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Student Number: 1061772 Module code: ETM703
Module name: Pedagogy
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The
aim
of this research is to help to improve Literacy within X school and
to also improve on my practice as a teacher. The OFSTED report for
School X in 2011 stated the following:
What does the school need to do to improve further?
Raise students’ attainment in English and mathematics further, so that by 2012, it is
consistently in line with national averages.
They also stated in their section of what needed to improve that
they asked the leadership of the school to
“Help even more of you to gain higher GCSE grades, particularly in English and
Mathematics”
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Based on this, the decision was made to focus on Literacy within X
school and improve on its delivery and understanding.
School X is a comprehensive school with a high ratio of English as
an additional Language (EAL) and special educational needs (SEN) in
the inner city, with a high level of disadvantaged students.The
school has a population of just over 1000 students. Over 60
different languages are spoken, including English. We have students
with a wide range of special needs. We also cater for students with
profound and multiple learning disabilities (PMLD). A number of
pupils who are EAL are often placed into GCSE PE, and choose the
subject based on the fact that it is sport without truly
understanding the depth of Knowledge needed to attain at least a C
grade. The challenge therefore is even greater as it includes
teaching the students key words in a Language that they hardly
understand.
It is said that
“Literacy unites the important skills of reading and writing. It also involves speaking
and listening, which, although they are not separately identified in the Framework,
are an essential part of it. Good oral work enhances pupils’ understanding of
language in both oral and written forms and of the way language can be used to
communicate. Thus the framework ……………. contributes substantially to the
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development of speaking and listening. It is also relevant to teaching across the
whole National Curriculum ………….” (Dfes 2002)
When one thinks of literacy in Physical education many things come
to mind. One main thing is understanding that each subject area will
have its own set of words and pedagogy. There are everyday words in
PE that mean something else depending on the context, for example
words such as field and pitch (Dfes 2002). These words will be apparent
to the teacher but not necessarily to the students. Teaching
literacy across the school curriculum can in a sense prove to be
unfair to some subjects as some have the burdened task that their
subject may weigh more heavily on one particular area of literacy
than the other for example in subjects such as English and History
where there is an emphasis on writing which is just one of the three
areas of literacy.
The National Strategies (2004) discusses 3 main areas of
cross-curricular focus in relation to promoting literacy and
learning in Physical Education, these areas are learning
through talk, learning from text and learning through writing.
They have provided very detailed guidance on how to
implement and monitor these 3 areas . In my opinion the
documet has been comprehensive and carries all the
guidelines needed for all teachers within PE to embed literacy3
into our PE curriculum. I am in agreement as all the Schemes
of Work (SoW) within PE have been created to include cross-
curricular focus on two particular areas literacy and
numeracy.
According to the Pie chart found in government documentation that
covers the 9 categories of Key skills (Dfes 2004) Physical
education only falls into 4 out of these nine categories The
national strategy is not about using the limited time we have for
‘talking’ to take the place of Physical activity. Instead it has
saught to raise awareness of how Physical Education can make a
positive contribution to literacy by teaching physical skills.
The four key skills of literacy,that are very important inPhysical Education lessons, are listening, speaking, readingand writing. I believe that the 9 key skills can be covered bythe four aspect mentioned before and therefore we can fit intoall categories in some small way.
An example I will use is that of Using talk to clarify and present
ideas, active listening to understand, talking and thinking together
and using writing as a tool for thought. These are the obvious but
what about when we look at the other aspects of writing such as .the
ability to articulate and express ones self is very important to
do at KS3 or KS4 where students may be taking written exams or when
giving written feedback to peers. As we endeavour to include into
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KS3 PE writing which will impact sttudents writing skills at GCSE we
encourage written evaluation during KS3 which means students will
need to develop appropriate expression to give feedback to
themselves and their peers
. According to DFES (2004)
“Time spent talking through ideas, and planning before and evaluating after
performance, enhances that performance”
and if students are not aware of the language of PE they will not be
able to adequately feedback and in turn enhance theirs or their
peers performance.
