Post on 30-Jan-2023
MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
Department of English language and Literature
Brain-based Learning Principles and Strategies
in Lower Secondary EFL Classes
Diploma Thesis
Brno 2017
Supervisor: Written by:
doc. Mgr. Světlana Hanušová, Ph.D. Bc. Veronika Škrhová
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Declaration
I hereby declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the sources listed
in the Bibliography.
I agree that this diploma thesis will be deposited in the library of The Faculty of Education at
The Masaryk University Brno and it will be accessible for studying purposes.
Prohlášení
Prohlašuji, že jsem diplomovou práci zpracovala samostatně a použila jen prameny uvedené v
seznamu literatury.
Souhlasím, aby tato práce byla uložena na Masarykově univerzitě v Brně v knihovně
Pedagogické fakulty a zpřístupněna ke studijním účelům.
Brno, March 28, 2017 .............................................
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Acknowledgements:
I would like to express my sincere thanks to doc. Mgr. Světlana Hanušová, Ph.D. for her
patient guidance, valuable advice and for being a source of encouragement.
I would like to thank Mgr. Věra Livingstonová and pupils at ZŠ Vejrostova for being always
open to me.
Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to all my dear ones who always remind
me of the precious truth that I do not have to but I can.
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Contents
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 6
1. Definition of brain-based learning .................................................................... 9
1.1. Origin of brain-based learning ........................................................................ 10
1.2. Brain-based learning and neuroscience ........................................................... 11
1.3. Brain-based learning principles ...................................................................... 13
2. Influential factors in learning process ............................................................. 15
2.1. Memory ........................................................................................................... 16
2.1.2. Categorization of memory ..................................................................................... 16
2.1.2. Strategies to use various memory pathways .......................................................... 20
2.2. Brain Lateralization ......................................................................................... 22
3. Methods for memory enhancement ................................................................. 28
3.1. Mnemonics ...................................................................................................... 28
3.2. Mind Maps ...................................................................................................... 30
4. Emotions as a gate to effective learning ......................................................... 33
4.1. Brain science of emotion................................................................................. 35
4.2. Brain-based principles engaging positive emotions........................................ 37
5. Brain-based learning and the theory of multiple intelligences ....................... 41
6. Brain-based learning and learning styles ........................................................ 44
II. PRACTICAL PART ....................................................................................... 48
7.1. Research Aim .................................................................................................. 49
7.2. Research Context ............................................................................................ 49
7.3. Research Problem ........................................................................................... 50
7.4. Research Method............................................................................................. 51
7.5. Research Questions ......................................................................................... 51
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8. Individual activities ......................................................................................... 52
8.1. Introducing grammar through handwriting ..................................................... 52
8.2. Discover your learning style ........................................................................... 55
8.3. Boost your memory ......................................................................................... 58
8.4. Bluffing ........................................................................................................... 61
8.5. Mind maps and vocabulary ............................................................................. 63
8.6. Providing mistake-rich environment ............................................................... 66
8.7. How do you feel? ............................................................................................ 69
8.8. Paraphrase ....................................................................................................... 73
9. Answers to Research Questions ...................................................................... 75
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 77
Resumé.............................................................................................................................79
Shrnutí..............................................................................................................................79
Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 80
Electronic sources ............................................................................................................ 81
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 83
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Introduction
The very first idea that gave birth to this thesis was my personal desire to learn how to
learn. During all my studies, I was not satisfied with my learning strategies. I was able to
learn a large amount of information; nevertheless, its duration in my mind was very limited. I
learned most of the things mechanically without engaging my personality. This dissatisfaction
led to my interest in how learning process works and what the psychological aspects are that
influence it. I firstly came across the brain-based learning in the book Individuálne osobitosti
pri učení sa cudzích jazykov I: niektoré psychologické aspekty učenia sa a vyučovania cudzích
jazykov (2005) by Gabriela Lojová. The idea of brain-based learning drew my attention and I
wanted to find about it more. I believed that this concept of learning would help me to answer
the question how to learn so that it is effective and in accordance with how the brain naturally
works. More importantly, I was motivated to implement the findings of brain-based learning
to the classroom and provide the pupils with the learning environment in which it would be
the most natural for them to learn. I did not want them to feel the same as I felt when I
learned.
Brain-based learning examines many aspects that influence effective learning. This
thesis tried to discuss only a limited number of ideas that this approach in education considers
relevant to the process of learning. In the Theoretical part, I provide the definition of brain-
based learning and a brief overview of its main principles. From the aspects that influence
learning process, I decided to develop more deeply the memory and the brain lateralization.
From both the memory and the brain lateralization, I attempted to relate the information to the
practical implication to the classroom. As for the memory, this practical application is
presented by mind maps and mnemonics. I also examined brain-based learning reference to
the theory of multiple intelligences and to the learning styles as they are closely interrelated.
Special focus was devoted to the role of emotions in learning process. The thesis presents how
to provide pupils with positive emotional release in the classroom.
In the Practical part, I provide eight lesson plans to the English classes that were
designed in accordance with the principles and strategies of brain-based learning. I piloted
them in the English lessons at lower secondary school. The feedback to each activity is
provided. As for the Research problem and the Research questions, I made an effort to
formulate it so that it reflects the circumstances of the research. Since I am not an employed
teacher at school, I could make the research under limited conditions. Therefore, I focused the
attention of the research on the pupil’s reactions to brain-based learning methods rather than
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to their efficiency since it is the aspect I could not objectively evaluate. The overall aim of the
thesis is to examine some of the brain-based learning principles and strategies, apply them
practically in EFL classes and find out through activities designed according to these
principles how far the pupils at lower secondary school are able to identify with them.
This thesis does not present the brain-based learning principles as the only way to the
effective learning; however, I wish it to provide information that would be considered useful
and inspiring for everybody who wants to make their teaching stimulating and harmonizing
with brains of their learners.
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1. Definition of brain-based learning
A fundamental question needed to be answered before any further development of this
thesis lies in the explanation of what brain-based learning is about. Since it is a term Czech
education is not so familiar with, it is of high importance to clearly define it.
Eric Jensen, a person who is mostly associated with brain-based learning, limited this
concept in terms of what it can be considered to represent and what it cannot. He refuses any
consideration of brain-based learning to be an individual discipline, a prescribed format or a
dogma (Jensen, 2008, p.4). Thus, it does not offer any set of rules or a recipe which always
works and may be followed under every circumstance. If brain-based learning cannot be taken
as a discipline in education on its own, what else can it be?
The simplest word that can determine it is an approach. An approach in education built
on the question that is trying to answer what is good for the brain (Jensen, 2008, p.4). Another
simple definition is: brain-based learning is learning aligned with how brains naturally learn,
it is learning with the brain in mind (Jensen, 2008, p.4).
Finally, Jensen (2008) probably offers the most complex definition:
Brain-based learning is a way of thinking about the learning process. It is not a panacea, nor is
it the solution to all our problems. It is not a program, dogma, or a recipe for teachers. And it is not a
trend or gimmick. It is, however, a set of principles and a base for knowledge and skills upon which
we can make better decisions about the learning process. (Preface xiii)
If brain-based learning is considered from the position of a teacher and the word
“learning” is replaced by the word “teaching”, it is, according to Jensen, defined by the
following table:
Table 1
Note: From Brain-based learning: The new paradigm of teaching p. 4, by Thousand Oaks,
CA(2008): Corwin Press.
Brain-based teaching is ... E.S.P.
E – the active ENGAGEMENT
S – of purposeful STRATEGIES
P- based on PRINCIPLES derived from neuroscience
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In order to complete the definition of brain-based learning, it is also necessary to
mention that the term brain-based learning is not a single denomination that one may be
exposed to when examining this approach in education. It is interesting that the terms used to
name this concept are unified neither in literature, nor among the specialists. Apart from
brain-based learning, it is possible to meet the term brain-compatible education (Jensen,
2008, preface xii) or Kagan names his book devoted to the teaching in accordance with how
the brain naturally learns Brain-friendly Teaching (Kagan, 2014, Brain friendly teaching:
Tools, tips & structures). There also exists a Society for Effective and Affective Learning
(SEAL) which has very similar approach as brain-based or brain-friendly learning.
Nevertheless, despite of the fact that there are several denominations related to the learning
and teaching with the brain in mind, all of them are more or less identical in the approach,
principles and strategies they are based on. All of them aim to adjust the education as much as
possible to the newest outcomes from the brain research revealing how the brain works and
learns most naturally and effectively. This thesis is going to use in most of the cases the term
brain-based learning so that the possible confusion is avoided, however, it will imply the
knowledge and findings from all the sources related to brain-based education but not
necessarily referring to themselves as brain-based but using one of the terms mentioned.
It is also interesting to point out the fact that brain-based education is possible to be
studied at Harvard University which offers Master’s degree as well as doctoral degrees in a
program called Mind, Brain and Education (Jensen, 2008, preface xiv). Brain-based education
is popular all over the world; mostly in English speaking countries.
As for the situation in the Czech Republic, brain-based learning is rather an unknown
concept even though it definitely cannot be claimed that its principles and strategies would be
completely new for Czech education. They simply are not unified under the approach which
would be known as brain-based education. In Slovakia, brain-based education seems to gain
more interest. For instance, Gabriela Lojová in her book Individuálne osobitosti pri učení sa
cudzích jazykov (2005) makes reference to brain-based learning and describes its fundamental
principles.
1.1. Origin of brain-based learning .
As the non-unification of the brain-based education as a single concept (and which
would appear in all references under the same name) indicates, it is difficult to establish the
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concrete country and a year when brain-based learning was born. However, a fertile ground
for the progressive development of this concept started to exist in 1970’s when first books
about the brain and its functioning were published. One of the most influential was the book
by Tony Buzan: Use Both Sides of Your Brain (1974). In 1980’s Leslie Hart published the
book Human Brain and Human Learning (1983) which “established connections between
brain function and traditional educational practice” (Jensen, 2008, p.3). There were other
influential people who lead to the creation of brain-based learning. One of them certainly is
Howard Gardner who with his theory of multiples intelligences changed the traditional
concept of how the human thinking was viewed. It is also important to mention Geoffrey and
Renate Caine whose works such as Making Connections: Teaching and The Human Brain
(1991) deeply marked brain-based education.
As it has been already said, there is no single author of brain-based learning. It
emerged as a paradigm based on the previous and gradually more popular researches from the
field of neuroscience in the 1980’s. On the other hand, if the nationality of people contributing
most significantly to the birth of this new educational approach is taken into consideration, the
country which may be considered as a “country of origin” is the USA. All the people
mentioned so far in the connection with brain-based learning are Americans. Even Eric Jensen
whose work Brain-based learning: The new paradigm of teaching (2008) has been cited
several times is American. Thus, brain-based education has several fathers and forefathers
whose origin is predominantly American and it may be considered as mostly American
approach to education.
Brain-based learning is an approach which crosses several disciplines. It is based on
findings from psychology, biology, chemistry, sociology and many more (Jensen, 2008, p.3).
Yet, if the Table 1 is taken into account, the principles on which the brain-based strategies are
based on are derived from neuroscience. Thus, neuroscience is the discipline which serves as
a dominant source of findings for brain-based education. The next chapter is going to briefly
explain what neuroscience is and which branches of this scientific study are integrated in
brain-based approach to learning.
1.2. Brain-based learning and neuroscience
Simply stated, neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. Bear, Connors and
Paradiso (2007) explain what the subject of neuroscience is in a more approachable way for
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laymen: “ It is human nature to be curious about how we see and hear; why some things feel
hurt and others hurt; how we move; how we reason, learn, remember and forget, the nature
of anger and madness. These mysteries are starting to be unraveled by basic neuroscience
research”(p.4). According to this statement, neuroscience is interdisciplinary as well. To
understand the nervous system, the findings from medicine, biology, psychology, chemistry,
physics and mathematics must be examined (Bear et al., 2007, p. 4). Neuroscience as an
individual scientific study is relatively young. The Society for Neuroscience, which is the
largest association of professional scientists in experimental biology, was founded in 1970
(Bear et al., 2007, p. 4).
There are, however, neuroscience sub disciplines, which have closer impact on brain-
based learning. Judging by the citation from Bear et al. (2007), neuroscience has a broad field
of interest from which the research focused on the way of reasoning, learning, remembering
and forgetting is of the greater importance for brain-based learning. The neuroscience sub
discipline which embraces all these factors of human brain is called cognitive neuroscience.
Cognition is “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience, and the senses” (Oxford dictionary, 2016) and cognitive
neuroscience studies it from the standpoint of biological processes.
Another neuroscience branch discipline which is incorporated to education through
brain-based learning is social neuroscience. In this case, neuroscience examines how the
biological processes affect social behaviour.
According to Siegel who has written a foreword for the book The social neuroscience
of education: Optimizing attachment and learning in the classroom (2013) by Louis
Cozolino, “the most recent trend of “brain-based learning” applies findings from cognitive
neuroscience” (foreword xx), yet, from his point of view, the social neuroscience has not been
taken into account by brain-based education.
Siegel’s (2013) argues:
What has been missed thus far in essentially all books on brain-based education is the
recognition that the human brain is a social organ of adaptation.
By an organ of adaptation, I mean that the brain has evolved to interact with and learn
how to navigate its environment for the sake of survival. And by social organ, I mean that
humans have evolved to be linked to and learn from other brains in the context of emotionally
significant relationships (foreword xx).
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Siegel might have missed the fact, that brain-based learning strategies highlight
socialization and cooperative learning. Two examples support this claim. One of them is
Kagan’s principle for brain-friendly teaching which is called “Social” and which “promotes
social cognition” (2014, 3.3) in the class. The second example might, from the first sight,
support Siegel’s idea. It is true that Jensen does not devote any chapter uniquely to how
socialization has an impact on human brain and learning. However, he concerns the role of a
teacher. One whole chapter is dedicated to “Teacher Communication” (Jensen, 2088, p.96). If
Siegel’s statement that “our ability to learn is regulated by how we are treated by our
teachers”(foreword xxi) and his highlight to “emotional atonnement between teachers and
learners”(foreword xxvi) is considered, Jensen’s contribution to brain-based learning does not
forget to imply social neuroscience too. Also, Jensen (2008) admits that all brain-based
education has one basic principle: “the brain is designed for survival” (p.6) which correlates
to some extent with Siegel’s citation that “the brain has evolved...to learn how to navigate its
environment for the sake of survival”.
To summarise the content, the definition of brain-based learning has been discussed as
well as its origin and the disciplines serving as principal sources for its principles. Brain-based
learning is learning with a brain in mind which incorporates the strategies based on principles
from neuroscience in order to make better decisions about the learning process. It has become
to emerge in the 1980’s and the country in which this educational approach has the strongest
foundation is the United States.
Neuroscience, especially its sub disciplines represented by cognitive neuroscience and
social neuroscience (Kagan’s and Jensen’s approach proves that social neuroscience also
plays an influential role in brain-based learning) bring knowledge and findings for brain-
based learning so it may be claimed that this educational concept is scientifically based.
1.3. Brain-based learning principles
Brain-based learning has come with implication of many findings from neuroscience
into education.
Out of these findings, there were formulated principles which provide a general
framework for the choice of teaching methods and activities as well as the general rules to be
respected so as to ensure brain-compatible learning environment. These principles are not
unified and each author highlights different aspects of learning in accordance with how the
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brain naturally works. Still, they contain some shared ideas which are repeated in the sources
related to the presentation of main brain-based principles to be observed.
1. Each brain is uniquely organised (Caine & Caine 1994, Lojová 2011)
Since each brain is unique, the way of processing information differs as for each
human individual. Applied practically, it means that the individual differences of learners
should be respected and they should be provided with teaching methods that suit to their
learning profile. It is due to this principle that brain-based learning is related to those terms
such as brain lateralization, learning styles and strategies and multiple intelligences.
2. The search for meaning is innate and occurs through pattering (Caine & Caine
1994, Jensen 2008, Buzan 1991)
Pattering refers to the meaningful organization and categorization of new information.
Through stimuli, brain makes such patterns which are recognised by perceiving similarities
and differences with them (Lojová, 2011, p.78). Related to this principle, brain-based learning
educators recommend mind mapping as an effective method of organising knowledge which
respects this principle.
3. Emotions are critical to pattering (Caine & Caine 1994)
Emotions are involved in every thought and serve as a powerful mean to enhance
learning. The role of emotions cannot be separated from learning process. Contrarily, their
effect on learning must be remembered and incorporated in each lesson. This is the aspect that
connects all brain-based approaches. Emotions are central to them.
4. Learning content should be personalised (Kagan 2014, Lojová 2011)
This principle is important for the enhancement of memory. Once the learning is
personalised and tries to simulate real world circumstances, it is more effective.
That is why brain-based learning promotes such learning methods as simulations, role-
plays, projects or problem-solving in classes.
5. Learning involves conscious and unconscious processes (Caine&Caine 1994,
Lojová 2011)
Learning takes place involving conscious focus of our attention as well as unconscious
perception of stimuli. Hence, explicit and implicit gaining of information is a constant
process.
