Physiological Differentiation and Cognitive Discrimination of ...

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Physiological Differentiation and Cognitive Discrimination of an Physiological Differentiation and Cognitive Discrimination of an

Olfactory Stimulus Produced under Stress Olfactory Stimulus Produced under Stress

Robert Gray Perra Western Michigan University

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PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND COGNITIVE DISCRIMINATION OF AN OLFACTORY STIMULUS

PRODUCED UNDER STRESS

by

Robert Gray Perra

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment for the Degree of Doctor of Education

Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan

August 1986

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND COGNITIVE DISCRIMINATION OF AN OLFACTORY STIMULUS

PRODUCED UNDER STRESS

Robert Gray Perra, Ed.D.

Western Michigan University, 1986

Humans may have ability to transmit, receive, and

react to biological information from other humans through

olfactory chemosensory communication. Two studies examined

human (1) ability to differentiate physiologically, via

olfaction, fresh stress produced sweat and (2) cognitive

discrimination, through smell, of "aged" stress produced

sweat. Four stress conditions were employed; (1) exercise,

(2) relaxation, (3) sexual arousal, and (4) repulsion.

Experiment I ; A male dyad participated— donor and

recipient. Donor was prepared to collect his axillary

secretion on gauze; following preparation donor was

stressed. After stressing, the gauze which was presumed to

contain a fresh non-odoriferous sweat, was removed,

sandwiched between two surgical masks, and refrigerated.

Within forty-five minutes the sample was placed over

recipient's nose and mouth and his physiological responses

were recorded on a polygraph. Recipient's polygraph record

during sweat introduction was compared with; (a) Donor's

record during the stress condition and (b) Recipient's


baseline record. Results: Recipient's physiological

responses altered when Donor's stress produced sweat was

presented (e.g., relaxation sample produced muscle tension

reduction, heart rate reduction, GSR increase, breathing

becoming shallow and regular, and a skin temperature

increase; erotic sample produced muscle tension increase,

heart rate irregularity and increase, GSR decrease,

respiration becoming deeper and slower, and a skin

temperature decreasing; etc.) In all cases Recipient's

physiological responses yielded a similar pattern as

Donor's response pattern from the same stress condition.

Conclusions; Findings suggest that humans have an ability

to differentiate physiologically stress states via

olfactory chemosensory communication in a form of

"biological empathy."

Experiment II; A single subject provided the stress

related axillary secretions. Each sample was collected on

gauze. Following donor stressing, the sample was removed,

placed in a container, and refrigerated for circa twelve

hours; following "ageing," a group smelled the sample and

filled out a forced choice questionnaire asking: (a)

whether the container contained a sweat sample, (b) the

gender of the donor, and (c) the stress condition for

sweat sample production. Results: (a) 81.5% correctly

identified sample as sweat; (b) 63.3% accurately

identified gender; and (c) Ability to discriminate stress


states was not determined. Conclusions. Results are

consistent with current literature.


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Perra, Robert Gray

PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AND COGNITIVE DISCRIMINATION OF AN OLFACTORY STIMULUS PRODUCED UNDER STRESS

Western Michigan University Ed.D. 1986

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ACKNOW LEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the efforts of numerous

individuals who have assisted and supported me in this

dissertation and in my doctoral program. Foremost, I am

grateful for the endurance my wife, Annie, has shown in

putting up with the absurdities of a doctoral program, and

ask forgiveness of my son Jimmy who couldn't understand

why daddy couldn't, "come out and play." I am thankful for

the patience and support of my parents, my wife's parents,

my siblings, my wife's siblings, my nieces and nephews, my

colleagues, and family friends who lovingly listened with

"interest" as I talked about this study "ad nauseum."

I ain likewise grateful for the assistance and

direction given me by so many individuals in my academic

development and in the preparation of this document:

A special thanks to my Doctoral Committee: my

advisor, mentor, and friend, William Carlson; Frederick

Gault, whose friendship, input and assistance proved

invaluable, and without whose help this study would never

have been accomplished; and Thelma Urbick and Robert

Oswald who encouraged ine to continue when reason suggested

otherwise.

ii


I would like to acknowledge and thank the following

independent readers and advisors, whose suggestions made

this document better: John Lynch, Joseph Sobota, Alistair

Smith, Henry Holzgrefe, and John Howie.

No document of this size would be possible without

the specialized assistance of research aides: The library

assistance provided by Helen Healy and the W.M.U. library

staff is noted and appreciated. Lastly the editorial

assistance of Paula Wissing is gratefully acknowledged.

Robert Gray Perra

iii


T A B L E O F C O N TE N TS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................... i i

LIST OF TABLES..................... ..................... Vi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS................................... Vi

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPH COLLECTIONS......................... vii

LIST OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDS.......................... vii

CHAPTER

I. LITERATURE REVIEW................................ 1

Preface......................................... 1

Introduction to the Problem.................. 2

Chapter Organization.......................... 5

Anecdotal Literature.......................... 6

Physiology of Biological Communicationvia Olfaction.................................. 14

Selected Studies............................... 36

Summary......................................... 60

II. METHOD............................................ 64

Chapter Organization.......................... 64

Purpose......................................... 64

Hypotheses...................................... 65

Subjects........................................ 67

Technical Considerations...................... 76

Procedure....................................... 89

iv


Table of Contents— Continued

CHAPTER

III. RESULTS.......................................... 94

Chapter Organization... ...................... 94

Introduction................................... 94

Method and Data Analysis...................... 95

Results......................................... 96

IV. SYNOPSIS AND CONCLUSIONS....................... 154

Synopsis........................................ 154

Conclusions..................................... 159

REFERENCES................................................ 163

APPENDICES................................................ 178

A. Physiological Arousal Screening Form.......... 178

B. Olfactory Discrimination Survey................. 188

C. Modified Psycho-NeurologicalEvaluation Form.................................. 196

D. Adjective Check List............................ 208

E. Complete Physiological Record forSubject A and Subject B ......................... 210

BIBLIOGRAPHY................ 273

I

V


L I S T OF T A B L E S

1. Summary: Exercise Condition..................... 139

2. Summary: Relaxation Condition................... 140

3. Summary: Erotic Condition....................... 141

4. Summary: Repulsive Condition.................... 142

5. Summary: Axillary IntroductionAll Conditions................................... 143

6. Sample Discrimination........................... 145

7. Axillary Sample Identification.................. 148

8. Axillary Sample Classification.................. 150

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. 1498 Woodcut/Mandrake Root...................... 8

2. 1588 Woodcut/Analogies Between Plantsand Animals....................................... 8

3. Chloe' Perfume.................................. 10

4. Jovan Cologne..................................... 10

5. Rhinecephalon and Gyrus Cinguli................ 26

6. Connections and Circuits of theRhinecephalon and Gyrus Cinguli................ 28

7. Procedure Outline................................ 92

vi


L I S T OF PHO TO GRAPH C O L L E C T IO N S

1. Shielded Chamber and Polygraph.................. 79

2. Sexual Stimulus.................................. 82

3. Repulsive Stimulus.............................. 83

LIST OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDS

1. Exercise.......................................... 100

2. Relaxation........................................ 110

3. Erotic............................................ 121

4. Repulsive......................................... 132

vii


C H A P TE R I

LITERATURE REVIEW

Preface

Until recently, our knowledge concerning human abili

ty to utilize olfactory information as a means of communi

cation has been confined to anecdotal material from folk

lore and the ethnographic literature. Olfactory communica

tion in animals is well-documented and is necessary to the

survival of the group; danger detection, reproductive rate

regulation, aspects of sexual receptivity, familial group

detection or recognition of non-group individuals, and

territoriality are among the areas in which olfaction

plays a demonstrated role. These observations, in addition

to the anecdotal material, have influenced the orientation

of the few studies we do possess regarding human

olfaction. The purpose of this literature review is to

examine the possibility and potential of communication of

emotional states between humans, via chemically mediated

stimuli, presumably detected by olfactory structures anal

ogous to those we know are used in sub-human species.

1


2

Introduction to the Problem

The importance of olfaction as a means of chemo

sensory communication (both between individuals, as well

as for social regulatory purposes) among non-human mammal

ians is well established in the literature (Doty, 1981).

The probability that olfaction plays an important role in

the chemosensory communication of humans is strongly sug

gested in much of the research on humans, and in some of

the literature the role of olfaction is taken as axiomatic

(e.g., Wilson, 1970). Although human chemosensory commu

nication through olfaction is strongly suggested or as

sumed, systematic and conclusive research does not exist;

as a consequence, the limits of this phenomena are not

clea'rly delineated. The research that does focus on humans

lags behind the animal research.

It has been suggested that the "research lag" is due

to the subordinate place human olfaction has been given in

relation to the other senses, as well as to the continual

debate over the relative importance of olfaction in human

social interactions (cf. Bloch, 1934; Doty, 1976; Ellis,

1936; Kiell, 1976; Owen, 1980; Stoddart, 1982). Implicit

in the debate process concerning the relative importance

of olfaction is the inability of the scientific community

to come to an agreement on basic concepts such as


3

olfaction (cf. Amoore, 1963; Geldard, 1972; Gesteland,

Lettvin, Pitts & Rojas, 1963; Tanabe, lino, & Takaga,

1975), emotion (cf. MacLean, 1958; Papez, 1938), stress

(cf. Goldberger & Breznitz, 1982; Kutash & Schlesinger,

1980; May, 1977; Selye, 1980; Selye, 1982), and

communication (cf. Bastian, 19 68; Batteau, 1968;

Burghardt, 1970a; Frings & Frings, 1964; Klopfer & Hatch,

1968; Lorenz, 1955; Mehrabian, 1969; Scott, 1968; Sebeok,

1968; Skinner, 1966; Stevens, 1950; Tavolga, 1968).

Ziporyn (1982) points to other reasons for the research

lag: (a) the anatomy of smell is extremely complicated,

and "the ... olfactory rods and sustentacular cells,

located in the olfactory cleft at the top of the nasal

cavity, were not even localized until the 19th century"

(p. 228); (b) "relatively little is known about therapy

for these conditions" (disorders of smell), and physicians

who hear patients' complaints dismiss them by telling

their patients to "live with" their problems (Ziporyn,

1982, p. 227). Ziporyn implies that research is linked to

clinical interest, which is frequently associated with

specific issues and questions.

There is little question that during the past several

decades there has been increased interest in the interre

lationship between exocrinology (olfaction) and endocrin

ology (chemical regulators in the body). These interests


4

appear to be tied to the clinical needs of specific

disciplines rather than to the systematic acquisition of

knowledge in the global sense. For example, in medicine,

research has focused on the problem and use of smell for

d i a g n o s t i c p u r p o s e s : p h y s i c a l d i a g n o s i s : e.g.,

d i ph t h e r i a --" s w e e t i s h ", diabetic coma-- "fruity",

scurvy— "putrid", yellow fever— "butcher shop", typhoid

fever— "freshly baked brown bread", etc. (cf. Farber,

1978; Hayden, 1980; Liddell, 1976; Moschella, Pillsbury, &

Hurley, 1975), and psychiatric diagnosis: e.g., depres

sion, schizophrenia, etc. (cf. Bradley, 1984; Brass, 1970;

Liddell, 1976; Parkinson, 1969; Smith St Sines, 1960; Smith

& Thompson, 1969); in psychology, the interest in the in

terrelationship between exocrinology and endocrinology can

be seen in research on familial recognition (cf. Altmann &

Vinsel, 1977; Hall, 1966; Porter & Moore, 1981; Schleidt,

Hold St Attili, 1981), the effects of smell on performance

(cf. Cowley, Johnson & Brooksbank, 1977; Doty, Green, Ram

& Yankell, 1982; Rotton, 1983), and menstrual synchrony

(cf. Graham St McGrew, 1980; McClintock, 1971; Quadagno,

Shubeita, Deck St Francoeur, 1981), etc.; while in social

anthropology the issue emerges in discussions of the regu

lation of territorial and social space (cf. Calhoun,

1962a; Calhoun, 1962b; Christian, 1963; Hall, 1966;

Lorenz, 1955). Furthermore, the question appears in the


5

fields of pharmacology, in work on the control of speci

fied affective disorders (cf. Liebowitz et al., 1985;

Mellman & Davis, 1985); and in occupational therapy, in

studies regarding the stimulation of the nervous system

(cf. Fox, 1966; Schwartz, 1979).

Animal studies have clearly and systematically demon

strated that most animals are able to determine informa

tion from body odor related to species and subspecies (see

Otte & Cade, 1976); kinship (cf. Hennessy, 1977; Kallquist

& Mossing, 1982); gender (cf. Connor, 1972; Drewett &

Spiteri, 1979), reproductive state (cf. Drewett & spiteri,

1979; Goddard & Beilharz, 1984); and emotional state (cf.

Collerain, 1978; Goddard & Beilharz, 1984; Zunino &

Landauer, 1980). Yet, studies on humans have left many of

these areas unexplored, so that information is limited

(Doty, 1981; Hold & Schleidt, 1977).

Chapter Organization

"Despite the relatively limited amount of information

on odor communication in humans,... studies ... suggest

that humans, like many mammals, have the potential for

communicating basic biological information via the smell

medium" (Doty, 1981, p. 373). The study that follows this

chapter focuses on the extent of physiological and cogni

tive discrimination of this "potential." This review


6

examines the following areas: (a) anecdotal material

concerning the use of human secretion and excreta within

socialinteraction; (b) the physiological mechanisms of

communicating biological information via the olfactory

medium; (c) a review of selected studies which are

concerned with discriminating/communicating gender and/or

family recognition and/or emotional states; and (d) a

commentary on the research presented and its potential

pitfalls.

Anecdotal Literature

Folklore and customs are the common sense of a

people, the collective folk-belief of a society (Jung,

1934). A review of the anecdotal literature offers a

glimpse into the system of thinking shared by a socio

cultural group. Such a review offers a historical and

cross-cultural context in which to view the scientific

literature presented later in this chapter. Studies by

social anthropologists reporting on folklore and customs

show that many societies maintain that human odors from

excreta (i.e., urine, feces, sweat, etc.) have the power

to alter :he recipient's emotional state (cf. Davenport,

1965; Delaney, Lupton, & Toth, 1977; Himes, 1970). So

strong is this belief that when the actual human secretion

is not used, organic and mineral preparations are utilized


7

to emulate, enhance, or mask the basic human odor(s). The

use of human excreta predominates, and these, along with

the organic and mineral human-like preparations, are em

ployed when basic human needs, such as protection, heal

ing, and/or basic mating behavior— either in a religious

or social context— are at issue.

Aphrodisiacs and Medicinals

Aphrodisiacs and medicinals that manifest "human or

human-like" properties have long been used (cf. Culpeper,

1826; Stark, 1980; Thomson, 1978). In Europe during the

Middle Ages it was the appearance of the plant or other

organic and/or inorganic substance (animal, human, or

mineral) that was the decisive factor in proving the

efficacy of the substance; those plants that in some way

resembled the human body (in whole or part) (e.g., man

drake root, belladonna, etc.), were accepted as effective

(Illustration 1).

The most noted formulation of this kind of logic was

developed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588. Known as

the "Doctrine of Signatures" (Thomson, 1978), it drew

strong analogies between plants and animals, and sug

gested that consuming a plant that resembles an animal

would produce the qualities of that animal (Illustration

2); in the case of plants that resemble human parts,


Illustration 1. 1498 Woodcut/Mandrake Root: For the Middle Ages, a plant's appearance was decisive. The roots of the mandrake (Mandragora officinarium) resemble a human body, and often exaggerated in drawings of the plant, such as this fantastical woodcut from an herbal of 1498. (Thomson, 1978, p. 141).

Illustration 2. 1588 Woodcut/Analogies Between Plants and Animals: Giambattista della Porta's treatise on the Doctrine of Signatures draws analogies between plants and animals, suggesting that consumption of a particular plant would make a person either more energetic or calmer (Thomson, 1978, p. 143).


9

produced the qualities of that body part.

This Doctrine of Signatures was extended by many to

include smells. Thus, substances that contained smells

that were classified as "human-like" (e.g., musk, can

nabis, crushed fish parts, etc.) were frequently used as

medicinals and sexual enhancers.

It is uncertain which variable— the association with

the body part or the association with the smell— was more

important in the development or reinforcement of this sys

tem of logic, but the same comparisons are used today in

the "modern" advertising of aphrodisiacs, perfumes, and

medicinals (Illustration 3 & Illustration 4).

As an aside, many of the herbs used in the past

because of their likeness to animals and/or humans have

been studied and found effective to some degree and are

used in Homeopathic Medicine and Natural Medicine (cf.

Boyd, 1981; Grieve, 1931; Julian, 1979; Pratt, 1980;

Stark, 1980).

Fish Odors to Attract Women

Davenport (1965) reports that some Southwestern

Pacific men use fish preparations that have a smell

similar to the odors produced by vaginal secretions

interacting with semen, as a method to attract women.


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Illustration 3. Chloe' perfume: Note the stopper. The left side of the stopper depicts the clitoral hood and the right side of the stopper depicts the penis gland.

Illustration 4. Jovan cologne: the bottles depict male and female figures.

1 1

The Smell of "Calm Fear"

Several years ago, while in England, a tavern philos

opher expounded on local folklore. The resident stated

that local mythology maintained that the Hounds of

Dartmoor, or the Beasts of the god Wotan, would track

their enemy by the smell of their enemy's hate. When the

Hounds attacked, they spared the faithful because of the

smell of "calm fear" that they exuded. The faithful could

ensure the Hound's accuracy by using a preparation of

ethanol and lavender. It was propounded that drinking this

concoction would produce a sweat that would "calm

animals," During the conversation a local veterinarian

added the information that this was also a preparation

that new veterinarians fearful of a certain animal would

use prior to treating that animal.

No published accounts on any mythology that corre

sponded with the tavern philosopher's tale could be found,

yet parts of his story are familiar to the culture of the

region. Writers in the area have discussed demonic dogs

and beasts (see Doyle, 1953), and Wotan, the Old High

German form of the Scandinavian god Odin (Bulfinch, 1979),

has one or more Celtic quasi-equivalents (e.g., the god

Dagda or the god Lug; see Larousse, 1968 ). The point of

this anecdote lies not in the accuracy of the myth, but

rather in the medicinal recipe offered for "calm sweat."


1 2

The use of lavender in the treatment of nervousness, neur

asthenia, states of exhaustion, and sleeplessness have

long been known; recently lavender has been analyzed for

its tranquilizing effect and found to have some signif

icant tranquilizing properties (Thomson, 1978). Empirical

observation and scientific research strongly suggest that

body secretions are altered in smell, taste, content, and

viscosity by food and drug intake (cf. Goth, 1978; Guyton,

1986; Hopson, 1979; Sastry, Buck, Janak, Dressier & preti ,

1980; Williams & Warwick, 1980). Alcohol consumption in

itially will flush the skin and promote a sweat (Liska,

1981). Viewing the ethanol/ lavender concoction in light

of this limited amount of information suggests that the

preparation might have some efficacy.

European Christian Modesty

The reason for extreme modesty in European Christian

sects was to disrupt the efficacy of human scent and avoid

the visual stimulus presented by the naked body. This

stance grew out of the need to combat non-christian rel

igious traditions and specifically, the Central European

cult of the Goat god. The liturgy of this Goat god cult

endorsed nudity and sexual expression (cf. Stark, 1980;

Summers, 1974) which the Christian found offensive.


1 3

Sudan Love-Dance

In Nubia in the Sudan, during the annual love-dance,

the young female selects her mate by lifting one of her

legs and placing it on the shoulder of her chosen male who

is seated; this brings her ungarmented genitals close to

the face of the seated male. Since social etiquette

forbids the male to look upon the female genitalia, it is

supposed that an olfactory signal is being transmitted

(Morris, 1985). Most likely a bonding imprint of some

formulation is being attempted (see Morris, 1969),

Arab Evaluation of Acceptability

In Arab countries, human smell is used to judge the

"goodness" or "acceptability" of a potential mate. To en

sure a good marriage, an intermediary may request to smell

the girl. If she "does not smell good/' he may reject her

for marriage. This "smelling" also extends to everyday

forms of Arab interaction; males are taught to "breathe

onto" the person with whom they are interacting, which

allows for mutual assessment (Hall, 1966).

English Seduction Custom

Morris (1985), commenting on an English folk-custom

reports, "If a young man wishes to seduce a girl at a

dance he must place a clean handkerchief in his armpit,


1 4

beneath his shirt, before starting to dance. Afterwards he

takes it out and pretends to fan himself with it in an

attempt to cool off. In fact what he is doing is wafting

his apocrine scent over the girl, who is promptly seduced

by its fragrance" (p. 140). Although this activity could

be interpreted in terms of nonverbal communication (see

Knapp, 1973, p. 220), such as a "sexual intention move

ment" (Morris, 1977, p.246) that may function as an

"invitation to sexual intimacy" (Morris, 1971, p. 35), in

the above case, Morris connects the activity with odor

transmission and odor reception.

Physiology of Biological Communication via Olfaction

Human Body Secretions and Odor Production

The sources within the human body that can provide a

medium for the communication of biological information are

varied and include breath, gastrointestinal gasses, and a

number of other excreta (i.e., urine, saliva, milk, sweat,

etc.). Studies concerning human to human chemosensory ol

factory communication tend to concentrate on skin secre

tions. Although there are studies that do not focus on

skin secretions, they are the exceptions to the trend.

This review of human body secretions shall concentrate on

studies dealing with skin secretions.


1 5

Secretions to the skin surface have three primary

sources: (1) eccrine sweat glands; (2) sebaceous glands;

and (3) apocrine sweat glands. Each different gland type

produces an unique secretion that has a specialized

service function. Odors are formed from the bacterial de

composition of skin secretions (Moschella, Pillsbury, &

Hurley, 1975; Williams & Warwick, 1980). Although the

enact secretions and exact bacteriological agents involved

with body odor production are not fully understood, the

bacterial interaction with the apocrine gland secretion

has been identified as being most likely an important

source of body odor (Labows, 1979).

Eccrine : The primary service function of the eccrine

glands is thermoregulatory. These glands respond to any

rise or drop in ambient temperature, or an increase or

decrease in skin temperature caused by physiological

stressors or psychological stressors (Broek, Bradshaw, &

Szabadi, 1984; Sugenoya, Ogawa, Asayama & Miyagawa, 1982).

The eccrine glands are distributed over almost the entire

body surface, independent of the hair follicles. Their

secretion is made up of inorganic salt and amino acids

suspended in an aqueous solution. The eccrine gland is

frequently referred to as the "sweat gland."