“…using specific vocabulary saves time, ensures clarity and raises standards through
linking words to concepts.” (DFES 2004)
Understanding the language of the subject can also help individuals
who use English as an additional language. This will help them to
develop vocabulary and help our students to understand the
complexities, behind the English language. Understanding the
language of a specific subject will assist with language
development, speaking, writing skills, listening and reading. I have
found that within PE reading in PE at KS3 is not always promoted but
according to the DFES this should be encouraged as,
“.... the promotion of wider reading can enhance pupils’ breadth of understanding
and enjoyment of the subject;”
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If pupils are encouraged to read this can help students at KS 3 gather more information
about particular sports which could inadvertently improve their vocabulary across the
school.
Listening as another component of literacy is very important in PE
for various reasons: safety, following instructions, to understand
the task and terminology used to express it, and to improve
performance, just to name a few, this is a very important skill in
being literate in physical education. The literacy strategy sets out
clearly what children should be learning at each stage. In order to
support this work as part of the whole school drive, words used in
PE that parallel those use in other subject areas for example a quad
in sport and a quad in math should be used and brought to the
attention of the students. The main impression to be sold to
students is that literacy is a part of their everyday life.
Defining Literacy
The issues that arise when seeking a single definition of literacy
are many. The major debate over what is literacy and what it seems
to be is very iimportant when considering the education of our
students. In the first class I had we were asked in groups what we
defined literacy as; my first response was the ability to read and
write. While I guess my answer was not wrong, after much debate I
realized it was not entirely right either.
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As we progressed I begun to understand that there was definitely
more to what I thought literacy was. I soon realized that forming a
single definition would prove to be a difficult task since there are
so many things that can be seen as literacy. The easiest way of
defineing literacy is the ability to read and write (Kearns,
1985). It may however be argued that this reflects the
general concensus of the policy-makers, the government, and
the average layman. (Green 2004). This may be the same view
many teachers and students have (de Souza, 2007). Literacy
is about much more than simply being able to decode text.
Skills in literacy are needed in everyday life to read road
signs, check emails, communicating with a peers, using a
instruction manual for a new device, ordering from a menu in a
restaurant, sending text messages etc. As I continued to
search for a more appropriate definition I happened to come
upon Au’s (2004) Au's description of Literacy which states
“the ability and the willingness to use reading and writing to
construct meaning from printed text, in ways which meet the
requirements of a particular social context”.
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As an educator we take a wider view of literacy not just reading and
writing, but cognition, its history, the social factors and the
psychology of literacy
Barton (2007) suggests that we should view literacy from three
perspectives: the Social view of literacy, the Psychological view of
literacy and the Historical view. I agree with Barton on this as in
my classroom that is very multicultural and therefore they come with
different interpretations of the same text. The main reason
for this in my opinion is the cultural and historical
differences that students bring to a literacy task.
David Barton however argues that literacy is rather about linking
the growth of oral and written language and the distribution of
knowledge over the last ten thousand years. To be literate therefore
is to play your role in the world of languages and ideas. I believe
that if I play my part as an educator I will encourage students as
they read, write, and speak.
Autonomous and ideological models of literacy
Street’ points out in his writing how the autonomous model doesnt recognize
relationships between people and their cultural practices while on the other hand
the ideological model acknowledges as “inextricably linked to cultural and power
structures in society” (433). Further, Street tontinues to try to blend the
autonomous and the ideological models and speaks about the fact t that the
ideological model already provides for a blending
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The ‘autonomous’ model of literacy works from the point of
view that literacy, in itself, autonomously will have effects
on other social and cognitive practices. For example, the
introduction of literacy to an illiterate person, will have
the effect of improving their
their economic prospects, cognitive skills, and will make them
better citizens, without taking into consideration the social
and economic conditions that accounted for their pridicament
in the first place. The alternative, ideological model of
literacy offers a more culturally sensitive view of literacy
practices as they vary from one context to another. This model
starts from different premises than the autonomous model. The
ideological model is a process where people will construct a
mental model of the social world. Meanings of concepts are
often built by the language people use on a daily basis.
