Changes in the Avifauna of a region, district and remnant as a result of fragmentation of native...

Biological Conservation 50 (1989) 99-135

Changes in the Avifauna of a Region, District and Remnant as a Result of Fragmentation of Native Vegetation: the Wheatbelt of Western Australia.

A Case Study

D. A. Saunders

CSIRO, Division of Wildlife and Ecology, LMB No. 4, PO Midland, WA 6056, Australia

(Received 24 June 1988; revised version received 7 December 1988; accepted 8 December 1988)

A B S T R A C T

The wheatbelt of Western Australia is an area of about 140 000 km 2 which has undergone massive changes since European settlement in 1827. Clearing of native vegetation for agricultural development has removed up to 93% of the original vegetation in some areas and replaced it with exotic grasses, cereal crops and frequent watering points. The remaining vegetation is made up of thousands of remnants o f various sizes, shapes and degrees of isolation scattered across the landscape.

The avifauna of the wheatbelt is examined at the regional level, the district level and at the level of the individual remnant and changes over the last 80 years or so are described. Two species of bird have gone extinct in the wheatbelt out of 148 species of land birds" recorded in the region over the last 80-90 years. At the district level, more species have become extinct, the numbers depending on the extent of the removal of native vegetation and length of time since clearing took place. There is demonstrable loss of bird species at the level of the individual remnant; in the example cited (81 ha) three species have gone extinct over the last 10 years.

This rapid loss of species from district avifaunas means that remnant vegetation needs to be retrained intact and conservation agencies should develop assessment techniques to identify reserve networks which include the species that have declined so that management can concentrate on them. Priorities for management should then be developed and local communities involved in the management of their local conservation systems or networks.

100 D. A. Saunders

INTRODUCTION

The cereal growing region of the south-west of Western Australia is an area of about 140000km 2 which is commonly called 'the wheatbelt' (Fig. 1), a term which will be used throughout this paper. It lies entirely within the area of the south-west which has a Mediterranean climate characterised by hot dry summers and cool winters. Annual average rainfall varies from about

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Fig. I. The south-west of Western Australia showing the extent of the wheatbelt (unhatched) and the location of sites for which bird lists are available (see Appendix caption for source material for each numbered location). The locations of observers (O) in the Kellerberrin and Kondinin districts and the location of East Yorkrakine Nature Reserve are

also shown.

Bird Jdunas and vegetation ,fragmentation 101

650mm in the west to about 300mm in the east. Average maximum temperatures range from around 34°C in January down to about 16°C in July, but this varies from south to north. The wheatbelt does not constitute a natural region because of variations in climate, pedology and botany (Gentilli, 1958). However, as a result of extensive clearing of the natural vegetation for agriculture, the wheatbelt now constitutes an almost entirely human modified environment which consists of a mosaic of arable fields, pastures and salt pans with remnants of native vegetation scattered across the landscape.

Prior to the settlement of Europeans in 1827 the vegetation of the wheatbelt consisted of woodlands of salmon gum Eucalyptus salmonophloia, York gum E. loxophleba, wandoo E. wandoo and other species on the red loam soils with scrub, heath and thicket on the laterite, sand and duplex soils. The area had a rich and diverse flora with a high degree of heterogeneity associated with the mosaic of different soil types. The result was a patchy distribution of vegetation associations with woodland areas being scattered islands in the landscape.

With the settlement of Europeans in southwestern Australia a series of rapid changes were imposed on the landscape as clearing of native vegetation began. Initially, the changes were slow and by 1890 only 500 km 2 of the south-west had been cleared (Saunders et al., 1985). During the present century a phase of extensive clearing took place as farming spread to most suitable areas. By 1968 about 130000km 2 of land had been cleared, and 54% of all land developed for agriculture was cleared between 1945 and 1982. These cleared areas are now covered in non-native annual vegetation with watering points provided throughout the countryside. Before this development there was little free water and animals requiring water depended on moisture collecting on plants or metabolising water from their food.

The wheatbelt falls within the Irwin, Avon, Roe and Eyre Botanical Districts (Beard, 1980). The central part lies within the Avon Botanical District of which Beard & Sprenger (1984) estimated that 93% had been cleared. Certain vegetation associations were regarded by settlers as indicators of good agricultural soil and were cleared preferentially. For example, 97% of the York gum, wandoo and salmon gum woodlands which formerly covered 41 126 km a have been cleared.

Those elements of the biota which depend on native vegetation for their survival are now confined to the remnant patches scattered throughout the wheatbelt. There are 639 remnants gazetted as nature reserves in the wheatbelt. These range in size from 0.4 to 309 000 ha with a median size of only 114 ha. Together, these reserves account for 6"7% of the area, but if the three largest are excluded this drops to 2-4% (Wallace & Moore, 1987). In

102 D. A. Saunders

addition to nature reserves, there are thousands of privately owned remnants of uncleared native vegetation. These are of various sizes, shapes, degrees of isolation, vegetation associations, history of degradation and ownership. Around Kellerberrin in the central wheatbelt, for example, there are 531 remnants totalling 5-7% of an area of 1760km 2. They range in size from less than 1 ha to 1100 ha and only six of these 531 are set aside as public reserves for nature conservation. These six account for about 20% of the area of uncleared vegetation. The remaining 80% of native vegetation is owned privately and not under the control of any conservation agency. Effective conservation will depend on local land owners as they control the greatest portion of naturally vegetated land, particularly woodland which is poorly represented on reserves (Saunders e t al., 1987).

