject B, as well as the
temperature changes between the Baseline record and the
sweat introduction record are sufficient to be considered
empirically significant. The "dramatic" behavioral
response (subject yelling) must be viewed with some
caution, since the subject was able to determine which
stress condition was going to be employed on this date.
Null Hypothesis Number 5
"There are no empirical differences among any of
Subject B's physiological records, taken during the
introduction of any of Subject A's axillary secretions."
Data
The data presented for evaluation is a comparison of
physiological records summarized in Table 1, Table 2,
Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.
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1 3 9
Table 1
Summary: Exercise Condition
E M Q
TIME UNBSec.HEART Chest Land
| m SOO/iilcmHEART Ami to Arm
CONDITION: EXERCISE 12 August 1985
1030 . . . . . . . . . .■... 10:21
QSR
tn
RESPIRATION- w v u u w M i r
TEMPERATURE SUnM.2»F Room 72.0*F @.... .
, 11341133TIME LINE/Sec.
Chest Lead
— m m w m m m M —Sfcfei B3S*P Boom W F 0
| m 500 MilanHEART Arm to Aim
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE SUflMJ’F Boom 76.0* P © BASELINE
SUntM’P Boom 70.0'P ©INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A
SUoOlS'P Boom 7UT F ®EXERCISE
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJ
ECT
B
SU
BJEC
T A
140
Table 2
Summary: Relaxation Condition
CONDITION: RELAXATION14 August 1985
E M G
TIME UNE/Sac.
HEART Chest Leadj ■ S&OaWcflt
HEART Arm to Ami
GSR
RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE SJUnSJ-O-F doom 78.0* S @
t/UAAAAAAAAAAA/----
SUnSSJ'F Doom MIPS ®E M G
TIME UNE/Sec.
■ ■■ •«" -..... ...
HEART Chest Lead| “ SOOav/anHEART Aim to Aim
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
P i t Illll lM _____ IIitittwwira iii
Skin 00.8* F Room 50.0* PBASELINE
WAAA/VVUVVVtA/VWlAAAA.
SUnflU'F Room C0.0*F (INTRODUCTION OP Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A
. amaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa, . AUn ML4*P Room Hfl*P
RELAXATION
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJ
ECT
B
SU
BJEC
T A
Table 3
Summary: Erotic Condition
CONDITION: EROTIC 19 August 1985
E M Q
TIME UNE/Sec.
HEART Cheat LoadI a 500* WanHEART Ann to Arm
QSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
'/-vvvvT'rivvVvv\--
S U noa j’ P doom 720* P ® SUn0S.0*P Room TJLO’ F
TIME UNEJSec.
HEART Chest Load| ■ S00A>vtem
SUn S3.fi* P Room 71.0* F
HEART Arm to Ami
RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE SUn 94.2*F Room 75.0*F ®
BASELINE INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A
S U nO lX 'F Room 74.0*F ® l
EROTIC
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SUBJE
CTB
SUBJE
CTA
Table 4
Summary: Repulsive Condition
CONDITION: REPULSIVE 21 August 198S
E M G
S l S I i i „ . i l , „ , i . . , i l . L „ t . . . . . . . . S-22_ _TIME UNE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead| n SQOvlan
HEART Ami to Ann
am.
RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE SklnM.0*F Room70.0*F
E M G
yua .....TIME UNE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead| ■ VM Milan
HEART Aim to Ann
GSR7.S0 — i f "
Skin >S.4'F Room 72.0’ F ©
(Vy/Yvmwwvvvw—SUn OOJ'F Room 724 'F @
•w y w w w w y w —SUn eo.C 'f Room 72X*P ©
RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE
DASEUNE INTRODUCTION OF REPULSIVEAxillary Secretion collected from Subject A
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645994
Table 5
Summary: Axillary Introduction All Conditions
143
Table 1 CONDITION: EXERCISE
12 August 19BS
EMGTIME LINE! Sec.
HEART Chest Load
005LU
HEART Arm to Arm-i§</)
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATUREINTRODUCTION OF
Table 2 CONDITION: RELAXATION
14 August 1965
TIME UNE/Sec.i
HEARTChest Lead| ■ 500*WcmHEARTArm to Arm
— m m m m —
GSR 0.301----- '
jraAAA/WVlrtM/VWVlAArt.RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE SUn 91.2* F Room 80.0* F ®Axillary Secretion collected (ram Subject A
INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected (ram Subject A
Table 3 CONDITION: EROTIC
19 August 1985
EMQTIME UNE/Sec.
HEART Chest Lead|* SOOm/bWcmHEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION
TEMPERATURE
r ’t
Skin 83.8’F Room 78.0*FINTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A
Table 4 CONDITION: REPULSIVE
21 August 1985
EMGTIME LINEISec.
HEART Chest Lead
HEART Arm to Arm
GSR
RESPIRATION ,A/\/YYYVVVVVWYVW__Skin 80.2*F Room 72.0*F ®TEMPERATUREINTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
144
Data Abridgment and Analysis
Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4 strongly
suggest physiological arousal of the subject when an'
axillary secretion produced under different stress
conditions is introduced. These tables support the same
findings stated in the first four hypotheses above in that
they are the same records offered in a different format.
Table 5 presents the physiological records taken for
Subject 3 during the introduction of axillary secretion
from Subject A during each of the four conditions.
Observable differences are noted for each record given in
Table 5; these differences are noted individually as well
in comparison to the baseline record for each condition.
Findings and Interpretations
A comparison of the baseline record and the record
during the introduction of the axillary secretion, as well
as a comparison of the records from all four stress
conditions, focusing on Subject B's record during sweat
introduction for each stress condition (Table 5), both
suggest that Null Hypothesis Number 5 should be rejected.
The findings strongly suggest that the body can and does
differentiate among types of sweat produced under
different stress conditions.
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1 4 5
Null Hypothesis Number 6
There is no discriptively significant aptitude noted
in the group subjects' ability to correctly identify a
sample as containing axillary secretion."
Data and Analysis
A pool of thirty-eight individuals examined different
sweat samples in a total of 124 trials; 81.5%, or 101
trials, were reported correctly as a sample of axillary
secretion. On 12 August 1985, 21 members (63.0%) of Group
1 (N=33) identified correctly the sample as human sweat.