Historical, social, political and economic factors all
influence this model. – “it posits instead that literacy is a
social practice, not simply a technical and neutral skill. It
is about knowledge: the ways in which people address reading
and writing are themselves rooted in conceptions of knowledge,
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identity, being. Literacy, in this sense, is always contested”
(Street, 2000, p: 7-8)
Barton endeavours to show that there is a
“Strong social basis of children’s early learning of literacy, which he calls “emergent
literacy”.
Freebody (2009) suggests that the relationship between social
background and achieving in school seems
‘Not to change a great deal over time or across locales’ (p.23).
Both writers are at two ends of the spectrum one suggesting that
there is a relationship between social background and achievement
and the other disagreeing with this. Freebody suggests in his
writing that time and locality do not have an effect on the
relationship between social background and school achievement
(literacy in this case).
Whilst there is research which supports this view, other results do
show there is a positive correlation linking more advantaged social
background with generally higher reading literacy levels. but they
also show that this correlation is very different across certain
countries, like research carried out it was found out that Korea,
Canada, Japan and Finland all have a smaller correlation less steep
than that for the rest of the world. However when you compare, the
results for the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and, the United
States the correlation between social background and literacy is
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very high as a whole (OECD, 2001, p.308); as the correlation gets
higher the more being socially disadvantaged is associated with poor
educational achievement.
Barton argues that literacy is deeply embedded not only in writing
but in spoken word and daily communications. What surprised me from
his writing is that he saw, learning to read as not just about the
story, but about the way in which parents and children talk to each
other during story time, what Barton calls the story around the
story. What Barton calls “talk around the text” is often
“richer in variety and complexity of linguistic structure than other everyday talk” (p.
145).
Therefore this places much thought on building bridges between home
and school in understanding literacies and helping to raise
attainment. More research is now being focused on home literacy
practices at every Key stage so that researchers can get a complete
picture of the literacies being employed by students in order to
consider ways to use home literacy practices to support school
literacy practices. For example Roberts et al (2004) looking at
primary age children and found that
“support of the home environment was the strongest predictor of children's language
and early literacy skills and contributed over and above the specific literacy practice
measures in predicting children's early language and literacy development.”
(Roberts 2004)
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It is very important as educators to understand the
theoretical models of literacy which are considered when
designing schooling policy and practice. Street (2000) says
there is not necessarily a one to one relationship between a
specific theory of literacy and a specific teaching method. If
I were to choose one model, it would start with the autonomous
model, as it is a more skill based approach to literacy and
easily delivered.Educators are mostly of the assumption that
students do not have much literacy experience out of school as
cann be seen and is evident from the reading log given to my
students. I would then gradually move on to the ideological
model, this is because x school is of the belief that most
students have not had much literacy experience out of school.
Therefore considering the social context will become
much easier to comprehend.
The Historical View of Literacy
Literacy has a history; meaning that how people have been introduced
to literacy or how they look at literacy comes from how their
families may have deemed literacy or the importance placed on
literacy. Our life histories will over our lifespan have many
literacy events occurring from early childhood onwards which it is 12
built upon. We do change, and as children and adults, are always in
a process of learning about literacy .Any literacy event also has
what is known as a social history. Current things that we do
culturally are created out of what has occurred in the past.
The use of history is invaluable, as it is important as educators to
understand a pupils historical background i.What is their cultures'
outlook on literacy? is oracy more important than written
communication? It puts a different perspective on the development of
language and writing that helps us understand reading and how
students gains the skill of reading
Literacy. Barton claims that,
“Rather than isolating literacy activities from everything else in order to understand
them, an ecological approach aims to understand how literacy is embedded in other
human activity, it’s embedded in social life and in thought, and its position in history,
language and learning” (Barton, 1994, p. 32).
Barton’s ecological approach to literacy is about the relationships
between a person and the environment.