The wheatbelt forms an intermediate habitat between the forests of the mesic south-west (Bassian subregion) and the arid interior (Eyrean subregion ) and has avian species from both (Serventy & Whittell, 1976). The avifauna of the area has been well surveyed over the last 80 years or so. The last survey was by Kitchener et al. (1982), who examined bird species richness in 22 reserves in the wheatbelt and found that it could be related to reserve area and certain habitat variables, with total number of resident passerines being greatly influenced by floristics and vegetation associations. Time of isolation of the reserves did not explain much of the variation in species richness. Kitchener et al. (1982) also assessed the nature reserve system as a whole for the conservation of birds in the wheatbelt. They concluded that reserves as small as 80 ha were important sanctuaries for birds in the wheatbelt, but 1500 ha was considered a minimum area of reserve to conserve the complete assemblage of the local avifauna. If the aim was to conserve representatives of most of the avifauna of the wheatbelt, reserves of the order of 30 000-94 000 ha would be required. Kitchener e t al. (1982) comment that 'Although we are unable to demonstrate any notable losses of species from the wheatbelt avifauna, it is possible that species have been lost from individual reserves'. They compared the avifauna of reserves isolated for the longest period with those isolated more recently and the results suggested that the 'older' reserves did not have a poorer avifauna. They added that they were unable to show any loss of species from the wheatbelt reserves during the period of land clearing over the previous 70 years, and stated that this implied that loss of species from reserves will be a slow process. They added that loss of bird species from wheatbelt reserves seemed inevitable without management. If Kitchener e t al. could not demonstrate any loss of species over the previous 70 years there was no evidence on which to base their statement that loss of species from reserves will be a slow process nor that loss of species seemed inevitable without management.

The purpose of this paper is to review the data available on the avifauna of

Bird Jaunas and vegetation fragmentation 103

the wheatbelt so as to test the conclusions of Kitchener et al. (1982) on the efficacy of the conservation system of the wheatbelt using a different method from theirs. This is done by examining the data available on the birds of the wheatbelt region and two adjacent districts in the central wheatbelt with different clearing histories. The past and present status of the birds is assessed and any differences in the avifaunas are analysed. One remnant of 81 ha is examined in depth to assess the changes which have taken place to its avifauna. The results of these analyses are then discussed in the light of the present reserve system and associated remnants. General principles for the management of systems of remnants are then developed and discussed.

METHODS AND STUDY AREAS

Bird lists from 42 different sources at locations within the wheatbelt from the turn of the century until the present time were tabulated. The data come from the literature, from unpublished lists and from an observer scheme carried out in the wheatbelt by CSIRO. This scheme (Appendix, Column 42) involved 119 people from locations throughout the wheatbelt (Fig. 2) who kept notes on a weekly basis of what species of bird occurred in their observation area between May (when the scheme commenced) and December 1987.

The data from these bird lists were grouped into the following periods: 1900-1920; 1930-1937; 1946-1957; 1970-1979 and 1985-1987. Many of these lists make some mention of abundance and they have been recast subjectively into classes: very common; common; uncommon; rare; present but not enough evidence to gauge abundance; or extinct.

The avifaunas of two adjacent districts (Fig. 1) in the central wheatbelt have been examined using data from published records and from present records obtained from the observer scheme mentioned above. These two districts are the Kellerberrin/Cunderdin/Wyalkatchem district (called the Kellerberrin district in the remainder of the paper) which comprises the 1' block within 31-32 ° S and 117-118 ° E and the Kondinin/Hyden/Narembeen district (Kondinin district) within 32-33 ° S and 118-119 ° E.

The Kellerberrin and Kondinin areas were chosen because they have good accounts of the avifauna early this century produced by residents (Leake, 1962; Crossman, 1909; Appendix and Fig. 1, Nos 5 and 6) and several subsequent lists (Ford & Stone, 1957; Storr, 1953; Dell, 1981, 1978b, 1980a, 1977; Sedgwick, 1974, 1986; Appendix and Fig. 1, Nos 16, 17, 28, 29, 33, 32 and 39). In addition, each has a good coverage of present observers (Fig. 1) and different clearing histories. Settlement for pastoral purposes began in the Kellerberrin district in the early 1860s (Leake, 1962). There was little clearing

104 D. A. Saunders

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Fig. 2. The location of observers collecting data on birds throughout the wheatbelt during the period May--December 1987.

for agriculture before the turn of the century but the opening of the railway line through Kellerberrin in the early 1890s improved access to the area and clearing proceeded rapidly. Over 70% of the native vegetation had been removed by the 1930s and by the early 1960s only about 7% remained. There has been little additional clearing since then.