On 14 August 1985, 21 members (34.0%) of Group 2 (N=25)
correctly identified the sample as human sweat. In Group 3
(N=32) on 19 August 1985, 29 (90.6%) members correctly
identified the sample as human sweat. On 21 August 1985,
30 members (88.2%) of Group 4 (N=34) correctly identified
the sample as sweat.
Table 6
Sample Discrimination
No. of N Correct
PercentAccurate
Group 1 (N=33) 21 63.0%Group 2 (N=25) 21 84.0%Group 3 (N=32) 29 90.6%Group 4 (N=34) 30 88.2%
Total trials=124 101 81.5%
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
146
Findings and Interpretations
An examination of the number of attempts where the
subjects responded correctly— i.e., where the sample did
contain axillary secretion— suggests that Null Hypothesis
Number 6 should be rejected. An aptitude is noted in the
group members' ability to recognize sweat.
Null Hypothesis Number 7
"There is no aptitude noted in the group subjects'
ability to accurately identify the gender of the sample
donor."
Data and Analysis
Eight-one and five tenths (81.5) percent (101
responses) of 124 trials identified the sample as axillary
secretion; sixty-three and three tenths (63.3) percent (64
trials) correctly identified the sweat sample as male.
Fifty-nine and three tenths (59.3) percent of the 64
responses identified the male smell as neutral and 39.0%
reported the male smell as being unpleasant. On 12 August
1985, 11 subjects (52.3%) of Group 1 (N=21) correctly
assigned the sample to a male donor. On 14 August 1985, 16
subjects (76%) of Group 2 (N=21) correctly assigned the sample to a male donor. Of Group 3 (N=29), on 19 August
1985, 17 subjects (58.8%) correctly assigned the sample to
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1 4 7
1985, 17 subjects (58.8%) correctly assigned the sample to
a male donor; and of Group 4 (N-30), on 21 August 1985, 20
subjects (66.6%) correctly assigned the sample of sweat to
a male donor (Table 7).
Findings and Interpretations
The mean averages from each of the four test groups
and the mean average of the aggregate total data from the
responses from all four groups suggest that Null
Hypothesis Number 7 is rejected. The ability of the group
members to cognitively distinguish a sample of sweat as
coming from a male donor is consistent with current
research literature.
Null Hypothesis Number 8
"There are no discriptively significant differences
noted in the group subjects' ability to identify the
actual condition the donor subject experienced in
producing each of the samples."
Data and Analysis
Sixty-three (63) percent of Group 1 identified the
sweat sample produced by Subject B during the exercise
condition as axillary secretion (Table 6). When the
members of Group 1 were requested to determine the stress
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148
Table 7
Axillary Sample Identification
Subjects 1 Response Pattern
■No. Correct PercentResponses Accurate
Group 1 11 52.3%(N=21)
Group 2 16 76.0%(N=16)
Group 3 17 58.8%(N=29)
Group 4 20 66.6%(N=30)
Totaltrials=101 64 63.3%
Subjective Pleasantness of Sample
Sixty-four (64) reactions to the male samples:
Pleasant 01.7%
Neutral 59.3%
Unpleasant 39.0%
condition that produced the sweat they responded as
follows: Rest 28.5%; Sexual arousal 19.0%; Work 52.0%; and
Fear.
Eighty-four (84) percent of Group 2 identified the
sweat sample produced by Subject B during the relaxation
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1 4 9
condition as axillary secretion (Table 6). When Group 2
was requested to determine the stress condition that
produced the sweat they responded as follows: Rest 23.8%;
Sexual arousal 4.8%; Work 57.1%; and Fear 14.2%.
Ninety and six tenths (90.6) percent of Group 3
identified the sweat sample produced by Subject B during
the sexual arousal condition as axillary secretion (Table
6). When the participants in Group 3 were requested to
determine the stress condition that produced the sweat
they responded as follows: Rest 17.2%; Sexual arousal
20.6%; Work smells 34.4%; and Fear 27.6%.
Eighty-eight and two tenths (88.2) percent of Group 4
identified the sweat sample produced by Subject B during
the repulsion condition as axillary secretion (Table 6).
When the members of Group 4 were requested to determine
the stress condition that produced the sweat they re
sponded as follows: Rest 20.0%; Sexual arousal 26.6%; Work
36.6%; and Fear smells 16.7%.
"Work" was the most frequently chosen classification
(see Table 8) regardless of which stress condition
produced the sweat sample. If the "Work" selection is
eliminated from Table 8, in column 2 "Rest" is the second
selection. In columns 3 and 4 a most interesting situation
is noted; in column 3 (Erotic) the second most frequent
response was "Fear," and in column 4 (Repulsion) the
second most frequent choice was "Sex."
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1 5 0
Table 8
Axillary Sample Classification
Sweat producing conditions:
Selection: 1. Work N=21
2. Rest N=21
3. Sexual N=29
4. Fear N=30
Rest 28.5% 23.8% 17.2% 20.0%Sex 19.0% 04.8% 20.6% 26.6%Work 52.3% 57.1% 34.4% 36.6%Fear 00.0% 14.2% 27.6% 16.7%
Findings and Interpretation
An examination of the data presented offers limited
results in attempting to answer if cognitive
discrimination of emotional/stress states is a human
ability. Group 1 selected the correct stress condition
(work) that produced that specific sample. Noted, however,
was the selection "Work" made by Group 1, was also the
most common selection made by all other groups, though
other stress conditions were employed in the production of
those samples. It is uncertain if humans may have an
ability to discriminate "Work" from this study, if "Work"
is the predominant sample selection regardless of the
stress condition. It is questioned if the choice of "Work"
was some unidentified artifact of the questionnaire, or
simply whether work smells are the odors our culture
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1 5 1
recognizes— as the smelling of this body secretion is
currently socially acceptable (health clubs, locker rooms,
etc.) and most noticeable. Since cognitive discrimination
requires repeated experience with a specific sample it is
most possible that only slight nuances of odor differences
exist in the different stress produced sweat samples, and
therefore discrimination may become difficult. The fact
that subjects selected "Work" as their primary choice
regardless of the actual stress condition could also be a
by-product of familiarity; as an observation, if the
selection of "Work" is disregarded for the other three
conditions listed on Table 8, the second choice suggests
some discrimination (i.e., "Rest" is selected for the
sweat produced under a relaxation condition; "Sexual
arousal" is selected for sweat produced under repulsive
condition; and "Fear" is selected for sweat produced under
the sexual arousal/erotic condition). Although the choice
for Group 3 and Group 4 does not correspond with the
identified condition that produced the sweat sample, the
psychoanalytic literature suggests that there is a strong
correlation between fear and sex (Freud, 1910), therefore
further investigation is warranted. There appeared to be
no influence of choice based on the subjective ratings of
the subjects on the "pleasantness" or "unpleasantness" of
the sample. Due to methodological constraints the mixed
results presented the Null Hypothesis Number 8 fails to be
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152
rejected.