When we consider the historical view we are able to find the
historical context for our expectations, understandings of various
theories and policies, and all the issues surrounding literacy. For
the purpose of my research into Caribbean boys and their
home/background influence I strongly agree with the social context
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within which children learn to read and how they interact with
reading text within school.
Genre theory
Genre theory came out of writing as social action. It helps to
understand the various ways that writing takes action in
communities. It not only focuses on how writing gets done, but goes
into detail on the process leading up to the end product of the ways
writing gets done, and also supports a deeper understanding of
reading as a well as writing.
Different theorists have placed the types of written genres often
used in the classroom in various ways. Collerson (1988), suggests
a separation into what is called Early genres (narratives, recount,
observational comment, and labels) and Factual genres which cover
( explanations, arguments, and reports or exposition and
procedural), whilst Wing Jan (1991) on the other hand separates
writing into Factual genres (explanations reports, surveys,
procedures, information, , interviews, biographies, descriptions,
recounts, narrative and persuasive writing,) and Fictional which
are, (contemporary modern fiction and traditional fiction). Over
recent years there is, now a greater agreement on what the most used
non-fiction genres are. In England the National Literacy Strategy
(DfEE, 1998) has chosen to adopt the use of the categories of non-
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fiction genres developed by Martin and Rothery (1980) and further
established by Wray and Lewis (1995; 1997).
There are six more widely used types of non-fiction genre
identified; they were explanation recount, persuasion, procedure,
report, and discussion. Each of these genres has its own
characteristic text construction and language types. Martin and
Rothery (1980) found that, out of these six genres, recounting
seemed to be the most widely used by children in school. Students
spend a lot of time telling the story of what they did or found out.
With all these various theorists on written genre it can prove
fairly difficult to outline specific genre types. This would depend
on the theorist you are working with and their definition of the
genre type, even though they do overlap in some ways you still stand
a chance of omitting some due to the choice of theorist for example
the non-fiction genre type.
In Physical education at KS4 students write in continuous prose and
often use explanations, reports, procedures, information,
descriptions, and recounts. Based on the genre theory these would
fall heavily into the factual genre type. A good example is that of
the pre released scenario which is a part of the GCSE exam, where a
student is identified,an explanation of what sporting activities
he/she takes part in and out of school, what influences his choice
of sport, his body type etc. Exam candidates are then asked to
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answer questions based on the scenario given. So a good example of a
question is. “What type of training method would you suggest X
student use to improve his transition from long distance swimming to
becoming a 100m sprinter?”. This will entail the use of describing,
explaining and writing procedures. How good is this genre theory we
may ask? Does it divide the social classes? Can it only be accessed
by one group and not another? According to Greenwood (1998)
“We should, therefore, ask critical, metarhetorical questions, such as what sorts of
communication does the genre encourage, what sorts does it constrain against?
Who can--and who cannot--use this genre?..." Greenwood (1998)
Because the nature of genre is based on cultural and social
knowledge, what then happens to the student who arrives with little
or no knowledge of certain linguistic structures they will stand to
be at a disadvantage without the cultural knowledge required.
The Simple view of Reading
The Simple View of Reading originated in the 1980’s, when the
‘reading wars’ rwere taking place; an equation was formulated
in an attempt to restore the two opposing camps of early
literacy teaching - the Whole Language or ‘Real Books’
approach on the one hand and the Phonics view on the other
(Gough and Tunmer, 1986). These two approaches are often
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represented as ‘top down’ and ‘bottom up’. The SVR presents
reading comprehension as the product of listening
comprehension and decoding. The relationship is formalised in
the equation below by Gough & Tunmer, (1986)
Reading = Decoding x Spoken language comprehension
Understanding the symbols of text is needed as well as being
able to read it so that it can be understood. So in order for
someone to be able to read they must have the ability to both
recognise and interpret words.