Sebaceous: The service function of the sebaceous

glands is to keep the skin supple and waterproof. These


1 6

glands are distributed over the body and are specialized

at all points of entry. The sebaceous glands secrete skin

lipids.

Apocrine; The specific service function of the

apocrine glands is unclear (lloschella et al., 1975). In

many mammals the service function of the apocrine glands

appears to be two-fold: (1) thermoregulatory— yet unlike

the case in non-human mammals, the apocrine sweat glands

in humans do not appear to serve a thermoregulatory

function (Doty, 1981); and (2) social regulatory and

communicatory— yet in humans this function is only

suggested and is currently under investigation (Williams

and Warwick, 1980). The apocrine glands seem to excrete

maximally during stress conditions (cf. Doty, 1981; Sastry

et al., 1980; Sugenoya et al., 1982), and Sastery et al.,

(1980) report that the apocrine gland in the axillary

region sweats freely in response to emotional stimuli. It

is postulated that the sweating mechanism of the apocrine

is under the control of the hypothalamus and the autonomic

nervous system and is either triggered by adrenergic

nerves or adrenaline (Evans, Smith, & Weil-Malherbe,

1956). Recently one clinician has written that, despite

the apocrine glands' "close embryological relation to

sweat [eccrine] glands, [they] are controlled by


1 7

are controlled by the sympathetic [thoracolumbar] centers

of the central nervous system rather than by the para

sympathetic [craniosacral] centers" (Guyton, 1986, p. 691)

( [ ] within quote added for clarification).

The apocrine glands are localized in seven parts of

the body— the axillary region, the external auditory

canal, the eyelids, the anal area, the areola and nipple,

and in the female, the labia minora, and in the male, the

prepuce and scrotum. Their secretions vary according to

their anatomical positions (Williams & Warwick, 1980).

"The quantity of apocrine secretion is quite small, even

in the axilla where the apocrine glands are most numerous"

(Moschella et al., 1975, p. 50). "In the axilla, the

glands become distended with a proteinaceous milky fluid

containing various organic compounds including steroids"

(Williams & Warwick, 1980, p. 1226). The apocrine glands

develop in close association with hairs and hair duct-work

systems. "Apocrine glands are tubular in form, having an

extensive coiled secretory portion which may be up to two

millimeters across in in larger examples, leading into a

narrower straight secretory duct which runs parallel to

neighboring hair follicles" (Williams & Warwick, 1980, p.

1226 ) .

The apocrine glands differ from eccrine and sebaceous

glands in that the apocrine are localized, appear after


1 3

puberty, are larger in the male than in the female, and

show involutional changes related to each menstrual cycle

in the female. Unlike the eccrine and sebaceous glands,

which tend to be the same among members of different

races, apocrine glands are more numerous in Negros than in

Caucasians (Homma, 1926) and are larger in Blacks than in

Whites (Doty, 1981; Hurley & Shelley, 1960; Moschella et

al., 1975; Thomas, 1975). Orientals, on the other hand,

lack apocrine glands in the axillary region almost

entirely (Morris, 1985).

Odor intensity from the bacteriological reaction with

the secretion from the apocrine gland is directly related

to gland size (Doty, 1981). The transmission quality is

affected by the quantity of surface area. Hair functions

as a trap for apocrine secretions and thus provides a way

of expanding the surface area for odor transmission (Doty,

1981; Morris, 1985).

Different opinions exist as to the odoriferous

quality of apocrine sweat as it appears on the skin.

Moschella et al. (1975) clinically report, "Within the

duct, apocrine secretion is sterile and odorless" (p. 50).

Leyden, McGinley, Holzle, Labows, and Kligman (1981) re

port that when the sweat appears on the surface of the

skin it is both sterile and odorless. Williams and Warwick

(1980) maintain that there is a "naturally occuring odour"

(p. 1226). And Guyton (1986) writes, "The apocrine glands


1 9

secrete a thick, odoriferous secretion" (p. 691). All

sources appear to agree that the cause of the odor is bac

terial interaction with the apocrine sweat, but they seem

to differ as to when the contamination begins. No inform

ation is offered on the speed of the bacteriological de

composition and odor development. In an informal, sub

jective, unpublished examination of this author’s own

axillary secretion, no odor was observed in fresh axillary

secretion. Two samples produced under physical exertion

(jogging in place) were collected from the axillary region

on star lie 4 x 4 gauze pads. Each sample was placed in an

airtight non-odoriferous container. One sample was left to

sit at room temperature and the other was refrigerated. A

recording sheet that had a scale from one (1) to fifteen

(15) was used, with one (1) meaning no odor and 15 meaning

repulsive. Each sample was examined every five (5) minutes

for the first hour, every thirty (30) minutes for the next

six (6) hours, and then every hour for an additional seven

(7) hours. The sample left at room temperature (76°F)

developed a nondescript odor at ten (10) minutes; a char

acteristic musky and urinous scent was noted at about 25

minutes and became stronger as time went on. After three

hours the odor was clearly identifiable as body odor (no

longer sweet), while after five hours the sample was

subjectively rated as repulsive (rated at 15), and at 14


2 0

hours the odor was noted to be even stronger and extremely

sour with a decaying smell. Holding a sample at a refrig

erated state (about 39°F) slowed down the odor— producing

process. At about one hour the nondescript odor noted at

ten (10) minutes in the non-refrigerated sample was ob

served. At nine (9) hours the odor level recorded at 25

minutes was observed, and at 13 hours the odor level re

corded for the room temperature sample at about one (1)

hour was observed. These data should be viewed with great

scepticism, but in the absence of research to the con

trary, this information has some limited use and purpose.

The exact microflora that interacts with the milky

colored apocrine secretion of protein and carbohydrates

that provides the distinctive body odor have not yet been

differentially isolated, but research has provided some

significant clues. Two odorous steroids (adrosterone and

androstenol) have been detected and are considered import

ant in contributing to the axillary odor (Bird & Gower,

1980). Leyden et al. (1981) have identified the resident

microorganisms that, when allowed to interact with apo

crine sweat are believed to aid in creating the distinc

tive body odor: a mixture of micrococcaceae, aerobic

diphtheroids, and propionibacteria. In the Leyden study,

the diphtheroids were identified and suggested as the most

significant produce in the production of the typical body

odor.


2 1

Olfactory Chemosensory Reception in Humans

Little agreement exists as to the nature, form, and

method of chemical communication in olfaction. Opinions

range from the view that chemical communication is

mediated through the organum vomeronasal (Jacobson's

Organ) without the use of smell (a form of pheromone

theory), to the idea that chemical communication can occur

beyond the range of human smell and is processed through

the olfactory mechanisms (odor theory— continuous plane; a

form of pheromone theory), to the notion that chemical

communication is the transfer of information through odor

cues (learning theory). While some studies do not use the

terms "odor transfer" in their examinations of olfactory

communication (e.g., Graham & McGrew, 1980; McClintock,

1971; Quadagno et al., 1981; and others), others are based

on the assumption that odor plays a part in the olfactory

chemosensory communication process (e.g., Bloch, 1934;

Doty, 1981; Fox, 1966; Hold & Schleidt, 1977; Owen, 1980;

Parkinson, 1969; Porter & Moore, 1981; Russell, 1976; and

others). The largest share of the current research stems

from the premise that odor is or must be involved.

Organum Vomeronasal Chemosensory Reception. The

vomeronasal organ has been the object of dispute since its

identification in the early nineteenth century. Found in

every mammal except the porpoise, it has been considered


2 2

by some to be a vestige, and by others to be the sensory

receptor for pheromones. Its anatomical placement, just

above the vomeronasal cartilage of Jacobson in the Nasal

Septum (Ballenger, 1969), puts this organ in a logical

site for chemoreception, but hard experimental evidence is

not available. What exists is speculation. "Mammals ...

which possess both the olfactory and Jacobson's organs

together" present a research problem, in that these organs

"are difficult to distinguish anatomically and func

tionally" (3urghardt, 1970b, p. 243). Rudolph (1980)

reports on the works of psychologist C. Wysocki stating,

The vomeronasal organ is "independent of the main ol

factory system, both anatomically and neurologically....

Jacobson's organ ...has intimate nervous connections with

the hypothalamus, which is the key regulator of hormonal

and reproductive activities.... When ... experimentally

interfered with,... behavior in animals is severely af

fected" (p. 108). V. Negus (biologist) is quoted by

Rudolph as saying, "The bilateral organ in question is so

beautifully designed that one cannot fail to ascribe a

purposive function to it. It seems incredible that a care

fully arranged system of specialized epithelium, with its

own nerve supply, with numerous glands emptying into it

and with a duct communicating to the exterior by a more or

less devious route, should not play some important role in

the animal economy" (Rudolph, 1980, p. 108).


2 3

Odor Reception. The theoretical approaches that deal

with odor involvement in chemosensory communication in

olfaction have established no common ground, for "there

has never been general agreement about basic qualities of

smell, though not for lack of effort. Plato had only two

qualities in his scheme— 'pleasant' and 'unpleasant'—

while Aristotle, true to form, opposed his mentor and

proposed seven qualities" (Ziporyn, 1982, p. 279).

No general agreement exists concerning the mechanism

of smell. Two major viewpoints are reported in the

literature: (1) odors are perceived in terms of primary

scents, and mixtures of these scents establish the quality

of the smell, and (2) odors are on a continuous plane

(their exact variables still remaining to be identified)

(cf. Amoore, 1963; Geldard, 1972; Gesteland, Lettvin,

Pitts, & Rojas, 1963; Kalat, 1980; Schiffman, 1974;

Tanabe, lino, & Takaga, 1975; Zotterman, 1963).

Research associated with the "primary odor" theory

has raised interesting questions concerning the role of

olfaction in chemosensory communication. Amoore (1963) has

been examining anosmic conditions, and has found there are

certain individuals (about 2-3% of the population) who are

unable to smell specific odors. This inability does not

seem to effect the ability to smell other odors— a finding

that tends to lend support to the primary odor theory.


2 4

Amoore has established that there are six odors which are

fairly common for specific anosmia: musky, fishy, sweaty,

urinous, spermous, and malty (cf. Amoore, 1967; Amoore,

1977). The odors that are identified are frequently asso

ciated with the reproductive process in mammals, which

opens up an interesting line of inquiry. Amoore associates

the "ability to smell" with the subject's ability to iden

tify a specific odor. However, the extent to which chemo

sensory communication depends on cognitive smell recogni

tion has not been established, and the need for an anosmic

to "smell" an odor in order to "react" or gain biological

information has also not been assessed.

From a physiological standpoint olfactory information

is capable of influencing large areas of the brain, al

though the actual process is not understood. The struc

tures of the olfactory system have been localized, yet no

unanamity of opinion exists concerning the exact relation

ship of the olfactory system with various parts of the

brain (Freeman, 1978). The olfactory rods and susten-

tacular cells line the mucous membrane located in the ol

factory clefts at the top of the nasal cavity. The two

olfactory clefts occupy an area of about 2.5 cm each

(Geldard, 1972); axons extend from the olfactory receptors

to the olfactory bulb, on the lower surface of the brain.

The olfactory bulb (also called the first cranial nerve)


2 5

is found in the ventral anterior aspect of the brain just

above the cribiform plate through which project the fibers

from the olfactory mucosa. These fibers synapse in the

tangle of fibers in the bulb, which are termed glomeruli.

Receiving the incoming fibers are two main types of cells:

(1) mitral cells, which project to the prepyriform cortex

along the lateral olfactory tract; and (2). tufted cells

whose axons project via the medial olfactory tract to the

septum (in humans the subcallosal gyrus) and to the con

tralateral olfactory bulb. Lying in the prepyriform and

pyriform area and in the subcallosal gyrus is the ol

factory cortex. The pyriform cortex communicates directly

with the amygdala which lies beneath it. The subcallosal

gyrus communicates with the cingulate cortex and, via the

cingulum, with the hippocampus. Located in the septal area

is the anterior terminus of the medial forebrain bundle,

which runs through the hypothalamus and terminates in the

limbic midbrain area. Throughout the length of the fore

brain bundle interconnections and two-way communications

are found (Illustration 5 & Illustration 6) (cf. Changeux,

1985; Gault, 1986; Geldard, 1972; Kalat, 1980; Lorenzo,

1963; MacLeod, 1971; Truex & Carpenter, 1969; Winson,

1985).


I

26

Illustration 5. Rhinecephalon ("Viscerl" Brain) and the Gyrus Cinguli:

FRONTAL PARIETALG Y R U S C IN G U L I

S U P R A C A L LO S A L G Y R U S

pilluadum

—£ K \ C0\ \ mammilla' r.\\ xn-/ boi

m am m illary

IS TH M U S FASCIOLACINEREA

■ r f y - ' ^ f y ' - F A S C I O L A R GYRUS

HIPPOCAMPU

f im b r ia

UNCUSAMYGDALA

PERIRHINALENTORHINALTEMPORAL

c e o t a i SUBCALLOSAL GYRUS OCH body)A R E A | PAROLFACTORY A R E A

O R B ITA L

O L F A C T O R Y BULB O LFA C T O R Y T R A C T

A N T . PERFORATED SUBSTANCEL IM E N INSULAE

E3 ARCH! - &. PAL EO C O RT EX□ M ESO C O R TEX(transifional)□ N E O C O R T E X

OCCIPITAL

HIPPOCAMPALGYRUS

r h i n a l f issure

qqrus rectus- .ant. / Vparolfactory

f iss u re. Wpa rot fa d o r y

fissure \j\R4ROlMa:.J l A

AREAT R IG O N E 7 /p r j _MEDIAL / / J \STR/A /J r . 1

lamina fcrminalis

I chiasm a n t commissure / \ z n d a f subcallosal qgrus

/ ( di agonal band)

L*

O LFA C T O R Y BULB

~ \ \ rostrumo f carpus Callosum

• OLFACTORY TR A C T

A N T . P E R F O R A T E D S U B S TA N C E

LATERALS T R IA

IN T ER M ED IA T E OLFACTORY STRIA

M EDIAL \OLFACTORY STRIA i },.

olfacton/ "rfl Ab u lb V Y X y —

.. v U 0 ;D;oToc r ib r i f o r m ' i • i

p la te

olfadori( —- --------C_!—1Vme-mbrana '

quruscinquh

genu (o f corpus callosum

Subcallosal gyrus

pqro/fb Clary area

olfacton/ trigone

ant . 'commissure an t perforated ' substance.diaqanal band

Y. AMYGDALA

otfactor/ tract

LATERAL OLFACTORY

S T R IA

olfactory cell nerve.

I I m a n insu la a

hippocampal qgtUS


27

♦ Panel A: Depicts the cortical types found in the limbic system. Note tne distinction between Archicortex anc. Mesocortex. Arcnicortex has. three layers, while Mesocortex has four or five, and Neocortex has six layers. The fewer layered cortexes are considered more primitive in that they are found in animals who lack a Neocortex (e.g., amphibians).

♦ Panel B: A ventral view of the brain showing therelationships of the various components of the olfactory system. The diagnoal band forms a two way path between the septal area and amygdala.

♦ Panel C: A lateral view of the lateral and medialolfactory systems.


Source: Hausman (1960); used with permission.

Text: Gault (1986); used with permission.

/

28

Illustration 6. Connections and Circuits of the Rninencephalon and the Gyrus CingulL:

corpus callosum

LATERAL OLFACTORY S T R IA

OLFACTORY BULB with tnifralcalk & qlomcruli

C R IB IFO R M PLATE------

OLFACTORY MUCOSA-

"□yoiiijuio ^ ' p h i a n 'a ' ! 1'o ao . /S - U J limn

i/lsulae

to hqpothalamic nuclei

S T R IATE R M IN A L IS

/ ^ \ ^ to prroptic nuclei

V \ " v ■ cmqqdalcid nucleus uncus hippocampalqqrus■

P Y R IF O R M AREA

STRIA MEDULLARIS T H A L A M I

ant,camn\issura am u l

I N T E R M E D I A T E 0 /ia b i n u h rOLFACTORY S T R IA f \ \ / j qqnqhon

----—L- 27 L ->

t h a l a m o c i n g u l a r f i b e r s

a n te r io r . uuic

luclcus

ta.<fm&nfal nucUus

I H A B E N U L O I P E D U N C U L A R FIBER

inter peduncular qanqlionPEDUNCULOTECMENTAL

FIBERB. P A R T of

DORSAL LONGITUDINAL FASCICULUS

$manifvi! COMimA'SUlU J

qqrus cinquli MAMMILOTRALAMIC

FIBER / /

uncus/ / FORNIX

hippocampus ' (jar](^ q(/ms

CINGULOUIPPOCAMPAL FIBER

qcnu o f corpus cal losum

C O L U M N Of LEFT F O R N IX

an te rio r commissure

lam ina lo rm in u lisoptic chiasm

liqpophijs ie

Mtuuf 0 *

B O D Y o f R IG H T F O R N I X

7 hippocampal commissure

T r 'C R U S o f

R IG H T F O R N IX

r iq h f hippocampal qqrus

fimbria of le f t h ippocam pus

L E F T H IP P O C A M P U S

la,ft hippocampal qqrus


I I

29

□ Panel A: Presents a diagram of the Lateral OlfactorySysytem. The primary olfactory nerves are located in the olfactory mucosa located in the top of the nasal cavity just below the cribiform plate through which they send fibers into the Olfactory Bulb (OB). The OB is known as the first cranial nerve (N-i) although it is actually a projection of the brain tissue.

In the OB the nerve fibers enter spherical tangles of fibers known as GLOMERULI (singular glomerulus) where they synapse eith witn Mitral Ceils (they resemble a Bishop's Mitre) or tufted cells.

Mitreal cell axons pass centrally via the Lateral Olfactory Tract in which they might synaps or pass directly to the pre-pyriform cortex and the centro-medial portion of the Amygdala. The principal outflow of the amygdala is the Stria Terminalis which projects to the hypothalamus.

□ Panel B: Presents the Medial Olfactory Tract (MOT)which carries the axons of tufted calls to the Septal area and to the Anterior Commissure be which means some fibers pass to the contralateral OB. The Stria Medularis Thalami projects from the septal area to the HabenuLar nuclei which in turn projects caudally via the Habenulointerpeduncular tract to the Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus (DLF). The DLF also carries a major portion of the descending fibers from the Hypothalamus.

□ Panel C: Depicts the connections of the hippocampus.The major outflow of the hippocampus is via the Fornix which forms a large sweeping loop which passes downward just behind the Anterior Commisure with some fibers terminating in the Septal Area and some in the Mammillary Bodies (MB). The MB project to the Anterior Thalamus which in turn projects to the hippocamus via the Cingulum (Cingulohippocampal).

□ Panel D: Depicts the relationships of the Fornix. Theprinciple difference between this illustration and Panel C is the inclusion of the hippocampal commissure which interconnects the right and left hippocampus.

Source: Hausman (I960); used with permission. Text: Gault (1986); used with permission.


30

Physiological Response, Stress, and Emotion

The suggestion that the limbic system plays a role in

the modulation of motor activity, behavior, and emotional

bias is important in relation to questions of the purpose

and need for physical response patterns from external

stressors and internal emotions. The theoretical construct

that states that the "purpose of physical response" arises

from the need for "life to be adaptive" has been pondered

and discussed since Hippocrates (ca. 370 B.C.), and ad

vanced through the centuries by many (cf. Bernard, 1879;

Cannon, 1939; Darwin, 1890; May, 1950; May, 1977; Selye,

1952). Bernard (1879) goes so far as to distinguish life

from inanimate objects by its adaptability to change.

Fredericq in 1885 clearly links the "adaptation process"

to purpose when he writes, "The living being is an agency

of such sort that each disturbing influence induces by

itself the calling forth of compensatory activity to neu

tralize or repair the disturbance" (cited in Goldberger &

Breznitz, 1982, p. 8). Cannon (1939) advanced this concept

of adaptation by coining the term "homeostasis" (from the

Greek homoios and and stasis, literally "similar state"),

which can be defined as a need to maintain position and

balance.


3 1

Stress

The interrelationship between stress and physical

response has long been studied, yet the scientific concept

of stress "has suffered from the mixed blessing of being

too well known and too little understood" (Selye, 1980, p.

127). Selye (1956) has defined stress as the "nonspecific

response of the body to any demand". He includes both

physical stressors, such as heat, cold, muscular exertion,

drugs and hormones; and emotional states, such as sorrow

and joy (Selye, 1980). He reports that these agents have a

common function: "They increase the demand for readjust

ment, for performance of adaptive functions 'which re

establish normalcy" (pp. 127-8). Selye (1946) identified a

syndrome with which he could explore and examine the en

tire adaptation process in scientific terms. He called

this the General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S.), and distin

guished three stages within it: (1) Alarm reaction— the

response of an organism to a sudden stimulus to which it

has not been previously adapted; (2) Stage of Resistance—

the adaptation of an organism to a stimulus; and (3) Stage

of exhaustion— the breakdown of an organism due to its

inability to continue to adapt to a stimulus (see Selye,

1946; Selye, 1952). May (1977) cautions that Selye's

G.A.S. is appropriate to physiological behavior, but not


3 2

to psychological function. May questions the tendency for

psychologists to use stress as a synonym for anxiety; He

writes, "I do not believe 'stress' encompasses the rich

meaning of anxiety" (p. 110). In reviewing Selye, May's

argument does not appear to make any logical sense.

Selye's use of terms denoting emotions to designate stress

agents, and May's interpretation that emotional states are

closer to anxiety states than to "stress" is certainly

problematic, since May goes on to say that he is unwilling

to define emotion. Three states of "being" related to ad

aptation have been differentiated in common usage—

stress, emotion, and anxiety— and to reject the notion of

stress because many psychologists use the term incorrect

ly, as May suggests, seems too hasty a response to the

difficulty.

Emotion

The fact that there is a relationship between the

physical and the emotional is self-evident, yet its nature

has not been understood. Much of the confusion stems from

problems in defining emotion. To date no clear and accept

able definition has been established.

It has been demonstrated that emotional responses

play an important role in human physiological response

patterns, whether as a result of a psychological


3 3

predisposition (Darwin, 1890), or an emotional pee-

disposition affecting the healing process or thermo

regulatory function of the body in the recovery of an

injury (Sampson, 1984). In all cases the concern is

intra-organistic rather than inter-organistic.

Several theories attempt to deal with the basic ques

tion of emotion and physical response. Two theoretical

approaches in particular have grown in popularity, a mech

anical and a neuro-biological theory. These positions are

presented in the forms taken by (1) the theory developed

by James (.1884), and (2) the theory developed by Papez

(1937), and later refined by MacLean (1958).

James-Lange Theory: James (1884) suggested that be

havior changes and body function changes cause emotions.