Summary
Eight null hypotheses were established to examine the
question of the extent of human ability to differentiate
physiologically and to discriminate cognitively emotional
states through olfactory chemosensory communication. The
first four null hypotheses were rejected, which suggests
that humans are physiologically aroused by the sweat
productions of others. Null Hypothesis Number 5, dealing
with physiological differentiation, was rejected, which
suggests that humans have the ability to physiologically
differentiate among axillary secretions produced under
different stress conditions. The last three hypotheses
focused on human ability to cognitively discriminate
biological and emotional states from human sweat odors.
Null Hypothesis Number 6 was concerned with the ability to
distinguish an odor as axillary secretion; as the results
of the study support the idea that human subjects are able
to identify an odor as sweat, as such Null Hypothesis 5 is
rejected. Null Hypothesis Number 7 was concerned with
group members' ability to discriminate gender from the
sweat samples. The data suggests an agreement with current
literature, that is, individuals appear able to perceive
gender from the axillary sample; consequently, Null
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1 5 3
Hypothesis 7 is rejected. Null Hypothesis Number 8 was
interested with the group members' ability to discriminate
the stress conditions that produced a given odor. The
results were not conclusive; the data suggested that
members of the group were able to discriminate odor
produced under the stress condition of exercise, but not
under the other three stress conditions. Thus, Null
Hypothesis Number 8 cannot be rejected.
To conclude, the study suggests that humans appear to
have an ability to differentiate physiologically among
axillary secretions produced under different stress
conditions, and to discriminate cognitively axillary
secretion and gender from these same secretions, but due
to methodological constraints, the ability to identify the
actual stress condition was not shown. The issue if humans
can discriminate stress conditions from body odor needs
further study.
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C H A P TE R I V
SYNOPSIS AND CONCLUSIONS
Synopsis
Both scientific and popular literature offer a large
number of examples where animals have the ability to de
tect biological information from members of the same spe
cies through olfactory chemosensory communication. Such
information may pertain to, among other things, gender,
sexual receptivity, kin, and emotional states. The same
literature suggests that humans may have the this ability
of transmitting and receiving biological information
through olfactory chemosensory communication as well, yet
the medium or excreta (pheromone) for transmission has
been supposed to be apocrine gland secretion only, and the
mechanism for olfactory or airborne chemosensory reception
is not fully understood. The purpose of this study was to
examine the extent of human ability to differentiate phy
siologically and/or to discriminate cognitively different
human axillary secretions produced under different stress
conditions through olfactory chemosensory communication.
To examine these issues two studies were conducted:
the primary study focused on the human ability to
154
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1 5 5
differentiate physiologically fresh sweat produced under
four different stress conditions, with the recipient
receiving the sample via olfaction; the secondary study
centered on cognitive discrimination by means of the use
of smell of "aged" (held at 39° F for circa twelve hours)
sweat samples produced under different stress conditions,
through the medium of smell.
Primary Study
The subjects for this study were a single male dyad,
both in their twenties. One subject acted as donor subject
(Subject A) and the other as recipient (Subject B). The
donor subject (Subject A) was prepared so that his axil
lary secretions were collected on a cotton gauze pad. The
donor was attached to physiological monitoring devices and
then underwent a specific stress condition. After
stressing, the cotton pads which were presumed to contain
a fresh non-odoriferous axillary secretion, were removed,
sandwiched between two paper surgical masks, wrapped in a
plastic film, and refrigerated. Less than forty-five
minutes later the sample was removed from the refrigerator
and placed over the recipient subject's (Subject B) nose
and mouth. The recipient's physiological responses were
recorded on a polygraph. Later these physiological records
were compared to the physiological record of the donor
taken during the stress condition, the baseline record
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1 5 6
produced by the recipient subject prior to sweat intro
duction, and the physiological record produced by the
recipient subject during the introduction of the axillary
secretion. The four stress conditions employed were (1)
Exercise, (2) Relaxation, (3) Sexual Arousal, and (4)
Repulsion. Results. Subject B's physiological response
patterns changed when the sweat samples were presented.
The way in which these patterns were altered suggested
that some form of "biological empathy" took place. When
the recipient was exposed to the sample produced by
"Exercise," muscle tension increased slightly, his heart
rate increased, breathing changed, and skin temperature
increased. When the recipient experienced the sweat sample
collected during the "Relaxation" condition, muscle ten
sion reduced and heart beat became regular, GSR increased,
breathing became shallow and regular, and skin temperature
increased. When the recipient was offered the sweat sample
produced under the "Erotic" condition, muscle tension in
creased, heart rate became irregular and slightly increas
ed, the GSR decreased, respiration changed to deeper and
slightly, slower breathes, and skin temperature decreased
slightly. In this instance it was particularly notable
that the recipient subject began producing a cardiac
record that was similar to the cardiac record produced by
Subject A; this unusual arrhythmia was almost a direct
duplication of the donor's cardiac record produced during
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1 5 7
the erotic condition. When the recipient was exposed to
the sample produced under the "Repulsive" condition, physi
ological response patterns altered, with the muscle ten
sion slightly increasing, the heart rate and GSR increas
ing, respiration changing by becoming more rapid and shal
low, and skin temperature decreasing. In each case the
physiological response pattern of the recipient (Subject
B) was altered, displaying a similar but less intense
version of the physiological response pattern produced by
the donor subject when the donor experienced the specific
stress condition.