The Kondinin district was settled progressively during the 1920s. The

Bird faunas and vegetation fragmentation 105

Lake Grace-Hyden railway line was opened in the early 1930s; this facilitated the area being opened for agriculture (Beard, 1979). By 1940-41 13% of the area had been cleared. However, clearing did not begin on a broad scale until after the Second World War. In 1967-68 38% of the Kondinin area had been cleared but the west of this district had more agricultural development than the east. In 1962, the area north of Kondinin still retained nearly 36% of its native vegetation but by 1972 this had been reduced to just over 12% (Muir, 1977). There is more native vegetation still remaining in the east of the district.

The avifauna of an 81-ha remnant was assessed by comparing bird lists for East Yorkrakine Nature Reserve available for the period 1975-77 with lists prepared during the period 1985-88. This remnant was isolated from other native vegetation during clearing operations in the 1920s and was burnt as a result of the clearing burns conducted during that period. It was studied briefly for the work reported by Kitchener et al. (1982) and a bird list is available from the period 1975-77 (Dell, 1980a). During this period the reserve was visited several times between 18 and 24 November 1974, 11 and 14 May 1975 and 30 August and 5 September 1977. Bird lists were again prepared for the reserve during the period 1985-88, during which a series of censuses were conducted in spring, summer, autumn and winter each year.

RESULTS

The region

The data from the 42 bird lists available for the period 1900 -87 are shown in the Appendix and the locations of these sources are shown in Fig. 1. Some sites have been surveyed several times. Two hundred and six species have been recorded in the wheatbelt since 1900. Eleven of these are vagrants and 47 are aquatic species which depend on natural wetlands. These 58 species are not considered further in this paper. The mountain duck and wood duck use tree hollows for nesting and farm dams for brood territories so they are considered with the other land birds below.

Of the 148 land birds constituting the avifauna of the wheatbelt, 41 (27%) have decreased in range and/or abundance (as judged by a change in status, e.g. from common to rare) since 1900 and 22 (nearly 15%) have increased (change in range and/or status) over the same period (Table 1, Appendix). The remainder either have not changed or there are insufficient data to judge the issue.

The passerines have been more adversely affected than the non-passerines, with 29 species (34%) decreasing in range and/or abundance whereas only 4

106 D. A. Saunders

species (5%) have increased (Table 1). This is compared with 12 species (19%) of non-passerines decreasing and 18 (29%) increasing. Only two species are probably extinct in the wheatbelt: Gilbert's whistler and thick- billed grass wren. The former was recorded by 2 out of 8 early observers with Carter (1923) listing it as common (Appendix, Column 7). Ford & Stone (1957) were the last to record it and they noted it as rare. The latter species was only recorded by Carter (1923), as rare.

Other species have undergone major declines in abundance and/or range. Some species are now extinct locally: emu, mallee fowl, bustard, bush stone curlew, Carnaby's cockatoo, purple-crowned lorikeet, regent parrot, red- capped parrot, western rosella, ground cuckoo-shrike, hooded robin, crested shrike-tit, restless flycatcher, chestnut quail-thrush, rufous treecreeper, yellow-plumed honeyeater and white-naped honeyeater.

The mountain duck, wood duck, some raptors, stubble quail, banded plover, Australian dotterel, long-billed corella, welcome swallow, Richard's pipit and the black-faced woodswallow were present in the wheatbelt at the turn of the century and have increased in abundance and/or range since the start of clearing for agriculture.

The domestic pigeon, laughing turtledove and laughing kookaburra are introduced species which have invaded suitable areas from Perth where they were released. The crested pigeon, red-tailed black cockatoo, galah, little corella, mulga parrot and elegant parrot have invaded the wheat belt from the drier areas to the north-east.

The districts

The past and present status of the birds of the Kellerberrin and Kondinin districts are shown in the Appendix (Kellerberrin past in Columns 5, 16, 17, present in Column 40, and 16 observers; Kondinin past in Columns 6, 32, present in Column 39 and 11 observers). Similar numbers of species of land birds were recorded within both districts; these represented 89% (131 species) and 86% (127) of those recorded for the wheatbelt as a whole. The trends in changes in species numbers and/or abundances are the same as those shown by the region as a whole (Table 1). While only two species have become extinct within the wheatbelt as a whole, there are marked differences between districts. Fifteen species have disappeared from the Kellerberrin district (emu, mallee fowl, Carnaby's cockatoo, regent parrot, red- capped parrot, western rosella, ground cuckoo-shrike, hooded robin, crested shrike-tit, Gilbert's whistler, restless flycatcher, chestnut quail- thrush, rufous treecreeper, yellow-plumed honeyeater and white-naped honeyeater) while four species (ground cuckoo-shrike, hooded robin, Gilbert's whistler and chestnut quail-thrush) have become extinct in the

Bird fimnas and vegetation fragmentation 107

TABLE 1 Number of Species of Land Bird which have Changed in Distribution and/or Abundance in the Western Australian Wheatbelt, the Kellerberrin District and the

Kondinin District During the Period 190~1987

Change Total

Decreased No change Increased or unknown

Western Australian wheatbelt Non-passerines 12 (19%) 33 (52%) 18 (29%) 63 Passerines 29 (34%) 52 (61%J 4 (5%) 85 Total 41 85 22 148