That is, there is a directional correlation between the

body's physiological presentation and emotions. About one

year later, K. Lange independently published a similar

position paper (Kalat, 1980). 3oth men were treating a

theme in vogue at that time. It was not surprising that a

number of writers dealt with the issue. Eight years

earlier Maudsley (1876), presented a similar theory that

showed the strong relationship between emotion and be

havior, writing, "the emotion is intensified and made de

finite by the bodily action". Influenced by Maudsley's

work, Darwin (1890) supported this thinking, and writes,


3 4

"He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his

rage....These results follow partly from the intimate re

lation which exists between almost all the emotions and

their outward manifestation" (p. 382).

Cannon (1927) disputed this theory, pointing out that

several emotional states obtain the same physical res

ponses (heart rate, body temperature, breathing, blood

sugar level, etc.). Cannon defined the physical response

pattern for a specific emotion, replicated the pattern

artificially and then questioned the subject. Each of his

subjects reported only arousal, and no emotion, unless

they were in some special setting. Cannon's criticisms

were not conclusive, however. Carlson (1981) writes, "More

recent evidence shows that Cannon underestimated the

sensitivity and complexity of afferent feedback from the

visceral organs....It is a common assumption that the ex

pression of emotional behavior is synonymous with feelings

of emotion. However, this is not always the case" (p 505);

in addition Cannon appeared to underestimate the impor

tance of the physical setting in establishing an emotion,

even though he made a direct reference concerning setting.

Papez-MacLean Theory*. Papez (1937 ) postulated that

emotions depend on a circuit of structures near the "brain

center" (limbic system). "Papez proposed that the limbic

system constituted a neuroanatomical substrate for emo

tional behavior. This speculation was based largely upon


3 5

the alterations in emotional behavior subsequent to limbic

system damage" (Gault, 1986). Papez suggested that the

"brain center" would send impulses to the cerebral cortex

and thus add "feeling tones" to the actual cognition. For

Papez, emotions were the product of processing three

"streams" of input: (1) movement, (2) thought, and (3)

feeling. Papez believed that these three "streams" were

divided by the thalamus, and were then processed through a

circuitry that eventually united in the cerebral cortex.

MacLean (1958), refined Papez's theory to take into

account current understanding of the structure of the

human brain, distinguished by the interrelationship of

three structures: (1) the reptilian brain, in control of

reflexive and vegetative behavior; (2) the limbic system,

in control of emotional behaviors (note: it is MacLean who

has been referenced as referring to the limbic system as

being involved in the "Four ' F's of Survival— Feeding,

Fleeing, Fighting, and Reproduction" (Gault, 1986)); and

(3) the cerebral cortex, in control of intelligent and

rational behaviors.

Summary

The suggestion that the limbic system plays a role in

chemosensory communication seems to require the adaptation

process of at least two specific stimuli, stress and emo

tion. For our purpose, we can define stress most simply as


3 6

an external stimulus making demands on the homeostasis

process/ and emotion as an internal stimulus making de

mands on the homeostasis process, with both processes

(stress and emotion) most likely being modulated by vari

ous parts of the limbic system (Carlson, 1981).

Selected Studies

Animal Studies

The ability of animals to communicate basic biologic

al and social information through olfactory cues is well

established. What is communicated includes information

pertaining to the subspecies (cf. Epple, 1974; Otte &

Cade, 1976) and the individual (cf. Hudson & Distel, 1983;

Kallquist & Mossing, 1982), as well as territory (cf.

Calhoun, 1962a; Calhoun, 1962b; Christian, 1961;

Wynne-Edwards, 1962), social status (cf. Thiessen & Rice,

1976; White, Pishcher, & Meunier, 1984), gender (see

Whitten & Bronson, 1970), recognition of environmental

status (e. g., safety, general frustration, recent kill,

etc.) (cf. Calhoun, 1962b; Feldman & Conforti, 1980; Gabba

& Pavan, 1970; Hall, 1966; Hediger, 1955; Hediger, 1950),

emotional state (cf. Carr, Roth, & Amore, 1971; Schultz &

Tapp, 1973; Sprott, 1969; Valenta & Rigby, 1968), and

hormonal conditions, including sexual receptivity in

females (Epple, Golob, Cebul, & Smith, 1981; Freeman,


3 7

1978) producing a reproductive priming activity on the

part of males (Bronson, 1974; Cheal, 1975; Mykytowycz,

1970) .

Animal studies reveal limited mechanisms that would

enable us to determine whether the biological information

transmission is associative learning or a pheromone phe

nomenon (no prior learning); however, "memory function

which suggests that in some cases associative learning may

play an important role, has been observed. Bertrand (1969)

reports that in some primates, kin recognition from sixty

(60) meters away after a year of absence has been noted;

Bertrand in 1971 writes, "Un singe capable de reconnaitre

un congenere ou un observateur a plus de soixante metres,

et apres un an d'absence, s'obstinera a le flairer des

qu'il sera en contact avec lui" (p. 29).

The media for information transmission appear to fall

into three categories: (1) urine marks— a complex scent

mark consisting mainlly of the secretion of special cir-

cumgenital skin glands and some urine (cf. Doty & Dunbar,

1974; Epple et al., 1981; Kessler, Harmatz, & Gerling,

1975); (2) skin secretions— odors produced by sweat (most

likely apocrine) glands and deposited on the skin surface

and interacting with skin bacteria (cf. Sawyer, 1980;

Sprott, 1969; Thiessen & Rice, 1976; Thomas, Riccio, &

Ilyer, 1977; Valenta & Rigby, 1968); and (3) bloodmarking—


3 8

alterations in the blood chemistry that, when spread

through a kill, leave an odorous message (see Feldman &

Conforti, 1980) .

Thomas, Riccio and Myer (1977) have shown that these

olfactory cues are "time bound." Their study focused on

avoidance response memory (Kamin effect) in rats to a spe

cific fresh stress produced odor cue and an old stress

produced odor cue (produced six hours previously). Rats

tested in the presence of the aged odor produced a less

pronounced avoidance response than did rats tested in the

presence of fresh odor.

Animal— Human Studies

Studies have shown that animals are able to utilize

their olfactory abilities and receive biological informa

tion from other species, including humans. Data on the

scope of biological information received by animals from

humans is limited, hov;ever. Individual scents, emotional

states and territory are three areas that have been iden

tified (cf. Kalmus, 1955; Lorenz, 1955; Schmid, 1935;

Smith & Sines, 1960; Smith St Thompson, 1969;

Wynne-Edwards, 1962).

The works of Schmid in 1935 and Kalmus in 1955 have

shown that dogs are able to identify specific humans

through scent cues provided by clothing worn by a


3 9

particular individual. The use of tracking dogs has long

been recognized as an effective method of locating a

specific person. Experimental studies (cf. Bradley, 1984;

Brass, 1970; Liddel, 1976; Parkinson, 1969; Smith & Sines,

1960; Smith & Thompson, 1969) and empirical observation

have suggested that different emotional states in humans

are detectable by non-human mammals. Smith and Sines

(1960) reported that rats readily distinguish between the

smell of schizophrenic and non-schizophrenic patients.

Animal capacity to detect the territory of a human has

long been noted (cf. Lorenz, 1955; Wynne-Edwards, 1962).

In the book Never Cry Wolf, a study on the behavior of

wolves, the author (Mowat, 1984) reports that he staked

out his territory by marking the perimeter of his

campsite with his urine. The wolves respected the markings

and remained outside the marked territory.

There are few studies that examine human response to

animal biological information transmission. Only one study

was found, in which human response patterns were examined

when subjects were presented 5-alpha-androst-16-en-3-one

(androsterone) produced by Sus Scrofa (Pig) (Filsinger,

Braun, Monte, & Linder, 1984).

In the Filsinger et al. study (1984), subjects (98

males and 102 females) were assigned to one of four odor

conditions (androsteone, methyl anthranilate, skatole, and


4 0

a no-odor control). Photographs of a inale were used as the

stimulus. Each subject was asked to rate the photographs

and rate their mood in the presence of one of the odors.

Subjects who were presented 5-alpha-androst-16-en-3-one

from Sus Scrofa responded in a significant fashion that

was attributed to the compound, and differently to the

other substances/odors, "Males in the androsterone condi

tion rated the stimulus male photographs as more passive,

and females in the androstone condition rated themselves

as less sexy" (Filsinger et al., 1984, p.221).

Human Studies

A limited number of studies that examine the rela

tionship of chemosensory communication in humans and phys

iological response paterns to airborne compounds exist.

They appear to fall into four categories: (1) chemosensory

transmission of biological information which is not depen

dent on odor, (2) chemosensory transmission of biological

information dependent on smell, (3) clinical studies con

cerning excited hyper-domaminergic states, and (4) physi

ological response patterns to non-biologically produced

inhalants (Odorous and non-odorous).

Studies Not Dependent on Smell

Studies concerned with response patterns to olfactory

stimuli are limited, and their focus is either on mood


4 1

alteration and performance effects (cf. Benton, 1982;

Cowley, Johnson, & Brooksbank, 1977; Kirk-Smith, Toller, &

Dodd, 1983), or menstrual synchrony (cf. Graham & McGrew,

1980; McClintock, 1971; Preti et al., 1984; Quadagno et

al., 1981; Russell, Switz & Thompson, 1980). Several

studies concerned with behavioral response patterns have

used compounds present in human axillary secretions, or

the secretion itself. Most attention has been given to

5-alpha-16-en-3-one and its related alcohol (androstenol).

Mood and Performance Effects: Cowley, Johnson, and

Brooksbank (1977) had subjects conduct a mock job inter

view while wearing paper surgical masks impregnated with

either a mixture of fatty acids (found in the vaginal se

cretions of primates), or androstenol (5-alpha-16-en-3-

ol), or with no substance (clean mask). Results suggested

that the masks with the impregnated preparations in

fluenced the assessments made by females interviewers, yet

did not significantly affect the assessments made by male

interviewers. The female interviewers wearing the masks

impregnated with the fatty acids gave opposite evaluations

of the job candidates than interviewers wearing masks sat

urated with androstenol. "The androstenol is associated in

a direction which is opposite of the fatty acid mixture. A

favorable assessment in the presence of the androstenol is

accompanied by a less favorable assessment in the presence


4 2

of the fatty acid mixture" (Cowley, Johnson, & Brooksbank,

1977, p. 170).Benton (1982) reported that 18 female subjects rated

their mood daily for a month. Each morning subjects placed

either 5-alpha-16-en-3-alpha-ol (androstenol) or a placebo

on the upper lip; each evening the subjects would rate

themselves on five scales: (1) submissive/aggressive, (2)

happy/depressed, (3)lethargic/lively, (4) sexy/unsexy, (5)

irritable/good-tempered. The results of the records for

four of the five scales were not significant. The scale

that did show significance was the submissive/aggressive

scale; subjects exposed to androstenol tended to rate

their moods as more submissive than aggressive.

A specific study to note under the sub-section of

Mood and Performance Effects does not deal with androsten-

one, rather it is a study that deals with ease of aversion

conditioning through pairing a neutral airborne medium

with a mildly stressful task. Kirk-Smith, Toller, and Dodd

(1983) found that aversion conditioning by pairing a low

intensity neutral odor (trimethylundecylenic aldehyde

(TUA)) with a mild stress condition was easily obtainable.

Two groups, of twelve females each, were given "a stress

ful task involving the completion of 11 WAIS Block

Patterns*" (abstract) under a time limitation (*Note: the

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Block Design


4 3

subtest contains only ten design pictures, it is uncertain

if the authors created an eleventh design or if the report

was in error). One group engaged in the stressful task in

the presence of low level TUA, the other group engaged in

the same stressful task in the absence of TUA. Several

days later both groups were asked to complete a mood

rating scale and then enter a room where a low level of

TUA was present. Once in the room the subjects were asked

to evaluate a series of photographs and then complete a

second mood rating scale. Subjects that had experienced

the stressful condition in the presence of TUA reported a

greater anxiety level on the mood rating scale following

the photograph judging. It was reported that the subjects

did not perceive any odors during the experiment. Findings

‘"demonstrate how odors might acquire values through pair

ing with emotionally significant events" (abstract).

Menstrual Synchrony. That physiological response pat

terns can be altered through the presence of an olfactory

medium has been shown in studies concerned with menstrual

synchrony. McClintock (1971) was the first to report that

a dominant female will affect the menstrual cycle of other

women living with her.

Russell, Switz, and Thompson (1980) reported that

they were able to shift the menstrual cycle of a group of

women subjects by using the axillary secretion of a single


4 4

donor over time. Two groups were employed, a treatment

group and a control group. The treatment group rubbed al

cohol and axillary secretion (from a single donor) on

their upper lip. The menstrual cycles of the women in the

treatment group began to modify in conformity to cycle of

the donor subject. Although Russell, Switz, and Thompson

concluded that odors produced from the axillary secretion

of one woman may influence the menstruation of another,

they also acknowledge that it may have been the non-

odorous properties of the stimuli that induced menstrual

synchrony.

Studies Dependent on Odor

Studies on gender recognition, family recognition,

and emotional and physiological response patterns are con

sidered below. In addition to work focusing on olfactory

cues produced by skin secretions (e.g., Hold & Schleidt,

1977; Porter & Moore, 1931; Russell, 1376; Schleidt, Hold

& Attili, 1981), researchers have examined responses to

breath odor (Doty et al., 1982) and breast milk (Russell,

1976); the Doty study and Russell study will be examined

below.

Gender Recognition: Several experiments have attempt

ed to determine to what extent humans are able to identify

gender via olfactory cues (cf. Doty et al., 1982; Hold &


4 5

Schleidt, 1977; Porter & Moore, 1981; Russell, 1976).

Russell (1976) had 29 subjects (16 males, 13 females)

not use body deodorant for twenty-four hours prior to the

study, and then wear white undershirts for a twenty-four

hour period. Following the time period, each subject was

given a three-choice discrimination test where he/she was

asked to examine three undershirts and indicate which

shirt was his/her own, which was a strange female, and

which was a strange male. Russell reports that 13 of the

16 males and 9 of the 13 females answered correctly.

Hold and Schleidt (1977) conducted a similar experi

ment with twenty-four married couples, which produced less

convincing results than those of the Russell (1976) study.

The subjects wore cotton undershirts for seven consecutive

nights. During the test period each subject was allowed to

smell each of the groups' shirts (10 shirts) on three oc

casions. Only one third of the .subjects- were-able to id

entify their odor or the odor of their partner correctly

and only about one third were able to identify the correct

gender of the donor. The Hold and Schleidt study reported

that both sexes involved more often rated odors that were

subjectively considered pleasant "female" and odors that

were subjectively considered unpleasant "male," regardless

of the actual gender of the donor.

Doty et al. (1982), studying the communication of


46

gender from human breath odors, recorded observations

similar to those of Hold and Schleidt in regard to subjec

tive responses of pleasant versus non-pleasant. Their

findings suggest that subjects assign weaker and less un

pleasant odors to the female category and stronger and

less pleasant odors to the male category. Nonetheless, the

assignment of correct gender by the subjects was at a fre

quency greater than chance (females seemed to to be more

accurate in regard to the gender assignment). During five

consecutive days five men and five women sampled breath

odors from 14 males and 19 females (the donors were on a

"no oral hygiene" regimen). The donors sat behind a ply

wood barrier in a well-ventilated room. The evaluation

took place between 07:00 and 09:00. The subjects were

asked to assess the gender of the donor and the relative

(subjective) intensity and pleasantness. The authors sug-

.gest. that, differences ejia-st between -the -breath of males .........

and females, and that humans are able to assess gender

from oral odors.

A cross-cultural study by Schleidt, Hold, and Attili

(1981) showed that gender identification varied according

to culture and race, or at least the concept of "pleasant"

and "unpleasant" differs. Italians, Germans, and Japanese

were studied. The ability of each group to identify gender

successfully was as follows: Italian subjects— 20%; German


4 7

subjects— 30%; and Japanese subjects— 60%. Across culture,

80% of the subjects were able to identify their partner's

odor. Cultural differences were also noted in the rating

of odors us pleasant and unpleasant. Italian, German, and

Japanese men rated their partner's odor as being pleasant.

Italian and Japanese women, on the contrary, rated their

partner's odor as unpleasant, while German women rated

their partner's odor as pleasant.

Family Recognition. Studies in family/kin recognition

suggest that humans may be able to identify family members

by smell (cf. Hold & schleidt, 1977; Porter & Moore, 1981;

Russell, 1976; Schleidt, Hold, & Attili, 1981).

Russell (1976) reported that 60% of the infants that

he studied were able to distinguish their mother's milk

from that of another donor or raw cow's milk by the age of

six weeks. In Russell's simple study, ten full-term

breast-feeding neonates and their mothers were employed.

The infants were exposed either to a clean breast pad,

their own mother's breast pad, a strange mother's breast

pad, or a pad with raw cow's milk. The neonate's pattern

of orienting and sucking was examined and recorded. At two

days old, the infants showed general arousal when exposed

to milk; at six weeks, six (6) of ten (10) could discrim

inate their mother's milk through odor.

In a cross-cultural study reviewed under "Gender


4 8

Recognition" above, Schleidt, Hold, and Attili (1981) re

ported that 80% of the subjects were able to identify

their partner's odor.

Porter and Moore (1981) report that family members

are able to identify correctly other family members

through olfactory cues, and that mothers are able to dis

tinguish between children through the same olfactory cues.

In this unique study the researchers examined familial

recognition using children from a family unit. The study

consisted of each child wearing an undershirt; then the

undershirts were examined by siblings and mothers. The

author's abstract reported, "T-shirts worn by individual

children were correctly identified by the siblings and

mothers of those children through olfactory cues alone.

Parents correctly distinguished between the odors of

otherwise identical shirts worn by 2 of their own

children".

Emotional Response Patterns. Studies concerned with

emotional response patterns to human olfactory stimuli are

uncommon. In fact, only one study could be found: a doc

toral dissertation by Owen (1980), reported later by Owen

and Lawlis (1981).

Owen (1980) assessed the imagery of subjects who

smelled axillary secretions produced under different emo

tional states (relaxation, anxiety, sexual arousal). Her

study produced mixed results in the subjects' ability to


4 9

identify, through imagery and through the judge's percep

tion of pleasantness, the different emotional state-

related secretion. Owen stated that her judges were able

to detect the anxiety-producing odorant of her Black

donors differentially on an unpleasantness scale; and were

able to detect anxiety and relaxation on a "free imagery"

task. Four donor subjects, two Black and two White fe

males, were employed. Each subject was prepared for axil

lary secretion collection by washing her underarm with

Ivory Soap (contents: tallow (lard), coconut oil, perfume,

preservatives). Following the washing a four inch square

gauze pad was taped to the underarm area of the left arm.

A pad was worn throughout each image induction that was

reported to produce the intended emotional affect. Follow

ing the image induction the gauze pad was removed and

’ "placed* Into" a clean 30 mi test tube and covered with two

(2) clean gauze pads; four (4) drops of ethenol were

placed on the pads in the test tube to slow down bacteri

ological decomposition., and then the test tube was

corked, wrapped in aluminum foil and frozen on dry ice.

This procedure was repeated for each donor and under each

image induction task. Sixteen white male subjects were

asked to evaluate the twelve samples. Four judges were

assigned to each donor subject's axillary samples. The

judges were given instructions to relax and to report any

immediate images, feelings, and sensations they might ex-


5 0

perience following smelling each odor sample; this free

imagry task lasted for two minutes per sample. Following

the free imagry task a second phase "required the 16

judges to make magnitude estimates of the hedonic quality

of each odor sample. Judges were asked to rate how un

pleasant each test tube odor smelled" (p. 39).

Hyper-Domaminergic States

Hyperosmia has been noted in clinical literature. The

intensification of the sense of smell has been associated

with excited hyper-domaminergic states, as with some post

encephalitic patients on L-Dopa, and some Tourette Syn

drome patients. It has been debated whether these "hyper-

osmic states" are an intense olfactory hallucination or

.......... £.Q.iusjLon,, or. a, truei generalized^ intensification of smell.

The following is a case study that supports a belief of

true hyperosmia.

The physician of record is a neurologist, 0. Sacks;

Sacks (1985) reports of a 22 year old male medical student

who sustained a temporary state of hyperosmia. Hyperosmia

was a result of the use several different drugs (cocaine,

phencyclidine & amphetamines); the intensification of

smell lasted for about three weeks. Sacks (1985) reports

that the subject could distinguish his friends and the

patients he (the subject) attended by smell alone; this


5 1

neurologist goes on to state that his patient informed

him, "I went into the clinic, I sniffed like a dog, and in

that sniff recognized, before seeing them, the twenty pa

tients who were there. Each had his own olfactory physiog

nomy, a smell face" (p. 150). As commentary Sacks writes,

"He (the patient) could smell their (friends and patients)

emotions— fear, contentment, sexuality— like a dog. He

could recognise every street, every shop, by smell— he

could find his way around New York, infallibly, by smell"

(P. 150).

Inhalants and Physiological Response

The literature is scanty concerning the differential

responsiveness of physiological activity from different

non-human odorous compounds. Yet, limited as they are,

‘studies have shown that muscle activity, body movement,

respiration, and heart rate can be differentially affected

by exposure to different odorous compounds (cf. Anderson,

1954; Engen, Lipsitt, & Kaye, 1963; Komisaruk, 1974;

MacLeod, 1971; Schwartz, 1979; Self, Horowitz, & Paden,

1972; Steiner, 1974) and empirical literature suggests

that different odorous compounds can elicit strong me

mories (Fenchiel, 1945; Freud, 1930; Jung, 1934).

Engen, Lipsitt, and Kaye (1963), Steiner (1974), and

Self, Horowitz, and Paden (1972) in studying newborn


5 2

humans have shown that different patterns of response are

elicited by different odorous substances introduced to the

neonate. The scope of reaction seems to be on the con

tinuum of "pleasant" to "unpleasant." Bananas and vanilla

evoked positive responses, while odors of shrimp and rot

ten eggs elicited adverse responses from the neonates

(Steiner, 1974). Habituation to novel odorous stimulus has

been explored, and habituation seems to occur with some

odors, but not with others (cf. Engen, Lipsitt, & Kaye,

1963). These types of olfactory communication studies seem

to suggest some type of rapid neuro-recognition associa

tion process, with the proposed limbic system involvement

affecting the endocrine system (Freeman, 1978).

Physiological changes directly concerned with non-

odorous inhalants have also been examined in the litera

ture, but these studies have been confined to circulatory

system involvement. Carbon monoxide, for instance, is

known for its toxic effect on the human system, but the

toxic effect is predicated on the percentage of carboxy-

hemoglobin in the blood (Berkow, 1977); it is not suggest

ed that olfaction and limbic system involvement are asso

ciated with the physiological reaction, per se, but rather

the nasal cavity acts only as point of entry for the

toxin. It is totally unclear what, if any, immediate ol

factory system-to-limbic system involvement there may be.