Secondary Study
A single subject was employed to provide the axillary
secretions produced under the four different stress condi
tions (same conditions as in the Primary Study): (1)
Exercise, (2) Relaxation, (3) Sexual Arousal, and (4)
Repulsion. Each sample was collected on a cotton gauze pad
placed in the axillary regions of the donor subject. After
the donor subject experienced a specific stress condition,
the sample was taken from the subject, put in a non-
odoriferous plastic container and placed in a refrigerator
for twelve to fourteen hours.
Each sample was presented to four groups which
smelled the sample and filled out a forced choice
questionnaire; the groups were formed from a core pool of
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1 5 8
38 subjects, as such some group members participated in
the identification of more than one sample. Results. The
information discriminated by the groups was limited to (a)
whether a container contained an axillary sample or not,
(b) the gender of the donor who produced the samples, and
(c) the stress condition the donor subject experienced in
the production of the axillary secretion samples. The four
groups, in 124 trials, identified the samples as axillary
secretion 81.5% of the time. The four groups, in 101
trials, accurately identified the donor as male 63.3% of
the time. The group subjects' ability to discriminate
stress states was not determined. The group members
accurately, with a high percentage frequency (52.3%),
selected "Work" for the axillary secretion produced under
the exercise condition; however, "Work" was the most
common response regardless of the stress condition that
produced the sample. If the response "Work" was dis
counted, the next greatest response given for the relaxa
tion produced sample was "Rest." in identifying the sample
produced under the sexual arousal condition the second
largest number of respondents chose "Fear." For the sample
produced under the repulsive condition the group's second
choice was "Sexual arousal."
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1 5 9
Conclusions
Owing to the differences in the nature of the two
studies, the conclusions and implications of each are pre
sented separately in this section. A general assessment of
the methodological constraints marking the research as a
whole and the directions for further study implied
therein.
Primary Study
The findings from the primary study suggest that
humans not only have the ability to differentiate physi
ologically emotional states via olfactory chemosensory
communication in a type of "biological empathy," but that
they appear to have little awareness of or control over
this phenomenon. Since fresh sweat produced under any
stress condition has little or no odor, and therefore is
not subject to conscious cognitive discrimination, humans
may have little control over this "echoing" of the
emotional states of others.
The implications and ramifications of the results of
the physiological differentiation study may be far-
reaching. The discovery of an unconscious ability to
emulate another individual’s emotional states could have
problematic as well as positive effects. This "biological
empathy" may play an important role in such fields as
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1 6 0
psychology, psychiatry and medicine. In the realm of treat™
ment, for example, it would affect the way in which health
care authorities house/hospitalize patients with mental
illness, or stress disorders, or individuals who are ex
periencing a stress-filled situation; it might affect the
way in which therapists set up their therapeutic environ
ment, e.g., air treatment during therapy sessions. On a
broader level it would influence the way in which we
regard tension and distress in family and marital therapy.
In the field of pharmacology, it opens up the potential of
creating a psychotropic compound that can be administered
through the olfactory system, thus avoiding some of the
problems that are present in standard pharmacology by by
passing the blood brain barrier. In criminology and soci
ology, a fuller understanding of this "biological empath-
ic" process has implications, both positive and negative,
for aiding in the function of crowd control. In politics,
labor relations and diplomacy "biological empathy" may
prove a useful tool in processes of mediation and conflict
resolution. The potential significance of this phenomenon
should not be underestimated.
Secondary Study
The results of the secondary study are in keeping
with current research literature, suggesting that the
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1 6 1
gender of an individual can be discriminated from body
odors. The nature of the ability to discriminate stress
states is unclear. From this study it is uncertain if
humans have the ability to discriminate cognitively stress
conditions; this type of discrimination takes experience/
learning, cultural factors also seem to play a consider
able role. The data suggest that stress states that are
culturally acceptable (i.e., work and exercise) might be
distinguishable, with less familiar stress smells (e.g.,
rest, sexual arousal, repulsion, etc.) may require direct
training and/or conscious experience to be differentiated;
but due to methodological limitations this cannot be
assertained from this study.
The most significant aspect of the findings noted
from the secondary study was a side issue, the length of
sample contact for cognitive recognition of gende.r. The
average length of sample contact was less than ten
seconds.
General Limitations of Study
A number of factors have the potential to threaten
the validity of this study, ranging from the fact that
human excreta are altered by almost every life condition
(e.g., food intake, medication, environment, health,
etc.), to the fact that neither the medium for biological
information transfer via an airborne transmission nor the
mechanism for reception of the airborne transmission is
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1 6 2
fully understood at this time.
However strong the research design may be, the pre
sence of so many unknowns is one of the greatest factors
to threaten this type of study. Moreover, because of the
small sample utilized, the findings can only be presumed.
Although the directions for future research posed by
the findings in the Primary and Secondary Studies are
numerous, the first and most important step must be rep
lication of the experiments, followed by an expansion of
the process. Only then will it be possible to investigate
other mechanisms more fully.
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Hennessy, M. B. (1977). Stress related odors in mice: Differential responsiveness to adult and infant cues (Doctoral dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 1977). D i s s e r t a t i o n Abstracts International, 37, 4208B.
Himes, N. E. (1970). Medical history on contraception. New York: Schocken.
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Kessler, S., Harmatz, P., & Gerling, S. A. (1975). The genetics of pheromonally mediated aggression in mice:I Strain sidderences in the capacity of male urinary odors. Behavior Genetics, 15, 233-238.
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Thompson, R. (1973). Foundations of physiological psychology. New York: Harper and Row.
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Zotterman, Y. (Ed.). (1963 ). Olfaction and taste. NewYork: Macmillan.
Zunino, P. A., & Landauer, M. R. (1980). Responses byyoung house mice (Mus Musculus) to odors from stressed
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versus nonstressed adult conspecifics. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 15, 419-421.
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Appendix A
Physiological Arousal Screening Form
178
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PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL TO OLFACTORY STIMULATION RESEARCH
SCREENING FORM
RETURN FORM TO;
ROBERT G. PERRA 11081 GREER DRIVE
RICHLAND, MICHIGAN 4908 3
(Addressed, stamped envelope enclosed.)
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PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL TO OLFACTORY STIMULATION RESEARCH
SCREENING FORM
This screening form has two purposes, firstly, to give you enough information to decide whether or not you are interested or able to participate in this study, and secondly to find out if you meet our requirements for participation in this study.