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6. Physical education, recess and movement are critical to learning (Jensen 2008,
Kagan 2014)
Brain-based learning puts a strong emphasis on physical exercise and movement in the
classroom. This is due to the fact that they can grow new neurons and therefore are correlated
with memory, learning and mood as well. It has therefore the high capacity of boosting
academic performance as well as the positive frame of mind.
7. Human brain has a wide variety of memory systems (Caine & Caine 2014,
Sprenger 2008)
The functions of memory are another central aspect of brain-based learning. Apart
from the neuroscience research revealing that all these memory systems are interconnected
and interactive (Caine & Caine, 2014, p.17), they contain various memory pathways that have
to be used in balance and respected when information retrieve is required (Sprenger, 2008).
8. The brain is social (Caine 1994, Cozolino 2013, Kagan 2014)
Learning has a social nature grounded in mirror neurons representing the reason why
the simplest learning lies in imitation. The social neuroscience has a considerable impact on
brain-based learning and it is of its main interest to include such activities which profit from
the social nature of learning by using targeted and diverse social groupings as well as by
ensuring rich social conditions (Brain-based strategies, 2017).
2. Influential factors in learning process
Human brain is the most complicated working system in the world. Some scientists
even claim that the brain is more complex than the whole space. It is therefore impossible to
overly understand how this organ works even though the research concerning brain
functioning has marked the considerable progress and development. This research, mainly the
one from the neuroscience interests brain-based educators and they strive to implement the
latest findings into education. Most authors that deal with brain-based learning devote parts of
their books to quite detailed description of how the brain works and where the centres of some
abilities are situated (Erlauer 2003, Jensen 2008, Zull 2011). This thesis is not going to
examine this description as it is primarily focused on those brain characteristics that are
involved in the process of learning. Two aspects of the human brain are going to be dealt
with: memory and brain lateralization. Both of them participate and influence considerably
the learning and information processing, therefore they deserve deeper insight. The outcomes
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from this examination will be applied practically in the classroom with the aim to ensure
brain-compatible teaching and environment.
2.1. Memory
Memory is the faculty of our brain the learning would be impossible without. At
school institutions, memory is under constant pressure to absorb as much information as
possible. Since this brain storage plays such an important role in the learning process and also
in the evaluation of school success, it deserves to be deeply examined and the information
about how it works applied into classrooms. According to neuroscientists, it is through the
memory that the research can be linked to the classroom (Sprenger, 2008, p. 50). Brain-based
learning is convinced that knowledge about effective use of our memory may contribute to
facilitation of learning process in accordance with brain’s natural capacities and functioning.
In the following paragraphs, the special focus will be attached to categorization of memory,
different types of pathways to the memory and to the practical application of tacquired
knowledge about memory to the classroom.
2.1.2. Categorization of memory
The basic distinction most of the people are familiar with is the division into short-
term and long-term memory. Students are aware that once they have learned something, it
does not necessarily mean that they will know it forever. The problem that occurs is the
unsuccessful passage of the information from the short-term memory to the long-term
memory. For a better understanding of how memory works, however, it is beneficial to
broaden this basic memory categorization.
Sprenger (2008) divides memory into following parts:
• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory consisting of:
- Immediate memory
- Active-working memory
• Long-term memory
It is not the purpose of this thesis to describe each memory in details. Rather, it will
present the information related to the memory that may be relevant to the facilitation of
retention in the classroom.
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Sensory memory
It is the shortest element of memory which represents an essential step for storing the
information in the short-term memory (The Human Memory 2010). It is through senses the
information enters the brain and according to the sense which was involved in perception, the
visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory (information processed through smells) and gustatory
information are identified (Sprenger, 2008, p.52). If all the information come to the mind
through senses, it is vital for the teaching in the classroom to be rich and diverse in the sense
stimuli. This fact is taken into consideration by brain-based educators who highlight both
enough stimuli (Kagan 2013) and the variety of tasks according to sensory preferences.
Active Working Memory
This type of memory forms a bridge between immediate memory and long-term
memory. The problem occurs when this imaginary bridge is not firmly built. This may be
caused by the fact that students do not personalise new information and as a result of that,
they do not create, as it is called by Jensen (2008) as well as Sprenger (2008) any hooks for
new information in their mind to hang on the previous knowledge. Therefore, the important
question arouses: How to provide students with the hooks?
An essential step is to link any new information with previous knowledge. In EFL
classes, the presentation of new vocabulary as well as grammar should be connected to what
the students already know and, if possible, be personalised with student’s own life’s
experiences. In practice, it might be useful to encourage students to write to each new
vocabulary item how it concerns their personal life. As for the grammar, the same principle is
possible by presenting it in a context which the students are familiar with. Jensen (2008) also
suggests that these “memory hooks” might be ensured by contextual learning which “provides
more spatial and locational hooks and allows students more time to make personal
connections”(p.165).
The second problem that often arises in the classroom is insufficient amount of time
dedicated to the review of already acquired knowledge. Once review does not form an
automatic lesson component, usual failure, which is represented by the unsuccessful passage
of the information from active working memory to long-term memory, tends to occur. As it
has been mentioned earlier, information does not automatically pass from short-term memory
to long-term memory unless it is given sufficient review and meaning so the information
becomes relevant and intense. Hence, the second question related to the practical application
in the class is how to ensure students with as frequent passage of knowledge to long-term
memory as possible.
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It is obvious that the answer lies in the efficient review. Apart from the regular review
done in the class and conducted by a teacher, it might be very helpful to repeatedly emphasize
the importance of review and teach students how to do it.
Buzan (1991) describes the review technique which should ensure retention into long-
term memory:
The first review should take place about 10 minutes after a one-hour learning period
and should itself take 10 minutes. This will keep the recall high for approximately one
day, when the next review should take place, this time for the period of 2 to 4 minutes.
After this recall will probably be retained for approximately one week when another 2
minutes review can be completed followed by a further review after about one month.
After this time the knowledge will be lodged in the Long Term Memory. (p.64)
The following table reconstitutes the review technique proposed by Buzan (1991):
Table 2
How long?
When?
1st review 10 minutes after app. 60 minutes of learning and10 minutes of rest
2nd review 2-4 minutes after 24 hours from initial learning
3rd review 2 minutes after one week from the 2nd review
4th review Undefined after one month from the 3rd review
Table 2 can be presented to students so that they realise how much the review is
important for information recall. If they make a habit of regular review, their success in
education may be significantly enhanced. The table also indicates how much the role of a
teacher is important in the information transfer to long-term memory. It is highly unrealistic to
expect that a teacher will anxiously keep the number of review as well as the time devoted to
it. Review is just one of the many aspects of a lesson that a teacher should bear in mind so he
cannot adjust everything else that happens in the regular class to this review technique.
Nevertheless, what he or she can do is to review the knowledge not only within one day or
week but also within one month. Teacher might also use the simplified version of review
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technique proposed by Jensen (2008) who advises to “review or repeat new learning within
10 minutes, then after 48 hours and then after a week”(p.167).
The purpose of this review technique proposed above is to strongly emphasize how
important the review is for the success in learning process. The reason for that is the fact that
most of the learning done has no meaning and is equal to a waste of time if the regular review
does not occur. It is proved by the situation many university students regularly experience.
They learn for their exams, they pass them but once they finish them, they seldom open their
text books again. The result is that the exams are successfully finished, yet, it is the only result
of their hard work. The knowledge did not pass to the long-term memory so the effort put to
learning was almost useless. On the other hand, if students keep in mind the importance of
review, they can put themselves into study advantage.
Buzan (1991) describes the beneficial effect that reviewing has:
The more you maintain the current body of knowledge, the more you will be able to absorb
and handle. When you study, the expanding amount of knowledge at your command will
enable you to digest new knowledge far more easily...the process is much more like that of
traditional snowball rolling, where the snowball gets rapidly bigger the more it rolls and
eventually continues rolling under its own momentum. (p.66)
Long-Term Memory
Finally, long-term memory is intended for storage of information which, once stored
here, is of semipermanent to permanent character (The Human Memory 2010). It is divided
into implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory (Sprenger, 2008, p. 54). Further
division of these two parts of long-term memory into so called memory pathways is inspired
by the system that is used by Sprenger (2008).
Implicit memory: Explicit memory:
- Procedural - Semantic
- Emotional - Episodic
- Conditioned Response
(p.55)
For better understanding of why it is so important to use multiple pathways to memory
and how to do so, it is necessary to describe how these pathways work and what is their
processing. Jensen (2008) makes an overview of what each pathway is responsible for:
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➢ Semantic: words, symbols, abstractions, school facts
➢ Episodic: locations, events, circumstances
➢ Procedural: physical skills, body learning, manipulatives (p.163)
This system is enhanced by following pathways that are proposed by Sprenger (2008):
➢ Emotional: emotions and feelings
➢ Conditioned response: songs, rhymes
To make the memory pathway description even more understandable, Sprenger (2008)
uses questions which clarify the essence of each access to previous knowledge. She
summarises it by following questions:
Semantic: What do you know about...?
Episodic: Where did you find out about...?
Procedural: How do you use...?
Emotional: How do you feel about...?
(p.62,63)
It is obvious that semantic pathway is predominantly used at schools. Teachers tend to
use the question: What do you know about...? in most of their teaching. It is not necessarily
bad that semantic pathways usually dominate others; nevertheless, it is not the most effective
neither the most lasting memory pathway. Moreover, as Sprenger (2008) argues, “just as
students have sensory preferences, they also have preferences for certain memory
systems”(p.64). Therefore, it is recommended to use various memory pathways so that each
student has a chance to be learned in accordance with his or her memory preference. The
following part offers some strategies to use various memory pathways in the classroom.
2.1.2. Strategies to use various memory pathways
1. Reduce the use of semantic memory
Jensen recommends avoiding “excessive use of semantic memory strategies” (p.165).
The reason is that, unlike episodic memory, semantic memory is not natural for human brain,
it is isolated from context and is dependent on extrinsic motivation (Jensen, 2008, p.164).
2. Use procedural memory through movement
Movement supports memory function as it gets the liver to produce glucose.
Furthermore, it seems that students could remember information better with their bodies as
the movement becomes automatic and the information does not have to be explicitly retrieved
(Sprenger, 2008, p. 64)
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3. Take advantage of the most lasting memory pathway
By most lasting memory pathway is meant emotional memory. Sprenger (2008)
comments on using emotions in the classroom: Emotions affect attention, perception, decision
making, and memory. Since this is such a dominant factor in memory, educators must make
most of emotion in the classroom. Balance is the key here. Too many emotional stimuli will
interfere with memory formation; too few, and the experience is quickly forgotten. (p.62)
For this moment, it suffices to mention just the fact that emotional memory should be
given great consideration in the classroom. Since the whole separate chapter will be devoted
to the importance of emotions in the classroom, no further practical application of this
strategy will be developed for now.
4. Take into consideration the context of learning process
Each information that is stored in memory is accompanied by the location and
circumstances that accompanied the moment when this particular piece of information was
being perceived and remembered. Teachers should take advantage of this contextual
surrounding. Jensen (2008) gives the same importance to where and how we learn as to what
is learned (p. 159).
Applied practically in the classroom, the contextual memory should be taken into
consideration before testing and examination. For instance, if a particular piece of grammar
was introduced and practiced through music, it might be helpful for students to hear a part of
this song or a melody before the exam. This is relevant because students might associate the
melody with the grammar more easily then. Using this procedure, epistemic pathway is
activated. Additionally, if the presentation of new vocabulary was somehow visualised, using
this visualization to remind students the targeted knowledge might be of considerable help as
well.
5. Harmonize the information transfer with the assessment
Bunzan (1991) points out that “memory is primarily an associative and linking
process” (p. 74). In order to consider this associative and linking basis of memory in
assessment, the way of presentation and practice of targeted knowledge needs to conform to
the methods used in assessment. If this aspect is neglected by a teacher, students might score
very poorly in their tests even though the knowledge had been successfully stored. The
problem lies in disharmony of the memory pathway that led to this storage and the memory
pathway that is required to be used in the test. Practically, if the teacher practices the
knowledge using epistemic memory pathway but in the test, he requires semantic memory to
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be used by the students, the failure easily occurs. Thus, in order to avoid this mistake, if, for
instance, an imaginative trip to ZOO was organised to introduce the vocabulary on animals,
this trip should be referred to on assessment. Having done so, students might considerably
increase their score in the assessment scale.
2.2. Brain Lateralization
Another characteristic of the human brain that is highlighted by brain-based learning
authors .is the lateralization of human brain into two hemispheres. Since this brain attribute as
well as the memory are taken into consideration by brain-based education, the separate
chapter will be devoted to the deeper examination and to the outcomes that may have an
effect on teaching in the classroom.
Division or lateralization of the brain into two hemispheres known as a left and a right
brain and the functional differences between them is an area of neuroscience which has a
fundamental impact not only for the sciences such as biology or psychology but for the
education too. It has been already more than fifty years since an American neuropsychologist
and biologist Roger Sperry, winner of the Nobel Prize for his work with split-brain research,
has deeply influenced the approach that had been taken by scientists towards the dominance
of one hemisphere over the other. Before Sperry’s research, left hemisphere has been
considered as the one that dominates thinking and is the seat of language and analysis whereas
right hemisphere was viewed less evolved and even so mentally retarded that it could not
prove itself to be conscious (Roger Sperry: The Brains Inside The Brain, 2001). However,
Sperry proved that even disconnected hemispheres were able to continue in their functions
and what is more, both hemispheres are perfectly conscious and the right hemisphere is also
capable of recognising spoken phrases.
Even though Sperry’s research has had a considerable impact on the brain research,
brain-based learning considers the outcomes that the brain lateralization has on human
division into left-brain oriented and right-brain oriented people to some extent irrelevant,
stereotyped and even pejorative (Jensen, 2008, p.19). For instance, Jensen (2008) is convinced
that lateralization of the brain is only relative and he supports this conviction with what the
latest research brought:
The prevailing research in neuroscience avoids the definitive left-versus-right labels. Scientists
now use the term relative lateralization: the brain is designed to process spatially from left to
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right hemisphere but it processes time (past to future) from back to front. In short, on any
given day, you’ll use most of your brain most of the time (2008, p.19).
Thus, Jensen emphasizes the complexity of the brain and its processes occurring
simultaneously using left and right hemisphere at the same time. Based on this research about
relative lateralization, he is also persuaded that the emphasis should be given to the whole-
brain learning, which ensure activities that include strengths of both hemispheres and thus
“avoid the right-brain emphasis...which resulted in hyperawareness of the brain’s lateral
processing tendencies”(2008, p.22). Moreover, he draws attention to the paradoxes that the
thinking of individual hemispheres can bring (2011, p.21). For instance, the musical thinking
which is supposed to be processed in the right brain is by the scientists proved to be left-brain
experience in the brains of great musicians. Contrarily, non musicians analyze music more in
the right hemisphere. This example proves the complexity of brain functions and its relative
lateralization.
Despite of some tendencies in brain-based learning which consider brain’s lateral
inclinations to particular processes as being too popularized and despite of the above
mentioned hemispherical paradoxes, it is useful to devote some part of this thesis to the
traditional description of processes that individual hemispheres ensure. It is worth due to the
fact that such information may lead to the more balanced choice of activities in EFL
classrooms. Similarly to the attitude taken by Lojová (2011), who admits that the cooperation
of both hemispheres is an inseparable process which is impossible to divide into the
individual function of left hemisphere and right hemisphere, it is still useful to describe the
functions of each hemisphere for the educational purposes and for the better understanding of
lateral cooperation.
The description of the functions which each hemisphere is responsible for has been
developed by many authors. Some of these descriptions are even contradictory and the
scientists often do not agree on the same functions. Still, for the purpose of this thesis, it
suffices to make a general and rather short overview of the characteristics that is attributed to
each hemisphere. Short and apt description is proposed by Lojová (2011) who summarizes the
way of the informational processing of left and right brain in the following table:
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Table 3
Right hemisphere
holistic and synthetic
intuitive
simultaneous
concrete
nonverbal
relies on imagination
(p. 54)
This table provides the general characteristics of each hemisphere but it does not apply
it concretely on how it concerns learning of a foreign language. When it comes to this area,
Lojová and Vlčková (2011) give a detailed description of how this different informational
processing of each hemisphere influences the way people with different dominant hemisphere
learn a language. Some of the information provided by them might be very useful for the
pedagogical understanding of student’s individual differences that are reflected in the brain
dominance.
When learning a language, people prone to use left hemisphere tend to prefer activities
focused on grammar and lexical manipulations. They usually like exercises of multiple choice
type, true false questions or matching. When using a language practically, they rely on the
rules which they apply consciously. Their dominant left brain processes the information from
the parts to the whole (Jensen, 2008, p.20). As far as teaching materials are concerned, they
prefer those with logical structure, clear rules and aims. During communication, they tend to
focus on the accuracy, their speech is logically structured and without major mistakes but it is
often so to the detriment of their fluency in speech. They memorize vocabulary, use
mnemonic devices and mind maps. If they are to translate a text, they have a tendency to do it
word for word. They might prefer individual work or cooperation with a partner of the same
language level (Lojová & Vlčková, 2011, p. 81, 82).