5 3

Commentary on the Research and its Potential Pitfalls

Some of the work reviewed above must be accepted with

reservations because of methodological limitations (e.g.,

questionable sample collection in Hold & Schleidt, 1977

and Owen, 1980; lack of a single or double blind in

Russell, 1976; failure to use "neutral" control odor in

Cowley, Johnson & Brooksbank, 1977). Moreover, studies

that use smell as a mechanism for gender and kin identifi

cation must be accepted with caution, since human odors

are altered by food intake, and one would suppose that

families would eat similar food products. The conclusions

of these studies could be seen as an artifact of familial

and/or culturally biased eating styles.

In reviewing the literature, two key problems seem

inherent in the nature of research into chemosensory com

munication via olfaction among humans: (1) the effects of

external factors on human excreta and (2) the definition

of the concept of chemical communication. Both areas are

examined below:

Effects of Specific Factors on Human Excreta

"Literally thousands of volatiles, many with odors,

are excreted or secreted from the human body. These chemi

cals reflect, in varying degrees, (a) environmental

factors (e.g., chemicals in the air, drinking water, diet,


5 4

drugs, and personal hygiene products) and (b) organismal

factors (e.g., the individual's gender, reproductive

state, race, age, health, exercise schedule, hygiene and

emotional state" (Doty, 1981, p. 359). Almost every normal

life activity affects them. These volatiles are excreted

or secreted from many bodily sources, and include sweat

(see Sastry et al., 1980).

Individual physiology and emotional states are sus

pected to have significant impact on odor differences

(Doty, 1981; Owen, 1980; Owen & Lawlis, 1981; Sastry et

al., 1980). Kuno (1956) reports on anecdotal and empirical

evidence indicating that humans give off species-specific

odors, and that the quality and quantity of odor produc

tion varies among individuals. Montagna (1962) states that

the quality and quantity of odor production has recogniz

able racial differences, and physiological differences are

noted in the apocrine gland of the different races (Doty,

1981; Morris, 1985; Thompson, 1973). As for differences

that can be attributed to emotional states, research done

by physicians studying patients institutionalized in

mental hospitals (Bradley, 1984; Brass, 1970; Liddell,

1976; Smith & Sines, 1960; Smith & Thompson, 1969) sug

gests the odor of psychiatric patients differs in quality

and quantity from that of the "normal" population.

The role of external factors must be taken into con

sideration in evaluating the results of the studies dis-


5 5

cussed in the preceding section of this chapter; both ex

ternal factors that constrain the subject, as well as ex-

.ternal factors placed on the experiment by the researcher

must be taken into account (investigator experimenter ef

fects; Barber, 1976). Russell's experiment on neonate re

sponses to mother's milk (1976) did not include monitoring

the mothers' food intake; thus there is no way to deter

mine the effect of dietary habits on milk recognition.

Similarly, in Doty's 1982 study on gender recognition from

breath, the donors' food and drug intake was not reported;

thus the precise effects of these factors cannot be ascer

tained. Hold and Schleidt (1977) collected their sample

over a fifty-six hour period, in eight hour intervals,

with sixteen hour breaks between the eight hour collection

periods; a question of when a sample becomes rancid due to

bacteriological decomposition was never addressed, thus

confounding the results. Owen's study (1980) presents such

a wide variety of potential problems that her study must

be reviewed with great skepticism; first, Owen arbitrarily

collected her samples from only the left axilla— no

studies are available to allow researchers to accept as

axiomatic that humans sweat differentially, based on neur

ological dominance or any other factors; second, Owen had

her subjects wash their axillary area with a soap made up

of tallow (lard), coconut oil, perfume, and preservatives,

substances known to leave a heavy scum— sample contamina


5 6

tion; third, Owen used ethenol directly on what she stated

was apocrine gland secretion to slow bacteriological de

composition— ethenol has its own smell and is known to

break down carbohydrates, a structure known to be present

in apocrine gland secretion; and fourth, Owen froze her

sample on dry ice for later use— freezing will denature

(shatter) protein molecules, a structure known to be

present in apocrine gland secretion.

Definitional Problems

The terms "chemical communication," "chemosensory

communication ■■ "animal communication," "pheromonic com

munication ■ » etc. have become popular in discussions of

research concepts, yet in their presentations researchers

often act on the assumption that everyone "intuitively

knows what communication is." This vagueness renders their

conclusions almost meaningless. While attempting to

develop an understanding of these terms, Burghardt (1970a)

soon discovered that he was confused, and that many other

researchers faced the same difficulty. He writes, "I

rapidly approached the point where 'animal communication1

seemed merely one of the latest 'in' or 'vogue' fields

labeled with a phrase which very well might turn out to be

meaningless in the sense of being a scientifically valid

or useful concept" (p. 6). There have been several efforts


5 7

to resolve this problem of definition; some of the more

significant attempts are offered below:

Discrimination. The proposal that communication "is

the discriminatory response of an organism to a stimulus"

(Stevens, 1950) is probably the most elementary definition

we have. This view presupposes that the recipient is able

to discriminate on some level, and therefore, according to

Burghardt (1970a), communication is the same as "stimulus

control".

Information Transfer. Communication is defined as the

"transfer of information from one carrier to another"

(Batteau, 1968). This idea focuses on the recipient's

ability to perceive stimuli from the environment and react

and/or respond to it. A basic problem emerges, however,

for in the terms of this definition, seeing a tree and

walking around it would constitute "communication." Others

have attempted to refine this basic concept by establish

ing restrictions. For example, the Organism Restriction

states that two organisims must be involved in either the

stimulus control or information transfer (see Scott,

1968). Animal Restriction extends the restriction to in

clude a. stimulus arising from one animal and eliciting a

response in another (see Scott, 1968). Further restric

tions have also been made on the extension, in the sugges

tion that the information transfer must occur between

species members (see Frings & Frings, 1954; Sebeok, 1968).


5 8

Yet despite these alterations to the basic theory, the

same concern as to the scientific meaning of the term

"communication."

Levels of Communication. Tavolga (1968) attempted to

resolve the problems arising from the Information Transfer

theory by defining communication, implying that since the

complexities of different organisms suggest different

needs, caution should be taken in attempting to offer a

single definition. Instead he proposes a hierarchical de

finition comprising the following levels of interorgasmic

interaction: vegetative, tonic, phasic, signal, symbolic

and language; of the six levels of interorganismic intera-

tion, only the last three are said to be communication.

Within the last three levels presented an interaction be

tween two organisms are implied with the emitter possess

ing a specialized stimulus producing mechanism, the

stimulus occupying a narrow portion of the connecting

pathway or spectrum, and the receiver possessing a spe

cialized receptor so as to respond in a specialized fash

ion.

The problem of definition is further compounded by

the tendency, seen in the Information Transfer model and

Levels of Communication View, to refer to or presuppose

the construct of "chemical communication."

Pheromonic Concept. The term "pheromone" implies the

concept of chemical communication. Pheromones are sub


5 9

stances used by an organism to relay biological informa

tion among members of the same species. Learning and/or

prior experience with the odoriferous substance seem to

play no part in the efficacy and potency of the compound.

Implied in this concept of chemical communication is that

the transfer of information does not rely on the sender

nor the receiver, but rather maintains some adaptive value

(Freeman, 1978).

Multi-criterion Approach. Lorenz (1965), Skinner

(1966), and Klopfer and Hatch (1968) stipulate that no one

definitional criterion is sufficient to describe chemical

communication, since communication of this type is a pro

duct of natural selection. Klopfer and Hatch (1968) sug

gest behavior must be evolutionarily adaptive, and that

for chemical communication to take place, it must be used

by an organism to relay biological information in such a

way that the survival value and reproductive success of

the organism must be enhanced. The major distinction be

tween Lorenz (1965) and Skinner (1966) is whether the

process of chemical communication is "innate" or

" learned. "

Summary. The underlying assumptions regarding the

nature of "communication" found in the theories presented

under the heading of Definitions vary, except to the ex

tent that it can be said that communication relies on the

"intent" of an organism to impart information. Efforts to


6 0

clarify the terminological muddle have resulted in further

specifications (e.g., the intent must be evolutionarily

adaptive and does not necessarily have to be conscious/

intentionally aware) . Certainly, studies of non-verbal

behavior have clearly demonstrated that species transmit

information unconsciously/unintentionally aware (cf.

Knapp, 1978; Mehrabian, 1969; Morris, 1977; Scheflen,

1973). To attempt to resolve the definitional problems

related to the concept of chemical communication is beyond

the scope of this review. The purpose here is to present

the confusion as it currently exists and present a tem

porary definition that will suit the needs of the research

study which will be presented in the chaapter to follow.

For the purpose of the study to follow, chemical com

munication will be defined simply as the act of discrimi

nation, be that discrimination cognitive or physiological.

Summary

The importance of olfaction as a method of chemo-

sensory communication is well established for animals and

has been strongly suggested for humans. It has been clear

ly and systematically demonstrated that most animals can

determine a variety of information from body odor. How

ever, the research on humans has yet to explore many of


6 1

these areas. Despite the limited extent of the research on

odor communication in humans, the work that has been done

suggests that humans may have the potential for communi

cating basic biological information via olfaction, such as

family recognition, gender recognition, and emotional

state recognition. Folk beliefs in modern England and

ethnographic reports from a variety of cultures indicate

that many societies believe that human odors from excreta

reveal information about others and have the power to

alter the emotional state of another individual. Such an

ecdotal material is useful in scientific study, as it of

fers limits to this as yet largely unstudied communicatory

potential.

Transmission of these olfactory cues in both animals

and humans appears to occur via a number of forms, such as

breath, urine marks, blood marking, and skin secretions.

These cues are "time bound," and may change in potency,

efficacy, and purpose over time.

Among humans, research suggests that skin secretions

are the primary source for information transmission via

olfaction. They have three main origins: (1) eccrine sweat

glands; (2) sebaceous glands; and (3) apocrine sweat

glands. Each gland produces a different secretion, with

the apocrine gland secretion identified as a likely source

of body odor. The function of the apocrine glands is un

clear; unlike the case for many mammals, the apocrine


6 2

gland in humans does not appear to serve a thermoregula

tory function and seems to excrete maximally during stress

conditions.

No general agreement exists about the precise nature

of smell. Two major viewpoints are reported in the litera

ture: (1) odors are perceived in terms of primary scents,

and mixtures of these scents establish the quality of the

smell; and (2) odors are on a continuous plane (the exact

variables as yet unidentified). Despite confusion as to

the actual nature and mechanism of information transmis

sion, the structures of the olfactory system have been

localized. But no unanamity of opinion exists concerning

the relationship of the olfactory system and various parts

of the brain. The suggested thalamic connection to the

neocortex raises the possibility of greater complexity and

association with other stimulus events than older anatom

ical evidence would have implied.

Further problems in the field are due to a lack of

agreement among researchers on such fundamental concepts

as stress, emotion, and chemical communication. Selye

(1946) has defined stress in relation to the adaptation

process (General Adaptation Syndrome); his work has been

contested by May. Two theoretical approaches in particular

treat the question of emotion: a mechanical theory, devel

oped by James (1884), and a neuro-biological theory, de

veloped by Papez (1937) and later refined by MacLean


6 3

(1958), both of whom are Interested in behavior and its

relationship to brain function. Here, the basic difference

noted between stress and emotion is the locus of origin;

stress is a product of external stimuli and emotions are a

product of internal stimuli. It must be emphasized that to

be able to explore the potential of chemosensory communi

cation via olfaction requires an awareness of the precise

applications of the above-mentioned terms.

Although they posit varying notions of what consti

tutes communication, most theories of chemical communica

tion rely on the concept of intent as a fundamental at

tribute of the organism. Pheromone research (on olfactory

communication) implies that neither learning nor prior

experience play an essential role in the process. It is

also suggested that human pheromones are productions of

the apocrine glands, which produce odorless sweat. This

possibility opens up the field to a line of inquiry aimed

at determining whether physiological response patterns can

be elicited through the olfactory-limbic system by means

of exposure to an "odorless scent." For the purpose of

this study "chemical communication" will be defined

strictly by the act of discrimination— physiological dif

ferentiation and/or cognitive discrimination— of a human

axillary secretion produced under different stress/

external conditions.


C H A P TE R I I

METHOD


Chapter two is divided into six major sections cover

ing the pertinent aspects of the study: (1) Purpose; (2)

Hypotheses; (3) Subjects, including solicitation, screen

ing, selection and description of same; (4) Technical Con-•»

siderations, including subject briefing and preparation,

axillary sample production, axillary sample collection and

treatment; (5) Data Collection and Instrumentation; and

(6) Procedure with schematic (see p. 92).

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the extent of

human ability to differentiate and discriminate emotional

states from body excreta through olfactory chemosensory

communication. It will consider both physiological differ

entiation and cognitive discrimination of the olfactory

stimuli presented. To this end eight hypotheses were de

veloped for examination— five for the examination of phys

iological differentiation and three for the examination of

cognitive discrimination.

64


6 5

This project has been designed in the hope of acquir

ing information that is both global (pertinent to more

than a single discipline), as well as clinically useful

within the field of Counseling Psychology. Two experiments

are presented: a primary study concerned with the ability

of a subject to differentiate physiologically among four

samples of fresh axillary secretion, each of which was

produced under a different stress condition; and a second

ary study concerned with the ability of a subject group to

discriminate cognitively among four samples of body odor/

aged axillary secretion, again with each sample being

produced under a different stress condition.

Hypotheses

Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation)

Null Hypothesis Number 1 : There is no empirical

difference for Subject B in the physiological baseline

record and the physiological record taken during the

introduction of the axillary secretion collected from

Subject A, during the condition labeled "Exercise."





Subject A, during the condition labeled "Relaxation."


66

Null Hypothesis Number 3 ; There is no empirical




Subject A, during the condition labeled "Erotic."



record and tne physiological record taken during the


Subject A, during the condition labeled "Repulsive."

Null Hypothesis Number 5 : There are no empirical

differences among any of Subject B's physiological

records, taken during the introduction of any of Subject

A's axillary secretions.

Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination)

Null Hypothesis Number 6 : There is no descriptively

significant aptitude noted in the group subjects' ability

to correctly identify a sample as containing human

axillary secretion.

Null Hypothesis Number 7 : There is no descriptively

significant aptitude noted in the group subjects' ability

to accurately identify the gender of the sample donor.

Null Hypothesis Number 8 : There are no descriptively


6 7

significant differences noted in the group subjects'

ability to identify the actual condition the donor subject

experienced in producing each of the samples.

Subjects


Solicitation

The subjects were selected from a group of thirty-two

volunteers solicited from an advertisement in an

university student newspaper. As an incentive to attract

participants, subjects were given a small stipend for

taking part in the study. The amount of the stipend was

related to the amount of time each volunteer would need to

expend.

Screening, Screening Criteria, and Selection

The screening and selection process consisted of four

phases: (1) an application to participate/fact sheet,

consent form, and questionnaire; (2) administration of the

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (M .M .P .I . ) ;

(3) a clinical interview and modified neuro-psychological

evaluation; and (4) a urine screening for drug use, and a

smell threshold sensitivity evaluation.


68

Application to Participate/Study Fact Sheet, Consent

Form/ and Questionnaire (Appendix A). This phase consisted

of (a) a general description of the demands the study

would make on the subject, (b) a descriptive outline of

the screening process, followed by an explanation of the

experimental design, (c) a subject research consent form,

and (d) a questionnaire on general background of the po

tential participant. Selection Criteria: The participants

selected to continue on to phase two of the study were all

required to be Caucasian males over the age of eighteen,

who stated that they met the following criteria: they did

not smoke; they had not taken any drugs or medicines for

14 days prior to filling out the questionnaire; they had

no medical problems (i.e., allergies, skin conditions,

heart conditions, smell and/or taste dysfunction); they

were able to be sexually aroused by the opposite sex; they

had no emotional and/or mental disorders; and did not use

deodorants, body oils, after shaves, and colognes during

their normal hygiene routine.)

Twelve (12) of the original thirty-two (32) subjects

were permitted to continue to the next phase, eight (8)

elected to continue.

Administration of the M.M.P.I. Subject answers to

specific questions on the M.M.P.I. were used to judge

which subjects would be continued to phase three. Selec

tion Criteria: Subjects giving the following answers were


6 9

dismissed: TRUE to question # 34 ("I have a cough most of

the time"); FALSE to question # 51 ("I am in just as good

physical health as my friends"); TRUE to question # 69 ("I

am very strongly attracted to members of my own sex");

TRUE to question # 108 ("There seems to be a fullness in

my head or nose most of the time"); FALSE to question #

131 ("I do not worry about catching diseases"); TRUE to

question # 210 ("Everything tastes the same"); TRUE to

question # 334 ("Peculiar odors come to me at times");

FALSE to question # 430 ("I am attracted by members of the

opposite sex"); FALSE to question # 508 ("I believe my

sense of smell is as good as other people's"); and/or TRUE

to question # 535 ("My mouth feels dry almost all the

time").

Five (5) of the eight (8) subjects were allowed to

continue to phase three, four (4) subjects elected to con

tinue.

Clinical Interview and Modified Heuro-psychological

Evaluation (Appendix Q ) . The M.M.P.I. was scored for each

of the subjects who continued to phase four and the pro

files were used as part of the clinical interview. Each

interview took two (2) hours— a mental status examination

was conducted, a Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test was

administered, and a modified neuro-psychological

evaluation including an examination of lateral dominance

and an examination of Cranial Nerves I, IX, X, and XII was


7 0

conducted (Bigler, 1984). To ensure that no subject would

be morally offended by the use of sexually explicit mater

ials in the experiment proper, each subject was asked at

this time if he was morally offended or physically repuls

ed by visual sexually explicit material. Selection Cri

teria : Subjects whose evaluations suggested acute psycho

pathology and/or organic brain dysfunctions (evaluated

through the use of the M.M.P.I., the Visual Motor Bender

Gestalt Test, and the clinical interview), and/or mixed

lateral dominance, and/or who had remarkable findings on

the mental status examination and/or cranial nerve evalua

tions would be excused.

All four (4) subjects were found suitable to con

tinue; three (3) subjects elected to continue.

Urine Screen/Smell Evaluation. Phase four was made up

of two parts: (1) a urine screen for drug usage and (2)

the establishment of a smell sensitivity threshold for

each subject.

(1) Urine Screen: A qualitative urine drug screen

was conducted. The following compounds were sought:

Barbiturates: Allobarbital, Amobarbital, Aprobarbital,

Barbital, Butabarbital, Mephobarbital, Pentobarbital,

Primidone, Phenobarbital, Secobarbital. Antidepressants:

A m i t r i p t y l i n e , D o x e p i n , I m i p r a m i n e . S e d a t i v e s :

Carbamazepine, Ethchlorvynol, Meprobamate, Methyprylon,

M e t h a q u a l o n e , P y r i l a m i n e . S y m p a t h o m i m e t i c s :


7 1

C h l o r p h e n d r i n e , D i p h e n h y d r a m i n e , d , I - E p h e d r i n e .

Analgesics: Acetaminophen, Acetylsalicyate, Ibuprofen,

Meperidine, Methadone, Opiates (by class), Phenylbutazone,

Propoxyphene, Salicylate. Stimulants: Amphetamine,

Chloramphetamine, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Nicotine,

P h e n c y c l i n d i n e , P h e n y l p r o p a n o l a m i n e , Strychnine,

Theobromine, Theophylline. Minor Tranquilizers; Diazepam,

C h l o r o d i a z e p o x i d e , F l u r a z e p a m , O x a z e p a m . Major

T ra nq u i l i z e r s : Chlorop r o m a z i n e , P r o c h l o rperazine,

Thioridazine. Other; Tetrahydrocannabinol. The evaluation

of the urine was conducted by Medical Laboratory Network

in California. The methods employed in the drug screen

were Thin-Layer-Chromatogrophy (TLC), Gas-Chromatogrophy

(GC), and Enzyme-Multiplied-Immuno Technique (EMIT). Sel

ection Criteria: Any subject whose urine sample was found

to have a remarkable lab result would be excused. Results:

No remarkable findings were obtained from the laboratory.

(2) Smell Evaluation: Each of the three subjects

underwent an odor sensitivity procedure by smelling ten

samples containing different concentrations of butyl al

cohol; after smelling each sample the subjects were re

quired to indicate which sample had an odor. This proce

dure was repeated three times. Selection Criteria and Sub

ject Assignment; The subject who displayed the lowest

threshold of sensitivity by most frequently selecting the

sample with the lowest concentration of buytl alcohol was


7 2

designated the recipient subject (Subject B) in the

primary study. The subject who had the second lowest

threshold sensitivity was designated the donor subject

(subject A); and the third subject was retained as an al

ternate .

Description of Subjects

Subject A (Donor Subject). Subject A was a twenty-one

(21) year old (D.O.B. 26 July 1964), single, Caucasian

male, five feet five inches in height, weighed 120 lbs.,

indicated that he grew up in a rural area, and was judged

as athletic and well-built by the interviewer. No remark

able findings concerning this subject were noted from the

clinical interview, mental status examination, and modifi

ed neuro-psychological evaluation. Subject A was noted to

maintain a right hand, right eye, and right foot domin

ance. The results from the M.M.P.I. did not appear remark

able: anxiety index (1.33D+Pt)-(.66Hs+.66Hy) = 55; inter

nalization ratio (Hs+D+Pt)/(Hy+Pd+Ma) = 1.005714; expres

sive-repressive index (L+K+Hy)-(Pd+Ma) = 34; frustration

tolerance index (Ma+Pd)/(Hy+D) = 1.081031; passive-aggres

sive index (Hy+100) -(Pd+2Pa) = -24; mean neurotic triad

(Hs+D+Hy)/3 = 57; mean psychotic triad (Pa+Pt+Sc)/3 = 61;

and triad elevation index (Hs+D+Hy)/3- (Pa+Pt+Sc)/3 = -4.

Subject A reported that his health was excellent and that

his last physical examination was in the fall of 1984.