We thank you for giving us a few minutes of your time, to consider whether or not you are in a position to help us in this research project. If you are selected as one of the participants you may be committing yourself to between six (6) to fourteen (14) early mornings. Although we are somewhat flexible in the definition of "early morning", and are willing to attempt to work with you to set up a mutual timeframe, we are interested in gathering the information we need as quickly as possible, and as such you may have to find time between 7:00 AM and 12:00 noon (the exact time(s) will be agreed upon between the selected subject and the researcher) .
At this point, if you have not ruled out the possibility of being a participant, please understand that if selected you may be required to refrain from certain "product types" (deodorant soaps, shampoos, etc.) that you may use on a regular basis; to refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages, or taking any other recreational drugs (including, but not limited to, tobacco, etc.); to be required to keep a diary of your food intake; and/or to be required to engage in other tasks that may/can disrupt your normal lifestyle.
IF. AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO THE
RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.
IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE WILLING TO CONSIDER PARTICIPATION FURTHER, PLEASE CONTINUE READING.
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PARTICIPANT DUTIES/FUNCTIONS LEVELS/STAGES OF SCREENING
STAGE ONE
Participants will be asked to fill out the attached questionnaire; based on the answers given, and a random selection process developed, ten (10) subjects will be selected for this study.
TIME REQUIREMENT: 20 Minutes.
STAGE TWO
The ten (10) subjects selected will be asked to make arrangements for psychological testing and a screening interview, the arrangements can be according to the subjects schedule, but will be required to be completed within ten (10) days. From the "profiles" from the screening and psychological test, and by a random selection process we have developed, four (4) to six (6) subjects will be selected.
TIME REQUIREMENT: 1 1/2 to 2 hours for the testing.1/2 hour for interview.
STAGE THREE
Four . (4) to six (6) subjects will undergo further testing, where they will be asked to smell standardized samples of different substances. From that screening session, two (2) of the group will be selected for this study, the rest will be dismissed.
TIME REQUIREMENT: Two mornings (about 6 hrs.)
STAGE FOUR
The two (2) subjects will be "hooked up" to monitoring equipment, and once comfortable with the equipment attached to their body, each subject will be subjected to different visual and/or olfactory stimulation, and/or will be asked to engage in a specified physical activity (the visual material may include sexually explicit material and/or physically repulsive material; the physical activity may include relaxation and/or physical exercise).
TIME REQUIREMENT: Four to eight mornings (8 to 16 hrs.)
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IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO THE
RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.
IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE WILLING TO CONSIDER FURTHER PARTICIPATION PLEASE CONTINUE.
The rest of this form is broken into three sections, that will take about five (5) minutes to ten (10) minutes to complete. The first section deals with "consent giving"; second with general background; and third with habits.
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S E C T IO N I
RESEARCH CONSENT FORM PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL TO OLFACTORY STIMULATION
I, the undersigned, understand that participation in this research project is voluntary, and that I may withdraw my active participation at anytime, without notice; I also understand that withdrawal in no way will create a personal or academic liability, stated or.implied.
It is my understanding that the design of this research is considered "neutral" as judged by a team of psychologists and a "human subjects committee"; this means that this study has been judged to have little to no risk to the participants. It should be noted that no study can state nor imply total and complete absence of risk, and the participant takes responsibility in that understanding.
I further understand that no person other than the researcher shall be allowed to obtain any individual's scores or other data without the expressed permission of that individual. The information obtained will be utilized for research purposes only.
( ) I would or ( ) I would not like to request anabstract of the results of this research.
(If an abstract is desired please give following)
Name:
Address:
I certify that I am over eighteen (18) years of age, that I have read and understood the above statement; and I read a description of the activities that are involved; with this I give my informed consent to participate in this project.
Signature Date
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SECTION II
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON PARTICIPANT
1.) GENDER:( ) Male ( ) Female
3.) AGE:( ) 18 yrs to 25 yrs( ) 26 yrs to 30 yrs( ) 30 yrs to 40 yrs( ) 41 yrs to 55 yrs( ) Over 55 years old
5.) ETHNIC/NATIONAL/RACIAL ORIGIN:( ) Caucasian/European ( ) Caucasian/Mediterranean ( ) Middle Eastern/Mediterranean ( ) African/Mediterranean ( ) African/Black ( ) Oriental/Asian ( ) American Native ( ) Other/Mixed
2.) DO YOU SMOKE?:( ) Yes ( ) No
4.) GENERAL HEALTH ( ) Excellent ( ) Very Good ( ) Good ( ) Fair ( ) Poor
6.) EDUCATION:( ) Freshperson ( ) Sophomore ( ) Jr./Sr.( ) Grad./MA ( ) Grad./PhD ( ) Faculty ( ) Univ. Emply ( ) Other
7.) ANY CURRENT ILLNESSES FOR WHICH MEDICATION IS BEING TAKEN?( ) Yes ( ) No
9.) DO YOU HAVE ANY SINUS CONDITIONS?( ) Yes ( ) No
8.) ARE YOU ON ANY MEDICATIONS?( ) Yes ( ) NO
10.) DO YOU HAVE ACOLD / ALLERGY? ( ) Yes ( ) No
11.) I GREW UP MOSTLY IN THE FOLLOWING TYPE OF AREA:( ) Metropolitan/Industrial Area ( >500,000)( ) Urban Area (Large City, >200,000)( ) Urban Area (Small City, <200,000)( ) Suburban Area (Large City)( ) Suburban Area (Small City)( ) Town ( ) Rural Area
12.) HAVE YOU RECENTLY (last 14 days) USED ANY MEDICATIONS AND/OR DRUGS THAT YOU INHALED THROUGH YOUR NOSE?( ) Yes ( ) No
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PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS "TRUE" OR "FALSE"If you find it difficult to answer the question TRUE or FALSE, then please ask yourself if it is MOSTLY TRUE or
MOSTLY FALSE, and answer accordingly.
13.) I have a cough most of the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
14.) I am in just as good physical health as my friends.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
15.) There seems to be a fullness in my head or nose most of the time.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
16.) Everything tastes the same.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
17.) Peculiar odors come to me at times.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
18.) I am attracted by members of the opposite sex.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
19.) I believe my sense of smell is as good as other people's .( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
20.) My mouth feels dry aimost all the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
21.) On a scale of one (1) to five (5), with five (5) being the highest sense of smell, I believe my sense of smell to be measured as:
<most>( )"5" ( )"4" ( )"3" ( )"2" ( )" 1"<least>
22.) ****WOMEN ONLY****: Currently on birth control pills? :
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S E C T IO N I I I
The following questions are interested in personal habits, please remember that ALL information given is confidential, and its use will be used for research only.