On the other hand, people prone to use right hemisphere prefer activities where they
can profit from their rich imagination and creativity. They like exercises which are
accompanied with visualization, music and rhythm. When using a language, they rely on their
Left hemisphere
linear and analytic
logic
sequential
symbolic
verbal
relies on reality
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intuition and spontaneity. Their dominant right hemisphere processes information from the
whole to the parts (Jensen, 2008, p.20). They prefer teaching materials such as posters, cards
or other materials based on visualization which help them to make associations and activities
such as role-plays, drama or songs. During communication, they have a tendency to focus on
feelings, overall impression and non verbal displays. Their speech is often fluent but as they
are focused rather on the content than on the grammatical rules, they tend to make mistakes
and their spoken production is not cohesive. They learn vocabulary with visual or kinaesthetic
aids and also use mind maps. They do not translate word for word and unlike left oriented
people, they prefer working in pairs and group work (Lojová &Vlčková, 2011, p.83, 84).
If these two groups are compared, it seems likely that learners with dominant left
hemisphere tend to be stronger in grammar, exercises focused on accuracy and details; they
might have better results in writing expression. Learners with dominant right hemisphere
might be stronger in fluency-oriented exercises and exercises focused on overall meaning
rather than details; they may have better developed natural language intuition which helps
them to intuitively guess the correct answer. Also, their text translations might seem more
natural.
The following summary may provide easier orientation in attributes that have been
described in the paragraphs above:
Left-oriented language learners Right-oriented language learners
- Grammar and lexical - Imagination and creativity
manipulations
- Deductive approach - Inductive approach
- Details - Overall summary
- Logic - Intuition
- Accuracy-oriented exercises - Fluency-oriented exercises
- Individual work - Pair and group work
The teacher should expect that learners with both dominances will appear in his class.
When analyzing learner’s individual needs, he should take into the consideration this aspect
of learner’s individual differences too. Apart from the regular observation of his students and
the way of work they seem to prefer or have better results in, he or she might also design
activities that are primarily aimed to recognise which hemisphere is dominant for each
student. According to the mentioned description, such activity may be, for instance, the
26
translation of a given text. That might be particularly useful with older pupils whose language
skills are already on higher level. Without giving any advice and instructions, the teacher can
set a task to translate a text and encourage students to rely on their own abilities and do their
best. Students who tend to translate the text into their mother tongue verbatim without using
their own formulations or adding extra words to the more natural flowing of the text are likely
to be left-oriented. On the other hand, students who are more creative in their translation and
their text is rather free and spontaneous are likely to be right-oriented.
This recognition of lateral dominance among learners in the class is important for the
better organization of tasks and to the more balanced choice of activities. If the teacher knows
how individual hemispheres work and what the activities are that left-oriented and right-
oriented learners tend to prefer, then he is more able to combine the tasks so that they are
designed to activate and stimulate both hemispheres. Consequently, once the tasks in the
lesson that are designed to suit left-oriented as well as right-oriented learners are combined in
a balanced manner, no group is advantaged and each student may “consciously or
unconsciously choose those stimuli which best suit to their way of hemispheric functioning”
(Lojová &Vlčková, 2011, p.85). This is essential also for the fact that, as is argued by Lojová
(2011), there is still a dominant tendency to overestimate the cognitive aspects of left
hemisphere which is reflected in overemphasizing logical and analytic procedures, too much
theoretical knowledge, ineffective memorization of lexis, which subsequently leads to the
excessive load of left hemisphere and minimal use of the potential of right hemisphere
(Lojová, 2011, p.73).
Thus, the crucial knowledge lies in the answer how to design the class so that both
hemispheres are integrated and neither of them is advantaged. As it is also recommended by
brain-based learning principles, the optimal learning occurs when both hemispheres are
activated, they cooperate and the whole-brain learning is established (Jensen, 2008, p. 22).
The optimal learning circumstances ma by ensured by what Jensen (2008) advises:
Provide learners with global overviews as well as step-by-step instructions. Represent the
learning plan depicting the big picture, followed by details representing the subtopics.
Alternate between the big picture and the details. (p.22)
However, Jensen does not offer any list of concrete activities that lead to the whole-
brain learning; neither does he explain how to provide students with a learning plan which
alternates between the big picture and the details. This gap in knowledge is overcome by
Lojová (2011) who proposes these types of activities to activate both hemispheres: projects,
27
simulations, role-plays, trips, students made games, recordings, texts and songs; activities
with magazines, posters and maps; comics, riddles and crosswords (p.74,75). Yet, the list of
activities proposed by Lojová seems to be more designed to satisfy the learning needs of the
students with right brain dominance. The possible reason might be an attempt to emphasize
the importance of the activities that do not activate the analytic and logical processes of left
hemisphere so much as the usual and common tasks that are assigned in lessons such as
grammatical exercises. The balanced solution might therefore be represented by a
combination of both activities suggested by Lojová that are more suitable for right hemisphere
and by the healthy adherence to so called old-fashioned methods of teaching a language that
are rather optimal for analytic and logical left-oriented students. Only in that case it is
possible for the teacher to avoid undesirable situation in which one of the hemispheres is
overloaded and the second one inactivated or activated minimally.
Both hemispheres might be activated by the special exercises that are designed to set
the whole-brain learning which is desirable from the point of view of brain-based learning.
The education field that uses movement to reveal pupil’s abilities is called educational
kinesiology. Pioneering person in this field is considered to be Dr.Paul Dennison. He used the
brain exercise to help the children who had problems with learning and reached very good
results (Dennison & Dennison, 1993, p.41). In his book Edu-K for Kids (translated into
Slovak under the name Zapni si mozog!, 1993), Dennison presents the exercises which are
supposed to help so called unilateral children (those who use only one hemisphere) to
coordinate and activate in learning both hemispheres and to use those parts of their brain they
have not been able to profit from so far. Dennison claims that these unilateral children are
prone to have negative attitude towards themselves; they often have the feeling of loneliness
among other children; they want to be better than others which leads them to try too much in
order to gain the best results; when they are supposed to read aloud, they often confuse words
(Dennison & Dennison, 1993, p.44). On the other hand, harmonised children using both
hemispheres are creative, joyful because of their progress in which they demonstrate
confidence; they do what is in the limits of their possibilities and they hardly ever give up.
When they read, they know what comes next in the text (Dennison & Dennison, 1993, p.45).
Thus, the exercises should lead not only to the whole-brain learning but they should have the
positive psychological effect on children as well.
This chapter provided basic information about brain lateralization. It is an area of
research that concerns brain and its outcomes considerably influence the understanding of
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how our brain works and consequently how to design teaching so that it is maximally in
accordance with brain natural processing. Deeper examination of lateral tendencies helped to
discover what the preferences were of left-oriented and right-oriented students and on the
basis of these preferences it provided the general recommendations leading to the activation
of both hemispheres and thus to the whole-brain learning.
The examination of brain lateralization has closed the whole chapter devoted to the
deeper understanding of how the brain works, more exactly of two aspects that influence
learning process represented by memory and brain lateralization. Related to the memory,
there are methods believed to enhance its efficiency and to be in harmony with how brain
naturally works.
3. Methods for memory enhancement
3.1. Mnemonics
Brain-based learning particularly emphasises two methods that are in recent time used
in the teaching of a foreign language to increase memory recall. These methods are
mnemonics and mind maps which are to be considered in the following paragraphs.
Mnemonics determines any device serving to retain the information better in memory.
Generally, it is based on making a system in information which seems to have no obvious
linkage and sense. The key concept here is to make an association with something more
meaningful. Mnemonics are effective as they conform to one basic rule of how our memory
works: it retains merely the facts which give a meaning. Moreover, mnemonic devices help to
make a context, which is especially important for the memory as “the brains sorts and stores
information based on whether it is heavily embedded in context or content” (Jensen, 2008, p.
163).
Since mnemonic devices seek to make associations and therefore they create meaning
and context, two aspects that are decisive for retention in long-term memory, they might be of
great value in English classes. Teachers should provide their students with effective
mnemonics as often as possible but also encourage them to make their own mnemonics as
“ownership helps memory” (Sprenger, 2008, p. 60). Many mnemonic devices are aimed to
help to remember a list of items such as chaining a story including the items from the list
which act as key elements in the story or inventing sentences in which each initial letter of a
word is a cue to idea which is supposed to be remembered. Usually, there is no need to
remember a list of specific items in English, thus these techniques are not so useful for
29
learning a language. However, there are methods that may be particularly useful such as
rhyming or music when information are put into the melody and sang (Sprenger, 2008, p. 58).
As far as grammar is concerned, mnemonics might help to visualize grammar rules which on
their own might not give any logical meaning (see Practical part p. 58).
Tony Buzan (1991) makes an overview of the characteristics which is supposed to
enhance mnemonics efficiency. The following list presents some of them.
1. Imagination
The more imagination is applied to memory, the better memory will be.
2. Movement
In any mnemonic image, movements add another range of possibilities for the
brain to connect and thus remember.
3. Association
Any memorisation should be linked to something stable in each unique mental
environment.
4. Humour
The more ridiculous and absurd the image is, the more memorable it will be.
5. Positivity
Positive images are in most instances better for memory for they make the brain
want to return to the images.
6. Exaggeration
Memory retains better the images which are exaggerated in size, shape and sound.
(reformulated from Buzan, 1991, p. 71,72)
Geoffrey Caine (2014) started the chapter of his book The Key to Powerful Learning:
Slow Down to Speed Up devoted the art of committing things to the memory with an
interesting statement by Richard P.Feynman, an American physicist. The statement is
following: “Study hard what interests you the most in the most undisciplined, irreverent and
original manner possible.” These words aptly summarize how to learn so that the whole
learning process as well as its results lead to the effective retention to the memory. An
overview of the mnemonics characteristics proposed by Buzan above conforms to Feynman’s
statement as he suggests the methods which are playful and creative. Caine (2014), however,
apart from stating Feynman’s words, makes his own list of strategies that are aimed to
improve the efficiency of our memory. Some of them are in accordance with Buzan’s
30
strategies such as using the power of imagination (or visualization) and exaggeration of ideas
in the sense of over-emphasizing things to get an essence (p. 73, 75).
3.2. Mind Maps
Another way of remembering information strongly recommended and popularized by
brain-based educators is a mind map. It is generally believed to be a modern method which
facilitates the organization of information and helps making structure and meaning in the
knowledge which otherwise could be stored in the mind in an unorganised and therefore
easily forgettable manner. It is based on visual pictures of the learning which provide a way to
show a great deal of information in a small space (Walker, 1998, p. 46). Even though mind
mapping is not an unfamiliar method even among non specialists, it is good to provide an
explanation of what exactly it is:
It is a colourful visual form of notetaking that can be worked on by one person or a team of
people. At its heart is a central image or idea. This is then explored by means of branches
representing more ideas, which all connect to this central idea.
(Mitra, 2013, p.4).
Mind mapping is recommended by brain-based learning since there are similarities
between brain-based learning basic principles and those of mind maps. One of the key
principles of brain-based education that correlates with system of mind maps is “the brain’s
capacity to elicit patterns of meaning” (Jensen, 2008, p.168). In other words, the search for
meaning comes through pattering and that is exactly what the brain does when it extracts the
meaningful patterns from confusion while learning. Mind maps are useful aids in making
patters since they are on their own one big visual pattern of information processing in our
mind.
The second brain-based principle that mind maps conform to is that “the clues best
assembled by the brain are those presented by the Gestalt format, rather than a sequential,
linear format” (Jensen, 2008, p. 168). This principle is based on the findings that were
brought by the Gestalt psychology research proving that the human brain has a strong
tendency to complete things. Therefore, the Gestalt psychology basic rule that the mind
proceeds information in a global whole method rather than in a linear way is applied to the
mind maps.
The third brain-based principle which acts in harmony with what mind mapping
method uses is represented by the research finding that people “never really cognitively
understand something until [they] can create a model or metaphor that is derived from [their]
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unique personal world (Jensen, 2008, p. 168). In order to clarify this principle, mind maps are
to some extent models that represent the learning process on the paper with all possible
connections between the key concept, which is in the centre of the mind maps, and all inferior
ideas. They are always representations of the author’s unique personal world as never are two
mind maps by different authors the same. Thus, mind maps correspond to the research finding
which highlights the creation of unique model or metaphor so as to reach cognitive
understanding.
Thus, it is visible that mind maps theories are in harmony with brain based learning
main principles, which is a reason why this learning method is so often used and
recommended by brain-based learning propagators.
The person who is considered to be one of the main “fathers” of mind maps is Tony
Buzan, the same person who provided strategies for memory enhancement and enriched the
mnemonics methods. His argumentation that leads to the preference of mind maps over any
other learning method lies in two facts concerning how the brain naturally works. His first
argument is based on the non-linear character of the brain (Buzan, 1991, p.93). Therefore, in
practice, he refuses the overreliance of the society on linear information that is often
represented by the classic note taking in linear form. The second argument concerns the
nature of the person’s recalling based on the key concepts. Key Concepts or Key Recall
Words are one “which funnels into itself a wide range of special images, and which, when it is
triggered, funnels back the same images. It will tend to be a strong noun or verb, on occasion
being surrounded by additional Key adjectives or adverbs”(Buzan, 1991, p.82). Mind maps
combine both; they have a non-linear character since they contain many ideas which are
connected with others and to the main concept in a rather, at the first sight, random order plus
they are on their own basis the model of key words and phrases that seem to their author
relevant.
Furthermore, Buzan (1991) compares the advantages of note taking realised through
mind maps with standard notes. The main advantage that notes through a mind map bring is
the amount of saved time in comparison with the time spent while standard notes are taken.
He mentions concrete aspects that waste time in standard sentence note-taking:
Time is wasted recording words which have no bearing on memory (estimated waste – 90%).
Time is wasted re-reading the same unnecessary words (estimated waste – 90%). Time is
wasted searching for the words which are Key Recall Words, or they are usually not
distinguished by any marks and thus blend in with other non-recall words. The connections
32
between Key Recall Words are interrupted by words that separate them. We know that
memory works by association and any interference by non-recall words will make the
connections less strong. (1991, p.85)
The principal reason why this comparison of standard notes with mind mapping was
developed is the impact which it may have on the classroom happening. It is true that standard
notes are still given an unchangeable position in the way of teaching and presenting a new
topic. Students are supposed to either follow the notes given by their teacher or to create their
own notes which are in most of the cases in linear form. Nevertheless, if the disadvantages
that are carried by such notes are taken into account, it would be worth at least thinking of the
change in the organisation of information in student’s exercise books. Moreover, people
usually, when taking notes, have a tendency to give a greater value to certain words or phrases
in their notes and they indicate it most often by the change of the fond or by the change of the
colour. It therefore proves that human brain naturally tends to seek the key words and
information in the notes. Mind maps make it immediately and without unnecessary words that
disrupt the attention from the content which is aimed to be remembered. Certainly, it is not
realistic to expect that teachers would create mind maps to each topic that they are going to
present. To some extent, it is time-consuming and the habit of linear notes is so strongly
rooted in education that it is not possible to make a complete note taking revolution. Yet, the
change that could be realised is to familiarize students with another method of organising
information and give them instructions how to make mind maps.
The fact that the concept of mind mapping is not unfamiliar in Czech environment
and that Buzan’s books concerning mind maps are amply represented and even translated into
Czech ( for instance Buzan, T., & Wood, J. G.: Myšlenkové mapy pro děti: efektivní učení
(2014), translated by Zdeněk Mužík) demonstrate that mind maps have been noticed and
promoted.
Applied on EFL classes, note taking through mind maps might not have such a value
compared to the classes of subjects where taking notes to the exercise book represents an
essential part of the lesson. However, the method of mind maps could be used when students
are supposed to perform their understanding of the topic being studied. They may be
encouraged to make their own mind maps of new vocabulary which will help them to enhance
the range of new words that are not randomly presented in a list but interconnected to the key
concept that unifies them under the same topic. Moreover, this technique of unifying lexical
items under one key concept corresponds to what is generally recommended when new lexis
is presented. For example, Scrivener (2011) recommends grouping lexical items together and
33
teaching them in small sets because “it is usually most useful when the lexical items presented
are connected in some way (p.189). Stand-alone words with no connection to its practical
usage or with other words somehow connected from the lexical or grammatical point of view
are not much use on their own (Scrivener, 2011, p. 190). This principal law which should be
obeyed when presenting new vocabulary is reflected in mind mapping technique since no item
in a mind map is put there randomly. Among the alternative ways of recording lexis,
Scrivener (2011) includes mind maps too. He calls them “word or topic webs” (p.201) and
admits that “this way of recording lexical items may reflect more accurately the way that we
store lexical items networks in our brains – and may therefore be more useful for students
than the traditional lists” (p.202) (see Practical part p. 63). Also, the mind mapping can be
used for the presentation of new grammar by the teacher or the students may create their own
mind maps representing how they understand newly acquired grammar. This method is rather
advanced since the students create on their own the systems and connections in the presented
grammar and therefore prove that they have acquired the knowledge related to the topic.