Kellerberrin district Non-passerines 14 (23%) 32 (52%) 15 (25%) 61 Passerines 24 (34%) 43 (62%) 3 (4%) 70 Total 38 75 18 131

Kondinin district Non-passerines 12 (22%) 29 (53%) 14 (25%) 55 Passerines 24 (33%) 45 (63%) 3 (4%) 72 Total 36 74 17 127

Kondinin district. Some species have undergone dramatic declines in numbers. For example, Leake (1962) and Crossman (1909) remarked that the yellow-plumed honeyeater was the most abundant honeyeater in their districts. It no longer occurs at Kellerberrin and is rare in the Kondinin district, being seen by only one of the 11 observers during 1987 and that observer only saw the species once during the 29 weeks of recording. Carnaby's cockatoo was the only cockatoo in both districts prior to settlement by Europeans but it became extinct in the Kellerberrin district in the last 10 years and is rare around Kondinin, having been recorded by only two out of the 11 observers for less than 5% of the total recording time.

The species which have increased in range and/or abundance in the districts are the same as those listed as having increased throughout the wheatbelt.

The remnant

Seventy-three species of land birds have been recorded on East Yorkrakine Nature Reserve some time between 1974 and 1977 or during 1985-88 (Table 2), with 59 being the most recorded in any one year. Fifty-one species were

TABLE 2 The Avifauna of East Yorkrakine Na tu re Reserve (1974-1987)

1974/75/77 1985 1986 1987 1 9 8 8 Comments

(a) species recorded on East Yorkrak ine that also occur in farmland, or grazed open woodland

Non-passerines

Mounta in duck * Wood duck Black-shouldered kite * Whist l ing kite Brown goshawk * Wedge-tailed eagle Little eagle * Spotted harr ier Little falcon Brown falcon Nankeen kestrel * Domest ic pigeon * Crested pigeon * Ga lah * Cockatiel Port Lincoln ringneck * Mulga parrot * Elegant par ro t Pallid cuckoo Fan-tai led cuckoo Horsfield's bronze cuckoo * Boobook owl Barn owl * Red-backed kingfisher Ra inbow bee-eater *

Passerines

White-backed swallow * Welcome swallow Tree mar t in * Richard 's pipit * Black-faced cuckoo-shrike White-winged triller * Grey fantail * Willie wagtail * Rufous song lark Brown song lark Yel low-rumped thornbil l * Yel low-throated miner Singing honeyeater * Brown honeyeater * Whi te- f ronted honeyeater *

T A B L E 2--contd.

1974/75/77 1985 1986 1987 1988 Comments

Black honeyea te r * *

Whi te - f ron ted chat * * * * *

Striated pa rda lo te * * * * *

Zebra finch * * * * *

Aus t ra l i an magpie lark * * * * *

Black-faced w o o d s w a l l o w * * * * *

Grey bu tche rb i rd * * * *

Pied bu tcherb i rd * * * * *

Aus t ra l i an magpie * * * * *

Aus t ra l i an raven * * * * *

Little c row * * * *

Subto ta l (a) 32 33 43 40 36

(b) Species recorded on East Y o r k r a k i n e that are found only in areas o f r emnan t native

vegetat ion. Those also found in road verges with nat ive vegetat ion are also indicated ( road

verges).

Non-passerines

Painted bu t t on quail *

C o m m o n b ronzewing *

Purp le -c rowned lorikeet

T a w n y f r o g m o u t h *

Owle t -n igh t ja r *

Passerines

Sou the rn sc rub rob in *

Red-capped rob in *

Wes te rn yellow rob in *

Go lden whist ler *

R u f o u s whis t ler *

Grey shr ike- thrus t *

Cres ted bellbird *

Whi t e -b rowed babb le r *

Blue-breas ted wren *

Weebill *

Wes te rn warb le r *

Broad-tai led thornbi l l *

C h e s t n u t - r u m p e d thornbi l l *

Varied sittella

Whi te -eared honeyea te r *

Brown-headed honeyea te r *

Spot ted pa rda lo te *

Subto ta l (b) 20

Tota l no. species recorded 52

* * Reserve

* * * Rese rve / road verges

R e s e r v e / n o m a d

* * Reserve

* Reserve

Reserve

* * * * Reserve / road verges

* * Reserve

* Reserve

* * * * Rese rve / road verges

* * * * Reserve

* * * * Rese rve / road verges /migran t

* * Rese rve / road ve rges /nomad

* * R e s e r v e / n o m a d

16 16 17 16

49 59 57 52

D a t a f rom Dell (1980a) and this study. Any species seen du r ing each survey per iod is indicated

110 D. A. Saunders

birds which use resources found in the surrounding agricultural land and only use the reserve for part of the time. For example, the galah rarely feeds in the reserve but often roosts in woodlands in the reserve and always nests in those woodlands. Four of the non-passerines and 14 passerines were residents restricted to the reserve or other areas of remnant native vegetation in the district, but only four species of passerine were resident only on undisturbed remnants of native vegetation and not on road verges, agricultural land or grazed open woodland. Three of these species have become extinct in the reserve since 1974. The southern scrub robin was recorded by Dell (1980a) during the period 1974-77 but not recorded in any subsequent surveys. The western yellow robin and golden whistler were recorded in the reserve until 1986 and have not been recorded since.