7 3

Subject B (Recipient Subject) . Subject B was a

twenty-seven (27) year old (D.O.B. 12 September 1957),

single, Caucasian male; subject was 6' 2" in height,

weighed 195 lbs., and was judged by the interviewer as

being normally built with no outstanding features. No

remarkable findings concerning Subject B were noted from

the clinical interview, mental status examination, or from

the modified neuro-psychological evaluation. Subject B was

noted to maintain a right hand, right eye, and right foot

dominance. The results from the M.M.P.I. did not appear

remarkable: anxiety index (1.33D+Pt)-(.66Hs+.66Hy) = 67;

internalization ratio (Hs+D+Pt)/(Hy+Pd+Ma) = .8619048;

expressive-repressive index (L+K+Hy)-(PdMa) = 44;

frustration tolerance index (Ma+Pd)/(Hy+D) = 1.068182;

passive-aggressive index (Hy+100)-(Pd+2Pa) = -83; mean

neurotic triad (Hs+D+Hy)/3 = 62; mean psychotic triad

(Pa-t-Pt+Sc)/3 = 71; and triad elevation index (Hs+D+Hy)/

3-(Pa+Pt+Sc)/3 = -9. Subject B reported his health as

excellent with his last physical examination "being

sometime in the summer of 1984," and conducted by the U.S.

Air Force medical staff; Subject B indicated that his

adenoids and tonsils were intact.


7 4


Solicitation

Donor Subject. Refer to the solicitation process out

lined above under Primary Study, page 67.

Group Subjects. Subjects were solicited from a five

hundred-level undergraduate/graduate psychology course in

Human Sexuality at Western Michigan University. The stud

ents were a mixture of upper level undergraduate students

and graduate students.

Screening/ Screening Criteria, and Selection

Donor Subject. Refer to the screening process,

screening criteria, and selection process outlined above

under Primary Study, page 67.

Group Subjects. A survey (Appendix C) was adminis

tered to any interested party. The survey contained (a) an

explanation of the study, (b) consent form, (c)

participant background sheet, and (d) survey recording

form. Any individual over the age of eighteen and

interested in participating in the project was accepted as

a subject.

Description of Subjects

Donor Subject. Refer to the description of Subject B

(Recipient subject) outlined above under Primary Study,


7 5

page 73 (Subject B functioned as the donor subject for the

axillary secretions used during the secondary study).

Group Subjects. The pool of subjects totalled

thirty-eight (38) individuals: thirty-two (32) females,

ranging in age from 18 to 52 years, with an average age of

29.8 years; and six (6) males, with an age range of 20

years to 49 years, and an average age of 29.3 years. Of

the 38 subjects in the pool 68.4% were non-smokers; 86.8%

reported their health as very good or excellent, with 7.9%

rating their health as good and the remaining 5.3% leaving

the question blank; 76.4% reported their race as White,

10.5% reported their race as Black, 13.1% reported their

race as "other"; twenty-six (68.4%) of the 38 subjects

indicated that they did not have sinus condition and 27 of

the subjects (71.1%) stated they did not have any

allergies; and 86.8% reported no use of any types of med

ication on the dates of the study, with 92.1% (35

subjects) reporting no use of nasal type medications for

two weeks prior to the study. When asked' where the

subjects were reared, 26.3% reported an urban area, 44.7%

reported a suburban area, and 29.0% reported a rural area.

From the core pool of participants four groups were as

sembled, one group for each of the samples of axillary

secretion produced under different stress conditions—


7 6

Group 1 : 12 August 1985/axillary sample from condition

Exercise, N=33; female subjects = 28, male subjects = 5;


Relaxation, N=25; female subjects 24, male subject = 1;


Erotic, N=32; female subjects = 27, male subjects = 5;

Group 4 ; 21 August 1985/axillary sample from condition

Repulsive, N=34; female subjects 29, male subjects = 5.

Technical Considerations

Subject Briefing/Preparation


Three weeks prior to the collection of data, the sub

jects were gathered together three times to desensitize

them to the overall experimental design. This process in

cluded desensitization to the method of sample collection,

the area where the study was conducted, and the equipment,

electrodes, and wires attached to the body. During the

first gathering the following instructions concerning

hygiene, diet, and use of medication were given.

Hygiene. The subjects were asked only to shower and

were restricted from using any soap; as a soap substitute

each subject was given a non-medicated "Buff Puff" (a

rough sponge of man-made material) to clean the skin. To


7 7

protect the axillary region, hair washing was to be con

ducted in the sink. No deodorants, antiperspirants,

colognes, oils, and/or body powders were permitted.

Shaving of the face was permitted for the three weeks

prior to data gathering (a non-medicated, non-mentholated

shaving foam was supplied) but no shaving was permitted

for twenty-four hours prior to data collection.

Diet. For three weeks prior to the data collection

subjects were asked to avoid spicy foods (e. g. Mexican,

Italian, etc.). In addition to the general "spicy food"

restriction, the following foods were not allowed: garlic,

asparagus, artichokes, radishes and raw onions. Each sub

ject was asked to keep a log of his food intake.

Medication. Subjects were informed that the use of

over-the-counter medications was not permitted. This re

striction also included any vitamin and/or mineral supple

ments. If a subject's physician ordered any medication

during the study, this fact was to be reported to the re

searcher .


Ho subject briefing/preparation necessary.


7 8

Axillary Sample Production

Research Environment

A 5 X 9 foot shielded enclosure was employed to

minimize influence from electric, magnetic, or radio fre

quency, or interference from the 60 cycle AC lines, and

electric devices. The polygraph, located outside the

shielded room, was appropriately grounded. Within the

shielded enclosure was placed a comfortable padded chair,

an exercise cycle, and a movie screen at one end. The room

was arranged so that the researcher was able to project

visual material on the screen from a projection station

outside of the room (Photograph Collection 1).

Stress Conditions

Four stress conditions were employed throughout this

research project: (1) Exercise, (2) Relaxation, (3) Sexual

arousal, and (4) Repulsion. Once the subject was prepared

as described in Axillary Sample Collection (see page 87),

he was seated and a baseline was established. The fol

lowing stressing method were employed:

Exercise. After his baseline was recorded, the sub

ject was placed on a "National Cyc-O-Line 1200" exercise

cycle. Once he was in place a second baseline was estab

lished; then the subject was told to ride the cycle for a


7 9

'J '. j j i lU L I J! ] l J J C B I) B E J t BM j S M M W j j j

SMzm


Phot

ogra

ph

Coll

ecti

on

1: Shielded

room

and

poly

grap

h.

8 0

pe ~od of five minutes on a tension level of three, main

taining a speed of between 15 to 30 Km/h.

Relaxation. After his baseline was taken, the subject

was asked to sit in as comfortable position as pcssible

and listen to an audio tape. The subject was informed that

an audio recording that has been known to help people

relax was going to be played. He was given to understand

that no response was required of him except to listen. An

audio tape (Hiller, 1980) using mental imagery to produce

a relaxation response was played for the ten-minute

period.

Sexual Arousal. After his baseline was recorded, the

- subject was informed that no specific response was

required of him except to watch a twelve-minute color

film. He was informed that the visual material presented

has been known to elicit sexual arousal responses from

male viewers. The subject was left to sit in the darkened

room for three minutes before the projector was engaged;

once the projector started, the film continued for the

full twelve minutes. The visual stimulus employed was a

combination of two standardly available pornographic

films; Valerie and Love At First Stroke, which presented

scenes of a single male and one female followed by scenes

with one male and two females engaged in different sexual

activities including, but not limited to, copulation,


8 1

masturbation, fellatio, and cunnilingus. The material pre

sented would be classified as normal sexual behavior and

contained no material which would be classified as sexual

perversions. The films were spliced together with only one

modification. The ejaculatory phase presented in the first

film, Valerie, was removed and spliced into the end of the

second film, Love At First Stroke to avoid any potential

break in the arousal phase. To review the relative attrac

tiveness of the individuals who participated in the film

note Photograph Collection Number 2.

Repulsive. After his baseline was taken, the subject

was informed that no specific response was required of him

except to sit and watch a slide show. He was informed that

the slides that he was to see were known to make people

uncomfortable, and that he should not turn away but make

every attempt to view each slide for its full five-second

presentation. After the instructions were given the motor

governing the automatic presentation of the slides was

engaged. Thirty-two color slides taken from a surgical

atlas (Walker, 1976) served as the stimulus. The slides

were presented every ten seconds for a five-minute period;

the screen was left dark for five seconds between each

slide presentation. For an examination of the order and

subject matter of the material presented, refer to Photo

graph Collection Number 3.


8 2

Photograph Collection. Sexual Stimulus.


8 3

I l l

©Photograph Collection 3. Repulsive Stimulus,


Photograph Collection 3— Continued


Photograph Collection 3— Continued.


8 7

Axillary Sample Collection and Treatment

Axillary Sample Collection

Upon arrival at the lab, each subject rinsed the un

derarm area with distilled water. After the subject was

properly connected to the polygraph, the axillary regions

were wiped with distilled water for a second time by the

researcher. Then each of the subject's axillary regions

were covered . with a 4 X 4 sterile gauze pad, taped in

place and covered with a 6 X 6 piece of plastic film. The

plastic film was secured with hypoallergenic plastic tape.

Axillary Sample Treatment

Primary Study (Physiological Differentiation). Once

the axillary sample was produced under each stated condi

tion by subject A, the 4 X 4 cotton gauze pads were remov

ed from subject A's axillary area and sandwiched between

two paper surgical masks, wrapped in plastic film, and

placed in the refrigerator for later use.

Secondary Study (Cognitive Discrimination). Once sub

ject B has produced the axillary sample under each stated

conditions, the 4 X 4 gauze pad was removed and placed

into a non-ordorous, sealable, hard plastic container that

had been rinsed with distilled water. After the sample was

placed in the moist container and sealed, it was refriger

ated for later use.


Data Collection and Instrumentation

88


Physiological Data. Heart rate, respiration rate and

quality, skin resistance (GSR), and muscle activity (EMG)

were recorded on a Grass Model Seven polygraph (Quincy,

.MA) with modular unit pre-amplifiers. The polygraph used a

pen and ink system for a direct write-out on continuous

paper and produced a direct record for each of the bio

logical functions monitored. Skin temperature was recorded

with a Norelco digital thermometer (serial No. HT 986).

Electrodes; When appropriate, silver-chloride disposable

electrodes pre-prepared with a hypoallergenic medium were

used. Skin preparation: The areas selected for electrode

placement were first rinsed with distilled water, dried,

lightly sanded with an extra fine piece of sandpaper and

wiped clean with a 4 X 4 gauze pad that had been rinsed in

distilled water— alcohol was not used due to its strong

smell. Electrode/instrument Placement: Heart rate— arm to

arm (Lead I) and chest lead (Lead V-2); Respiration rate

and quality— a thermistor was taped in place below the

left nasal opening in such a fashion as to allow the sub

ject's breath to flow freely over the thermistor;

GSR— first and third fingers left hand; EMG— frontalis;

skin temperature— probe tip was placed on the skin surface

at the head of the fibula.


8 9

Psychological Data. Empirical observations were re

corded by the researcher from the time each subject ar

rived at the lab until his debriefing and dismissal. In

addition to the empirical observations, an adjective check

list (Appendix D) with "feeling terms" was employed

through out the study.


Data were collected on a paper and pencil survey form

(Appendix C) . Subjects were given the following verbal

directions: "On the table you will see a 'smelling box.1

You are asked to smell the sample and indicate whether the

smelling box is 'empty/no perceivable odor' (contains no

'real' sample), or 'loaded' (contains a 'real' sample); if

you believe that the smelling box is loaded, you are asked

to identify the smell as Rest Smells, Sexual Smells, Work

Smells, Fear Smells; then label the loaded sample as

pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant, and indicate if the

donor was male or female."

Procedure

Both the primary study and the secondary study con

cerned physiological reactions or cognitive responses by

subject(s) to a sample of axillary secretion produced

under four different stress conditions (exercise, relaxa

tion, sexual arousal, and repulsion).


9 0


The primary study focused on physiological different

iation. The donor subject (Subject A) was prepared so that

his axillary secretion could be collected on cotton gauze

pads. Then he was attached to several physiological mon

itoring devices connected to a Grass Model Seven Poly

graph/ and put in a shielded chamber. Following the es

tablishment of a baseline subject A filled out an adjec

tive check list (Appendix D) and then experienced one of

the four stress conditions. After the stress condition his

axillary sample was collected and placed between two paper

surgical masks, wrapped in plastic film and placed in a

refrigerator for later use. Once the axillary sample was

collected, Subject A was given the adjective check list

for a second time, was disconnected from the monitoring

devices, debriefed, and dismissed. The chamber was aired

out and the recipient subject (Subject B) was prepared in

the same manner as Subject A (placement of axillary area

pads and connection to the polygraph). Once seated in the

chamber, two clean surgical masks with a clean cotton

gauze pad sandwiched between them were placed on Subject B

and a baseline was then recorded. Once a baseline was

taken, subject B was asked to fill out an adjective check

list while the prepared mask was taken from the refrigera

tor. The clean mask was removed and replaced with the


9 1

prepared mask. Subject B was asked to relax and breathe

normally through his nose. Subject B's physiological

responses (heart rate, skin temperature, respiration rate,

and respiration quality, skin resistance (GSR) , and

muscle activity (EMG)) were recorded. The mask was

removed and discarded, and Subject B was given the

adjective check list for a second time. Subject B then

experienced the same stress condition as Subject A.

Subject B then filled out the adjective checklist for the

third time. The cotton pads were removed from Subject B's

underarms, placed into a sealable non-odorous plastic

container that had been rinsed with distilled water,

sealed, and placed in the refrigerator for later use.

Subject B was then disconnected from the monitoring

devices, debriefed, and dismissed (see Illustration 7).

This procedure was repeated for each stress condition.


The secondary study focused on cognitive discrimina

tion. The sample produced by Subject B during the primary

study was employed later during the same day of collection

(within twelve hours) . Four groups were assembled from a

core group of thirty-eight (38) volunteer subjects re

cruited from a class on Human Sexuality. All subjects were

asked to fill out a background sheet on themselves, smell


Seco

ndar

y Study

Primary

Stud

y Subject "A* Baseline -> Subject "A"

Stress condition & Sweat Collection

Subject "B* Baseline

Introduction to Group of

Sweat collected from subject "B" for cognitive

study

Subject "B" Stress Condition

& Sweat Collection

Introduction to Subject B" of

Sweat collected from Subject “A" for physiological

study

!

Illustration 7. Procedure Outline.

9 3

the sample, and fill out a questionnaire. Each subject

was given as much time as he/she wished to smell the

sample, but on the average each subject took less than ten

(10) seconds. Each subject was asked if the sample they

smelled was "empty/no perceivable smell" or "loaded (con

tains a 'real' sample)." If the subject response given was

"loaded," the subject was asked to describe the sample as

"Rest Smells," "Sexual Smells," "Work Smells," or "Pear

Smells" and rate the smell as pleasant, neutral, un

pleasant, and then was asked to indicate the gender of the

subject.


CHAPTER III

RESULTS


This chapter is divided into four sections: (1) Introduction; (2) Method of Data Analysis; (3) Experimental

Outcome/Results; and (4) Summary.

Introduction

In attempting to determine the range of the human

capacity to recognize and distinguish various emotional

states from body sweat through olfactory chemosensory com

munication, both physiological differentiation and cogni

tive discrimination of olfactory stimuli have been ex

amined. To direct this study the eight hypotheses present

ed in Chapter II were formulated. In this chapter the out

come of the experiment is outlined as it relates to each

hypothesis. The chapter will conclude with a summary in

which the limits of some aspects of human ability to

utilize olfactory chemosensory communication will be ad

dressed .

94


9 5

Method of Data Analysis


The data from the Primary Study consist of physiolog

ical records produced under different stress conditions.

To analyze these data an empirical/observational compar

ison of the physiological record focusing on the physi

ological record of Subject B chronicled during two phases

of the study was used: the baseline phase and the phase

following the introduction of the axillary secretion pro

duced by subject A under a stated stress condition. After

an intra-record examination of each record produced under

different stress conditions was made, an inter-record

examination was conducted.


The data from the Secondary Study consist of reports

of cognitive discrimination of an olfactory sample re

corded on a "forced choice" questionnaire/survey form. In

the secondary study the responses given by the group were

examined with three factors in mind: the accuracy of the

group responses in cases where an actual sample was used;

the gender of the subject; and the relationship of the

responses to the actual stress conditions that produced

the axillary sample, with particular attention paid to the


9 6

background information given by each respondent. The mean

was employed as the descriptive statistic.

Results

In this section first the hypothesis examined is

listed, followed by the related data, the data abridgment

and analysis, and then the findings and interpretations.

Null Hypothesis Number 1

"There is no empirical difference for Subject B in

the physiological baseline record and the physiological

record taken during the introduction of the axillary sec

retion collected from Subject A, during the condition

labeled Exercise."

The procedure to examine Null Hypothesis Number 1

took place on 12 August 1985, from 09:40 to 11:50. Mo

problems were noted during the execution of the procedure.

Data

Psychological Report, Subject A (Donor Subject) :

(a) Arrival: Subject A arrived at 09:10. Having come

by bicycle. He entered the lab with the bicycle seat in

his hand. He was evaluated upon arrival. No remarkable

information was noted; the subject appeared to be in good

humor and freely willing to enter conversation. It was

noted that the subject was oriented and most alert. The


9 7

subject was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to ar

rival. He indicated that he had. Since he had arrived on a

bicycle he was asked to rerinse in the bathroom v/ith

distilled water and change into a set of gym clothes

(shorts and tank top).

(b) Following Baseline Record on the Exercise Cycle:

The subject reviewed the adjective check list and chose

the following terms to describe his mood: excited, happy,

tired, and apathetic.

(c) During Procedure: The subject did not appear

taxed by the exercise. It was most apparent that he was an

avid cyclist and once he began to exercise he quickly

established a rhythm.

(d) Following Procedure: The subject selected the

following terms on the adjective check list: excited,

happy, tired, and apathetic.

(e) Debriefing: Subject reported no unusual feel

ings or thoughts following the exercise. However, when

asked about his response "tired" on the adjective check

list, he defined "tired" as sleepy, rather than fatigued.

Psychological Report, Subject B (Recipient Subject).

(a) Arrival: The subject arrived at 10:30, alert

and somewhat talkative. He was in good humor and stated

that he was enthusiastic about being a subject. Subject B

was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to arrival. He

indicated that he had, his underarm areas were wiped clean


9 8

with distilled water, and then he was instructed to change

into the gym clothes provided.

(b) Following Baseline Record on Exercise Cycle,

Prior to Sample Introduction: The subject reported on his

mood by selecting the following descriptors on the adjec

tive check list: calm, hopeful, comfortable, apathetic,

anxious, relaxed, and indifferent.

(c) During Sample Introduction: No remarkable obser

vations were noted.

(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to

Exercise: The subject picked the following descriptors on

the adjective check list to reflect his mood: excited,

restful, calm, hopeful, comfortable, and anxious.

(e) During Exercise: The subject appeared physically

"out-of-shape" and appeared to find the exercise most tax

ing, he appeared to maintain good humor.

(f) Following Exercise: The subject indicated that

he was tired, fatigued, and anxious from the exercise; he

also reported his mood as hopeful on the adjective check

list.

(g) Debriefing: During the debriefing session, the

subject reported no unusual thoughts or feelings following

the experimental procedure. VJhen questioned if he knew

which stress condition would be employed, he indicated

that he did not.

Physiological Record/Data. Five one-minute segments ••


9 9

from the physiological records produced by both Subject A

and Subject B were selected for comparison. Two one-minute

segments from the physiological record were selected for

Subject A, and three one-minute segments were selected for

Subject B. The segments selected from the full physi

ological record reflecting the different phases of the

study were: (a) Subject A during baseline, (b) Subject A

during the exercise condition exercise, (c) Subject B

during baseline, (d) Subject B during the introduction of

the axillary secretion, and (e) Subject B during the ex

ercise condition (Physiological Record 1). The entire

record can be studied in Appendix E; the one-minute seg

ments were selected as representative of the record pro

duced during each phase of within whole record.

Data Abridgment and Analysis

From a comparison of the record produced by Subject B

during the baseline phase and the record produced during

the introduction of the axillary secretion phase for the

same subject the following observations are noted:

Psychological Report. No marked alterations and/or

changes in behavior during the procedure were noted.

EMG. A minimal increase in muscle tension is noted.

Heart. The chest lead (Lead I) record showed an in

crease in response patterns; the arm-to-arm (V-2) record


100

12 August 1985

EMG

<53h i“ 9CGI3<0

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 ^ v /cm

HEART Arm to Arm

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

f-

10:09 | | ' i 10:10nimlu}i|tiiilnnlliH liil‘llllll||lllllllllllllllll|ii --

W m M f M I l

Skin 94.2° F Room 72 .0° F @

BASELINEP h y s i o l o g i c a l R e c o r d 1 . E x e r c i s e .


00000102020200010100020202020202020100000101

101

Physiological Record 1— Continued

CONDITION: EXERCISE12 August 1935

<h-OLU“Dm3CO

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /cv/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

*10*20 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 ' 10:21h I i i i i I i MIL m ill i l l ln i l l l i l l l l l l l lJ I t l l lU lU lL ILanin-----------

Skin 98.6° F Room 74 .0° F

EXERCISE


SUBJECT B

102

Physiological Record 1— Continued.


EMG

TIME LINE/Sec. 11:10 I 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! ! ! 1 ! H 'H

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /«v/cm

HEART Arm to Arm jW M .... -

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE Skin 92.2° F Room 76.0° F ©

BASELINE


SUBJECT B

Physiological Record 1— continued


EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /uvlcm

HEART Arm to Arm

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

Tt*21 i « • i ’ i i • t I i ! 11*22 I. .....

Skin 93.0° F Room 76.0° F

INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected

from Subject A


6372557178^7

1 0 4



GQ

53LUCQZD05

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 A'v/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

» t, 11::l u i i i t o t t o j i i u i m U m i u u i i i 1i i l n i m i --------------

I l i M i '

p

Skin 93.8° F Room 78 .0° F f i I

EXERCISE


showed an increase in response. The changes noted in the

records are clearly observable.

Respiration*. Obvious changes in the quality and

quantity of respiration are noted. The difference is

judged to be empirically significant.

Body Temperature: In comparing subject B's record

during the introduction of the axillary secretion with his

record during the stress/exercise phase an increase in

skin temperature of ,8°F is noted. Although the increase

is consistent between baseline and introduction of sweat,

and between sweat introduction and exercise, this rise in

temperature is to small to suggest that it was a result of

the experimental treatment.

Findings and Interpretations

A comparison of the baseline record and the record

during the introduction of the axillary secretion suggests

that Null Hypothesis Number 1 should be rejected. Observ

able differences in the records are clearly noted, most

predominantly in the evaluation of the cardiac record and

the respiration record; although the temperature record

was not judged to be great enough to stand as "different"

on its own merit, temperature increase supports the other

findings.