23.) I have no medical skin conditions which I have been treated for within the past year.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
24.) I have never been diagnosed as having any medical disorders associated with taste and/or smell.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
25. )
26.
27. )
28. )
29. )
30. )
I have not used (and I am willing not to use for the duration of this study) any psychotropic (mind altering drugs/compounds) drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, for a minimum of seven days.
) TRUE ) FALSE
have not used any marihuana for a minimum of twenty 20) days, and I'm willing not to use any for the uration of this study.) TRUE ) FALSE
am not morally offended or repulsed by sexually xplicit materials.) TRUE ) FALSE
am sexually aroused by sexually explicit materials.) TRUE ) FALSE
have been diagnosed as having a mental condition.) TRUE ) FALSE
shower rather than taking a tub bath when I clean.) TRUE ) FALSE '
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31.) I clean (shower or bath) regularly (once per week or more).( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
32.) When I wash I use deodorant soaps and sprays regularly.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
33.) I regularly use body oils, after shaves, colognes, and/or perfumes.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
34.) I find that I sweat or perspire more than other people.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
35.) I have been diagnosed as having a heart condition or other related conditigns.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
IF AFTER FILLING OUT THE ABOVE QUESTIONNAIRE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS
FORM TO THE RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION..
IF AFTER FILLING OUT THE ABOVE QUESTIONNAIRE YOU ARE WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE PRINT YOUR
NAME, ADDRESS, AND TELEPHONE NUMBER BELOW, AND THEN RETURN THIS FORM TO THE RESEARCHER.
Name:
Address:
Phone:
THANK YOU
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Appendix B
Olfactory Discrimination Survey
188
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OLFACTORY DISCRIMINATION SURVEY
Tn.-i.A % eu for t uking a tow minutes of your tine to lielp wit;, this :: J3'id::ch j;o ject ; ,'o estimate that youi partic-ipAti.,.;: take a boot five (5) to (10) minutes.
Taj.:; r. :vcy will .,sl; of you three different categories or i iifot i.on. T h e fir at is "informational/concent g iving", w j i L ask fro hi you to sign a consent fcr.n,jiving y o m perni ssion for us, as researcher s , to use the j.‘af or i.-n y ju arc considering to provide us; the second is background information about you...your gender, age, so.:,- .nodical history i nformacion, ethnic background, etc.; the third i a s k i n g y o u to "smell" (on different days) four ' ■<) samp leu a,-si oivo, on the reporting sheet, one or; tv.o pieces of inCormatiop .
IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE W ILLING TO PARTICIPATE PLEASE TURN THE PAGE AND CONTINUE.
IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO THE RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.
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SECTION i
RESEARCH COMSENT FORM OLFACTORY DISCRIMINATION RESEARCH
I, the undersigned, understand that participation in this research project is voluntary, and that I may withdraw my active participation at anytime, without notice; I also understand that withdrawal in no way will create a personal or academic liability, stated or implied.
I!* i •••; vnd'"-s i nu i. u ,j that the design of: this ros.-.-.-srch is cons j us’-, si; "noutial" as judged by a team of psychologists and a " nuiaan subjects committee" ? this means thattills si uoy it,..'.' beer, judged o have little co no risk to thep a r r i pane s , it Id b'\ noted that no study can stateno,: imply total m o comp let a absence of risk, and toepart toi pan' td.as r . sponr, i.bility In tnat understanding,
lorv.s’ r uru ; ► sv.ap.d t'-ar. no person other than the i. s,.s;u r c:r.:•;».* li be « I i ov/tf. fi; so obtain any individual's -o. < .• r. or d c . u a w 1 1 : oor t the expressed permission ofrt- ii; iiiaiv . Tno infocniation obtained will be ut ilizedfar rosoar■ • . purposes only.
{__ )_ 1 w o u ld or {__ ) 1 would not like to request anabstract oi. the result.',; of this research.
(if in abstract is d o p ired please give f o .1 lowing )
■time :
An dross :
I certify that I am over eighteen (1 0 ) years of age, that I have read and understood the above statement; and I read a description of the activities that are involved; with this i give my informed consent to participate in this project.
Signature Date
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1 9 1
S E C T IO N I I
BACKGROUND IN F O R M A T IO N ON P A R T IC IP A N T
1.) GENDER:( ) Male ( ) Female
3.) AGE:( ) 13 yrs to 25 yrs( ) 26 yrs to 30 yrs( ) 30 yrs to 40 yrs( ) 41 yrs to 55 yrs( ) Over 55 years old
5.) ETHNIC/NATIONAL/RACIAL ORIGIN:( ) Caucasian/European ( ) Caucasian/Mediterranean ( ) Middle Eastern/Mediterranean ( ) African/Mediterranean ( ) African/Black ( ) Oriental/Asiaa ( ) American Native ( ) Other/Mixed
7.) ANY CURRENT ILLNESSES FOR WHICH MEDICATION IS BEING TAKEN?( ) Yes ( ) No
2.) DO YOU SMOKE?:( ) Yes( ) NO
4.) GENERAL HEALTH ( ) Excellent ( ) Very Good ( ) Good ( ) Fair ( ) Poor
6.) EDUCATION:( ) Freshperson ( ) Sophomore ( ) Jr./Sr.( ) Grad./MA ( ) Grad./PhD ( ) Faculty ( ) Univ. Emply ( ) Other
8.) ARE YOU ON ANY MEDICATIONS?( ) Yes ( ) No
9.) DO YOU HAVE ANY SINUS CONDITIONS?( ) Yes ( ) No
10.) DO YOU HAVE ACOLD / ALLERGY? ( ) Yes ( ) No
11.) I GREW UP MOSTLY IN THE FOLLOWING TYPE OF AREA: ( ) Metropolitan/Industrial Area ( >500,000)( ) Urban Area (Large City, >200,000)( ) Urban Area (Small City, <200,000)( ) Suburban Area (Large City)( ) Suburban Area (Small City)( ) Town ( ) Rural Area
12.) HAVE YOU RECENTLY (last 14 days) USED ANY MEDICATIONS AND/OR DRUGS THAT YOU INHALED THROUGH YOUR NOSE?( ) Yes ( ) No
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1 9 2
PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS "TRUE" OR "FALSE"If you find it difficult to answer the question TRUE or FALSE, then please ask yourself if it is MOSTLY TRUE or
MOSTLY FALSE, and answer accordingly,.