DISCUSSION

The region

Examination of the changes in distribution and/or abundance of birds throughout the wheatbelt (Table 1, Appendix) shows that there have been widespread and extensive changes over the entire region during the last 80 years. Almost all of these changes are the direct result of the fragmentation and massive decline in the extent of native vegetation through clearing for agriculture (Davies, 1977; Kitchener et al., 1982), the provision of standing water and new food resources in the form of grains and weed seeds rather than the result of fluctuations in climate as postulated by Serventy (1977).

Serventy discussed the expansion of 11 species into the south-west and attributed it to a deterioration of the climate (decrease in rainfall) and the fact that the 'dead heart' of Australia is expanding. The fact that it is more likely to be human-induced changes, rather than climate, that have resulted in the changes to the avifauna is illustrated by looking at the changes in distribution of the crested pigeon, galah and pied butcherbird. These are three of the most conspicuous invaders into the wheatbelt from the adjacent region, the Murchison Pastoral District. All were present in the Murchison prior to European settlement. They were uncommon and did not occur in the dry areas between the watercourses. Water was provided in stock troughs across the landscape as result of development for the pastoral industry. All are common to very common throughout the Murchison as well as common to very common throughout the wheatbelt (Saunders & Curry, 1989) and the galah and crested pigeon are still extending their ranges. The galah is so abundant that it is now regarded as a nuisance by many people because of its destructive effects on the region's remaining trees.

During the breeding season it chews the bark of its nest tree to create a 'shield' and in extreme cases can ringbark the tree. In some areas this is a significant cause of tree mortality.

Many more species have been adversely affected than have benefited. There is no evidence (Appendix) of any changes in over half of the species. For those species which are dependent on remnant vegetation (over 30 species), but which are still common in that vegetation, they will have undergone a decrease in population size over the region, simply because of the decreased availability of their habitat. This is true of species like the golden whistler, wrens, shy hylacola, etc. Using a habitat criterion, over half of the species occurring in the wheatbelt have been adversely affected by development.

Two species almost certainly are extinct in the region: the thick-billed grass wren and Gilbert's whistler. The former species was thought to have been collected by Gilbert at the Wongan Hills in 1842 (de Rebeira & de Rebeira, 1977) but subsequently it has been recorded only by Carter (1923). Carter collected it at Broomehill and it probably had a limited distribution in the wheatbelt. The grass wren is now regarded as an endangered species, being restricted to only one area in Western Australia and the area to the north of the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia (Blakers et al., 1984). Gilbert's whistler was probably restricted to the eastern wheatbelt and still occurs in the adjacent uncleared areas to the east.

The districts

Contrary to the findings of Kitchener et al. (1982), the data indicate that there is an apparent loss of species from those areas isolated for longer periods of time. This is shown by comparisons between the avifaunas of the Kellerberrin district which was cleared in the 1920s and 1930s and the Kondinin district, cleared in the 1950s and 1960s. Having lost 15 out of 131 species, Kellerberrin has lost a significantly greater proportion of species (11%) than Kondinin, which has lost 4 of 127 (3%). Carnaby's cockatoo is a recent example of this trend. Leake (1962) noted that the clearing of immense areas had caused a tremendous reduction in numbers of birds such as this black cockatoo. It was still breeding in Durokoppin Nature Reserve, an l l00ha reserve north of Kellerberrin (Fig. 2, Column 29) during Dell's surveys in 1975 and 1976 (Dell, 1978b). It is now extinct in that reserve, which is the largest suitable remnant of native vegetation for this species in the Kellerberrin district. Carnaby's cockatoo became extinct for the same reasons outlined for its demise in other areas in the wheatbelt (Saunders & Ingram, 1987), that is, an inability to cope with a dispersed food supply associated with a fragmented landscape and competition with galahs for

l l 2 D. ,4. Saunders

nest sites (Saunders, in press). Carnaby's cockatoo still occurs in the Kondinin district, where it was recorded by two out of 11 observers during 1987.

The Kellerberrin district is typical of much of the wheatbelt with two reserves over 1000 ha (Durokoppin 1100 ha and Billyacatting 2100 ha) and most other remnants less than 100ha. The six non-passerines which have become extinct are the emu, mallee fowl and four parrots. The emu is a nomad which roams large areas and was shot as an agricultural pest. It is common in the areas to the east of the wheatbelt but its loss may have far- reaching effects on the regeneration of some plant species. It is known to eat fruits and pass the viable seeds some distance from the parent plant (Hopkins & Griffin, 1984). The mallee fowl was seen by Dell (1978b) in Durokoppin Nature Reserve in 1975 and 1976 but has not been since since. It requires large areas to forage over and Frith (1962) gave estimates of 0.03- 0-05 birds h a - ~ in similar country to that occurring on Durokoppin. That translates to 33-55 birds if the entire reserve consists of suitable habitat, which it does not. The parrots which have become extinct depend predominantly on native vegetation for food and the reduction of their food sources has made it impossible for them to forage efficiently (see Saunders, 1980; Saunders & Ingram, 1987, for a description of this problem). The nine passerines extinct in the Kellerberrin district are predominantly insectivores which are only found in undisturbed vegetation. Other species are vulnerable in the Kellerberrin district and many other districts like it. They are the species listed as declining over the last 80 years (Appendix). They include some of the cuckoos which will be affected by reductions in their host population and species which depend on undisturbed native vegetation. The avifaunas of districts like Kondinin which were cleared later and have more native vegetation remaining will be reduced as more species become extinct but it is unclear if they will lose as many species as the older more extensively cleared areas.