The problem arises with students who may be dyslexic, have a lower
reading age than their year group or the text given may be quite
difficult to read. This occurs quite often in GCSE PE, where
students complain quite often about not understanding what they have
read. Barriers to comprehension may entail a lack of vocabulary both
generally and vocabulary specific to the subject. Another barrier is
that of cross cultural barriers, content can be culturally
influenced and so if an individual is not familiar with something
for example “snow” they would not understand the implications of
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The interpretation of
words sentences &
Context-free wordrecognition ability
someone telling the story about snow on a beautiful wintery morning.
These are but a few and I can see this in my teaching in particular
GCSE PE where students with English as an Additional language face
these barriers even more so than those that are native English
speakers. For example when asking students about particular sports
that they are not familiar with based on culture, such as Boccia
which is a well known disability sport within the borough but not
widely played otherwise.
Rationale
Each year Caribbean students under perform at GCSE getting 5 A*- C
including English and maths compared to the other nationalities
.This led me to think that their level of literacy may be a cause
for concern, in particular for the boys whose attainment is
consistently low in the theoretical aspects of the exam.
This led me to my research question: What are the perceptions of
reading among Black Caribbean boys within X \school?
To research this further I interviewed students from KS3 & KS4. I
found that interviewing was the most appropriate method as it gave
students the opportunity to express themselves more deeply and for
me to go a bit more in-depth into feelings of why they read or did
not read. The interviews were conducted in an environment where the
students felt most comfortable in the PE office.
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Firstly we should look at the definition of an interview. Frey and
Oishi (1995:01) define it as
"a purposeful conversation in which one person asks prepared questions
(interviewer) and another answers them (respondent)"
This exercise takes place so that information can be garnered on a
specific topic or an area to be researched. Interviews can be a very
informative tool, which can open doors to further research with the
use of other methodologies such as experiments and observations
(Jensen and Jankowski 1991:101). Interviews have three basic
structures. They can be structured which is considered a closed
interview style or unstructured which is more of an open interview
style and semi structured which allows for new themes and ideas to
be explored based on what is said by the interviewee. When using the
Open-ended or unstructured interviews method Nichols (1991:131)
defines it as
“an informal interview, not structured by a standard list of questions”.
When the interviewer uses Open-ended questions it allows allow
for deeper probing into the first responses of the respondent
to help pull out a more detailed and in-depth answer to the
question (Wimmer and Dominick 1997:156). The quality of the
data will therefore be dependent on the quality of the
interviewer questions. As an interviewer, it is important to
gauge how much or how little one should probe. There are
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advantages and disadvantages for using any interview method.
It gives room for questioning to be guided in the direction
you want it and you are able clarify anything that needs to be
made clearer than a questionnaire (Frey and Oishi 1995:03).
Interviews rely heavily on the respondent’s willingness to
give accurate and complete responses (Breakwell, Hammond and
Fife-Schaw 1995:238). They may often alter their answers due
to feelings of inadequacy embarrassment, nervousness, lack of
knowledge on the topic, confusion or memory loss. On the other
hand, they may provide very detailed responses in an attempt
to discover the purpose of the study (Wimmer and Dominick
1997:162). Validity and reliability of the interview may be
influenced by these points (Breakwell, Hammond and Fife-Schaw
1995:238-239).
"Interviewing is a complex and demanding technique" (Frey and Oishi
1995:02).
I will be conducting a semi-structured interview as it will provide
me with more in-depth answers and feedback. This will create an
opportunity for me to do the following freely: modifying the order,
or changing the wording of my questions as I see necessary, it would
leave me the flexibility of explaining to students if they are
having difficulty understanding any questions, and to also leave
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out questions felt unnecessary and add questions as the case may
arise (Robson, 2002)
Method
Participants
The three students came from Caribbean families; all three were
male. The participants were chosen because they were black Caribbean
boys. Three participants were chosen because those were the
available numbers within the school who had come directly from the
Caribbean to the United Kingdom. Although it was a small sample, it
was enough to get an overview of opinions as they were all from
different year groups in the school.
The interviews took place in a quiet room at the school and were
taped with the permission of students. Informed consent was received
from parents before the interviews were conducted.