The advantages of mind mapping technique may also be viewed from one more angle.
Mind maps suit learners with both hemispheric dominance, left-oriented as well as right
oriented. Both of them prefer mind maps for a different reason. Mind maps provide learners
with left brain dominance with a systematic and logical organisation of information whereas
for learners with opposite lateral dominance, they ensure the visualization and creative way of
organising their thoughts. Thus, mind maps do not advantage any group of learners and
provide them with a learning technique that might satisfy their learning needs thanks to its
versatile nature.
In this chapter, the second method to enhance the efficiency of the memory in the form
of mind maps has been discussed. Both mind maps as well as earlier discussed mnemonic
devices belong to the techniques that are often promoted and popularized by brain-based
educators. Their advantages as well as practical usage in the classroom have been pointed out.
4. Emotions as a gate to effective learning
It has been already argued that emotions play an indispensable role in learning,
especially in connection to memory. They open the way to the most lasting memory pathway
as the memories accompanied with emotions are the strongest ones. As Erlauer (2003) says,
“our most powerful memories are laden with emotions” (p.12).
34
Brain-based learning assigns emotions with a considerable interest and it puts a special
emphasis on how emotions are a strong tool to reinforce the whole learning process of
students as well as their well-being in the class. Therefore, in the following pages, the role of
emotions from the point of brain-based learning will be discussed in details.
Kagan (2014) points out about the power of emotions:
A large body of research converges on one conclusion: eliciting positive emotion is one of our
easiest, most-powerful, research-based tools to create brain-friendly classroom. Nearly 300
hundred research studies demonstrate that eliciting positive emotions improves thinking,
problem solving, health, learning, energy, creativity, friendships and even test-taking. (p. 4.19)
It is therefore clear that knowing how the emotions contribute to the learning and how
they may impact on the whole student’s personality makes an advantage for each teacher.
Erlauer (2003) aptly summarizes the effect aroused in the brain by either positive or negative
emotions as well as the responsibility teachers have when appealing to them:
The close tie between emotions and memory can be a double-edged sword for educators. As
we’ve learned, permanent learning almost always has an emotional component. Teachers can
use this knowledge productively by fostering positive emotions in their students while
learning, thus strengthening the opportunity for remembering the academic concepts.
Conversely, teachers who cause or allow stressful, threatening, or fearful occurrences in the
classroom are building memories of those negative issues rather than important academic
concepts. Because these students are under stress, their brains are operating in the limbic
system rather than the higher-level neocortex, making learning much more difficult. (p.13)
Thus, this double-edged sword represented by the close relation between emotions,
memory and consequently academic success is double-edged in the sense that it can either
facilitate or inhibit learning (Kagan, 2014, p .4.5).
In the above citation from Erlauer (2003), the parts of human brain involved in the
emotion processing were shortly referred to. The whole system of emotional processing in the
human brain is in the focus of interest of brain-based learning.
As the name of this educational approach reveals, in order for it to be called brain-
based, it must examine the emotions from the biological point of view as well. The value of
findings which this biological focus on emotions brings to the education lies in the scientific
proof for the close and strong connection between emotions and effective learning. Some
facts related to the biology of emotions are going to be discussed now.
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4.1. Brain science of emotion
The key field in science offering principal knowledge for brain-based learning is
neuroscience. According to Cozolino (2013), neuroscience has revealed that “human reason is
not derived from abstract logic but emerges from somatic and emotional experiences within
our social and physical environments” (p.146). This is a fundamental fact for all the
educational approaches that strongly emphasize the importance of emotional engagement of
students. Stimulation of all aspects of student’s minds as well as bodies leads to the highest
activation of reason.
The whole biology of emotions is very complex. The central part of the brain that
participates in biological processes of emotions is thalamus which is split into two pathways:
amygdala and cortex. Amygdala is considered to be “lower pathway”(Zull, 2011, p .59) as it
is activated by “the specific negative stimuli, but also by the environment in which those
stimuli have been experienced”(Zull, 2011, p. 60). Those stimuli provoke the feelings of fear,
anger, embarrassment and other negative emotions. The second pathway to cortex, called
“higher pathway”, is less direct and engages both short-term and long-term memory systems
(Zull, 2011, p.59). It is therefore responsible for the involvement of cognition into emotional
experience. In conclusion, the desirable situation occurs when the higher pathway represented
by the cortex is more engaged since this one leads to the more accurate understanding of
experience. The important finding, which is also worth highlighting, is what in general
activates amygdala, the lower pathway. According to Jensen (2008), it is uncertainty (p. 86).
He further explains that amygdala “is activated not only by fear but also by an overall sense
that something isn’t right at the moment” (p.86).
Apart from amygdala and cortex, there are chemical regulators without which the
biological processing of emotions would be incomplete. These chemical regulators are
represented by hormones. There are four of them, from which two are more known:
endorphin, the hormone of joy, and dopamine which is released when the physical exercise is
carried out and which “stimulates the motivation and attention centers“ (Kagan, 2014, p.
4.16). The second two are the hormones that directly influence the function of amygdala:
vasopressin and oxytocin. The latter one “decreases anxiety and stress while facilitating
social encounters and inhibiting avoidance behaviours” (Zull, 2011, p.67) whereas
vasopressin triggers stress and anxiety.
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Zull (2011) compares vasopressin to a devil and oxytocin to an angel when people
cannot decide whether they should obey “the angel voice” or “the devil voice” if they are to
resolve a conflict. The good message is that, according to what neuroscience has revealed,
“the angel voice” has the potential to win over “the devil voice”. Zull (2011) summarises the
whole biological system of emotions with following words:
Neuroscience has given the world important information by delineating the difference
between the upper and lower route through the amygdala, and the ability of oxytocin to
override the more primitive aggression and fear behaviours. Our belief that there is a value in
retaining awareness of our emotions is reinforced by defining the neurosystem responsible
for that conclusion. (p.73)
The information about the two-route system of emotions including amygdala and
cortex as well as the ability of oxytocin to produce positive feelings and overcome the
vasopressin activity has a considerable impact on education. The practical knowledge of how
to reduce the activation of amygdala and to increase the cortex involvement by triggering
positive emotions might considerably enhance the efficiency of learning as well as the
psychical wellness of students.
Of course, there is no reason to claim that emotional involvement in the class is a new
and revolutionary idea. It would not be daring to say that almost each teacher acknowledges
the importance of positive emotions to be aroused in the classroom happening. The
educational recommendations are already far away from the rigid methods implementing
either emotionally empty lessons or those filled with negative emotions. Therefore, one might
oppose that brain based learning has brought nothing innovative with the emphasis on the
importance of positive emotional arousal among students. To some extent, this argument is
true. Nevertheless, the complexity and researchbased approach that brain based education
brings deserves appreciation, at least for the practical principles and strategies it offers. Jensen
(2008) is convinced that brain-based learning addresses emotions “more often and more
comprehensively” (p. 82). Each author dealing with brain-compatible learning and teaching
highlights different principles but basically, all of them base them on the same findings.
Those findings as well as the comparison of the principles proposed by several brain-based
educators will be presented. Finally, the critical evaluation will be made.
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4.2. Brain-based principles engaging positive emotions
Each principle which is going to be presented in the following paragraphs emerges
from the same basis formulated by Zull (2011): “Learning takes place through action but it is
driven by emotions” (p.54). This core idea may be depicted by the following illustration:
Illustration 1
Emotion Action Learning
Not only are the emotions at the very beginning of each action that leads to the process
of learning, but they are the most effective cementing method for the new knowledge to be
successfully stored in human mind. This is due to the principle that is called retrograde
memory enhancement. Kagan (2014) explains that it “simply means that any event followed by
emotion is more likely to be cemented into memory (p. 4.3). Thus, emotions could serve as a
powerful tool to more memorable learning.
As it has been already addressed to, brain-based principles enhance involvement of
positive emotions in learning. Although Jensen might be considered as a person who is mostly
associated with brain-based learning, his principles for creating emotionally rich learning
environment are rather vague. Jensen (2008) presents these strategies: role model that
emphasizes the importance of teacher’s enthusiasm for teaching; celebrations (organise
parties and provide acknowledgements); involvement of controversy into activities (debates,
game shows, discussions); setting up physical rituals (age appropriate cheers, clapping
patterns, songs, movements); and finally incorporation of introspection into assignments (p.
91, 92). As for the general principles, he highlights among others the possibility to experience
success for everyone, using productive rituals and assigning large-group oriented and
personally meaningful projects (2008, p. 89).
Cozolino (2013) approaches education from the point of view of social neuroscience,
therefore he focuses primarily on emotional attunement between the teacher and the students.
One of the principal tools that he suggests for emotional attunement is “the interpersonal
power of expectations” (2013, p.149).
This power is also proved by the research as Cozolino (2013) points out hereby:
Research has shown that teachers can positively influence the learning, health, and well-being
of their students by having positive and optimistic views of their abilities and potential. Every
educator can learn to harness the power of positive expectancies in the service of maximizing
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their students’ ability to learn...with compassionate actions, positive attitudes and kind words.
(p.149)
The positive impact of high expectations on students has been scientifically proved by
the experiment in which twenty percent of students have been randomly selected as the ones
with high potential to show good study results. The list of those students was distributed to
teachers. The results after 8 months have revealed that the chosen students on the list showed
better gains in total IQ. Moreover, they have been rated as “more intellectually curious, better
adjusted, happier and less needy of approval than the students in the control group”
(Cozolino, 2013, p. 152). The results of this experiment reinforce the importance of positive
expectations from the teachers and show how powerful they are in affecting student’s
academic success as well as overall well-being. Another trait that Cozolino draws attention to
is the contagious effect that the teacher’s mood has on his students. Biologically, it is due to
the mirror neurons that are crucial for the basic way of learning – imitation. These mirror
neurons “bridge the gap between sender and receiver, enhancing emotional attunement and
sympathetic understanding”(Cozolino,2013, p. 147). Applied practically, due to these mirror
neurons, students are perceptive of teacher’s state of mind, whether positive or negative, and
are subconsciously infected with his or her mood. This again enhances the teacher’s central
role in controlling emotional environment in the class. Along with high expectations on behalf
of students, Cozolino (2013) makes reference to the importance of autonomous classrooms as
a tool for positive self-concept (p.155).
Zull (2011) finds joy in the class through freedom (p.74). He is convinced that “this
freedom can be expressed in many ways, and those expressions are part of the freedom. The
key is choice – not an infinite range of choices, but choices within an existing knowledge
framework” (p.74). Besides freedom achieved through the possibility of choice for students,
Zull is also convinced that the environment where negative is minimized is ensured by
“mistake-rich environment” (2011, p.77). This kind of environment is preferable because it
reduces fear.
Zull (2011) explains:
Mistake-rich environment produces a better education and leads to more insight and truth.
Mistakes are expected and become information. It is a cause for worry if a student does not
make any mistakes. When the value of every outcome is determined by whether it is right or
wrong, pressure and high stakes become an integral part of the school experience. It turns
focus from learning and understanding to fear, tension, and crisis. (p.72)
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However, Zull does not provide any practical advice or examples which would
demonstrate how to ensure such a mistake-friendly learning environment (An attempt how to
provide mistake-rich environment is suggested in Practical part p. 66).
Similarly to Cozolino (2013), Zull (2011) highlights expectations that are achieved
through challenge experienced by students since they are an integral part of gaining
knowledge (p.73). There is also a similarity with Jensen’s general principles for positive
emotional environment, concretely in the point of finding some area of success for everyone
(p.75).
Kagan’s strategies leading to the emotional boost in the class seem to be the most
practical and concrete from all cited in this thesis. Besides highlighting personal relevance of
any schoolwork, he provides seven tools to release the power of emotions. Those tools are:
1. Teach with passion
2. Elicit passion
3. Link emotion to content
4. Provide praise
5. Celebrate success
6. Elicit positive emotion
7. Promote play (Kagan, 2014, p.4.49)
There are some visible similarities between Kagan’s strategies (2014) with those of
Jensen (2008) and Cozolino (2013). Primarily, both Kagan and Cozolino emphasize the
importance for a teacher to demonstrate passion for teaching and their subject. It is essential
on account of the earlier mentioned contagious effect that this may have on students because
of mirror neurons.
In the tool called “Elicit positive emotions”, Kagan (2014) provides 37 ways to
achieve this goal (p. 4.29). However, it is necessary to point out that some of them might not
be considered as relevant or appropriate for Czech classrooms.
Even though brain-based learning provides principles applied to every classroom in
the world regardless of the culture, it is good to bear in mind that it is primarily American
concept and American mentality is embedded in the strategies it proposes. Therefore, Kagan’s
methods of eliciting positive emotions such as massages or having pets in the classroom
(2014, p.4.29) might not be regarded from the standpoint of Czech teachers as suitable. For
instance, American way of thinking is reflected in a method called “Count blessings” which is
a task supposed to remind students of what they are grateful for (Kagan, 2014, p. 4.34). In
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spite of a general positive effect that a feeling of gratitude has on human’s minds, this way of
positive emotion arouse might seem to Czech students at least distant. Another method that is
also proposed by Jensen (2008) is cheers and rituals. By such rituals it is meant “arrival
handshakes, music fanfare, positive greetings, hugs, and high-fives” (Jensen, 2008, p. 88).
Kagan (2014) even encourages letting the students invent and share new cheers and gives
examples of such creative cheers (p. 4.18). This is also a way of eliciting positive emotions
which is not so natural for Czech mentality, thus, its use might be reconsidered as well.
Yet, Kagan (2014) also proposes tasks which might be useful and culturally
appropriate. For instance, the tasks such as “happy recall” in which students are supposed to
think of any memory that made them happy or a task called “success stories” which lies in
eliciting feeling of pride by having them write about their accomplishment might be
especially helpful if set before an exam or a test (Kagan, 2014, p.4.33). Since positive feelings
enhance performance, teachers might consider implementing similar tasks right into their
tests. Another concrete method leading to release of positive emotions among students is
“a joke jar and a fun jar” containing either jokes or funny short activities that might be
introduced from time to time in the lesson (Kagan, 2014, p.4.31).
It is also generally accepted that praise releases positive emotions and should be heart
in classroom. Concerning praise, Kagan (2014) recommends providing praise before
performance, not after as it is traditionally done as it also leads to better performance (p.4.29).
It is unarguable that brain based learning considers emotions as the most powerful tool
to enhance power of memory and learning. One might argue, however, that the novelty of
information concerning emotions in learning is not remarkable. This is true unless the
complexity of information as well as a depth of scientific proofs for the importance of
emotions in classrooms is not taken into account. Although the principles that brain based
learning proposes might not be so revolutionary and many of them are easily recognisable if a
teacher owns a natural sense of what is beneficial for his or her students without having
previously studied any brain-based publications or scientific research, one must admit that
brain based education treats emotions with a considerable seriousness and emphasis.
Regardless of rather broad or narrow approach that a particular author has had on the
topic of emotions, the following list summarises the strategies that have been discussed:
1. High expectations on students including challenge
2. Teacher’s ability to present his/her subject with enthusiasm
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3. Freedom in the classroom reflected in the possibility of choice among tasks
4. Personal relevance of any schoolwork
5. Giving opportunity to each student to experience success
6. Provide mistake-rich environment
7. Provide praise before performance
The above principles bearing in mind, learning might be from one standpoint regarded
as successful once it, according to Cozolino (2013) “lead[s] to catharsis – a self-purification
through emotion – that forges character through moral insight and personal growth”(p. 139).
This is what brain based learning strives to accomplish by giving to emotions principal
importance in the classroom happening.
5. Brain-based learning and the theory of multiple intelligences
One of the core brain-based principles is “to make differences the rule, not the
exception at school. Validate differences” (Brain-based learning strategies, 2017). This is
primarily achieved through the respect of individual differences of learners. It is the priority
of brain-compatible education to regard the uniqueness of each brain and provide learners
with a chance to be taught in accordance with the way their brain naturally acquires
information. It is also a must to provide them with a variety of sense stimuli and variability of
tasks and activities (Lojová, 2011, p.84). For this reason, authors related to brain-based
learning often take into consideration learning styles and the theory of multiple intelligences.
The theory of multiple intelligences has had a considerable impact on brain-based
learning. It strives to incorporate the information that the theory of multiple intelligences has
brought to the classroom. The following paragraphs will briefly present this theory and how it
is approached by brain-based learning.
Before Howard Gardner came with his controversial definition of intelligence and its
division into seven areas, it had been generally estimated and accepted that intelligence has
two or three components consisting of logical-mathematical, linguistic and spatial intelligence
(Puchta & Rinvolucri, 2007, p.7). This understanding of human potential has been shaken by
Gardner’s new approach that he called Multiple Intelligence Model and described it in his
book Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1983). This new concept
of intelligence is still discussed by many specialists and it is not taken as an incontestable
theory. However, there exist many relations between what Gardner has commented on and
criticized and what brain-based learning highlights in their main principles.