The remnant

Regional and district avifaunas are made up of populations of birds which may be continuous across the whole region (as in the galah and willie wagtail) or discontinuous and isolated (as in the blue-breasted wren and redthroat). The persistence of those species with discontinuous and isolated populations in native vegetation (the passerine P5 species of Kitchener et al.

(1982)) depends on their being maintained in viable populations in remnants of native vegetation throughout their range. It is important to assess what changes are taking place at the level of the individual remnant. East Yorkrakine Nature Reserve is typical of thousands of remnants throughout

Bird Jaunas and vegetation .fragmentation I 13

the wheatbelt. Kitchener et al. (1982) cited it as an example of a small reserve which has value for the conservation of birds. However, over the last 10 years there has been a loss of three (southern scrub robin, western yellow robin and golden whistler) out of four (blue-breasted wren (Table 2)) species of passerine resident on the reserve which are not found on agricultural land, disturbed native vegetation or in linear patches of native vegetation along road verges. The blue-breasted wren may become extinct in the reserve in the near future as there are about 10 birds in the population and the reserve is 7 km from other areas of native vegetation with wren populations. That is, the East Yorkrakine population is too small and too isolated for it to remain viable without active management. Most Australian birds are poor colonisers and will not readily cross open areas of unsuitable habitat (Abbott, 1978; Saunders & de Rebeira, 1985) and so the chances of natural reintroduction of species to remnants are low.

The example of East Yorkrakine Nature Reserve suggests that many areas of native vegetation in the wheatbelt were carrying more species of birds at the time when they became isolated than they were capable of carrying and that species are still being lost. The rapidity of the extinctions will depend on the size of the remnant, the heterogeneity of its vegetation, the isolation of the remnant and the species present at the time the remnant was isolated.

Implications for conservation

The fragmented landscape of the Western Australian wheatbelt is typical of that of all of the agricultural areas of Australia. The problems encountered in the wheatbelt of WA are posed in other areas and the solutions are as relevant.

Conservation agencies are charged with the maintenance of regional natural resources and preserving in their conservation networks viable representative populations of all species present at the time of development of the region. Conservation needs must be met at the regional, district and remnant level if the conservation system is to be successful in maintaining species richness. Viable populations of all former species must be retained somewhere at locations throughout their range. Failure to do this suggests that habitat requirements are not met. Moreover, inadequacies of the conservation system in terms of retaining the present biota will compound future problems of conserving the biota as the climate changes over time.

The conservation system in the WA wheatbelt has not been successful as far as the mammals are concerned because 13 of the 46 species believed to have been present in the wheatbelt have disappeared from the region and 9 of these are extinct on the Australian mainland (Kitchener et al., 1980;

114 D. A. Saunders

Saunders, 1985). With two species extinct out of 148 species of bird which occurred in the wheatbelt, a number of species locally extinct and more expected to become extinct, it is obvious that the conservation network is not adequate to conserve the remaining complement of birds without active management.

Hopkins & Saunders (1987) stated that management of conservation areas was often necessary and usually proceeded without an adequate base of ecological studies to support management prescriptions. They also pointed out that detailed ecological studies are not always necessary as a prelude to management although they are desirable. A review of data available and interpretation of those data may provide valuable short cuts for managers trying to establish priorities for action. The analysis presented here is a further illustration of this argument. The review of the data available shows that species are being lost from the system and at a rate which should alarm conservation agencies. At present, the conservation agency responsible for conservation in the 14 million ha region has one person (including clerical staff) for every 40 reserves (Wallace & Moore, 1987). This is inadequate and if active management is required then these resources will permit only a fraction o f the system to be tackled. In addition, all remnants must be considered as part of the conservation network and not just those designated as reserves. Plants and animals do not discriminate on the basis of ownership and, if conservation is to be successful, neither should management agencies.

At present, the two most important issues facing the conservation agency in the wheatbelt are: (1) preparing an inventory of all natural areas and their associated biota; and (2) using that inventory to establish management priorities. The inventory should concentrate on establishing where in the region species still occur in viable populations. Although extinctions will probably continue at the remnant level, by concentrating management at the district and regional levels, species may have a chance of persisting. At present there is a need to develop methods for conducting broad-scale inventories of this nature. Priorities for management (including acquisition by conservation agencies) can be drawn up by calculating the minimum set of remnants needed to conserve the district and region's avifauna using the approach developed by Margules & Nicholls (1987). If neither of these steps is taken then the systems will continue to degrade unchecked.