13.) I have a cough most of the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
14.) I am in just as good physical health as my friends.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
15.) There seems to be a fullness in my head or nose most of the time.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
16.) Everything tastes the same.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
17.) Peculiar odors come to me at times.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
18.) I am attracted by members of the opposite sex.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
19.) I believe my sense of smell is as good as other people's .( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE
20.) My mouth feels dry almost all the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE
21.) On a scale of one (1) to five (5), with five (5) being the highest sense of smell, I believe my sense of smell to be measured as:
<most>( )"5" ( )"4" ( )"3" ( )"2" ( )"l"<least>
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22.) ****W0MEN ONLY****: Currently on birth control pills? ( ) YES ----( ) NO
23.) Have you had your tonsiles removed?( ) YES( ) NO
24.) Have you had your adenoids removed?( ) YES( ) N O
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1 9 4
SECTION III
Directions: Along the table you will see a "smelling box",labeled either "Sample A", "Sample B", or so on. You are
asked to smell the sample and indicate whether the smelling box is "empty/no perceivable odor" (contains 'no real' sample), or "loaded" (contains a 'real' sample); if you
believe that the "smelling box" is "loaded", you are asked to identify the sample as being one of the following: "rest
smells", "sexual smells", "work smells", "fear smells"; once you have examined the sample, if you believe it to be"loaded", you are asked to label the sample as pleasant or
unpleasant, and then indicate if the donor was male orfemale.
SAMPLE A
( ) Emptv/No Perceivable Smells ( ) Loaded (Contains a 'real' sample.)
( ) Rest Smells ( ) Sexual Smells ( ) Work Smells ( ) Fear Smells
IF "LOADED" PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
( ) Pleasant Smell ( ) Neutral ( ) Unpleasant Smell
The sample came from a ( ) Male ( ) Female donor
SAMPLE B
( ) Empty/No Perceivable Smells ( ) Loaded (Contains a 'real' sample.)
( ) Rest Smells ( ) Sexual Smells ( ) Work Smells ( ) Fear Smells
IF "LOADED" PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
( ) Pleasant Smell ( ) Neutral ( ) Unpleasant Smell
The sample came from a ( ) Male ( ) Female donor
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1 9 5
SAMPLS C
( ) Empty/No Perceivable Smells ( ) Loaded (Contains a 'real' sample.)
( ) Rest Smells( ) Sexual Smells ( ) 'Work Smells ( .) tear Smells
I;- "l.OAf..;:;" PLEAS.-I ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
oasant Smell ( ) Neutral
Toe sample came from a ( ) dale (
SAMPLE D
( ) Empty/No Perceivable Smells ( ) Loaded (Contains a 'real' sample.)
( ) Rest. Smells ( ) Sexual Smells ( ) Work Smells ( ) Pear Smells
IP "LOADED" PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
( ) Pleasant Smell ( ) Neutral ( ) Unpleasant Smell
A'p. - samp le cant a I: com a ( j Male ( ) Female donor
PLEASE RETURN THE FORM TO THE RESEARCHER
THANK YOU
( ) Unpleasant
) Female donor
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Appendix C
Modified Psycho-Neurological Evaluation Form
196
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1 9 7
SCREENING EVALUATION FORM
Name:_____ File No.
Age:___________ D.O.B. D.O.E. _______
Height:______ Weight:____________
Marital Status: ( ) Single ( ) Married ( ) DivorcedSatisfied with lifestyle: ( ) No ( ) YesChildren: ( ) No ( ) Yes, ____ # M, _____# F
Occupation:________________________________ No. of Yrs. ______Satisfied with job: ( ) No ( ) Yes
PRESENTING PROBLEM(S ):
INTERVIEW/SESSION SUMMARY!
OTHER INFORMATION:
RAPPORT WITH SCREENER:< > EXCELLENT (Comfortable, information exchange)< > GOOD< > FAIR (Subject slightly uncomfortable and gaurded)< > POOR (No trust noted)
SUBJECT MOTIVATION:< > EXCELLENT< > GOOD< > FAIR< > POOR
80
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1 9 8
MEDICINES— PRESCRIPTION & OVER-THE-COUNTER
Name Dose Frequency
NOTED/REPORTED MEDICAL CONDITIONS < > None Reported.
< > Condition(s) Reported:
OTHER SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION < > None offered at this time.
< > Information offered:
SUICIDAL IDEATION< > None Noted; < > Issue specifically evaluated.
< > Suicidal Ideation Noted: Comment fully on back.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY< > None Noted.
< > Psychopathology noted, mild.< > Major psychopathy suggested,
further testing required.< > Personality Disorder noted,< > Situational/Developmental
problems noted.< > Developmental problems noted.< > Other issues and/or concerns
(note below):
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1 9 9
Normal
MENTAL STATUS IMPRESSIONS (Brief)
Note(s) Abnormal Findings
< >Normal/Alert
Level of Consciousness
< > Lethargic< > Stupor< > Coma
Comment;
< > 0 x 3
Orientation
< > Time< > Place< > Person
Comment;
< > Normal< > Normal< > Normal< > Normal
Language
SpontaneousConversationalArticulationContent
< > Abnormal/Comment< >< >< >
< > Normal
Affect and Mood
< > Depressed< > Blunted< > Flat< > (Hypo) Manic< > Agitated< > Euphoric< > Other (Explain)
Comment:
< > Appropriate
< > None noted
Thought Content
< > Inappropriate Comment (on back)
< > HallucinationType:
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200
(Thought content continued)< > None noted < > Delusions
Type:< > None noted < > Illusions
Type:
Coordination
< > Normal < > Impaired Comment (on back)
Fundamental Knowledge (Clinical judgement)
< > Normal . < > Impaired Comment:
Appearance
< > Normal Limits Clothes < > soiled< > wrinkled< > Not age approp.< > Other:
< > Erect Posture < > Slouched< > Other:
< > Steady Gait < > Stumbling< > Limping< > Shuffling< > Other:
< > Acceptable Grooming < > Not acceptable
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:< > No remarkable findings noted.