From the interviews the following results were found:
When students were asked about their culture of reading at home they
indicated that there was not a culture of reading at home, this
suggests that most of these students do not have a culture of
reading embedded within their home environment and therefore it
impacts them in the school environment and their attitude towards
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learning and reading within other subjects. As none of the students
are within KS4 PE doing GCSE I have had to use information based on
their other subjects and how well they were performing, and also use
of a reading log from their lessons in one day. From the data two of
the three students were underachieving in subjects taken. One
student who had a culture of reading at home and had the support of
parents who read to him at a young age instilling reading was fairly
better positioned to get good passes. The students had very mixed
perceptions of reading one student said “reading is done by girls”
which in my analysis is a cultural dilemma, as it is believed in the
Caribbean that reading is not very masculine. According to research
done
“Within Caribbean academia traditional patterns of study exist. Boys have identified
English and reading as “too girlish” for males, and Parry’s study indicated that even
female teachers perceived English and grammar as being women’s subjects."
(Parry, Odette. 2004)
When tracking the students over three days using the reading log it
was seen that the literacy experiences of the students varied, when
talking to them more in detail it was discovered that students
attitude to learning correlated to their attitude to reading. There
were subjects such as humanities which is a fairly heavily reading
based subjects, that two of the respondents had the most reading
done. They discussed the fact that there were a lot more key words
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within science. This was expected as science is one of the main
subjects which has a specialist language, and to fully access any
type of exercise you must read and comprehend technical languages.
The average time they spent writing did not vary very much over the
classes. Humanities stood out however as one of the main subjects
that seemed to have been writing intensive. In Physical Education
however students did no reading or writing in the lesson. When
further investigating the student spoke more about learning through
questioning and sharing ideas with each other, This was expected as
the Dfes report speaks about PE as heavily geared towards learning
through talk. As a practitioner this leads me to the conclusion that
if I am going to help improve literacy as a cross curricular
approach in particular considering the cultural barriers to
accessing literacy. I will need to look at my approach. I will need
to use possibly more culturally sensitive examples where most can
access the curriculum without difficulty. I learnt a great deal
about types of writing and possible ways of incorporating more
writing into PE so that certain literacy skills can be practiced and
enhance, as it seemed that we weighed too heavily on the practical
and not the other aspects that would promote PE through other media
than just exploratory talk.
JN
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INDEX
Interview Questions
Research Question- Is there a cultural/social correlation
between literacy (reading) and attainment with boys coming to
the UK from the Caribbean?
1. Do you like to read?
a. Why or why not?
2. What do you understand by being literate
3. Do you think Reading is important?
a. Why or why not
4. How often do you Read?
a. More in UK? Or more in Caribbean. If different, why?
5. What type of books do you read for pleasure now?
a. Has it changed since moving to the UK?
6. What do you think reading is?
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7. Do you see you parents reading at home?
8. What actions do you take when you do not understand what
you have read?
9. What do you do when you’ve come to words you may not know? What else do you do?
10. Name me 2 books you are reading at school presently.
And 2 you may be reading at home.
11. How much time do you spend reading at home?
12. Do you read with any younger brothers or sisters,
other children at home, or parents at home?
a. Do your parents spend time reading to you?
b. Do you like it when a bigger brother or sister reads
books to you?
c. Do you choose your books that you read?
13. What is your favourite thing to do in your spare
time?
14. What are your favourite shows, or movies?
15. Are there things about reading that you may like in
particular?
a. Name a few
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16. Is there anything about reading that you may not
particularly like? Name them and explain why?
17. What kinds of books or reading material do you read
a lot?
18. What would you like to learn to be able to make
yourself a really good reader?
19. What does the term “reading” mean to you?
20. Why do you think people read?
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Literacy Log: Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Session 1 Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Session 2 Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Session 3 Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Session 4 Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Session 5 Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Session 6 Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
Subject:
Time reading?
Time writing?
After school Time reading?
Time writing?
Time reading?
Time writing?
Time reading?
Time writing?
Time reading?
Time writing?
Time reading?
Time writing?
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References
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