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Primarily, Gardner criticized overvaluation of logical-mathematical and linguistic
intelligence leading to the creation of traditional educational programmes which are focused
on the development of these two intelligences to the detriment of its other aspects.
Consequently, students with other dominant intelligences than those primarily focused by
education may be discriminated and not given a chance to develop their potential (Lojová,
2011, p.173). Therefore, by enhancing the concept of intelligences, Gardner has offered the
opportunity to learn successfully to those students who rely more on affective components of
intelligence rather than on its traditional academic parts. This feature of Gardner’s theory is in
correlation with brain-based learning as it also tries to approach as many students as possible
and take into consideration their individual differences (Brain-based learning strategies 2017).
Moreover, as it has been already demonstrated, the balance between the activation of left
hemisphere and right hemisphere is another key factor that influences the efficiency of
learning according to the rules of brain-compatible classroom. Since the individual
intelligences are situated in both hemispheres, for instance spatial and musical intelligence in
the right hemisphere whereas bodily-kinaesthetic and linguistic intelligence in the left one (Al
Ghraibeh, 2012, p.104), the focus on the whole variety of intelligences leads as a secondary
effect to the desirable activation of right hemisphere and to the avoidance of overreliance on
the capacities of the left brain.
Another Gardner’s idea shared by brain-friendly learning propagators and by
neuroscientists lies in the conviction that learning is a natural activity for the brain that helps
it keep active. Thus, once they are under convenient circumstances, people are able to develop
any of the intelligences to relatively high level at any time of their life (Lojová, 2011, p.173).
The following list will present the short description of each intelligence proposed by
Gardner (1983) as well as the activities that are suitable for its development in EFL classes.
The special focus will be given on how brain-based learning approaches each of them with the
activities in the classroom it puts emphasis on.
1. Linguistic intelligence
People with well developed linguistic intelligence are characteristic for their good
ability to analyze information and produce work that involves oral and written language
(Multiple Intelligences: What Does the Research Say? 2013). This intelligence is mostly
targeted in subjects dealing with learning a language as this intelligence is necessary for all
language competencies. The activities with which brain-based learning approaches this group
of learners is storytelling (Cozolino 2013) and discussion (Jensen 2008). Students with this
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dominant intelligence may also like riddles, jokes and all kinds of verbal games (Lojová,
2011.p. 178).
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence
This intelligence is associated with “scientific” thinking such as dealing with all kind
of abstract materials, analysing, classification and categorization (Rinvolucri & Puchta, 2008,
p.8). By putting emphasis on problem-solving and considering it as an effective way of
teaching (Jensen 2008, Kagan 2014), brain-based learning addresses students with this
intelligence.
3. Spatial intelligence
This intelligence is important in thinking that involves processing images and
symbols. Students with this dominant intelligence prefer all kinds of visual aids such as
tables, posters or diagrams (Lojová, 2008, p. 178). As they are good at making associations,
mind mapping as a central method for organising information recommended by brain-based
learning is suitable for them.
4. Musical intelligence
Musical intelligence makes memory associations through sound stimuli. It is important
for people with strong musical intelligence to be exposed with intensive foreign language
input as they learn through listening (Lojová, 2008, p.180). Incorporating music to the
classroom is another principle of brain-based education (Jensen 2008) which favours
preferred learning of students with musical intelligence too.
5. Kinaesthetic bodily intelligence
As the name of this intelligence refers to, stimuli associated with body movement are
the strongest for students with this dominant intelligence. Therefore, movement in the class
involving manipulations with objects, drama, exercise and role-plays are essential for
kinaesthetic learners. Brain-based learning makes strong reference to movement of all forms
especially by emphasising importance of transfer in the classroom and physical exercise
(Kagan 2014, Jensen 2008).
6. Interpersonal intelligence
According to Puchta & Rinvolucri (2007), “central to this intelligence is the ability to
listen to what the other person seems to be saying (rather than to your distortion of it), to be
able to gain good rapport with another person, and to be adept at negotiation and
persuasion” (p.8). Judging by this explanation, it is clear learners who have well developed
social abilities need social learning and communicative approach in teaching. Again, by
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giving importance to cooperative learning and the principle to be social in learning process
(Cozolino 2013, Kagan 2014), brain-based learning remembers this intelligence too.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence
This intelligence involves meta-cognitive skills such as “self-knowledge, self-
regulation and self-control” (Puchta & Rinvolucri, 2007, p.7). Accordingly, students with
strong meta-cognitive skills are able to effectively regulate their learning. It might be useful
for them to be familiarised with learning styles and strategies as they might easily find their
own learner’s profile. Besides other principles, brain-based learning stems from recognising
learning styles of learners (Sprenger, 2008). Also, it recommends self-evaluation of students
along with own feedback on their work (Jensen 2008).
Later, Gardner has extended his theory by adding two more intelligences (Gardner
1999): natural and existential intelligence. Students with the latter one might prefer
discussions about all kinds of philosophical problems concerning mankind (Lojová, 2011,
p.180). Therefore, these themes may be from time to time introduced in class discussions.
Natural intelligence is dominant in the case of those students who prefer learning in real
environment. It may be preferable for them to organise trips and excursions as well as
introduce activities such as role-plays, simulations or projects. All of these activities are
repeatedly proposed by brain-based educators so this intelligence is not omitted either.
If all nine intelligences are approached to in classes and if they are in balance, no
intelligence is favoured, which is in high interest of all students as well as the teacher.
Students will feel motivated and appreciated. It is true that learning a language is inevitably
dependant on linguistic intelligence. Consequently, students who are not strong at verbal
operations might feel that they are not gifted for languages. By putting an effort to activate
students with others than linguistic intelligence in the class may lead to the student’s more
positive attitude towards himself as a language learner (Puchta & Rinvolucri, 2007, p.16).
It is obvious that the theory of multiple intelligences is closely related to brain-based
learning. It has a considerable impact on its principles and strategies. It has been demonstrated
that brain-friendly learning does not omit to address any of the intelligences by the activities
and approaches in the classroom it proposes. This aspect makes Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences applicable in the classroom.
6. Brain-based learning and learning styles
Firstly, it is important to mention that learning styles as the area of profound
examination do not belong to primary concerns of brain-based learning. The authors who are
45
related to various aspects of brain-based learning do not devote a large part of their work to
the issues of learning styles in teaching except of Marilee Sprenger (2008) who examines
deeply the learning styles according to sensory pathways in her book Differentiation through
learning styles and memory. However, similarly to the case of multiple intelligences, what
brain-based learning recommends, creates an opportunity for each learner to be taught in
harmony with their learning preferences. It does so by dealing in details with the teaching
principles and methods that might suit various learning styles according to sensory
preferences without omitting any of them.
Learning styles being the key variable in affecting the process of learning a language
are defined as “the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior” (Cornett,
1983, p. 9). The following statement explains learning styles very comprehensively:
“Learning style is the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that
make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others” (Dunn & Griggs,
1988, p. 3). There are more aspects defining them; primarily sensory preferences, personality
types, desired degree of generality, and biological differences (Oxford, 2003, p.2). Brain-
based learning discusses learning styles from the point of view of sensory preferences.
Oxford (2003) provides the typology of learning styles divided according to sensory
preferences as well as its characteristics:
Sensory preferences can be broken down into four main areas: visual, auditory, kinesthetic
(movement-oriented), and tactile (touch-oriented). Sensory preferences refer to the physical,
perceptual learning channels with which the student is the most comfortable. Visual students like to
read and obtain a great deal from visual stimulation. For them, lectures, conversations, and oral
directions without any visual backup can be very confusing. In contrast, auditory students are
comfortable without visual input and therefore enjoy and profit from unembellished lectures,
conversations, and oral directions. They are excited by classroom interactions in role-plays and similar
activities. They sometimes, however, have difficulty with written work. Kinesthetic and tactile
students like lots of movement and enjoy working with tangible objects, collages, and flashcards.
Sitting at a desk for very long is not for them; they prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the
room. (p.3,4)
Sprenger (2008) provides the clues how to distinguish which learning style is preferred
by students in the class through observation and by giving them a practical questionnaire (see
Practical part, p. 55). She also gives a very detailed description on differentiating content,
process and product to visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learners. However, it does not
represent the main enrichment that brain-based learning has brought to the issue of learning
46
styles. It is the brain research from neuroscience which brain-based learning refers to and puts
it in connection with aspects of teaching methods suitable for visual, auditory and kinaesthetic
learners. Some authors promoting brain-based learning highlight why visualization, music and
movement are essential for learning, and by doing so, they cover the needs of all sensory
learning styles.
1. Visualization
It follows from the research related to the photo recognition study in which 200 pictures
have been presented to people and 87% have been detected as to be previously seen that the
human brain has almost the unlimited capacity for visual content (Kagan, 2014, p.6.54). Also,
Jensen (2008) put emphasis on colours used in visual materials as “our visual system is
designed to pay close attention (to colours) as they each have the potential to signal danger”
(p. 55). It is therefore better for the visual aids to be rich in colours because they are better
recalled (Jensen, 2008, p.56).
2. Music
The role of music as an effective tool to approach not only auditory learners is
generally acknowledged. Brain-based learning puts strong emphasis on music because the
brain research has revealed that music has positive impact on many areas of our physical and
psychical state. It reduces stress which inhibits learning, stimulates creativity, thinking,
imagination speaking and subconscious information transmission. Also, it can reduce
discipline problems (Jensen, 2008, p. 78).
3. Movement
Physical performance while learning is generally recommended to be incorporated in
learning a foreign language. Brain-friendly learning emphasizes physical exercise. Not only
does it boost learning and academic performance (Kagan, 2014, p.1.6), but it has a unique
capacity to use 100% of the brain (Jensen, 2008, p.39), which cannot be attributed to any
other cognitive activity.
Regular physical exercise stimulates growth of new brain cells “correlated with
improved mood, memory and learning” (Jensen, 2008, p. 39). According to Erlauer (2003)
and her advice for brain-compatible classroom, exercise is not the only movement that has an
effect on learning (p. 46). It is also movement in terms of changing locations that may also
cause a marked improvement in memory. If a teacher introduces a new topic outside or
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teaches an important skill sitting on the floor, an internal memory trigger will be developed
(Erlauer, 2003, p. 46). Hence, short physical exercises as well as changing location in the
classroom are two key factors recommended by brain-based learning in order to ensure
favourable learning environment not only for kinaesthetic learners.
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7.1. Research Aim
This thesis aims to examine how effective the principles of brain-based learning are if
they are applied in the lessons of English in lower secondary classes; and to what extent
Czech pupils are able to identify with the activities that are based on these principles.
7.2. Research Context
All the activities included in this thesis were piloted at ZŠ Vejrostova in Brno-Bystrc.
Children start learning English there in the first grade of primary school. I went through two
teaching practices at this school. In both cases, passing my teaching practice there was
enriching and pleasant experience mainly due to the close relationship with my tutor teacher
and to the friendly environment that is established there. This calm and agreeable atmosphere
has an impact on pupils as well. Generally, the cooperation with them worked very well. On
account of these favourable factors, I have decided to pilot the activities related to the
research in this school.
Apart from one case, all of the activities were piloted in the 6th and 8th grade. In the 6th
grade, children work with the course book Project 2 (2009); in the 8th grade with Project 4
(2009) by Tom Hutchinson. Both classes are very different. I will start describing the group of
6th graders.
6.A/B (pupils are combined from two classes) has a reputation of best group to work
with at the whole school. Many teachers told me that it is a pleasure to teach there. I must
agree with them; children are very nice in this class and they are very eager and enthusiastic
about any task that is given to them. Each pupil is a very strong individual. The class consists
of 10 girls and 7 boys. The children seem to have good interpersonal relationships.
However, there are very strong pupils who tend to overshadow weaker pupils not
having motivation to realize their potential. Also, due to the high degree of energy in the
class, it is not easy to keep pupil’s attention on accomplishing one task. I could be sure that
whatever activity I would bring into the lesson, pupils would be willing to do with interest and
passion.
8.A/B is very different from the group of learners described above. This class consists
of 16 pupils, from which girls are nine and boys are eight. One boy has an Asperger
syndrome. I had a difficulty to teach there from the first lesson on. Although there are no
problems with discipline in this class, pupils show lack of interest and personal involvement
in any action they do. This is partly caused by a problematic period of their growth in which
50
they currently are; yet, their level of passivity seemed to me a bit excessive. Pupils are well-
behaved there, they do not rebel against anything. On the other hand, when I wanted to evoke
a bit of enthusiasm in them, it seemed to be an unrealizable goal.
7.3. Research Problem
The content of most of the English lessons in lower secondary school stems from the
activities designed by the course books. This was my experience from all the lessons observed
at my teaching practice. Teachers are under pressure due to many factors and, realistically,
they do not have much time to prepare many extra activities that would be focused on
different aspects of learning. Even though the quality of English textbooks is generally very
good and their authors successfully implement variety of activities that are designed in an
engaging and attractive manner for pupils, it does not substitute the role of a teacher to plan
the lesson in a way that suits particularly his/her group of learners. Moreover, teaching in
lower secondary level often misses to provide pupils with metacognitive skills which would
encourage them to think about their own learning process. As a result, learning content is not
personally targeted and it often does not respect individual differences of each pupil. Learning
may therefore happen in conditions which does not support natural brain processes and
circumstances under which it is the most natural for it to learn.
Brain-based learning claims to be an educational approach which overcomes these
obstacles for its principles and strategies claim to be designed in accordance with brain
processing. It applies practically the findings from science research into classroom. Their
focus of interest is very large from which I covered only limited number of issues in the
Theoretical part. The issues I was focused on in the Theoretical part is applied practically in
the activities that are designed in accordance with some of the outcomes mentioned in the
Theoretical part.
The activities are based on these brain-based learning principles:
1. Provide pupils with cooperative work
2. Establish positive learning environment
3. Make use of the most effective memory pathway represented by emotions
4. Help students to discover techniques which enhance the efficiency of their
memory system
5. Activate and coordinate the activity of hemispheres
6. Avoid overreliance of classroom happening on left hemisphere
7. Provide mistake-rich environment
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8. Make teaching content personally relevant
9. Respect individual differences of learners by proposing activities that involve
various targeted learning styles and intelligences
10. Respect the fact that learning is conscious as well as unconscious process
The aim of this research is to implement those principles in the EFL lower secondary
classes through activities that are based on them. The efficiency and improvement of the
learning process caused by the following of these principles was possible to be observed only
partially since I am not a teacher but a student who had only limited time and number of
attempts to test on pupils. Therefore, I focused rather on pupil’s reactions.
7.4. Research Method
Research method of this thesis is based on design of activities that refer to brain-based
learning principles and strategies; and on their piloting in EFL classes at lower secondary
school. Pupil’s reactions are observed and feedback to each activity is provided.
7.5. Research Questions
Main research question:
➢ Are Czech pupils ready to identify with principles and strategies of brain-based
learning?
Secondary questions:
➢ How far are pupils able to coordinate their work in groups?
➢ How far are pupils able to engage their emotions in learning process?
➢ How will they react if they are asked to do tasks that are based on their
creativity?
➢ What pupils find the work like if various learning styles are targeted in
individual activities?
➢ What will be pupil’s reaction to activities that are aimed to activate their right
hemisphere?
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8. Individual activities
8.1. Introducing grammar through handwriting
Linguistic aims: introduce new grammar structures, focus on time prepositions
Non-linguistic aims: find out more information about pupil’s personal lives and their values
Level: Pre-Intermediate
Time: 45 minutes
Materials/Equipment: the story introducing the prepositions of time, the questionnaire to
handwriting, Data Projector
Brain-based principles: cooperative work, auditory and visual learning style respected,
humour, multiple intelligences – linguistic, spatial and kinaesthetic
intelligence focused; personal relevance
Procedure:
Stage 1:
➢ Read the story with prepositions aloud. Pupil’s eyes are closed and they listen
to the story.
➢ Pass the story on the Data Projector and let them rewrite it on a piece of paper.
Stage 2:
➢ Divide pupils to four groups of three or four according to their number in the
class. Try to group the pupils that usually do not work together.
➢ The pupils in groups will exchange their handwritings, stay in their group and
sit together in the class (to make the exchange easier, let one group of pupils change
their handwritings with another one so that e.g. three pupils in one group will
exchange their handwritings with another group of three students). In the end, each
pupil in the group will have different handwriting.
Stage 3:
➢ Distribute questionnaires related to handwriting to each group. Read the
questions one by one with pupils and explain them if needed. Ask the pupils to
answer the questions in the questionnaire about each of the handwritten text.
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➢ Ask the pupils to guess the owner of each handwriting and choose the one they
find the most appealing. They should vote for the best handwriting in each group. The
best handwriting in each group is showed to the whole class and its owner is praised.
Stage 4:
➢ Dissolve the group work. Pupils will give back to each other their original
handwritings.
➢ Let the pupils read the text once more. One of them might read it aloud once.