Even with inadequate funding or staffing the situation is not hopeless or cause for complete despair. The first requirement is that the remnants now remaining are kept intact. From the review of the distribution of remnants in other than nature reserves it is clear that conservation on a regional basis is a community issue, as the retention of a significant portion of the biota relies on the retention of remnants of native vegetation that are privately owned

(Saunders et al., 1987). The sheer number of such remnants, the extent of the region and the shortage of resources available to the conservation agency means that the community must be actively involved in managing the conservation network. The role of the conservation agency is then to foster an environmental ethic in the community and provide direction and information for the management of the network. The conservation agency will never possess the resources to manage the network alone and it would be ill-advised to attempt to do so. One important step towards involving people must be to encourage them to collect data on the natural resources of their immediate area and to monitor changes within remnants. It is only by making people aware of their natural heritage and the changes their habitat is undergoing that they can be mobilised to protect it.

ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS

Mr A. J. M. Hopkins, Prof. A. R. Main, Dr H. F. Recher and Dr M. B. Usher provided constructive criticism of earlier drafts of this paper, Mr J. A. Ingram helped in the surveys of East Yorkrakine Nature Reserve, Mr C. P. de Rebeira prepared the figures, Mrs I. C. Taplin and Mrs M. Schwabe typed the many drafts of the manuscript, and Mr G. S. Chapman, Mr A. J. E. Lyneham, Mr L. A. Moore and Brother W. H. van Veen kindly provided bird lists for their localities. To these people and many more who contributed data to the Appendix (column 42) I am extremely grateful.

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Beard, J. S. (1980). A new phytogeographic map of Western Australia. Res. Notes W. Aust. Herbarium, 3, 37-58.

Beard, J. S. & Sprenger, B. S. (1984). Geographical data from the vegetation survey of Western Australia. Vegetation Survey of Western Australia, Occasional Paper, No. 2. Vegmap Publications, Perth.

Biakers, M., Davies, S. J. J. F. & Reilly, P. N. (1984). The Atlas of Australian Birds'. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.

Carnaby, J. C. (1933). The birds of the Lake Grace District, WA. Emu, 33, 103-9. Carter, T. (1923). Birds of the Broome Hill District. Emu, 23, 125-42, 223-35,

307-18. Crossman, A. F. (1909). Birds seen at Cumminin Station, Western Australia. Emu, 9,

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116 D. A. Saunders

Davies, S. J. J. F. (1977). Man's activities and birds' distribution in the arid zone. Emu, 77, 169-72.

Dell, J. (1976). Birds of Lake Magenta Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Australia. Rec. West. Aust. Mus., 4, 117 32.

Dell, J. (I 977). Birds of Bendering and West Bendering Nature Reserves. Ree. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 5, 31-46.

Dell, J. (1978a). Birds of Dongolocking Nature Reserve. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 6, 59-70.

Dell, J. (1978b). Birds of Kodj Kodjin and Durokoppin Reserves. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 7, 55-68.

Dell, J. (1979a). Birds of Wilroy Nature Reserve. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 8, 37-46.

Dell, J. (1979b). Birds of Buntine and Nugadong Reserves. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 9, 95-115.

Dell, J. (1979c). Birds of Marchagee Nature Reserve. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 8, 33-42.

Dell, J. (1980a). Birds of Yorkrakine Rock, East Yorkrakine and North Bungulla Nature Reserves. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 12, 55-67.

Dell, J. (1980b). Birds of Badjaling Nature Reserve, South Badjaling Nature Reserve, Yoting Town Reserve and Yoting Water Reserve. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 12, 45-58.

Dell, J. (1981). Birds of Billyacatting Hill Nature Reserve. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 13, 35-48.

Dell, J. & Johnstone, R. E. (1976). Birds of Tarin Rock and North Tarin Rock Reserves. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 2, 69-84.

Dell, J. & McGauran, D. J. (1981). Birds of East Yuna and Bindoo Hill Nature Reserve and adjacent areas. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 13, 67-93.

de Rebeira, C. P. S. & de Rebeira, A. M. (1977). Birds. In The Natural History of the Wongan Hills, ed. K. F. Kenneally. Western Australian Naturalists' Club, Perth, pp. 77-96.

Ford, J. R. & Stone, P. S. (1957). Birds in the Kellerberrin/Kwolyin District, Western Australia. Emu, 57, 9-21.

Frith, H. J. (1962). The Mallee Fowl Angus & Robertson, Sydney. Gentilli, J. (1958). Is the Western Australian Wheatbelt a natural region? West. Aust.

Nat., 6, 157-62. Halse, S. A., Morris, K. D., Nichols, O. G. & Rice, G. E. (1985). Vertebrate fauna

along the Marchagee Track, Western Australia. West. Aust. Nat., 16, 57-69. Harold, G. & Dell, J. (1979). Birds of Yornaning Nature Reserve. Rec. West. Aust.