1 0 6




record taken during the introduction of the axillary sec

retion collected from Subject A, during the condition

labeled Relaxation."


took place on 14 August 1985, from 08:30 to 11:00. No un

usual occurrences were noted during the execution of the

procedure.

Data

Psychological Report, Subject A (Donor Subject).

Arrival: Subject A arrived at 08:00. Upon ar

rival he was evaluated; no marked abnormalities were

noted. The subject appeared sleepy, yet entered easily

into conversation. The subject was oriented. The subject

was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to arrival. He

indicated that he had, his axillary regions were wiped

clean with distilled water and then he changed into a set

of gym clothes.

(b) Following Baseline Record: The subject reviewed

the adjective check list and chose the following terms to

describe his mood: restful, tranquil, happy, tired, calm,

comfortable, and relaxed.

/


1 0 7

(c) During Procedure: The subject appeared to become

more relaxed when listening to the relaxation tape, than

he had been at the start of the stress condition.

(d) Following Procedure; The subject selected the

following terms on the adjective check list: restful,

tranquil, happy, calm, comfortable, (very) relaxed, and

indifferent.

(f) Debriefing: The subject reported no unusual

feelings or thoughts following the relaxation condition;

when asked if he found the audio tape relaxing, he re

sponded that he was relaxed by the tape.

Psychological Report,'Subject B (Recipient Subject).

(a) Arrival: The subject arrived at 09:30, was alert

extremely talkative and friendly. He reported that he had

showered/rinsed prior to arrival, his underarms were wiped

clean with distilled water and he changed into gym

clothes.

(b) Following Baseline Record, Prior to Sample

Introduction: The subject described his mood with the

following descriptors on the adjective check list: ex

cited, restful, tranquil, calm, hopeful, comfortable, an

xious, and relaxed.

(c) During Sample Introduction: No remarkable occur

rences were noted.

(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to Relaxa

tion Condition: The subject chose the following terms on


1 0 8

the adjective check list to reflect his mood: confused,

restful, tranquil, happy, calm, hopeful, comfortable, an

xious, and relaxed.

(e) During Relaxation Condition: No remarkable com

ments were recorded.

(f) Following Relaxation Condition: The subject in

dicated the following terms on the check list: restful,

calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and relaxed.


subject reported no unusual thoughts or feelings following

the experimental procedure. It is worth noting that the

subject reported that the audio tape was a distraction

while he was attempting to relax. When questioned if he

was aware of the stress condition to be employed prior to

arrival, he indicated that he did not.

Physiological Record/Data. Five one-minute segments




Subject A and three one-minute segments were selected for

Subject B. The segments selected from the full physi

ological record reflecting the different phases of the

study were: (a) Subject A during Baseline, (b) Subject A

during the stress condition relaxation, (c) Subject B

during Baseline, (d) Subject B during the introduction of

the axillary secretion, and (e) Subject B during the


1 0 9

stress condition relaxation (Physiological Record 2). The

complete record can be found in Appendix E; the one-minute

segments vere selected as representative of the record

produced during each phase of the entire record.


A comparison of the record produced by subject B

during the baseline phase and the introduction of the

axillary secretion phase generates the following observa

tions :

Psychological Report. No alterations and/or changes

in the subject's behavior were noted during the relaxation

condition. During the debriefing session Subject B

indicated that he found the audio tape/relaxation condi

tion distracting rather than relaxing.

EMG. A marked reduction in muscle tension is noted

between the record of Subject B's baseline and his sweat

introduction record. The decrease is clearly and observab

ly different.

Heart. Little or no observable differences are noted

in the cardiac record taken from the chest lead (Lead I)

during the baseline and introduction of the axillary sec

retion were noted. The cardiac record taken from the

arm-to-arm lead (V-2) shows a small reduction in

"intensity" without any apparent movement on the part of


110

14 August 1985

<Sm” 3m

co

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /t&vlcm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

9*24 i I I I ' 1 ' 1 I 1 I 9*25 — uIuiiIiuuhiiIhhhihIiiiiIiiiiIhiiIiiiiImiiIiiiiII' —

iMifdiUluUiWiHtiKniHinSlp

5.70

- M W ^ M U U k L

Skin 93 .0° F Room 78 .0 ° F @

BASELINE

Physiological Record 2. Relaxation.


05757655480586^3

393150^01933

Ill


CONDITION: RELAXATION14 August 1985

Oin—»t n3<0

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 ^v /cm

HEART Arm to Arm

itetiipmilutuMjHUvWt'tviil

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

9:38|n n it i it l im li in ln t i lm ii im lin l lm iin i l l i i l l l iL

9:39

15.95

A A J U U U U U A A A A M J -


RELAXATION


^

02020100010000020200000200020100020102020201

112

Physiological Record 2— Continued,


I2Q(3LLiGQ3(/}

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 A v/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

i i i i i i i i i i i i l i in l i i i i i i i i i l i i i i l i i i i l i i i i t i i i i l im h ti i l 10:20XL.

7.15-

Skin 90.6° F Room 80 .0° F ©

BASELINE


SUBJECT B

1 1 3

Physiological Record 2— Continued.


EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /tvlcm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

10.27 10-28

9.30

Skin 91.2° F Room 80.0° F (20


from Subject A


1 1 4



02h“oLLl“ 9m3C/J

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 stvlcm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

10:45i i lm i . i i . . |< .n l i i i i l i i i l | i i i lL n ll l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l ln iu ,

10:46

8.20*

Skin 90.4° F Room 82.0° F @

RELAXATION


020102010100006402010100230202

1 1 5

the subject. The most noteworthy difference in Subject B's

cardiac record is the change in the regularity of heart

rhythm during the introduction of the sweat produced by

Subject A, when compared to Subject B's baseline. The

changes noted in the cardiac record of Subject B when com

pared to baseline record are observably different.

GSR. A change is noted in galvanic skin response, as

recorded during the sweat introduction from 7.15 on the

baseline record to 9.30 on the sweat introduction record.

Of interest is the slight drop in the GSR that is noted

when comparing 9.30 during the sweat introduction record

to 8.20 during the relaxation condition. This decrease

corresponds with subject B's verbal report of finding the

audio tape distracting when attempting to relax. The in

crease in GSR noted in comparing Subject B's baseline with

Subject B's response to sweat introduction shows an ob

servable difference between the two records.

Respiration. The differences are clear between the

baseline record and the record of the introduction of

sweat. During the introduction of the sweat the subject's

breathing became more regular and more shallow, a clear

difference.

Body Temperature. An increase in skin temperature is

noted, from 90.6°P during the baseline record, to 91.2°F

during the introduction of sweat record. Of import, is the

drop in temperature from 91.2°P to 90.4°P during the


1 1 6

record taken while subject B was listened to the relaxa

tion tape, even though there was an increase in room tem

perature from 80.0°F to 82.0°F; this decrease corresponds

with the psychological report. The overall temperature

increase noted between the sweat introduction record and

the baseline record clearly shows a change from one record

to the other.



produced during the introduction of the axillary sec

retion suggests that Null Hypothesis Number 2 should be

rejected. Observable differences are clearly noted

throughout the entire record. Changes are found in the GSR

record, respiration record, and temperature record. It

should be noted that Subject 3 appeared to find the

axillary secretion from Subject A more "relaxation

producing" than the audio tape.




record taken during the introduction of the axillary

secretion collected from Subject A, during the condition

labeled Erotic/Sexual Arousal."


1 1 7

The procedure to test Null Hypothesis Number 3 took

place on 19 August 1985, from 11:00 to 13:00. No unusual

occurrences were noted during the execution of the proce

dure.

Data


(a) Arrival: Subject A arrived at 09: 00 and was

asked to return at 10:30 due to technical difficulties.

When he returned at 10:30 he was evaluated psychologically

and appeared in good humor, but was somewhat quiet. It was

noted that the subject was oriented and most alert. The

subject was asked if he had showered/rinsed prior to ar

rival. He indicated that he had, the axillary areas were

wiped clean with distilled water and he changed into a set

of gym clothes.



describe his mood: restful, tranquil, tired, calm, com

fortable, apathetic, relaxed, and indifferent.

(c) During Procedure: The subject appeared somewhat

uncomfortable during the erotic condition/film, but he did

not verbalize this.

(d) Following Procedure: The subject chose the fol

lowing terms on the adjective check list: excited,

repulsed, apathetic, anxious, and indifferent.


1 1 8

(e) Debriefing; The subject reported that during the

viewing of the film he went through several different sets

of emotions and feelings. During the first part of the

film (about the first nine minutes) he reported that he

felt sexually aroused and sustained a flaccid erection,

but during the last three minutes of the film (the

ejaculatory segment of the film) the subject indicated

that he found the film too graphic, and more distressing

than arousing.


(a) Arrival; The subject arrived at 10:30 and was

talkative. He reported that he was out the previous

evening at a party; he took the time to indicate that he

did not drink at the party. He was asked to return at

11:30 due to technical difficulties; he complied. Prior to

establishing a baseline, the subject was asked if he had

showered/rinsed prior to his arrival. He indicated that he

had, the subject's underarms were wiped down with

distilled water.

(b) Following Baseline Record, Prior to Sample

Introduction: The subject described his mood with the fol

lowing selections on the adjective check list: restful,

tranquil, happy, calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and

relaxed.

(c) During Sample Introduction: No remarkable com

mentary was recorded.


1 1 9

(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to Erotic

Condition; The subject picked following descriptors on the

adjective check list to reflect his mood: restful,

tranquil, calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and

relaxed.

(e) During Erotic Condition: The subject appeared to

be enjoying the erotic film.

(f) Following Stress Condition: The subject reported

his mood as excited, happy, comfortable, anxious, sexy,

relaxed, and horny on the adjective check list.


subject reported that he was highly sexually aroused by

the film, sustaining an erection throughout the film; ac

cording to his self-report, the subject found the experi

mental procedure to be most pleasurable. When questioned

if he knew which condition was going to be employed prior

to the exposure, he indicated that he did not.






Subject B. The segments selected from the full

physiological record reflecting the different phases of

the study were: (a) Subject A during baseline, (b) Subject

A during the erotic condition, (c) Subject B during base


120

line, (d) Subject B during the introduction of the

axillary secretion, and (e) subject B during the erotic

condition (Physiological Record 3). For an examination of

the entire record, review Appendix E. The one-minute seg

ments were selected as representative of the record

produced during each phase of the complete record.



during the baseline phase and the introduction of the

axillary secretion phase the following observations are

noted:

Psychological Report. No marked alterations and/or

changes in behavior during the procedure were noted.

EMG. There is an observable increase in muscle

tension seen when the baseline record is compared with

the sweat introduction record. This increase in muscle

tension is sufficient to be considered clearly observable.

Heart. The record from the chest lead (Lead I) shows

no changes in regularity and/or magnitude; the arm-to-arm

leads (V-2) record displays little difference with respect

to the same measures. The most interesting aspects of

these records are noted when compared with Subject A's

record produced during the stress condition. As can be

observed, during the erotic/stress period for Subject A an


SUBJECT A

121

19 August 1985

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /nvlcm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

11:19 • I I : I • : ’ i • ; 11:20iiinMiiiiiiiiiin.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiLiiiimiiiiiiim------

6.45

■ ^ r o T >o r T Y N V ^ n r n r \ r -


BASELINE

P h y s i o l o g i c a l R e c o r d 3 . E r o t i c .



CONDITION: EROTIC19 August 1985 .

oLLS“ DgoZDi n

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 Av/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

TI I

3.55


EROTIC


1 2 3


CONDITION: EROTIC19 August 1985

OQI—OI I Iffl

</)

BASELINE


EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /Kv/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

* * /

12*14 t I i I ’ I 1 1 I 12:15 Hlntl Illlllll-----

m6.95


1 2 4

Physiological Record 3— continued.


<3LU” 3CQZDC0

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

[ a S00 rnAv/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

4-

12*20 12*21 ' ■ 1111111! n i n n 1111111 mil li i-- !- - -

4.20



from Subject A


1 2 5



mhoHICQZDCO

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 m/ev/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

.. .llll—i • y- k . IV'.

4.20

i ,2.50

Skin 93.4° F Room 74 .0° F

EROTIC


42193519^^95

^

1 2 6

anormal heart rhythm was noted, which was not noted for

Subject B during Subject B's baseline record. When Subject

B was introduced to the axillary secretion produced by

Subject A under the erotic condition, Subject B started to

"echo" or "copy" subject A by producing a cardiac record

that appeared to be similar to that of Subject A's. Like

subject A, Subject B showed no unusual heart responses

during the baseline record. When Subject B's record taken

during the introduction of the axillary secretion is com

pared with Subject A's record taken during the erotic con

dition, Subject B's record appears to maintain the same

patterns produced by Subject A. The differences in Subject

B's baseline record when compared with Subject B's sweat

introduction record are observably different, including

some form of physiological emulation of subject A's un

usual cardiac record.

GSR. A drop from 6.95 on the baseline record to 4.20

on the sweat introduction record is noted; this drop is

judged to be an observable change from subject B's base

line record and the record taken during the introduction

of he axillary secretion produced by Subject A during the

erotic condition.

Respiration. An observable change in respiration is

noted, with subject B's breathing going from a regular

pattern noted during the baseline record to a more erratic

and deeper pattern of breathing during the sweat


1 2 7

introduction record. The alteration in breathing is

clearly an observable difference.

Body Temperature. A drop in skin temperature from

94.2°F, taken during the baseline record, to 93.8°F during

the sweat introduction record, is registered; A comparison

of Subject B's sweat introduction record with the record

taken during the erotic condition for the same subject

shows a drop in skin temperature also. This drop in skin

temperature is also present in comparing Subject A's

baseline record with Subject A's stress condition record.

The drop in skin temperature is not sufficient alone to

suggest a clinical change in comparing the records, yet

with the decrease noted in Subject A's records and Subject

B's response to the actual stress condition, the

difference needs to be noted.


A comparison of the baseline record with the record


that Hypothesis Number 3 should be rejected. Observable

changes are noted in all systems recorded.


"There is no observable difference for Subject B in



1 2 8

record taken during the introduction of the axillary

secretion collected from Subject A, during the condition

labeled Repulsive."


took place on 21 August 1986, from 08:00 to 10:30. No

remarkable occurrences were noted during the execution of

the procedure.

Data


(a) Arrival: Subject A arrived at 07:30 and was

evaluated and appeared sleepy. It was noted that the

subject was oriented. The subject was asked if he had

showered/rinsed prior to arrival. He indicated that he

had, his underarms were wiped clean with distilled water

and changed into a set of gym clothes.



describe his mood: restful, tranquil, happy, tired, calm,

comfortable, apathetic, relaxed, and indifferent.

(c) During Procedure: The subject did not appear

overly uncomfortable during the repulsion condition.

(d) Following Procedure: The subject selected the

following terms on the adjective check list: happy,

comfortable, and relaxed.

(e) Debriefing: The subject reported no unusual


1 2 9

feelings or thoughts during or following the stress condi

tion. When asked about the repulsive stimuli (color

slides), he indicated that he found them to be

"interesting," stating that he did not find the slides

overly distressing.


(a) Arrival: Subject arrived at 09:00, alert and in

very good spirits, and stated that he was enthusiastic

about being there. It was noted that the subject had

appeared to have some nasal congestion. The subject was

questioned as to whether he had showered/rinsed prior to

his arrival to the lab. He indicated that he had, the

axillary regions were wiped clean with distilled water.

(b ) Following Baseline Record, Prior to Sample

Introduction: During the baseline record the subject

became quite uncomfortable, finding it difficult to breath

through his nose. The procedure was halted and the subject

was allowed to blow his nose. A second baseline was taken

and no remarkable information was noted. The subject

described his mood with the following descriptors on the

adjective check list: excited, restful, tranquil/ happy,

calm, hopeful, comfortable, anxious, and relaxed.

(c) During Sample Introduction: The subject almost

immediately became agitated and yelled at one point, "Why

in the F... is this taking so long!;" he appeared more

hostile than agitated.


1 3 0

(d) Following Sample Introduction, Prior to

Repulsive Slides/ Repulsion Condition; The following terms

were recorded as responses on the adjective check list:

confused, restful, tranquil, happy, calm, hopeful,

anxious, and relaxed. After listing these terms the

subject added an additional one: agitated.

(e) During Repulsion Condition: The subject

appeared not to be affected by the repulsive slides.

(f) Following Repulsion Condition: The subject

reported his mood as restful, repulsed, tranquil, calm

(taking a deep cleansing breath), comfortable, and relaxed

on the adjective check list.


subject reported that he found the slides to be most

distressing. When he was asked if he was aware which

experimental procedure was going to be conducted on that

date, he indicated that he was aware it was going to be

the repulsive condition, since it was the only stress

condition left.






Subject B. The segments selected from the full

physiological record were: (a) Subject A Baseline; (b)


1 3 1

Subject A during the stress condition; (c) Subject B

during the Baseline record; (d) Subject B during the

introduction of the axillary secretion produced by Subject

A; and (e) Subject B during the stress condition

(Physiological Record 4). The complete record can be found

in Appendix E. The one-minute segments were selected as

representative of the record produced during each phase of

the entire record.



during the baseline phase and that of the introduction of

the axillary secretion phase the following observations

are noted:

Psychological Report. Upon arrival Subject B was

judged to be in good spirits; a marked behavior change

(yelling) was noted almost immediately after the sweat was

introduced.

EMG. No observable differences were noted.

Heart. No observable differences were noted in the

records from the chest lead (Lead I) or the arm-to-arm

leads (V-2). Noted was some "echoing" of Subject A's

unusual cardiac record, as outlined previously in the

sexual arousal condition.

GSR. A minor increase in GSR (7.20 to 7.60) was noted

between Subject B's baseline record and the record taken


1 3 2

21 August 1985

<<3LLi” 3CQ=>CO

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 A v/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

-------------1-— .................. .........— ------------------ —

®*21 iilmiliiiiiimlimlmilmiliHiliMiliiJmillitili1

. jiiL

limiu

0.84,__ ,

Skin 94 .6° F Room 70.0° F ( g

BASELINE

Physiological Record 4. Repulsive.


SUBJECT A


1 3 3

CONDITION: REPULSIVE21 August 1985

EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEARTChest Lead

| = 500 /ttv/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

8-30 ■ 11 n ■ 111111111 nlli 111 m I [i 111111 n 111111111111111 j 11 n 111.

4.60.

5.56


REPULSIVE


SUBJECT B



EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 ^ v /cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

9-45 ,i|||,i|||,i|,i,,||,ii|nii|||||||inllul|iniliiiiliiiim.9:46

I-

Skin 95.4° F Room 72 .0° F ©

BASELINE


SUBJECT B



EMG

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead

| = 500 /ev/cm

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

1 0 .0 2 iilim lnniniilim liiiiln iiliiiiln iilnn ln iilin iln 1 ,9 :2? .

7.60

.AA/WWVVYVYYVWiSkin 90.2° F Room 72 .0 ° F


from Subject A


SUBJ

ECT

B1 3 6



E M G

TIME LINE/Sec.

HEARTChest Lead

A iik .| = 500 m /»v/cm

- - Wp w Iw W W P

HEARTArm to Arm

— l i l m

GSR7.52

RESPIRATIONm w w w w w t

TEMPERATURE Skin 89.6° F Room 72 .0° F ©REPULSIVE


1 3 7

during the introduction of the axillary secretion. A very

slight decrease in the GSR (7.60 to 7.52) was noted

between the record produced during the introduction of the

axillary secretion and the record produced when Subject B

experienced the stress condition, repulsion.

Respiration. Breathing patterns were observably

different for Subject B between the baseline record and

the record illustrating the introduction of the axillary

secretion; respiration during the introduction of the

axillary secretion was shallower and more rapid. A

comparison of the breathing record taken during the

introduction of the axillary secretion for Subject B, and

the record taken during the experiencing of the stress

condition by Subject B suggests a physiological movement

in a similar direction, as if the subject were experi

encing the same stress condition in a less intense fashion

when introduced to the sweat sample. The results of the

comparison of the entire respiration record are observably

different.

Body Temperature. A 5.2°F drop was noted. Subject B's

baseline record was 95.4°F; Subject B's temperature drop

ped to 90.2 F when Subject B was subjected to the axillary

secretion. In comparing Subject B's record taken during

the introduction of the axillary secretion to Subject B's

record taken during the time he experienced the repulsive

condition, a 0.6°F drop in skin temperature from 90.2°F to


1 3 8

to 89.6°F is observed. The results show a marked dif

ference, since they reflect an alteration of the record in

the same direction.




that Null Hypothesis Number 4 should be rejected. The

respiration changes noted in Subject B, as well as the

temperature changes between the Baseline record and the

sweat introduction record are sufficient to be considered

empirically significant. The "dramatic" behavioral

response (subject yelling) must be viewed with some

caution, since the subject was able to determine which

stress condition was going to be employed on this date.


"There are no empirical differences among any of

Subject B's physiological records, taken during the

introduction of any of Subject A's axillary secretions."

Data

The data presented for evaluation is a comparison of

physiological records summarized in Table 1, Table 2,

Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.


1 3 9

Table 1

Summary: Exercise Condition

E M Q

TIME UNBSec.HEART Chest Land

| m SOO/iilcmHEART Ami to Arm

CONDITION: EXERCISE 12 August 1985

1030 . . . . . . . . . .■... 10:21

QSR

tn

RESPIRATION- w v u u w M i r

TEMPERATURE SUnM.2»F Room 72.0*F @.... .

, 11341133TIME LINE/Sec.

Chest Lead

— m m w m m m M —Sfcfei B3S*P Boom W F 0

| m 500 MilanHEART Arm to Aim

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE SUflMJ’F Boom 76.0* P © BASELINE

SUntM’P Boom 70.0'P ©INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A

SUoOlS'P Boom 7UT F ®EXERCISE


SUBJ

ECT

B

SU

BJEC

T A

140

Table 2

Summary: Relaxation Condition


E M G

TIME UNE/Sac.

HEART Chest Leadj ■ S&OaWcflt

HEART Arm to Ami

GSR

RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE SJUnSJ-O-F doom 78.0* S @

t/UAAAAAAAAAAA/----

SUnSSJ'F Doom MIPS ®E M G

TIME UNE/Sec.

■ ■■ •«" -..... ...

HEART Chest Lead| “ SOOav/anHEART Aim to Aim

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

P i t Illll lM _____ IIitittwwira iii

Skin 00.8* F Room 50.0* PBASELINE

WAAA/VVUVVVtA/VWlAAAA.

SUnflU'F Room C0.0*F (INTRODUCTION OP Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A

. amaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa, . AUn ML4*P Room Hfl*P

RELAXATION


SUBJ

ECT

B

SU

BJEC

T A

Table 3

Summary: Erotic Condition

CONDITION: EROTIC 19 August 1985

E M Q

TIME UNE/Sec.