Then, ask them to hide the text and write as much as they remembered from the text.
Stage 5:
➢ Distribute the Exercise 1 with prepositions to practice the acquired grammar. It
is preferable to let the pupils do the Exercise 1 individually. Exercise 2 may be done
together as a revision. By the number of correct answers you can assume how much
they have remembered.
Follow-up activity:
You can discuss with students the following questions:
1. Do you remember the day which changed your life?
If possible, tell your partner the year, season, month, day and time when it
happened.
2. Which event in your life can be called “the event to remember”?
3. Why do you think the dog’s name in the story is Atonin? How is the name
related to the practised grammar? Look at the exercise 2. You can find there a
clue.
Note: This activity is suitable to introduce any grammar structures. However, it is
especially effective when introducing the grammar with little logical reasoning and its
acquisition is dependent on learner’s memorizing.
It is highly expectable that most of the pupils, by the time they have finished the whole
procedure of activities, will know the text virtually by heart and that will help them to
adopt unconsciously required grammatical structures. Moreover, the graphological and
voice nature of tasks support internalization of language structures.
Note: This task is inspired by the activity called “From hand to voice” proposed in the
book Multiple Intelligences in EFL (2007, p. 65) by Puchta & Rinvolucri.
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Piloted: December 6, 2016 – 6th graders; March 10, 2017 – 6th graders
Feedback: I have tried out the activity twice. The first attempt was not very successful
since the text for rewriting was too long and questions in the questionnaire were confusing for
children. Therefore, I have shortened the text and changed the questions that appear in the
book Multiple Intelligences in EFL by Rinvolucri & Puchta (2007). The text as well as the
adjusted questions caused no problems for the second time I tried it. The most complicated
stage was Stage 2, 3 involving group work. The task to examine the style of handwriting was
so unusual for children that they were confused and the work did not go well. In most cases,
they were not able to agree on the best handwriting so I was forced to finish the activity
without praising the pupils with best handwritings. In stage 4, pupils usually did not
remember the phrases, only individual words. In stage 5, they have done the Exercise 1 very
quickly and most of the exercises I checked had only one or two mistakes. The most striking
moment of the lesson was possibly the discovery of why the dog was called Atonin
(combination of all prepositions in one name). The children seemed very surprised and
amused. As for the language of instruction, I spoke English. I commented on pupil’s reaction
in Czech as they reacted to me mostly in Czech.
I consider this way of teaching grammar very unusual but effective. When I asked the
pupils if they remembered the correct prepositions thanks to the text, they replied that they
remembered some of the items in the exercise from the written text. It is true they might have
encountered this grammar before as time prepositions appear in texts often. Nevertheless, I
was assured the pupils had not been taught this grammar before so their success in exercises
might be considered objective.
After the second piloting, I asked the pupils if they enjoyed the lesson. Apart from two
exceptions, they answered “yes”. One boy said that he learned something without being aware
of it, which was my main aim.
In conclusion, after some adjustments of tasks, this activity fulfilled my expectations.
In spite of the unusualness of this activity, it is worth trying it in order to show the children
different way of learning which respects also their unconscious processes while processing
information. In fact, this aspect is one of the main brain-based learning principles to be
achieved by this activity.
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8.2. Discover your learning style
Linguistic aims: get to know the vocabulary related to learning styles
Non-linguistic aims: sensitize pupils with learning styles, show teacher’s interest in his/her
learners, make pupils think about their learning preferences
Level: Intermediate, Upper-Intermediate
Time: 25 minutes
Material/Equipment: worksheets “Discover your learning style”, one per each pupil
Brain-based learning principles: help learners to think about their learning preferences and
to facilitate their learning process in the future
Procedure:
Stage 1:
➢ Introduce the topic of learning styles. You may use the definition in the head of the
worksheet. Explain why you want pupils to find out their own learning style and how
it may be beneficial for them in the future.
➢ Tell pupils that they will write the dictation aiming to find out their sensory
preferences. Follow the instructions and the provided example to clarify the procedure
of the task. Highlight to pupils that they should not think much about the column to
which they will write a word. They should detect the very first association.
Read slowly following words:
tomato, coffee, cat, mushroom, telephone, leather, morning, mother, autumn,
sunshine, love
➢ Let the pupils count the number of items in each column and let them compare their
results with their peers.
Stage 2:
➢ Introduce the questionnaire about learning styles. The questionnaire as well as the
description of individual learning styles is in Czech for pupils to be easier to orient in.
Let the pupils do the questionnaire.
➢ After finishing the questionnaire, pupils should count the number of A, B and C
responses and decide accordingly for their learning style.
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➢ You may alternatively set up discussion about pupil’s preferences and habits when
they learn and whether they have a feeling that tasks and activities in English are in
balance to meet the needs of all three learning styles.
Note: The dictation was introduced in the Didactics seminar by doc. Mgr. Světlana
Hanušová, Ph.D. The questionnaire on learning styles is taken from the book
Differentiation Through Learning Styles and Memory by Marilee Sprenger (2008, p.
43). Definitions of individual learning styles are taken and reformulated from the book
Styly a strategie ve výuce cizích jazyků by Gabriela Lojová & Kateřina Vlčková (2011,
p. 48-55).
Piloted: March 21, 2017 – 8th graders
Feedback: As this group of learners seemed to me advanced enough to follow the topic of
learning styles in English, I decided to introduce it in English with occasional translations to
Czech. Discussions took place in Czech, however. At the beginning, I found out that pupils
have never heard about learning styles. They even did not know how to translate it in Czech.
When I explained them why it may be beneficial for them to think about how they learn, they
did not manifest any display of curiosity or interest. Partly, it may have been caused by the
morning hours during which we had a lesson. I expected that it would cause a problem for
pupils to grasp their association in the dictation. Surprisingly, they understood very quickly
what they were supposed to do and whole activity worked very well. I was particularly
interested in some of their associations. For instance, most of the boys put the word “love”
into “feel” column whereas girls usually visualised love. Also, one boy has a dominant
gustatory sense. Interestingly, all boys in the class (5) appeared to be kinaesthetic. Girls were
either visual or auditory. After answering the questions in the questionnaire, all boys again
had mostly C answers which indicated their dominant kinaesthetic learning style. Three girls
were of auditory type and two were visual.
The rest seemed to prefer kinaesthetic style. Thus, this class appeared to be
dominantly kinaesthetic. This information could be useful for a choice of activities in the
lesson. I realised that I did not pay so much attention to the description of individual learning
styles. I just let the pupils read about their learning styles and I did not comment on it any
further, which I do not consider as a good step. Next time, I would definitely spend more time
on developing the explanations on the worksheets. Most of the pupils agreed with what their
read about their learning style.
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Generally, pupils did not show any hints of interest except of dictation. When I asked
them if they considered getting to know the learning styles beneficial, they did not answer.
One boy said no, because, as he told me, he never learns. I do not take the lack of interest and
enthusiasm very seriously as this class is generally not very emotive. The aspect that
influences their emotional engagement in particular activities is the fact that they are in their
teens. It is also true that the topic of learning styles introduced through dictation and
questionnaire concerned first sensitization with learning styles and I did not have an
opportunity to develop it more. In spite of these factors, I am still persuaded that it is in the
interest of children as well as a teacher to introduce the topic of learning styles in the class
since it shows teacher’s interest in their pupils and it might help him/her to get to know them
better.
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8.3. Boost your memory
Linguistic aims: correct spelling
Non-linguistic aims: familiarize pupils with strategies to enhance their memory
Level: Intermediate, Upper-Intermediate
Time: 35 minutes
Material/Equipment: worksheets “Boost your memory!”, one per each pupil, board
Brain-based learning principles: focus on memory, importance of review, visualization
Procedure:
Stage 1:
➢ Set up discussion about what strategies pupils choose if they have a difficulty to
remember something in English, e.g. a word, correct spelling or grammatical rule
➢ Introduce the topic of mnemonics. Explain what it is if needed.
➢ Highlight the importance to use powerful strategies in order to remember difficult
items.
Stage 2:
➢ Present three various types of mnemonics in Example 1,2,3. Familiarize pupils that
they should make their mnemonics on the basis of something they already know
having meaningful context since these connections provide them with hooks to long-
term memory.
➢ Discuss other types of mnemonics concerning words with difficult spelling. Encourage
pupils to draw pictures to individual examples since it facilitates retention.
Stage 3:
➢ Ask pupils which words or grammatical rules cause them problems in English.
Encourage them to come up with their own mnemonics and write them into bubbles
on the sheet. They do not have to fill in each bubble. They can use various types of
mnemonics being presented on the worksheet.
➢ After sharing some of the mnemonics in pairs and then as a whole-class, you can
write some of them on the board.
➢ Turn pupil’s attention to general tips to boost memory system. Ask pupils what they
think about mnemonic devices and if they find them useful.
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Stage 4:
➢ You may alternatively familiarize pupils with the review technique proposed by Tony
Buzan in his book Use both sides of your brain. New mind-mapping techniques to help
you raise all levels of your intelligence and creativity - based on the latest discoveries
about the human brain (1991). Emphasize the importance of review after longer
period of time. Use the following table as a suggestion for their regular review.
How long?
When?
1st review 10 minutes after app. 60 minutes of learning and10 minutes of rest
2nd review 2-4 minutes after 24 hours from initial learning
3rd review 2 minutes after one week from the 2nd review
4th review Undefined after one month from the 3rd review
Note: Examples A, B, C on the worksheet are taken from the website
https://www.oxford-royale.co.uk/articles/mnemonics-memory-aids-english-language-
rules.html
Piloted: March 22, 2017 – 8th graders
Feedback: Mnemonics were something children had never tried out before. Concerning their
learning strategies, they told me that when they could not remember something, they did not
do anything. They did not think about any methods which would help them to boost their
memory. I explained them what mnemonics were and motivated them by telling them that we
would overcome this “doing nothing” and change it into activity. During the presentation of
individual mnemonic examples, pupils seemed really interested and focused on what I was
saying. Especially, the mnemonics with electronic brands to distinguish different spelling of
letters J and G was appealing to them. Most of the mnemonics I accompanied with pictures on
the board.
The problem occurred when I asked children to come up with their own mnemonics. I
had to strongly encourage them to come up with at least one. In order to motivate them, I
60
started to make my own mnemonic devices on the board; however they started commenting
on them and guessing what they might represent. They even took their books with vocabulary
and try to find a word to which they could link some mnemonics. Finally, five pupils wrote
and draw their mnemonics on the board. One boy came up with his own sentence to
remember the spelling of the word “coffee”. One girl made a nice mnemonics related to
“burglary”. She divided the word into “burg” and “la” – “burg” representing a hamburger and
“la” representing “tune”. Some children were able to make very nice mnemonics; however,
they altogether could not overcome their creative block.
Although I have positive impressions from this lesson and I am convinced that it was
beneficial for children to introduce them this topic, it is disappointing for me how uncreative
children generally were. When there was a task in which they should make something of their
own, it represented almost insurmountable problem. Naturally, each child is creative but they
probably are not used to developing it. If I taught them longer and children knew me better, I
am sure they would be able to get used to more creative tasks and revive their creativity.
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8.4. Bluffing
Linguistic aims: introduce new vocabulary; language creativity
Non-linguistic aims: trigger positive emotions through humour; provide learners with team
work
Level: Intermediate and higher
Time: 25 minutes
Materials/Equipment: Game cards, sheets of paper for pupils
Brain-based learning principles: cooperative work, auditory style respected, humour
Procedure:
➢ Divide pupils into groups of at least four members. Let each group choose their
leader. Distribute to each leader one card. Point them out not to turn the card to the side with
explanations. Explain the rules of the game.
Rules of the game “Bluffing”:
1. Leader of each group reads and then spells the word on the card. Pupils in his
group try to write down what they think the word means. (The words are deliberately chosen
so that there is a low chance for the pupils to know the correct meaning of the word.)
2. Leader collects the papers from the pupils; make sure that he/she can read them
clearly. By the time the pupils will have come up with a meaning of a word, the leader reads
silently the explanation of a word on the opposite side of a card.
3. Leader reads all the guessed meanings and tries to include the real answer
inconspicuously. Pupils guess which meaning is correct. The pupil, who guesses the correct
answer, gets a point.
4. The same procedure might be done with the second word (an acronym) on the
card. The groups can swap their cards and play another round.
➢ This activity is needed to be clearly introduced and explained because the
pupils tend to be easily confused by the rules.
It must be clear to them that they are not supposed to know the meaning of the word but to
think of an imaginary meaning a word or an acronym on a card may have. If there is a
62
problem with understanding of the rules, the teacher may present the first round with one
group having the role of a leader.
Note: This activity is inspired by the board game Balderdash and by the UK game
show Call My Bluff.
Piloted: December 13, 2016 – 9th graders; March, 21, 2017 – 8th graders; March, 22,
2017 – 8th graders
Feedback: The main difficulty in this activity is represented by instructions and game
rules. In both cases I tried it out, I initially gave instructions in English but due to the pupil’s
misunderstanding, I was forced to repeat it in Czech. I asked all leaders to move in front of
the class, distributed the cards and asked them not to turn the card to the other side. After slow
explanation of the rules, leaders joined their groups; nevertheless, they again asked what they
were supposed to do. I decided to do the first round in the role of the leader. In both classes,
pupils were not able to overcome the fact they are not supposed to know the meaning of the
word and only few of them wrote their own definition of the word, sometimes in Czech.
It seems that children are so used to being asked correct answers that they were
blocked by an opposite type of a task. I had to strongly encourage them to come up with
whatever short definition. Due to these factors, this activity did not worked well. Although I
explained the rules many times and demonstrated it on concrete examples, children were
confused. In my opinion, this block is caused by the lack of creativity in children and by the
task unusualness. Nevertheless, I am sure that if I had a chance to try it more times, pupils
would get used to it and they would like it. Since the games as well as the TV show, which
served as an inspiration, are very popular, I reckon that this activity could be after more trying
enjoyable for pupils. Therefore, I am determined to try it again.
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8.5. Mind maps and vocabulary
Linguistic aims: acquisition of new vocabulary
Non-linguistic aims: familiarize pupils with another way of organising vocabulary; provide
pupils with an opportunity to enhance the vocabulary in their own
field of interest, overcome overreliance of learning on left hemisphere
Level: Pre-Intermediate and higher
Time: 45 minutes
Materials/Equipment: “Mind map” template, one per each pupil, board
Brain-based learning principles: activation of both hemispheres in learning process,
learning through patterns (mind maps), personalised
learning content, involvement of conscious and
unconscious processes in learning, involvement of
emotions to learning
Procedure:
Stage 1
➢ Start with discussion about how the pupils learn vocabulary. Ask them about their
strategies to learn new lexis effectively. Find out if they are happy with the
organisation of new vocabulary in their books. Introduce mind maps as another
method of learning vocabulary in an organised way. Highlight the advantages that this
method brings to learning (see Theoretical part, p. 32, 33).
Stage 2:
➢ Distribute the “mind map” templates for vocabulary organisation. Ask them why they
think the sheet is divided into two parts. If they are not familiar with brain
lateralization and with the abilities each hemisphere is responsible for, explain it
briefly (you can use Table 3, p. 24).
➢ Familiarize pupils with the fact that human brain learns best if both hemispheres are
coordinated and involved in learning process. That is the reason why they are
supposed to involve their feelings and associations to vocabulary learning.
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Stage 3:
➢ Ask pupils to choose any topic in which they want to enhance their vocabulary range.
It should be connected with their interests.
➢ After choosing the topic, which is going to be the central word of their mind map, start
with the explanation of the items that belong to right hemisphere section. State clearly
that all associated things should be related to the central word. In the heart with
“anything you like” written in, pupils are supposed to write anything that they like and
that is related to the central topic.
➢ Explain the items from right hemisphere section. Pupils might have problems with
understanding of what collocations and idioms are so it might be necessary to
demonstrate it on the concrete example (Note: in general, it is better for all the items
on the template to be demonstrated on concrete examples). Pupils may start working
on creating their own vocabulary mind map in the lesson and finish it at home. The
same template might be used for any vocabulary unified under one key theme.
Piloted: December 5, 2016 – 8th graders
Feedback: During the opening discussion about how the pupils learn new lexis, they
seemed to be pleased that someone took interest in their learning. They generally complained
about how the vocabulary is listed in their books. According to them, the way they learn
vocabulary is ineffective since they learn individual words without any mutual linkage and
without putting them into phrases. Surprisingly to me, they were familiar with the method of
mind maps as well as the general characteristics of left and right hemisphere. Thus, it was not
necessary to devote so much time to explanation of mind maps and brain lateralization.
Except of the opening discussion, I chose Czech as a mean of communication for this lesson.
Most of the pupils chose their hobbies as a central topic of their vocabulary mind map.
In general, they did not see any obvious reason why they should think of all associations
included in the right section of mind map template even though I explained to them that it was
due to the activation of right hemisphere. I demonstrated all the items in the template on
concrete examples (related to the topic “Forest”) but they still had troubles with
understanding. As for the left section of the template, the items were clearer to them except
from collocations and idioms which had to be explained. There was no time for children to
start working on their mind map in the lesson so they got it as homework.