< > Remarkable findings (Comments below):
< > Mental Status Impressions NOT REMARKABLE No MS exam required
< > Findings suggest further information required, evaluate with MS exam
Therapist Date
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201
DIAGNOSIS< > No diagnosis offered.
< > DX: ICD-9 No.
Diagnostic rationale:
CLINICAL COMMENTS
DISPOSITION
< > Self referral (DX within therapist's scope of practice)
< > Referral (within clinic)
< > Referral (out of clinic)
->Referral:___________________________________________Commentary:< > None.
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202
MENTAL STATUS EXAM (Complete)
Memory
Immediate Recall-pigits Forward
2 5 9 < > Pass < > Fail8 1 6 4 < > Pass < > Fail7 3 9 2 5 < > Pass < > Fail6 2 9 5 8 4 < > Pass < > Fail
Reverse1 3 9 < > Pass < > Fail5 7 1 8 < > Pass < > Fail6 4 9 1 5 < > Pass < > Fail
Four Word Recall(Pen, Table, House, Dictionary)
Interval Number recalledImmediate________ ______5 minutes ______
30 minutes
Current EventsRecall two (2) major news events.
Event one < > offered < > noneEvent two < > offered < > none
Remote MemoryList past Presidents starting with
the most current (stop after six consecutive correct).
Number Correct
When were you born?Correct < > Incorrect < >
Approximate dates of World War II. Correct < > Incorrect < >
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2 0 3
New Learning Verbal RecallAlica, / a pretty / 6 year old
girl / sat patiently / awaiting the start / of the fireworks display. / However, once the fireworks began / she became afraid / covered her ears / and closed her eyes / and jumped / back into her father's arms. /
(Total memory passages = 12)Number correctly recalled _______Confabulations? < > Yes < > No
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS (Memory)
< > Normal < > Abnormal (Note comments on back)
General Information, Insight & Judgement
SimilaritiesHow are a baby and a midget alike?
< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
How are a paintbrush and a pencil alike?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
JudgementWhat should you do to protect
yourself during a severe thunderstorm?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
If you are in a boat and it begins to sink, what should you do?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
Why should you read instructions before mixing chemicals?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
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2 0 4
ProverbsA stitch in time saves nine.
< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
One shouldn't change horses in the middle of a stream.< > Correct < > incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
A drowning man will grasp at a straw.< > Correct- < > incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS (General Info, Insight & Judgement)
< > Normal < > Abnormal (Note comments on back.)
MENTAL STATUS ASSESSMENT
< > NO REMARKABLE FINDINGS< > ABNORMAL FINDINGS (note
c l i n i c a l r e m a r k s below?)
Therapist Date
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2 0 5
LATERAL DOMINANCE EXAMHAND
EYE
Preferred HandWith which hand do you*
Write < > Right < > LeftFlip a coin < > Right < > LeftUse a knife < > Right < > LeftThrow a ball < > Right < > Left
Total Right
Total Left
FOOT
With which eye do you:Look through a telescope
Aim a pistol
With which foot do you: Kick a ball
Step on a bug
< > Right
< > Right
< > Right
< > Right
< > Left
< > Left
< > Left
< > Left
DOMINANCEHandEyeFoot
< > Right< > Right< > Right
< > Not Remarkable.
< > Left< > Left< > Left
< > Mixed< > Mixed< > Mixed
Findings
< > Remarkable.
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2 0 6
CRANIAL NERVE
Olfaction (I)Peppermint
Right Nostril< > Detect< > Absent
CloveRight Nostril< > Detect< > Absent
Findings< > Not Remarkable.
< >
Left Nostril< > Detect< > Absent
Left Nostril< > Detect< > Absent
Abnormal findings:
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2 0 7
CRANIAL NERVES IX, X, and XII BULBAR FUNCTION
IX and X
< > Normal Svmetric Gag < > AbnormalReflex
< > Normal Speech Quality < > Abnormal
Desribe:
< > Normal Swallowing < > Abnormal
XII
< > Normal Protrude Tounqe < > AbnormalR < > L < >
< > Normal Tonque Symmetry < > AbnormalR < > L < >
< > Normal Tonque Appearance < > WastingR < > L < >
< > Absent Fasiculations < > Present
Findings< > Not Remarkable.
< > Remarkable (note below).
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Appendix D
Adjective Check List
208
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2 0 9
ADJECTIVE CHECK LIST
Choose the word(s) that most fit your present mood,
( ) Horrified
) Excited
) Confused
) Worn Out
) Restful
) Silly
) Repulsed
) Tranquil
) Happy
( ) Joyful
) Tired
) Calm
) Hopeful
) Fatigued
) Comfortable
) Apathetic
) Exhausted
) Disappointed
) Nervous
) Sensuous
Drained
) Anxious
) Sexy
) Ridiculous
(Passionate
) Relaxed
) Horny
) Indifferent
) Afraid/Scared ( ) Desperate
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Appendix E
Complete Physiological Record forSubject A and Subject 3
210
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211
CONDITION; EXERCISESUBJECT A
12 August 1985 0950 - 1040
RECORD NUMBER
Record Outline;
Baseline Exercise Resolution
Flow i— |
833 -
837/8839842500 ^
843
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CONDITION: EXERCISESUBJECT B
12 August 1985 1105 - 1150
Record Number: 844 - 855
Record Outline:
Baseline 846Axillary Introduction 848Exercise 851Resolution 854
Flow: (— | 500
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2 1 9
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CONDITION: RELAXATION
SUBJECT A
14 August 1985 0834 - 0944
RECORD NUMBER 1506-1519
Record Outline:
Baseline 1515Exercise 1517Resolution 1518
Plow ,-h 500
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CONDITION: RELAXATIONSUBJECT B
14 August 1985 0954 - 1055
Record Number: 1520-1531
Record Outline:
Baseline 1524Axillary Introduction 1524Exercise 1528Resolution 1530
Flow: I—\ 500
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CONDITION: EROTICSUBJECT B
19 August 1985 1200 - 1254
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21 August 1985 0800 - 0845
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