HEART Cheat LoadI a 500* WanHEART Ann to Arm

QSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

'/-vvvvT'rivvVvv\--

S U noa j’ P doom 720* P ® SUn0S.0*P Room TJLO’ F

TIME UNEJSec.

HEART Chest Load| ■ S00A>vtem

SUn S3.fi* P Room 71.0* F

HEART Arm to Ami

RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE SUn 94.2*F Room 75.0*F ®

BASELINE INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A

S U nO lX 'F Room 74.0*F ® l

EROTIC


SUBJE

CTB

SUBJE

CTA

Table 4

Summary: Repulsive Condition

CONDITION: REPULSIVE 21 August 198S

E M G

S l S I i i „ . i l , „ , i . . , i l . L „ t . . . . . . . . S-22_ _TIME UNE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead| n SQOvlan

HEART Ami to Ann

am.

RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE SklnM.0*F Room70.0*F

E M G

yua .....TIME UNE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead| ■ VM Milan

HEART Aim to Ann

GSR7.S0 — i f "

Skin >S.4'F Room 72.0’ F ©

(Vy/Yvmwwvvvw—SUn OOJ'F Room 724 'F @

•w y w w w w y w —SUn eo.C 'f Room 72X*P ©

RESPIRATIONTEMPERATURE

DASEUNE INTRODUCTION OF REPULSIVEAxillary Secretion collected from Subject A


645994

Table 5

Summary: Axillary Introduction All Conditions

143

Table 1 CONDITION: EXERCISE

12 August 19BS

EMGTIME LINE! Sec.

HEART Chest Load

005LU

HEART Arm to Arm-i§</)

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATUREINTRODUCTION OF

Table 2 CONDITION: RELAXATION

14 August 1965

TIME UNE/Sec.i

HEARTChest Lead| ■ 500*WcmHEARTArm to Arm

— m m m m —

GSR 0.301----- '

jraAAA/WVlrtM/VWVlAArt.RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE SUn 91.2* F Room 80.0* F ®Axillary Secretion collected (ram Subject A

INTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected (ram Subject A

Table 3 CONDITION: EROTIC

19 August 1985

EMQTIME UNE/Sec.

HEART Chest Lead|* SOOm/bWcmHEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION

TEMPERATURE

r ’t

Skin 83.8’F Room 78.0*FINTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A

Table 4 CONDITION: REPULSIVE

21 August 1985

EMGTIME LINEISec.

HEART Chest Lead

HEART Arm to Arm

GSR

RESPIRATION ,A/\/YYYVVVVVWYVW__Skin 80.2*F Room 72.0*F ®TEMPERATUREINTRODUCTION OF Axillary Secretion collected from Subject A


144


Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4 strongly

suggest physiological arousal of the subject when an'

axillary secretion produced under different stress

conditions is introduced. These tables support the same

findings stated in the first four hypotheses above in that

they are the same records offered in a different format.

Table 5 presents the physiological records taken for

Subject 3 during the introduction of axillary secretion

from Subject A during each of the four conditions.

Observable differences are noted for each record given in

Table 5; these differences are noted individually as well

in comparison to the baseline record for each condition.



during the introduction of the axillary secretion, as well

as a comparison of the records from all four stress

conditions, focusing on Subject B's record during sweat

introduction for each stress condition (Table 5), both

suggest that Null Hypothesis Number 5 should be rejected.

The findings strongly suggest that the body can and does

differentiate among types of sweat produced under

different stress conditions.


1 4 5


There is no discriptively significant aptitude noted

in the group subjects' ability to correctly identify a

sample as containing axillary secretion."

Data and Analysis

A pool of thirty-eight individuals examined different

sweat samples in a total of 124 trials; 81.5%, or 101

trials, were reported correctly as a sample of axillary

secretion. On 12 August 1985, 21 members (63.0%) of Group

1 (N=33) identified correctly the sample as human sweat.

On 14 August 1985, 21 members (34.0%) of Group 2 (N=25)

correctly identified the sample as human sweat. In Group 3

(N=32) on 19 August 1985, 29 (90.6%) members correctly

identified the sample as human sweat. On 21 August 1985,

30 members (88.2%) of Group 4 (N=34) correctly identified

the sample as sweat.

Table 6

Sample Discrimination

No. of N Correct

PercentAccurate

Group 1 (N=33) 21 63.0%Group 2 (N=25) 21 84.0%Group 3 (N=32) 29 90.6%Group 4 (N=34) 30 88.2%

Total trials=124 101 81.5%


146


An examination of the number of attempts where the

subjects responded correctly— i.e., where the sample did

contain axillary secretion— suggests that Null Hypothesis

Number 6 should be rejected. An aptitude is noted in the

group members' ability to recognize sweat.


"There is no aptitude noted in the group subjects'

ability to accurately identify the gender of the sample

donor."

Data and Analysis

Eight-one and five tenths (81.5) percent (101

responses) of 124 trials identified the sample as axillary

secretion; sixty-three and three tenths (63.3) percent (64

trials) correctly identified the sweat sample as male.

Fifty-nine and three tenths (59.3) percent of the 64

responses identified the male smell as neutral and 39.0%

reported the male smell as being unpleasant. On 12 August

1985, 11 subjects (52.3%) of Group 1 (N=21) correctly

assigned the sample to a male donor. On 14 August 1985, 16

subjects (76%) of Group 2 (N=21) correctly assigned the sample to a male donor. Of Group 3 (N=29), on 19 August

1985, 17 subjects (58.8%) correctly assigned the sample to


1 4 7

1985, 17 subjects (58.8%) correctly assigned the sample to

a male donor; and of Group 4 (N-30), on 21 August 1985, 20

subjects (66.6%) correctly assigned the sample of sweat to

a male donor (Table 7).


The mean averages from each of the four test groups

and the mean average of the aggregate total data from the

responses from all four groups suggest that Null

Hypothesis Number 7 is rejected. The ability of the group

members to cognitively distinguish a sample of sweat as

coming from a male donor is consistent with current

research literature.


"There are no discriptively significant differences

noted in the group subjects' ability to identify the

actual condition the donor subject experienced in

producing each of the samples."

Data and Analysis

Sixty-three (63) percent of Group 1 identified the

sweat sample produced by Subject B during the exercise

condition as axillary secretion (Table 6). When the

members of Group 1 were requested to determine the stress


148

Table 7

Axillary Sample Identification

Subjects 1 Response Pattern

■No. Correct PercentResponses Accurate

Group 1 11 52.3%(N=21)

Group 2 16 76.0%(N=16)

Group 3 17 58.8%(N=29)

Group 4 20 66.6%(N=30)

Totaltrials=101 64 63.3%

Subjective Pleasantness of Sample

Sixty-four (64) reactions to the male samples:

Pleasant 01.7%

Neutral 59.3%

Unpleasant 39.0%

condition that produced the sweat they responded as

follows: Rest 28.5%; Sexual arousal 19.0%; Work 52.0%; and

Fear.

Eighty-four (84) percent of Group 2 identified the

sweat sample produced by Subject B during the relaxation


1 4 9

condition as axillary secretion (Table 6). When Group 2

was requested to determine the stress condition that

produced the sweat they responded as follows: Rest 23.8%;

Sexual arousal 4.8%; Work 57.1%; and Fear 14.2%.

Ninety and six tenths (90.6) percent of Group 3

identified the sweat sample produced by Subject B during

the sexual arousal condition as axillary secretion (Table

6). When the participants in Group 3 were requested to

determine the stress condition that produced the sweat

they responded as follows: Rest 17.2%; Sexual arousal

20.6%; Work smells 34.4%; and Fear 27.6%.

Eighty-eight and two tenths (88.2) percent of Group 4

identified the sweat sample produced by Subject B during

the repulsion condition as axillary secretion (Table 6).

When the members of Group 4 were requested to determine

the stress condition that produced the sweat they re

sponded as follows: Rest 20.0%; Sexual arousal 26.6%; Work

36.6%; and Fear smells 16.7%.

"Work" was the most frequently chosen classification

(see Table 8) regardless of which stress condition

produced the sweat sample. If the "Work" selection is

eliminated from Table 8, in column 2 "Rest" is the second

selection. In columns 3 and 4 a most interesting situation

is noted; in column 3 (Erotic) the second most frequent

response was "Fear," and in column 4 (Repulsion) the

second most frequent choice was "Sex."


1 5 0

Table 8

Axillary Sample Classification

Sweat producing conditions:

Selection: 1. Work N=21

2. Rest N=21

3. Sexual N=29

4. Fear N=30

Rest 28.5% 23.8% 17.2% 20.0%Sex 19.0% 04.8% 20.6% 26.6%Work 52.3% 57.1% 34.4% 36.6%Fear 00.0% 14.2% 27.6% 16.7%

Findings and Interpretation

An examination of the data presented offers limited

results in attempting to answer if cognitive

discrimination of emotional/stress states is a human

ability. Group 1 selected the correct stress condition

(work) that produced that specific sample. Noted, however,

was the selection "Work" made by Group 1, was also the

most common selection made by all other groups, though

other stress conditions were employed in the production of

those samples. It is uncertain if humans may have an

ability to discriminate "Work" from this study, if "Work"

is the predominant sample selection regardless of the

stress condition. It is questioned if the choice of "Work"

was some unidentified artifact of the questionnaire, or

simply whether work smells are the odors our culture


1 5 1

recognizes— as the smelling of this body secretion is

currently socially acceptable (health clubs, locker rooms,

etc.) and most noticeable. Since cognitive discrimination

requires repeated experience with a specific sample it is

most possible that only slight nuances of odor differences

exist in the different stress produced sweat samples, and

therefore discrimination may become difficult. The fact

that subjects selected "Work" as their primary choice

regardless of the actual stress condition could also be a

by-product of familiarity; as an observation, if the

selection of "Work" is disregarded for the other three

conditions listed on Table 8, the second choice suggests

some discrimination (i.e., "Rest" is selected for the

sweat produced under a relaxation condition; "Sexual

arousal" is selected for sweat produced under repulsive

condition; and "Fear" is selected for sweat produced under

the sexual arousal/erotic condition). Although the choice

for Group 3 and Group 4 does not correspond with the

identified condition that produced the sweat sample, the

psychoanalytic literature suggests that there is a strong

correlation between fear and sex (Freud, 1910), therefore

further investigation is warranted. There appeared to be

no influence of choice based on the subjective ratings of

the subjects on the "pleasantness" or "unpleasantness" of

the sample. Due to methodological constraints the mixed

results presented the Null Hypothesis Number 8 fails to be


152

rejected.

Summary

Eight null hypotheses were established to examine the

question of the extent of human ability to differentiate

physiologically and to discriminate cognitively emotional

states through olfactory chemosensory communication. The

first four null hypotheses were rejected, which suggests

that humans are physiologically aroused by the sweat

productions of others. Null Hypothesis Number 5, dealing

with physiological differentiation, was rejected, which

suggests that humans have the ability to physiologically

differentiate among axillary secretions produced under

different stress conditions. The last three hypotheses

focused on human ability to cognitively discriminate

biological and emotional states from human sweat odors.

Null Hypothesis Number 6 was concerned with the ability to

distinguish an odor as axillary secretion; as the results

of the study support the idea that human subjects are able

to identify an odor as sweat, as such Null Hypothesis 5 is

rejected. Null Hypothesis Number 7 was concerned with

group members' ability to discriminate gender from the

sweat samples. The data suggests an agreement with current

literature, that is, individuals appear able to perceive

gender from the axillary sample; consequently, Null


1 5 3

Hypothesis 7 is rejected. Null Hypothesis Number 8 was

interested with the group members' ability to discriminate

the stress conditions that produced a given odor. The

results were not conclusive; the data suggested that

members of the group were able to discriminate odor

produced under the stress condition of exercise, but not

under the other three stress conditions. Thus, Null

Hypothesis Number 8 cannot be rejected.

To conclude, the study suggests that humans appear to

have an ability to differentiate physiologically among

axillary secretions produced under different stress

conditions, and to discriminate cognitively axillary

secretion and gender from these same secretions, but due

to methodological constraints, the ability to identify the

actual stress condition was not shown. The issue if humans

can discriminate stress conditions from body odor needs

further study.


C H A P TE R I V

SYNOPSIS AND CONCLUSIONS

Synopsis

Both scientific and popular literature offer a large

number of examples where animals have the ability to de

tect biological information from members of the same spe

cies through olfactory chemosensory communication. Such

information may pertain to, among other things, gender,

sexual receptivity, kin, and emotional states. The same

literature suggests that humans may have the this ability

of transmitting and receiving biological information

through olfactory chemosensory communication as well, yet

the medium or excreta (pheromone) for transmission has

been supposed to be apocrine gland secretion only, and the

mechanism for olfactory or airborne chemosensory reception

is not fully understood. The purpose of this study was to

examine the extent of human ability to differentiate phy

siologically and/or to discriminate cognitively different

human axillary secretions produced under different stress

conditions through olfactory chemosensory communication.

To examine these issues two studies were conducted:

the primary study focused on the human ability to

154


1 5 5

differentiate physiologically fresh sweat produced under

four different stress conditions, with the recipient

receiving the sample via olfaction; the secondary study

centered on cognitive discrimination by means of the use

of smell of "aged" (held at 39° F for circa twelve hours)

sweat samples produced under different stress conditions,

through the medium of smell.

Primary Study

The subjects for this study were a single male dyad,

both in their twenties. One subject acted as donor subject

(Subject A) and the other as recipient (Subject B). The

donor subject (Subject A) was prepared so that his axil

lary secretions were collected on a cotton gauze pad. The

donor was attached to physiological monitoring devices and

then underwent a specific stress condition. After

stressing, the cotton pads which were presumed to contain

a fresh non-odoriferous axillary secretion, were removed,

sandwiched between two paper surgical masks, wrapped in a

plastic film, and refrigerated. Less than forty-five

minutes later the sample was removed from the refrigerator

and placed over the recipient subject's (Subject B) nose

and mouth. The recipient's physiological responses were

recorded on a polygraph. Later these physiological records

were compared to the physiological record of the donor

taken during the stress condition, the baseline record


1 5 6

produced by the recipient subject prior to sweat intro

duction, and the physiological record produced by the

recipient subject during the introduction of the axillary

secretion. The four stress conditions employed were (1)

Exercise, (2) Relaxation, (3) Sexual Arousal, and (4)

Repulsion. Results. Subject B's physiological response

patterns changed when the sweat samples were presented.

The way in which these patterns were altered suggested

that some form of "biological empathy" took place. When

the recipient was exposed to the sample produced by

"Exercise," muscle tension increased slightly, his heart

rate increased, breathing changed, and skin temperature

increased. When the recipient experienced the sweat sample

collected during the "Relaxation" condition, muscle ten

sion reduced and heart beat became regular, GSR increased,

breathing became shallow and regular, and skin temperature

increased. When the recipient was offered the sweat sample

produced under the "Erotic" condition, muscle tension in

creased, heart rate became irregular and slightly increas

ed, the GSR decreased, respiration changed to deeper and

slightly, slower breathes, and skin temperature decreased

slightly. In this instance it was particularly notable

that the recipient subject began producing a cardiac

record that was similar to the cardiac record produced by

Subject A; this unusual arrhythmia was almost a direct

duplication of the donor's cardiac record produced during


1 5 7

the erotic condition. When the recipient was exposed to

the sample produced under the "Repulsive" condition, physi

ological response patterns altered, with the muscle ten

sion slightly increasing, the heart rate and GSR increas

ing, respiration changing by becoming more rapid and shal

low, and skin temperature decreasing. In each case the

physiological response pattern of the recipient (Subject

B) was altered, displaying a similar but less intense

version of the physiological response pattern produced by

the donor subject when the donor experienced the specific

stress condition.

Secondary Study

A single subject was employed to provide the axillary

secretions produced under the four different stress condi

tions (same conditions as in the Primary Study): (1)

Exercise, (2) Relaxation, (3) Sexual Arousal, and (4)

Repulsion. Each sample was collected on a cotton gauze pad

placed in the axillary regions of the donor subject. After

the donor subject experienced a specific stress condition,

the sample was taken from the subject, put in a non-

odoriferous plastic container and placed in a refrigerator

for twelve to fourteen hours.

Each sample was presented to four groups which

smelled the sample and filled out a forced choice

questionnaire; the groups were formed from a core pool of


1 5 8

38 subjects, as such some group members participated in

the identification of more than one sample. Results. The

information discriminated by the groups was limited to (a)

whether a container contained an axillary sample or not,

(b) the gender of the donor who produced the samples, and

(c) the stress condition the donor subject experienced in

the production of the axillary secretion samples. The four

groups, in 124 trials, identified the samples as axillary

secretion 81.5% of the time. The four groups, in 101

trials, accurately identified the donor as male 63.3% of

the time. The group subjects' ability to discriminate

stress states was not determined. The group members

accurately, with a high percentage frequency (52.3%),

selected "Work" for the axillary secretion produced under

the exercise condition; however, "Work" was the most

common response regardless of the stress condition that

produced the sample. If the response "Work" was dis

counted, the next greatest response given for the relaxa

tion produced sample was "Rest." in identifying the sample

produced under the sexual arousal condition the second

largest number of respondents chose "Fear." For the sample

produced under the repulsive condition the group's second

choice was "Sexual arousal."


1 5 9

Conclusions

Owing to the differences in the nature of the two

studies, the conclusions and implications of each are pre

sented separately in this section. A general assessment of

the methodological constraints marking the research as a

whole and the directions for further study implied

therein.

Primary Study

The findings from the primary study suggest that

humans not only have the ability to differentiate physi

ologically emotional states via olfactory chemosensory

communication in a type of "biological empathy," but that

they appear to have little awareness of or control over

this phenomenon. Since fresh sweat produced under any

stress condition has little or no odor, and therefore is

not subject to conscious cognitive discrimination, humans

may have little control over this "echoing" of the

emotional states of others.

The implications and ramifications of the results of

the physiological differentiation study may be far-

reaching. The discovery of an unconscious ability to

emulate another individual’s emotional states could have

problematic as well as positive effects. This "biological

empathy" may play an important role in such fields as


1 6 0

psychology, psychiatry and medicine. In the realm of treat™

ment, for example, it would affect the way in which health

care authorities house/hospitalize patients with mental

illness, or stress disorders, or individuals who are ex

periencing a stress-filled situation; it might affect the

way in which therapists set up their therapeutic environ

ment, e.g., air treatment during therapy sessions. On a

broader level it would influence the way in which we

regard tension and distress in family and marital therapy.

In the field of pharmacology, it opens up the potential of

creating a psychotropic compound that can be administered

through the olfactory system, thus avoiding some of the

problems that are present in standard pharmacology by by

passing the blood brain barrier. In criminology and soci

ology, a fuller understanding of this "biological empath-

ic" process has implications, both positive and negative,

for aiding in the function of crowd control. In politics,

labor relations and diplomacy "biological empathy" may

prove a useful tool in processes of mediation and conflict

resolution. The potential significance of this phenomenon

should not be underestimated.

Secondary Study

The results of the secondary study are in keeping

with current research literature, suggesting that the


1 6 1

gender of an individual can be discriminated from body

odors. The nature of the ability to discriminate stress

states is unclear. From this study it is uncertain if

humans have the ability to discriminate cognitively stress

conditions; this type of discrimination takes experience/

learning, cultural factors also seem to play a consider

able role. The data suggest that stress states that are

culturally acceptable (i.e., work and exercise) might be

distinguishable, with less familiar stress smells (e.g.,

rest, sexual arousal, repulsion, etc.) may require direct

training and/or conscious experience to be differentiated;

but due to methodological limitations this cannot be

assertained from this study.

The most significant aspect of the findings noted

from the secondary study was a side issue, the length of

sample contact for cognitive recognition of gende.r. The

average length of sample contact was less than ten

seconds.

General Limitations of Study

A number of factors have the potential to threaten

the validity of this study, ranging from the fact that

human excreta are altered by almost every life condition

(e.g., food intake, medication, environment, health,

etc.), to the fact that neither the medium for biological

information transfer via an airborne transmission nor the

mechanism for reception of the airborne transmission is


1 6 2

fully understood at this time.

However strong the research design may be, the pre

sence of so many unknowns is one of the greatest factors

to threaten this type of study. Moreover, because of the

small sample utilized, the findings can only be presumed.

Although the directions for future research posed by

the findings in the Primary and Secondary Studies are

numerous, the first and most important step must be rep

lication of the experiments, followed by an expansion of

the process. Only then will it be possible to investigate

other mechanisms more fully.


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Zunino, P. A., & Landauer, M. R. (1980). Responses byyoung house mice (Mus Musculus) to odors from stressed


1 7 7

versus nonstressed adult conspecifics. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 15, 419-421.


Appendix A

Physiological Arousal Screening Form

178


1 7 9

PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL TO OLFACTORY STIMULATION RESEARCH

SCREENING FORM

RETURN FORM TO;

ROBERT G. PERRA 11081 GREER DRIVE

RICHLAND, MICHIGAN 4908 3

(Addressed, stamped envelope enclosed.)


1 8 0

PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL TO OLFACTORY STIMULATION RESEARCH

SCREENING FORM

This screening form has two purposes, firstly, to give you enough information to decide whether or not you are interested or able to participate in this study, and secondly to find out if you meet our requirements for participation in this study.

We thank you for giving us a few minutes of your time, to consider whether or not you are in a position to help us in this research project. If you are selected as one of the participants you may be committing yourself to between six (6) to fourteen (14) early mornings. Although we are somewhat flexible in the definition of "early morning", and are willing to attempt to work with you to set up a mutual timeframe, we are interested in gathering the information we need as quickly as possible, and as such you may have to find time between 7:00 AM and 12:00 noon (the exact time(s) will be agreed upon between the selected subject and the researcher) .

At this point, if you have not ruled out the possibility of being a participant, please understand that if selected you may be required to refrain from certain "product types" (deodorant soaps, shampoos, etc.) that you may use on a regular basis; to refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages, or taking any other recreational drugs (including, but not limited to, tobacco, etc.); to be required to keep a diary of your food intake; and/or to be required to engage in other tasks that may/can disrupt your normal lifestyle.

IF. AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO THE

RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.

IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE WILLING TO CONSIDER PARTICIPATION FURTHER, PLEASE CONTINUE READING.


1 8 1

PARTICIPANT DUTIES/FUNCTIONS LEVELS/STAGES OF SCREENING

STAGE ONE

Participants will be asked to fill out the attached questionnaire; based on the answers given, and a random selection process developed, ten (10) subjects will be selected for this study.