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Some of the mind maps I received from pupils were very nice. Yet, some pupils did
not understand that the sheet with vocabulary mind maps was just a template, so they made
their mind maps right into it. When I asked pupils for the feedback, they told me that this way
of learning new vocabulary was too time-consuming for them and that they could not imagine
doing it often.
On the whole, I am not very happy about pupil’s reaction to this activity. It seems
likely that the method of mind mapping is too unfamiliar to them and they simply are not used
to learning vocabulary in such a way. Unfortunately, I did not have an opportunity to check if
they remembered the new words from their mind maps so I cannot judge how effective this
method was. I agree with children that making mind maps is time-consuming and it is not
possible to be used for learning very often but it is definitely more effective and natural to
memory than memorising a list of vocabulary without any common characteristics.
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8.6. Providing mistake-rich environment
Linguistic aims: practice of reading and writing, language creativity
Non-linguistic aims: familiarize pupils with positive approach to mistakes through various
exercises, provide mistake-rich environment, and reduce their fear of
mistakes
Level: Pre-Intermediate
Time: 50 minutes
Material/Equipment: worksheets “Mistakes? No Problem!” one per each pupil, board
Brain-based principles: triggering positive emotions through humour and providing
mistake- rich environment, cooperative learning
Procedure:
Stage 1:
➢ Write a word “MISTAKE” on the board. Ask pupils what this word represents for
them. You can write their responses on the board. Introduce discussion about how they
feel after making a mistake in English or any other subject. Pass to the first question
on the worksheet. Let pupils read their answers.
Stage 2:
➢ Explain to pupils why mistakes are important in learning and why they can view them
positively.
➢ Introduce Exercise 1. Tell pupils that this exercise aims to teach them that mistakes
can be fun. Let them choose the expression they find the most amusing. Possibly, you
can let them vote for the best expression as a whole class.
➢ Present the second point about perceiving mistakes as stepping stones in learning. You
can explain how this rule may be applied practically in a concrete situation in the
class.
Stage 3:
➢ Introduce Exercise 2 and explain that the following reading will present how people
who seem not to make any mistakes may be irritating for others. Point out there may
be some words they might find difficult so they can freely ask for the meaning. Let
pupils work individually or in pairs according to their choice and then check the
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exercise together (Order of missing words in the text: party, door, cake, delicious,
newspaper, fault). Ask them what they think about Mr.Perfect.
Stage 4:
➢ Introduce Exercise 3. Encourage pupils to make as many mistakes in their story as
possible and to enjoy it. Assure them that the story does not have to be long.
Note: The expressions in Exercise 1 are taken from the website
https://oropher.signaly.cz/1104/co-se-do-ucebnic-anglictiny. The text used in reading
in the Exercise 2 is taken and reformulated from the book Mr.Perfect by Roger
Hargreaves (1994). All pictures are from www.google.com.
Piloted: March 21, 2017 – 6th graders
Feedback: Pupil’s responses varied a lot when they answered how they felt when they heard
a word “mistake”. Some pupils said they felt sad, others even happy. One boy commented
wisely that we are generally very happy if others make mistakes. The first idea coming to
pupil’s mind when they heard a word “mistake” was either a bad note or a problem. It is
therefore obvious that they associate mistakes with negative emotions and with school
environment. That is the association I wanted to change with the aid of activities on the
worksheet.
Exercise 1 was enjoyable and funny for pupils. They matched all the phrases correctly
and we tried to come up with correct English translations. “Sausage of lovers” was definitely
a winner among all funny translations. Originally, I wanted to encourage pupils to create their
own funny translations, which I finally forgot to do since I was quite absent-minded in the
lesson because of children’s disturbance. In Exercise 2, I made a mistake that I did not
introduce what the reading was about and what it was supposed to teach them. Pupils
immediately started reading. From the box, they did not know the meaning of the word
„delicious”. We translated the text together. Even though children were already familiarized
with past forms of verbs, they complained about the difficulty of the text and about the
incomprehensibility. The text contained too many unknown words for them. Therefore, for
the next time, I would simplify the reading even more and I would not translate whole text as
a class. I would only ask somebody to summarize what the story was about. In this case, the
procedure I chose was not suitable so I had to explain the plot of the story and how it was
related to mistakes.
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In Stage 4, children were very eager to make as many mistakes as possible and it was
fun for them. They enjoyed that mistakes were permitted, even desirable. However, they were
not able to come up with their own story and they generally rewrote some sentences from the
original story about Mr. Perfect. Unfortunately, there was no time left to read the stories or
write them on the board.
On the whole, my aim to find out what the children’s attitude towards mistakes was
accomplished as well as the goal to provide mistake-rich environment in the class. On the
other hand, some of the activities are needed to be modified and sometimes my procedure was
not suitable. Also, general working atmosphere in the class was low and there was a high
degree of disturbance.
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8.7. How do you feel?
Linguistic aims: provide pupils with vocabulary and idioms related to emotions, practice
speaking through role-play
Non-linguistic aims: incorporate activities that suit all learning styles according to sensory
preferences; provide positive and emotionally rich learning
environment; activate right hemisphere
Level: Intermediate
Time: 70 minutes
Materials/Equipment: Data Projector, PC, worksheets with parts A, B + instructions for a
role-play, one per each pupil
Brain-based learning principles: activities chosen to suit all learning styles (VAK),
activation of both hemispheres, positive emotional
involvement
Procedure:
Stage 1:
➢ Ask pupils how they feel today. Write on the board the topic “Emotions and feelings”.
Brainstorm all the expressions of feelings and emotions the pupils already know.
Divide them on the board into positive and negative ones.
Stage 2:
➢ Introduce the activity A. Play any four music recordings that you choose. They should
differentiate in the mood they evoke. Encourage pupils to write down all the emotions
and draw pictures that the individual music recordings evoke in them.
➢ Discuss with pupils the individual feelings and the reasons why the music caused them
to feel in a particular way.
Stage 3:
➢ Introduce the activity B. Encourage pupils to ask for the unknown words. Let them
match all three columns.
➢ To help them remember the idioms expressing feelings, ask individual pupils to mime
the idioms. The rest of the class guesses the idiom which is mimed.
70
Stage 4:
➢ Introduce activity C. Pupils write on the board the idioms under the correct picture.
Stage 5:
➢ Introduce activity D. Start with the description of the picture. Ask pupils what they
can see in the picture and how people probably feel. Tell them they should
empathize with people in the picture as they are going to play the role-play.
➢ Divide pupils into the groups of three people. Divide roles (person A, person B,
shop assistant)
➢ Go through the instructions with pupils and let them prepare their role-plays
Optional task: Pupils express how they feel after the activities. They choose one feeling that
stayed in their mind, write it down with a special writing, which should reflect
the particular feeling.
Key to activity B:
1. Feel like a fish out of water – feel uncomfortable
2. Have ants in one’s pants – feel excited
3. Be on pins and needles – feel nervous
4. Feel head over heels – be very much in love
5. Feel blue – feel depressed
Note: All the pictures on the worksheets are taken from www.google.com
Piloted: December 12, 2016 and December 13, 2016 – 8th graders
Feedback: When the pupils were supposed to brainstorm all the expressions of feelings and
emotions they know, they were inactive. To my surprise, they came up with only basic
vocabulary. When I suggested my prepared words and wrote them down on the board, they
were able to recognise them and translate most of them to Czech. Thus, I could assume that
those words belonged merely to their passive vocabulary.
In Stage 2, I played music from these interprets:
Recording 1: Yann Tiersen – La Noyée
Recording 2: Tuomas Holopainen – Dreamtime
Recording 3: Mahna Mahna – rock version by SKIN
Recording 4: Tarja Turunen – Witch Hunt
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My aim was to select music that differentiated in mood. Pupils usually associated
music with places rather than with mood. It was not easy to find out which particular mood
the music made them feel. Nevertheless, it turned out to be nice discussion about which
recording they mostly preferred.
In Stage 3, I had to explain what the idiom was before starting the activity. Their
matching was correct but some vocabulary needed to be clarified. This was the last activity
we finished in the 1st lesson. In the 2nd lesson the following day, we started with the repetition
of idioms. I asked pupils to stand up and move to the middle of the class (the class was
formed in the U shape). I planned to revise the idioms through miming but there were no
volunteers. Unfortunately, I did not manage to persuade anybody to mime the idioms so I did
it myself. It was fun and children laughed a lot but I was disappointed that pupils did not want
to engage. They had no problems with matching idioms to pictures. However, they often did
not remember correct spelling.
Activities in Stage 4 were the most successful in spite of my doubts that role-play
would work in this class. I tried to make groups of pupils that usually do not work together.
After some complaints about the group compositions, pupils divided their roles. I expected
that the instructions for role play would be confusing for them but they were not. I was afraid
that they would be unable to make their own phrases and, after the experience with miming,
they would not be willing to present their role-plays in front of the class. To my relief, both
these assumptions were not fulfilled. Children made their role-plays in about 8 minutes and all
of them presented them in front of their peers. I was pleased how emotive they were while
performing and how good their phrases were. It seemed to me as if they have totally changed.
Children as well as I enjoyed their performances.
In summary, this set of activities developed differently than I expected. The activities
that I thought would be successful were finally tentative such as miming or brainstorming. On
the other hand, role-plays that I thought would not be welcomed were the most positive
moment of the whole activity sequence. The group of children in this class is generally quite
shy and passive. Great effort is needed to make them feel enthusiastic. I possibly managed to
do so in the final part. When I asked pupils what were their impressions from these two
lessons, one girl answered: “You do strange things with us but we do not mind. We like it”.
Personally, I also did not have a feeling that they would be fed up with the activities even
though their lacked motivation.
72
It is true that I did with pupils the tasks they were not used to and they were probably
too unusual for them. Yet, it was my aim - let pupils experience learning in which they will
engage all their personality.
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8.8. Paraphrase
Linguistic aims: spoken production, fluency-oriented grammar practice
Non-linguistic aims: teach pupils the ability of attentive listening to what others say
Level: Pre-intermediate, Intermediate
Time: 10 minutes
Materials/Equipment: Any short text chosen by a teacher (min. 6 phrases), preferably
including the grammar which is supposed to be learned and practiced
Brain-based learning principles: cooperative learning, auditory and kinaesthetic style
respected
Procedure:
➢ Choose four or five pupils from the class. Let them stand in the line.
➢ Read slowly to the first pupil in the line any chosen text (it is preferable to
choose a text which the pupils are a bit familiar with and when the other students have
their ears clogged up so that they can’t hear the text before it is told to them).
➢ Let the first pupil paraphrase the whole text with his/her own words to the
second pupil in the line. The second pupil paraphrases what was said to him by the
first pupil to the third pupil and they continue in this way to the last pupil in the line
who paraphrases again and write the final version on the board.
Note: This activity is inspired by the structure called “Paraphrase Passport” suggested in the
book Brain friendly teaching: Tools, tips & structures by Spencer Kagan (2014, p. S.
32)
Piloted: December 13, 2016 – 6th graders
Feedback: For the paraphrasing, I chose the first five sentences from the reading we worked
with in the lesson and which contained grammar we practised (present continuous and present
simple tense). I decided to introduce this activity in a final part of the lesson.
There were five volunteers for this activity. I read the text twice. Children seemed to
concentrate a lot; they strived to remember each word. The rest of the pupils except of the
first one promised me to have their ears clogged up with their hands but I cannot guarantee
they did not listen to the text. Pupils really enjoyed this activity and they remembered quite a
lot from the original text. The only disadvantage was that the rest of the class was not
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engaged; they just listened to the performance of their five peers. I also observed their
reactions and was pleased that they did not take it as an opportunity to do nothing.
They also listened carefully. I think that this activity provides one of the precious
opportunities to give a longer talk in English. Moreover, it provides pupils with a rewarding
feeling that they are carefully listened to by others, which may evoke in them the positive
emotion of being important. On the whole, the activity was successful and funny for all.
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9. Answers to Research Questions
Since children in both sample classes did not know me well, it was more difficult to
work on positive emotional release. They might have been more restricted as they were not
used to cooperating with me. Based on my observations from lessons, pupils are not often
ready to speak about experiences related to their emotions or be emotively engaged in lessons.
There are several factors for it; one of them is that pupils in the piloted classes were in their
teens. The primary goal of emotional engagement in the class is its great capacity to cement
information into long-term memory. I cannot objectively judge if this aspect was successful
due to the limited time I spent with children. On the other hand, when I asked the children in
March about the activities we did in December, they remembered them well and it might be
partly caused by the strong emotive basis of those activities.
In both sample groups, children seemed to be creatively blocked. Whatever task
encouraging them to come up with something on their own was very hard to deal with for
them. Especially, in the 8th grade, pupils felt annoyed if they were supposed to e.g. come up
with their own mnemonics or create an imaginary definition of a word. Still, they finally
overcame it so they might get used to this type of tasks once they are exposed to them on the
regular basis. Also, activities aiming to activate right hemisphere have mostly creative and
imaginative elements. It incorporates pupil’s associations, and enough emotional stimuli.
Demonstrated on the example of the activity called “Mind maps and vocabulary” and
activities related to feelings and emotions (“How do you feel?”), children were surprised by
the tasks encouraging them to think about their associations. Nevertheless, they were able to
accomplish them without difficulties. Generally speaking, most of the tasks pupils are
supposed to do in lessons are left-oriented; therefore it was something unusual for them to be
asked to evoke their feelings, imagination and associations. Again, as with emotions, the
primary goal of right hemisphere activation is to facilitate the process of learning, which was
the factor, I could not have any results in for the limited time of my activity in classes.
As for the cooperative learning through group work, it does not belong uniquely to
brain-based learning strategies. Although brain-based learning considers it to be an effective
way of learning, it is highlighted by many other education approaches. It has become regular
to implement group work to English lessons. In the lessons group work was introduced; it did
not prove to be easy way of learning. Group work often caused misbehaviour, disturbance and
problems with agreement on one conclusion within a group. It would definitely take more
time to coordinate cooperative learning in the classes so that it could go relatively smoothly.
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However, applied in activity called “Paraphrase”, cooperation worked very well but it might
have been caused by direct supervision of me as teacher.
Activities that implemented visual, auditory and kinaesthetic factors were successful.
They provided pupils with acquisition of information in a way it best suits them. Even though
children were not directly conscious that the content of the lesson was presented with respect
to learning styles, such a sequence of activities worked well since it was various and not
monotonous.
Based on the experiences from the activities that I piloted in chosen classes, the
strategies of brain-based learning may not be easy for Czech pupils to identify with. These
strategies are too different from what pupils are already used to doing. The previous
paragraphs discussed how this general pupil’s reaction concerned individual strategies; yet, in
the summary, it may be expected that Czech pupils may be confused with methods of brain-
based learning which may be difficult for them to adopt. This is the conclusion that was made
on the very limited sample of pupils with limited impact of me as a “teacher visitor”. Hence,
this observed pupil’s reaction might have developed in another way if my research had been
undergone under different circumstances.
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Conclusion
One of the aims of each human work is to prove to be effective. Every “know-how” is
valued and people are able to sell and buy it for countless prices. Does it apply to the ability
of effective learning as well? To some extent, it is also a work to which many people claim to
possess this cherished “know-how”. Many teaching techniques have already proclaimed to be
the most effective. The history of the development of teaching methods in the didactics of
foreign languages serves as one of many examples. Each method from Grammar-Translation
Method to Communicative Approach was considered to be the best way of learning languages
in the time when it was mostly used or it still is.
As far as the human brain is concerned, the brain-based learning also affirms to
possess the “know-how” to the formation of circumstances and conditions under which the
brain naturally works the most effectively. The advocates of brain-based learning are
convinced that this approach in education offers the set of strategies and principles which,
once they are followed, are able to create the learning environment in which the brain
naturally learns. Therefore, it is regarded as the way of learning with the brain in mind. Brain-
based learning authors base their outcomes on the findings from neuroscience and that makes
it different from all other approaches in education.
I have to admit that I was a bit disappointed at the very beginning of my research. I
had an impression that brain-based education had not brought anything new. I expected
revolutionary ideas. Instead, before examining brain-based learning deeper, I thought of it to
be an American concept which promotes its principles in an exaggerated way. However, when
I got deeper in the sources, I started being less critical.
It is true that brain-based learning does not bring ideas that would completely shake
the world of education and that would bring new approaches. Many ideas brain-based
learning promotes are shared with other approaches to teaching such as suggestopedia,
experiential learning, TPR or cooperative learning. The methods it promotes are already
amply represented in didactics of foreign languages. On the other hand, what is specific and
exceptional about brain-based learning principles is the complexity of information offered to
issues the brain-based learning authors discuss. By this complexity I mean deep research and
reference to science. The main brain-based learning contribution is represented by the
scientific evidence to approaches in education which have been already practised but not
based on scientific facts. Another contribution is the unification and combination of those
78
concepts in education that proved to be effective. In other words, brain-based learning took
the best from what the research in education has revealed and embraces it in one approach.
In the Theoretical part, I intended to approach some of the principles of brain-based
learning and provide information how to apply them practically in EFL classes. I focused on
the principles related to memory, brain lateralization and emotions.
The aim of this thesis was to apply the outcomes from Theoretical part in the concrete
activities that were designed in accordance with some of the principles of brain-based
learning. The main conclusion I made from the research is that pupils might find uneasy to be
exposed to tasks that implement some of the brain-based learning principles. The methods the
brain-based learning authors recommend are often based on creativity, which in my sample of
pupils was found hard to deal with. Furthermore, the activities aiming to activate both
hemispheres were found by pupils a bit unusual but they followed them without major
difficulties. The tasks trying to release positive emotions were also a source of surprise and
pupils did them with a bit of self-denial.
I am convinced that the unfavourable factors accompanying task’s accomplishment
were caused by the age of pupils in which it is generally unacceptable for them to openly refer
to their own creative work or to their emotional states. Also, my work with pupils was not
long, so our relationship could not develop to the level in which pupils would present
themselves fully and freely. I am convinced that with enough time and patience, pupils would
be finally able to adapt to brain-based learning principles. Thus, I do not want to lose courage
to promote methods which might not be initially welcomed by pupils but which might finally
lead to the benefit of all involved in education.
I am fully aware that I did not manage to develop all the ideas that brain-based
learning refers to and those ideas I made reference to in the thesis are approached in an
incomplete manner. Also, I did not put into practice all the ideas that I write about in the
Theoretical part with the activities proposed in the Practical part. I know that the thesis has
many imperfections and the insight to brain-based learning is not complete. In spite of it all, I
hope some of the ideas that this thesis presented may be find beneficial and useful.
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Resumé
This Diploma Thesis deals with the principles and strategies of brain-based learning,
sometimes also referred to as brain-friendly learning, and its application in English lessons. It
is primarily focused on how brain-based learning approaches memory and brain lateralization,
representing two important factors in learning process. Furthermore, it examines the role of
emotions in learning as well as brain-based learning reference to learning styles and the
theory of multiple intelligences. In Practical part, the outcomes proposed in Theoretical part
are tested through activities piloted in lower secondary EFL classes.
Key Words: brain-based learning, brain-friendly teaching, memory, brain
lateralization, mnemonics, mind maps, learning styles, theory of
multiple intelligences, emotions
Shrnutí
Tato diplomová práce se zabývá principy a strategiemi brain-based learning, které se
také někdy označuje jako brain-friendly learning, a na jejich aplikaci do výuky angličtiny.
Především se zaměřuje na to, jak brain-based learning přistupuje k paměti a mozkové
lateralitě,jenž představují dva důležité faktory, které ovlivňují proces učení. Mimoto zkoumá
roli emocí v učení a napojení brain-based learning na učební styly a teorii vícenásobné
inteligence. V praktické části jsou vyzkoušeny návrhy z teoretické části na aktivitách
prověřených v hodinách angličtiny na druhém stupni základní školy.
Klíčová slova: učení založené na mozku, brain-friendly vyučování, paměť, mozková
lateralita, memotechnické pomůcky, myšlenkové mapy, učební
styly,teorie vícenásobné inteligence, emoce
80
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Introducing grammar through handwriting
Appendix 1a: Examples of pupil’s handwritings
Appendix 2: Discover your learning style!
Appendix 3: Boost your memory!
Appendix 4: Bluffing - cards
Appendix 5: Mind maps and vocabulary – a template
Appendix 5a: Examples of pupil’s mind maps
Appendix 6: Mistake? No Problem!
Appendix 7: How do you feel?
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Appendix 1: Introducing grammar through handwriting
Text:
In 20 ...., it will be five years since the time I saw the best friend of my life for the first
time. It was a rainy day in spring, in April, on the 25th of April. I met him at the
weekend, I am sure it was on Sunday at 11 o’clock pm when I had a walk at night. And
there he was in the street, lonely, poor and dirty. My beloved dog Atonin.
Questionnaire:
1. Does the text belong to a girl or a boy? What do you think?
2. Which letter is interesting for you?
3. Do you like the handwriting?
4. Do the letters fall to the left or right?
Exercise 1:
A: Do you want to go swimming at/on/in the weekend?
B: Sorry, I can’t. I have lots of work at/on /in Saturday and at/on/in Sunday I visit my
grandma.
A: At/on/in 2018, my sister will be ten years old.
B: Oh, really? Which day?
A: At/on/in the 16th of January. She was born at/on/in winter.
A: Mum, I can’t sleep at/on/in night.
B: Oh, no, my dear. What’s wrong with you?
A: I don’t know. Maybe I play games on the computer too long and then I can’t fall asleep.
B: Ok. You can play games only from 8 to 9 o’clock. Then, at/on/in 9.30 pm you have to go
sleeping.
Key to exercise 1:
A: Do you want to go swimming at the weekend?
B: Sorry, I can’t. I have lots of work on Saturday and on Sunday I visit my grandma.
A: In 2018, my sister will be ten years old.
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B: Oh, really? Which day?
A: On the 16th of January. She was born in winter.
A: Mum, I can’t sleep at night.
B: Oh, no, my dear. What’s wrong with you?
A: I don’t know. Maybe I play games on the computer too long and then I can’t fall asleep.
B: Ok. You can play games only from 8 to 9 o’clock. Then, in 9.30 pm you have to go sleeping.
Exercise 2:
Choose the correct answer to each sentence:
1. I married my wife in ...........
A) 1999
B) weekend
C) Saturday
2. The first day of holidays is on ...........
A) June
B) the 1st of June
C) summer
3. The school starts at ...........
A) September
B) on the 1st of September
C) 8 o’clock
4. The only time you can enter this door is in ...........
A) winter
B) night
C) the 1st day of each month
(Key: 1.A, 2.B, 3.C, 4.A)
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Discover your learning style!
Learning style is the set of characteristics that make the same teaching method wonderful for
you but terrible for others.
Dictation: You will hear 11 words. Try to decide without much thinking which sense you
mostly associate the word with and write it into right column.
Example: You hear the word “winter”. Do you firstly see, hear, taste, smell or feel the word?
SEE HEAR TASTE SMELL FEEL
The column with the most items indicates your dominant sense and learning style.
SEE→ VISUAL learning style
HEAR→AUDITORY learning style
FEEL→KINAESTHETIC learning style
TASTE→GUSTATORY learning style (mostly connected with KINAESTHETIC learning style)
SMELL→OLFACTORY learning style (mostly connected with KINAESTHETIC learning style)
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Questionnaire on learning styles
Z každé otázky vyber odpověď, která nejvíce odpovídá tvé situaci.
1. Když se dívám na nějaký film v televizi, nejvíce si z něj zapamatuji:
A) kostýmy, kulisy a herce/herečku.
B) to, co jednotlivé postavy říkají.
C) akci ve filmu nebo jak se během ní cítím.
2. Když jsem sám/a, nejraději
A) si čtu nebo se dívám na televizi.
B) s někým telefonuji.
C) hraju hry nebo jdu ven.
3. Když si kupuji oblečení, většinou si vyberu
A) oblečení v jasných barvách podle poslední módy.
B) světlé oblečení.
C) hlavně pohodlné oblečení.
4. Pokud si mám vzpomenout na nějakou dovolenou, co jsem zažil/a, nejvíce si z ní vybavuji:
A) to, jak vypadalo místo dovolené.
B) zvuky a rozhovory, které jsem tam zažil/a.
C) jak, jsem se tam cítil/a a co jsem tam dělal/a.
5. Nejvíce mi vyhovuje se učit
A) pomocí obrázků, které mi někdo ukazuje nebo které jsou v knize.
B) když mi někdo říká, jak mám co udělat.
C) když se učím sám/sama podle sebe.
6. Když se učím, mám rád/a
A) hodně světla a poslouchat při tom hudbu.
B) mít absolutní ticho a někdy si učivo přeříkávat nahlas.
C) udělat si pohodlí – ležet na posteli nebo na pohovce.
7. Mám rád/a hodiny, ve kterých učitel
A) používá projektor nebo tabuli a já si můžu opisovat poznámky do sešitu.
B) předkládá informace a já pouze poslouchám.
C) nechává nás si věci vyzkoušet.
8. Když si chci pro sebe ověřit, zda jsem správně napsal/a slovo,
A) představím si ho v hlavě.
B) vyhláskuji písmena
C) napíšu si ho.
9. Vyber tvrzení, které Tě nejvíce vystihuje:
A) Rád/a si volám s kamarády, ale raději bych si s nimi povykládal/a osobně.
B) Miluji telefonování.
C) Raději bych šel/šla něco dělat ven než si volat přes telefon.
10. Nejhorší by pro mě bylo, kdybych
A) se nemohl/a koukat na televizi nebo si číst.
B) nemohl/a mluvit.
C) nemohl/a se hýbat.
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Count out the number of A answers, B answers and C answers.
➢ If you have mostly A answers, you prefer visual learning style. What does it mean for you?
Při učení se opíráš o vizuální představy a máš fotografickou paměť. Informace
potřebuješ zrakově vnímat, proto máš tendenci upřednostňovat čtení před
sluchovým vnímáním. Pomáhá ti, když učitel využívá názorné pomůcky a
obrázky. Měl bys co nejvíce číst cizojazyčné texty, protože si snadno fixuješ
vizuální podobu slov. Nácvik výslovnosti ti může ulehčit zrcadlo. Při učení
slovíček využívej co nejvíce obrázky a jiné grafické barevné pomůcky.
➢ If you have mostly B answers, you prefer auditory learning style. What does it mean for
you?
Při učení se opíráš o sluchové představy a sluchovou paměť. Nejúčinněji se proto
učíš posloucháním. Vyhovuje ti, když učitel učivo vysvětluje, i když je srozumitelně
napsané v učebnici. Nemáš rád monotonní výklad. Potřebuješ se učit nahlas.
Pamatuješ si dobře, kdo co řekl a dobře rozlišuješ hlasy a zvuky. Měl by ses co
nejvíce vystavovat cizojazyčným mluveným podnětům, měl bys poslouchat
autenticky mluvené materiály jako např.nahrávky nebo filmy. Také ti při učení
můžou pomoci diktáty, poslech písní, říkanky a všechny aktivity zaměřené na čtení
nahlas.
➢ If you have mostly C answers, you prefer kinaesthetic learning style. What does it mean
for you?
Při učení se opíráš o pohybové představy a paměť. Reaguješ na učení pohybem a
potřebuješ je spojovat s nějakou pohybovou aktivitou, např.manipulací s předměty
nebo vykonávat doprovodnou motorickou činnost. Když se učíš, rád si “hraješ” s
nějakým předmětem, střídáš místa a polohy. Učení často spojuješ s vypisováním
poznámek nebo s kreslením obrázků či jen čmáráním. Nejefektivnější je pro tebe
učení doprovázené vlastní praktickou činností. Při učení jazyka využívej kartičky,
slovně-pohybové hry, čtení dialogů a současně hraní rolí, různé komunikační
aktivity. Hodně se při učení pohybuj a manipuluj s předměty.
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Boost your memory!
Everybody can have a good memory but you need to
know how to help it!
1st tip: Mnemonics
Mnemonics is any device that will help you to remember information better.
Example 1: Rhyming used to differentiate two words with similar meaning but
different pronunciation
LIFE vs. LIVE
How empty would be my life Who can say: I live ?
without having my wife Those whose habit is: I give.
Example 2: Commonly known electronic brands helping to remember the similar
spelling of letter J and G.
JVC vs. LG
Example 3: Situation visualizing the grammatical rule related to present simple tense
(adding –s to 3rd person singular)
Situation: Imagine you have a neighbour Sam who lives on his own (→singular
number). He lives on the 3rd floor (→3rd person singular). This week, he is going to marry. His
wife’s name is Samantha ( →final –s added to a verb). They form an inseparable couple and
they love each other so much that they put the initial letter of their names to each verb they
say.
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How to remember difficult spelling? Mnemonics may help you!
Examples:
A) desert vs. dessert
Only dessert is sickly sweet!
B) necessary
One cup with two sugars.
C) Because
Big elephants can always understand small elephants.
Come up with your own mnemonics to anything in English that is difficult to
remember for you.
General tips to boost you memory:
If you want to remember something, use images that are:
1. humorous and absurd
2. connected to movement
3. positive
4. exaggerated
D
Draw pictures to
your mnemonics!
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Appendix 4: Bluffing - cards
ROSARY /rəʊzərɪ /
WHO
a chain used for prayers
World Health Organisation
JUGGLER /dʒʌglə /
D.I.Y.
a person at the circus
Do It Yourself
TOM /tɒm /
A.S.A.P.
a male of a cat
as soon as possible
VIS-à-VIS /viːzɑːˈviː/
BR
face to face with something
British Railways
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Instructions:
Cut the cards and glue together two parts (cards next to each other).
a bird singing at night
frequently asked questions
NIGHTINGALE/naɪtɪŋˌgeɪl/
FAQ
96
CENTRAL
W
WORD
PEOPLE
WHAT DO
THEY SAY ?
OBJECTS
DRAW A
PICTURE TO
EACH
OBJECT
VERBS
OWN PHRASES WITH NEW
VOCABULARY
RIGHT
HEMISPHERE
LEFT
HEMISPHERE
POSSIBLE
COLLOCATIONS
AND IDIOMS ?
FIRST IDEA
IN MY MIND
ASSOCIATED
REAL PERSON
OR PLACE
ASSOCIATED
MELODY
ASSOCIATED
SMELL
ANYTHING
YOU LIKE
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MISTAKE? NO PROBLEM!
What is the first idea coming to your mind when you hear the word “mistake” or
“fault”? Write it down.
...............................................
WHY MAKING MISTAKES DOES NOT MATTER:
✓ Making mistakes means having fun!
Exercise 1: Match Czech words and phrases with funny misleading English
translations.
Nebuď labuť. Damage to speak.
Škoda mluvit. Love on the first postcard.
Zeleninová obloha. He rolls his hams.
Odpočívej v pokoji. Your eyes September.
Párek milenců. Vegetable sky.
Tvé oči září. Sausage of lovers.
Válí si šunky. Relax in the living room.
Láska na první pohled. Don’t wake up the swan.
✓ Mistakes are stepping stones in learning.
Never
mind !
MISTAKE CORRECTION IMPROVEMENT
Hooray!
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✓ Mistakes belong to life. Nobody is “perfect” and nobody likes “perfect”
people !
Exercise 2: Read the text about Mr.Perfect and fill the gaps with the words from the box.
It was a perfect summer’s day. And on this perfect summer’s day, Mr.Perfect was
looking even more perfect than usual. It was Mr Perfect’s birthday, and he was
going to have a ................. There was a knock at the.................. “Perfect!”cried
Mr.Perfect. “How very kind of you”, he said, when he saw all his guests had
brought wonderful looking presents. Then he brought in a .................. It was huge.
It looked wonderful. It smelt terrific. And...Mr.Greedy thought it tasted ..................
He gobbled up the whole cake in three seconds! Do you think this upset
Mr.Perfect? Not in the least. Mr.Perfect opened his
presents. He opened the tiny parcel wrapped in
.................. “Oh, Mr Mean,” said Mr.Perfect.
You’ve given me a lump of coal. How kind of you!
THAT’S IT! I am fed up with you, Mr Perfect. And
do you know why? I’ll tell you. There is a most
enormous ................. with you. Don’t you understand?”cried Mr.Uppity. “Your
fault is that you have NO faults! “
SO, LET’S GO DOING MAKING MISTAKES!!!
Exercise 3: Write your own story about Mr.Perfect making as many mistakes as possible!
Try to make at least one wrong funny English translation as in Ex.1.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
door delicious newspaper fault party cake
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Appendix 7: How do you feel?
A. You will hear 4 music recordings. Write down the feelings that each recording arouses in you:
Recording 1:
Recording 2:
Recording 3:
Recording 4:
B. Match the idioms with their meaning and the sentence example:
1.Feel like a fish out of water
2.Have ants in one’s pants
3.Be on pins and needles
4.Feel head over heels
5
.Feel blue
Be very much in love
Feel nervous
Feel depressed
Feel uncomfortable
Feel excited
„He has ants in his pants because he
will see his girlfriend tonight.“
„He felt like a fish out of water
when he met his girlfriend’s
parents.“
„I feel blue today. I don’t know
what’s wrong with me.“
„I am on pins and needles . I
still have not received the exam
results.“
„I am head over heels for her.
She is the best girl in the
world.“
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D. I am angry...
Imagine the situation in the picture. You are standing in a queue and the person behind you is going to
jump the queue (get in front of you). You start arguing with that person. The shop assistant wants to
calm you down.
Follow the instructions and role-play:
Person A: Stand in a queue Person B: Jump the queue and get in front of person A
Person A: React angrily to person B Person B: Defend yourself
PersonA: Complain to a shop assistant Shop assistant: Try to calm both
persons down Person A: Jump person B React angrily to person A
Shop assistant: Close your till and send both persons to another queue