TIME REQUIREMENT: 20 Minutes.

STAGE TWO

The ten (10) subjects selected will be asked to make arrangements for psychological testing and a screening interview, the arrangements can be according to the subjects schedule, but will be required to be completed within ten (10) days. From the "profiles" from the screening and psychological test, and by a random selection process we have developed, four (4) to six (6) subjects will be selected.

TIME REQUIREMENT: 1 1/2 to 2 hours for the testing.1/2 hour for interview.

STAGE THREE

Four . (4) to six (6) subjects will undergo further testing, where they will be asked to smell standardized samples of different substances. From that screening session, two (2) of the group will be selected for this study, the rest will be dismissed.

TIME REQUIREMENT: Two mornings (about 6 hrs.)

STAGE FOUR

The two (2) subjects will be "hooked up" to monitoring equipment, and once comfortable with the equipment attached to their body, each subject will be subjected to different visual and/or olfactory stimulation, and/or will be asked to engage in a specified physical activity (the visual material may include sexually explicit material and/or physically repulsive material; the physical activity may include relaxation and/or physical exercise).

TIME REQUIREMENT: Four to eight mornings (8 to 16 hrs.)


1 8 2

IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO THE

RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.

IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE WILLING TO CONSIDER FURTHER PARTICIPATION PLEASE CONTINUE.

The rest of this form is broken into three sections, that will take about five (5) minutes to ten (10) minutes to complete. The first section deals with "consent giving"; second with general background; and third with habits.


1 8 3

S E C T IO N I

RESEARCH CONSENT FORM PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL TO OLFACTORY STIMULATION

I, the undersigned, understand that participation in this research project is voluntary, and that I may withdraw my active participation at anytime, without notice; I also understand that withdrawal in no way will create a personal or academic liability, stated or.implied.

It is my understanding that the design of this research is considered "neutral" as judged by a team of psychologists and a "human subjects committee"; this means that this study has been judged to have little to no risk to the participants. It should be noted that no study can state nor imply total and complete absence of risk, and the participant takes responsibility in that understanding.

I further understand that no person other than the researcher shall be allowed to obtain any individual's scores or other data without the expressed permission of that individual. The information obtained will be utilized for research purposes only.

( ) I would or ( ) I would not like to request anabstract of the results of this research.

(If an abstract is desired please give following)

Name:

Address:

I certify that I am over eighteen (18) years of age, that I have read and understood the above statement; and I read a description of the activities that are involved; with this I give my informed consent to participate in this project.

Signature Date


1 8 4

SECTION II

BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON PARTICIPANT

1.) GENDER:( ) Male ( ) Female

3.) AGE:( ) 18 yrs to 25 yrs( ) 26 yrs to 30 yrs( ) 30 yrs to 40 yrs( ) 41 yrs to 55 yrs( ) Over 55 years old

5.) ETHNIC/NATIONAL/RACIAL ORIGIN:( ) Caucasian/European ( ) Caucasian/Mediterranean ( ) Middle Eastern/Mediterranean ( ) African/Mediterranean ( ) African/Black ( ) Oriental/Asian ( ) American Native ( ) Other/Mixed

2.) DO YOU SMOKE?:( ) Yes ( ) No

4.) GENERAL HEALTH ( ) Excellent ( ) Very Good ( ) Good ( ) Fair ( ) Poor

6.) EDUCATION:( ) Freshperson ( ) Sophomore ( ) Jr./Sr.( ) Grad./MA ( ) Grad./PhD ( ) Faculty ( ) Univ. Emply ( ) Other

7.) ANY CURRENT ILLNESSES FOR WHICH MEDICATION IS BEING TAKEN?( ) Yes ( ) No

9.) DO YOU HAVE ANY SINUS CONDITIONS?( ) Yes ( ) No

8.) ARE YOU ON ANY MEDICATIONS?( ) Yes ( ) NO

10.) DO YOU HAVE ACOLD / ALLERGY? ( ) Yes ( ) No

11.) I GREW UP MOSTLY IN THE FOLLOWING TYPE OF AREA:( ) Metropolitan/Industrial Area ( >500,000)( ) Urban Area (Large City, >200,000)( ) Urban Area (Small City, <200,000)( ) Suburban Area (Large City)( ) Suburban Area (Small City)( ) Town ( ) Rural Area

12.) HAVE YOU RECENTLY (last 14 days) USED ANY MEDICATIONS AND/OR DRUGS THAT YOU INHALED THROUGH YOUR NOSE?( ) Yes ( ) No


1 8 5

PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS "TRUE" OR "FALSE"If you find it difficult to answer the question TRUE or FALSE, then please ask yourself if it is MOSTLY TRUE or

MOSTLY FALSE, and answer accordingly.

13.) I have a cough most of the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

14.) I am in just as good physical health as my friends.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

15.) There seems to be a fullness in my head or nose most of the time.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

16.) Everything tastes the same.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

17.) Peculiar odors come to me at times.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

18.) I am attracted by members of the opposite sex.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

19.) I believe my sense of smell is as good as other people's .( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

20.) My mouth feels dry aimost all the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

21.) On a scale of one (1) to five (5), with five (5) being the highest sense of smell, I believe my sense of smell to be measured as:

<most>( )"5" ( )"4" ( )"3" ( )"2" ( )" 1"<least>

22.) ****WOMEN ONLY****: Currently on birth control pills? :


1 8 6

S E C T IO N I I I

The following questions are interested in personal habits, please remember that ALL information given is confidential, and its use will be used for research only.

23.) I have no medical skin conditions which I have been treated for within the past year.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

24.) I have never been diagnosed as having any medical disorders associated with taste and/or smell.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

25. )

26.

27. )

28. )

29. )

30. )

I have not used (and I am willing not to use for the duration of this study) any psychotropic (mind altering drugs/compounds) drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, for a minimum of seven days.

) TRUE ) FALSE

have not used any marihuana for a minimum of twenty 20) days, and I'm willing not to use any for the uration of this study.) TRUE ) FALSE

am not morally offended or repulsed by sexually xplicit materials.) TRUE ) FALSE

am sexually aroused by sexually explicit materials.) TRUE ) FALSE

have been diagnosed as having a mental condition.) TRUE ) FALSE

shower rather than taking a tub bath when I clean.) TRUE ) FALSE '


1 8 7

31.) I clean (shower or bath) regularly (once per week or more).( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

32.) When I wash I use deodorant soaps and sprays regularly.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

33.) I regularly use body oils, after shaves, colognes, and/or perfumes.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

34.) I find that I sweat or perspire more than other people.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

35.) I have been diagnosed as having a heart condition or other related conditigns.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

IF AFTER FILLING OUT THE ABOVE QUESTIONNAIRE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS

FORM TO THE RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION..

IF AFTER FILLING OUT THE ABOVE QUESTIONNAIRE YOU ARE WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE PRINT YOUR

NAME, ADDRESS, AND TELEPHONE NUMBER BELOW, AND THEN RETURN THIS FORM TO THE RESEARCHER.

Name:

Address:

Phone:

THANK YOU


Appendix B

Olfactory Discrimination Survey

188


1 8 9

OLFACTORY DISCRIMINATION SURVEY

Tn.-i.A % eu for t uking a tow minutes of your tine to lielp wit;, this :: J3'id::ch j;o ject ; ,'o estimate that youi partic-ipAti.,.;: take a boot five (5) to (10) minutes.

Taj.:; r. :vcy will .,sl; of you three different categories or i iifot i.on. T h e fir at is "informational/concent g iving", w j i L ask fro hi you to sign a consent fcr.n,jiving y o m perni ssion for us, as researcher s , to use the j.‘af or i.-n y ju arc considering to provide us; the second is background information about you...your gender, age, so.:,- .nodical history i nformacion, ethnic background, etc.; the third i a s k i n g y o u to "smell" (on different days) four ' ■<) samp leu a,-si oivo, on the reporting sheet, one or; tv.o pieces of inCormatiop .

IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE W ILLING TO PARTICIPATE PLEASE TURN THE PAGE AND CONTINUE.

IF AFTER READING THE ABOVE YOU ARE NOT WILLING TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM TO THE RESEARCHER; AND THANK YOU FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.


1 9 0

SECTION i

RESEARCH COMSENT FORM OLFACTORY DISCRIMINATION RESEARCH

I, the undersigned, understand that participation in this research project is voluntary, and that I may withdraw my active participation at anytime, without notice; I also understand that withdrawal in no way will create a personal or academic liability, stated or implied.

I!* i •••; vnd'"-s i nu i. u ,j that the design of: this ros.-.-.-srch is cons j us’-, si; "noutial" as judged by a team of psychologists and a " nuiaan subjects committee" ? this means thattills si uoy it,..'.' beer, judged o have little co no risk to thep a r r i pane s , it Id b'\ noted that no study can stateno,: imply total m o comp let a absence of risk, and toepart toi pan' td.as r . sponr, i.bility In tnat understanding,

lorv.s’ r uru ; ► sv.ap.d t'-ar. no person other than the i. s,.s;u r c:r.:•;».* li be « I i ov/tf. fi; so obtain any individual's -o. < .• r. or d c . u a w 1 1 : oor t the expressed permission ofrt- ii; iiiaiv . Tno infocniation obtained will be ut ilizedfar rosoar■ • . purposes only.

{__ )_ 1 w o u ld or {__ ) 1 would not like to request anabstract oi. the result.',; of this research.

(if in abstract is d o p ired please give f o .1 lowing )

■time :

An dross :

I certify that I am over eighteen (1 0 ) years of age, that I have read and understood the above statement; and I read a description of the activities that are involved; with this i give my informed consent to participate in this project.

Signature Date


1 9 1

S E C T IO N I I

BACKGROUND IN F O R M A T IO N ON P A R T IC IP A N T

1.) GENDER:( ) Male ( ) Female

3.) AGE:( ) 13 yrs to 25 yrs( ) 26 yrs to 30 yrs( ) 30 yrs to 40 yrs( ) 41 yrs to 55 yrs( ) Over 55 years old

5.) ETHNIC/NATIONAL/RACIAL ORIGIN:( ) Caucasian/European ( ) Caucasian/Mediterranean ( ) Middle Eastern/Mediterranean ( ) African/Mediterranean ( ) African/Black ( ) Oriental/Asiaa ( ) American Native ( ) Other/Mixed

7.) ANY CURRENT ILLNESSES FOR WHICH MEDICATION IS BEING TAKEN?( ) Yes ( ) No

2.) DO YOU SMOKE?:( ) Yes( ) NO

4.) GENERAL HEALTH ( ) Excellent ( ) Very Good ( ) Good ( ) Fair ( ) Poor

6.) EDUCATION:( ) Freshperson ( ) Sophomore ( ) Jr./Sr.( ) Grad./MA ( ) Grad./PhD ( ) Faculty ( ) Univ. Emply ( ) Other

8.) ARE YOU ON ANY MEDICATIONS?( ) Yes ( ) No

9.) DO YOU HAVE ANY SINUS CONDITIONS?( ) Yes ( ) No

10.) DO YOU HAVE ACOLD / ALLERGY? ( ) Yes ( ) No

11.) I GREW UP MOSTLY IN THE FOLLOWING TYPE OF AREA: ( ) Metropolitan/Industrial Area ( >500,000)( ) Urban Area (Large City, >200,000)( ) Urban Area (Small City, <200,000)( ) Suburban Area (Large City)( ) Suburban Area (Small City)( ) Town ( ) Rural Area

12.) HAVE YOU RECENTLY (last 14 days) USED ANY MEDICATIONS AND/OR DRUGS THAT YOU INHALED THROUGH YOUR NOSE?( ) Yes ( ) No


1 9 2

PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS "TRUE" OR "FALSE"If you find it difficult to answer the question TRUE or FALSE, then please ask yourself if it is MOSTLY TRUE or

MOSTLY FALSE, and answer accordingly,.

13.) I have a cough most of the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

14.) I am in just as good physical health as my friends.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

15.) There seems to be a fullness in my head or nose most of the time.( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

16.) Everything tastes the same.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

17.) Peculiar odors come to me at times.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

18.) I am attracted by members of the opposite sex.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

19.) I believe my sense of smell is as good as other people's .( ) TRUE ( ) FALSE

20.) My mouth feels dry almost all the time.( ) TRUE( ) FALSE

21.) On a scale of one (1) to five (5), with five (5) being the highest sense of smell, I believe my sense of smell to be measured as:

<most>( )"5" ( )"4" ( )"3" ( )"2" ( )"l"<least>


22.) ****W0MEN ONLY****: Currently on birth control pills? ( ) YES ----( ) NO

23.) Have you had your tonsiles removed?( ) YES( ) NO

24.) Have you had your adenoids removed?( ) YES( ) N O


1 9 4

SECTION III

Directions: Along the table you will see a "smelling box",labeled either "Sample A", "Sample B", or so on. You are

asked to smell the sample and indicate whether the smelling box is "empty/no perceivable odor" (contains 'no real' sample), or "loaded" (contains a 'real' sample); if you

believe that the "smelling box" is "loaded", you are asked to identify the sample as being one of the following: "rest

smells", "sexual smells", "work smells", "fear smells"; once you have examined the sample, if you believe it to be"loaded", you are asked to label the sample as pleasant or

unpleasant, and then indicate if the donor was male orfemale.

SAMPLE A

( ) Emptv/No Perceivable Smells ( ) Loaded (Contains a 'real' sample.)

( ) Rest Smells ( ) Sexual Smells ( ) Work Smells ( ) Fear Smells

IF "LOADED" PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:

( ) Pleasant Smell ( ) Neutral ( ) Unpleasant Smell

The sample came from a ( ) Male ( ) Female donor

SAMPLE B

( ) Empty/No Perceivable Smells ( ) Loaded (Contains a 'real' sample.)

( ) Rest Smells ( ) Sexual Smells ( ) Work Smells ( ) Fear Smells

IF "LOADED" PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:


The sample came from a ( ) Male ( ) Female donor


1 9 5

SAMPLS C


( ) Rest Smells( ) Sexual Smells ( ) 'Work Smells ( .) tear Smells

I;- "l.OAf..;:;" PLEAS.-I ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:

oasant Smell ( ) Neutral

Toe sample came from a ( ) dale (

SAMPLE D


( ) Rest. Smells ( ) Sexual Smells ( ) Work Smells ( ) Pear Smells

IP "LOADED" PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:


A'p. - samp le cant a I: com a ( j Male ( ) Female donor

PLEASE RETURN THE FORM TO THE RESEARCHER

THANK YOU

( ) Unpleasant

) Female donor


Appendix C

Modified Psycho-Neurological Evaluation Form

196


1 9 7

SCREENING EVALUATION FORM

Name:_____ File No.

Age:___________ D.O.B. D.O.E. _______

Height:______ Weight:____________

Marital Status: ( ) Single ( ) Married ( ) DivorcedSatisfied with lifestyle: ( ) No ( ) YesChildren: ( ) No ( ) Yes, ____ # M, _____# F

Occupation:________________________________ No. of Yrs. ______Satisfied with job: ( ) No ( ) Yes

PRESENTING PROBLEM(S ):

INTERVIEW/SESSION SUMMARY!

OTHER INFORMATION:

RAPPORT WITH SCREENER:< > EXCELLENT (Comfortable, information exchange)< > GOOD< > FAIR (Subject slightly uncomfortable and gaurded)< > POOR (No trust noted)

SUBJECT MOTIVATION:< > EXCELLENT< > GOOD< > FAIR< > POOR

80


1 9 8

MEDICINES— PRESCRIPTION & OVER-THE-COUNTER

Name Dose Frequency

NOTED/REPORTED MEDICAL CONDITIONS < > None Reported.

< > Condition(s) Reported:

OTHER SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION < > None offered at this time.

< > Information offered:

SUICIDAL IDEATION< > None Noted; < > Issue specifically evaluated.

< > Suicidal Ideation Noted: Comment fully on back.

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY< > None Noted.

< > Psychopathology noted, mild.< > Major psychopathy suggested,

further testing required.< > Personality Disorder noted,< > Situational/Developmental

problems noted.< > Developmental problems noted.< > Other issues and/or concerns

(note below):


1 9 9

Normal

MENTAL STATUS IMPRESSIONS (Brief)

Note(s) Abnormal Findings

< >Normal/Alert

Level of Consciousness

< > Lethargic< > Stupor< > Coma

Comment;

< > 0 x 3

Orientation

< > Time< > Place< > Person

Comment;

< > Normal< > Normal< > Normal< > Normal

Language

SpontaneousConversationalArticulationContent

< > Abnormal/Comment< >< >< >

< > Normal

Affect and Mood

< > Depressed< > Blunted< > Flat< > (Hypo) Manic< > Agitated< > Euphoric< > Other (Explain)

Comment:

< > Appropriate

< > None noted

Thought Content

< > Inappropriate Comment (on back)

< > HallucinationType:


200

(Thought content continued)< > None noted < > Delusions

Type:< > None noted < > Illusions

Type:

Coordination

< > Normal < > Impaired Comment (on back)

Fundamental Knowledge (Clinical judgement)

< > Normal . < > Impaired Comment:

Appearance

< > Normal Limits Clothes < > soiled< > wrinkled< > Not age approp.< > Other:

< > Erect Posture < > Slouched< > Other:

< > Steady Gait < > Stumbling< > Limping< > Shuffling< > Other:

< > Acceptable Grooming < > Not acceptable

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:< > No remarkable findings noted.

< > Remarkable findings (Comments below):

< > Mental Status Impressions NOT REMARKABLE No MS exam required

< > Findings suggest further information required, evaluate with MS exam

Therapist Date


201

DIAGNOSIS< > No diagnosis offered.

< > DX: ICD-9 No.

Diagnostic rationale:

CLINICAL COMMENTS

DISPOSITION

< > Self referral (DX within therapist's scope of practice)

< > Referral (within clinic)

< > Referral (out of clinic)

->Referral:___________________________________________Commentary:< > None.


202

MENTAL STATUS EXAM (Complete)

Memory

Immediate Recall-pigits Forward

2 5 9 < > Pass < > Fail8 1 6 4 < > Pass < > Fail7 3 9 2 5 < > Pass < > Fail6 2 9 5 8 4 < > Pass < > Fail

Reverse1 3 9 < > Pass < > Fail5 7 1 8 < > Pass < > Fail6 4 9 1 5 < > Pass < > Fail

Four Word Recall(Pen, Table, House, Dictionary)

Interval Number recalledImmediate________ ______5 minutes ______

30 minutes

Current EventsRecall two (2) major news events.

Event one < > offered < > noneEvent two < > offered < > none

Remote MemoryList past Presidents starting with

the most current (stop after six consecutive correct).

Number Correct

When were you born?Correct < > Incorrect < >

Approximate dates of World War II. Correct < > Incorrect < >


2 0 3

New Learning Verbal RecallAlica, / a pretty / 6 year old

girl / sat patiently / awaiting the start / of the fireworks display. / However, once the fireworks began / she became afraid / covered her ears / and closed her eyes / and jumped / back into her father's arms. /

(Total memory passages = 12)Number correctly recalled _______Confabulations? < > Yes < > No

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS (Memory)

< > Normal < > Abnormal (Note comments on back)

General Information, Insight & Judgement

SimilaritiesHow are a baby and a midget alike?

< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

How are a paintbrush and a pencil alike?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

JudgementWhat should you do to protect

yourself during a severe thunderstorm?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

If you are in a boat and it begins to sink, what should you do?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

Why should you read instructions before mixing chemicals?< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract


2 0 4

ProverbsA stitch in time saves nine.

< > Correct < > Incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

One shouldn't change horses in the middle of a stream.< > Correct < > incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

A drowning man will grasp at a straw.< > Correct- < > incorrect< > Concrete < > Abstract

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS (General Info, Insight & Judgement)

< > Normal < > Abnormal (Note comments on back.)

MENTAL STATUS ASSESSMENT

< > NO REMARKABLE FINDINGS< > ABNORMAL FINDINGS (note

c l i n i c a l r e m a r k s below?)

Therapist Date


2 0 5

LATERAL DOMINANCE EXAMHAND

EYE

Preferred HandWith which hand do you*

Write < > Right < > LeftFlip a coin < > Right < > LeftUse a knife < > Right < > LeftThrow a ball < > Right < > Left

Total Right

Total Left

FOOT

With which eye do you:Look through a telescope

Aim a pistol

With which foot do you: Kick a ball

Step on a bug

< > Right

< > Right

< > Right

< > Right

< > Left

< > Left

< > Left

< > Left

DOMINANCEHandEyeFoot

< > Right< > Right< > Right

< > Not Remarkable.

< > Left< > Left< > Left

< > Mixed< > Mixed< > Mixed

Findings

< > Remarkable.


2 0 6

CRANIAL NERVE

Olfaction (I)Peppermint

Right Nostril< > Detect< > Absent

CloveRight Nostril< > Detect< > Absent

Findings< > Not Remarkable.

< >

Left Nostril< > Detect< > Absent

Left Nostril< > Detect< > Absent

Abnormal findings:


2 0 7

CRANIAL NERVES IX, X, and XII BULBAR FUNCTION

IX and X

< > Normal Svmetric Gag < > AbnormalReflex

< > Normal Speech Quality < > Abnormal

Desribe:

< > Normal Swallowing < > Abnormal

XII

< > Normal Protrude Tounqe < > AbnormalR < > L < >

< > Normal Tonque Symmetry < > AbnormalR < > L < >

< > Normal Tonque Appearance < > WastingR < > L < >

< > Absent Fasiculations < > Present

Findings< > Not Remarkable.

< > Remarkable (note below).


Appendix D

Adjective Check List

208


2 0 9

ADJECTIVE CHECK LIST

Choose the word(s) that most fit your present mood,

( ) Horrified

) Excited

) Confused

) Worn Out

) Restful

) Silly

) Repulsed

) Tranquil

) Happy

( ) Joyful

) Tired

) Calm

) Hopeful

) Fatigued

) Comfortable

) Apathetic

) Exhausted

) Disappointed

) Nervous

) Sensuous

Drained

) Anxious

) Sexy

) Ridiculous

(Passionate

) Relaxed

) Horny

) Indifferent

) Afraid/Scared ( ) Desperate


Appendix E

Complete Physiological Record forSubject A and Subject 3

210


211

CONDITION; EXERCISESUBJECT A

12 August 1985 0950 - 1040

RECORD NUMBER

Record Outline;

Baseline Exercise Resolution

Flow i— |

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837/8839842500 ^

843

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CONDITION: EXERCISESUBJECT B

12 August 1985 1105 - 1150

Record Number: 844 - 855

Record Outline:

Baseline 846Axillary Introduction 848Exercise 851Resolution 854

Flow: (— | 500


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