Mus. Suppl., No. 8, 35-42. Hopkins, A. J. M. & Griffin, E. A. (1984). Floristic patterns. In Kwongan--PlantLiJe

~4fthe Sandplains, ed. J. S. Beard and J. S. Pate. University of Western Australia Press, Perth, pp. 69-83.

Hopkins, A. J. M. & Saunders, D. A. (1987). Ecological studies as the basis for management. In Nature Conservation: The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation, ed. D. A. Saunders, G. W. Arnold, A. A. Burbidge and A. J. M. Hopkins. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 15-28.

Jenkins, C. F. H. (1931). Birds of the Northam District, WA. Emu, 31, 30-5. Kitchener, D. J., Chapman, A., Muir, B. C. & Palmer, M. (1980). The conservation

value for mammals of reserves in the Western Australian wheatbelt. Biol. Conserv., 18, 179-207.

Bird faunas and vegetation fragmentation l 17

Kitchener, D. J., Dell, J., Muir, B. G. & Palmer, M. (1982). Birds in Western Australian wheatbelt reserves--implications for conservation. Biol. Conserv., 22, 127-63.

Lawson, F. (1905). A glance at the birds of the Moore River (WA). Emu, 4, 132-7.

Leake, B. W. (1962). Eastern Wheatbelt Wildlife. B. W. Leake, Perth. Loaring, W. H. & Serventy, D. L. (1952). The birds of the Moore River Gorge

District. West. Aust. Nat., 3, 107 16. Margules, C. R. & Nicholls, O. A. (1987). Assessing the conservation value of

remnant habitat 'islands': mallee patches on the Western Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. In Nature ConL~rvation," The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation, ed. D. A. Saunders, G. W.' Arnold, A. A. Burbidge & A. J. M. Hopkins. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney, pp. 89-102.

Masters, J. R. & Milhinch, A. L. (1974). Birds of the Shire of Northam, about 100 km east of Perth. Emu, 74, 22844.

Milligan, A. W. (1903). Notes on a trip to the Stirling Range. Emu, 3, 9-19. Milligan, A. W. (1904). Notes on a trip to the Wongan Hills, Western Australia, with

a description of a new Ptilotis. Emu, 3, 217 26; Emu, 4, 2 11. Milligan, A. W. (1905). Notes on a trip to the Yandanooka District, Western

Australia. Emu, 4, 151-7. Muir, B. G. (1977). Introduction to West Bendering Nature Reserve. In Biological

Survey of the Western Australian Wheatbelt, Part 3. Rec. West. Aust. Mus. Suppl., No. 5, 9-15.

Orton, C. L. E. & Sandland, P. T. (1913). Birds of Moora (WA) and district. Emu, 13, 75-80.

Reid, D. (1951). A Bunketch bird list. West. Aust. Nat., 3, 68-71. Reid, D. (1952). Further Bunketch bird notes. West. Aust. Nat., 3, 144. Saunders, D. A. (1980). Food and movements of the short-billed form of the white-

tailed black cockatoo. Aust. Wildl. Res. 7, 257-69. Saunders, D. A. (1985). Human impact: The response of forest and woodland bird

communities. Whither the future? A synthesis. In Birds of Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation, Management, ed. A. Keast, H. F. Recher, H. Ford & D. Saunders. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 355 7.

Saunders, D. A. (in press). Problems of survival in an extensively cultivated landscape: the case of Carnaby's cockatoo. Biol. Conserv.

Saunders, D. A. & Curry, P. J. (1989). The impact of agricultural and pastoral industries on birds in the southern half of Western Australia--past, present and future. In A ustralian Ecosystems: 200 Years of Utilisation, Degradation and Reconstruction, ed. D. A. Saunders, A. J. M. Hopkins & R. How. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust., 16 (in press).

Saunders, D. A. & de Rebeira, C. P. (1985). Turnover in breeding bird populations on Rottnest Island, Western Australia. Aust. Wildl. Res, 12, 467-77.

Saunders, D. A. & Ingram, J. A. (1987). Factors affecting survival of breeding populations of Carnaby's cockatoo Calyptorhynchus funereus latirostris in remnants of native vegetation. In Nature Conservation: The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation, ed. D. A. Saunders, G. W. Arnold, A. A. Burbidge & A. J. M. Hopkins. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 249-58.

Saunders, D. A., Rowley, I. & Smith, G. T. (1985). The effects of clearing for agriculture on the distribution of cockatoos in the southwest of Western Australia. In Birds of Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation,

118 D. A. Saunders

Management, ed. A. Keast, H. F. Recher, H. Ford and D. Saunders. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 309-21.

Saunders, D. A., Arnold, G. W., Burbidge, A. A. & Hopkins, A. J. M. (1987). The role of remnants of native vegetation in nature conservation: future directions. In Nature Conservation: The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation. ed. D. A. Saunders, G. W. Arnold, A. A. Burbidge and A. J. M. Hopkins. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 387-92.

Sedgwick, E. H. (1937). Notes from Nangeenan, Western Australia. Emu, 37, 172 5. Sedgwick, E. H. (1947). Summary of a survey of bird-life at Bilbarin, WA. West.

Aust. Nat., 1, 3440. Sedgwick, E. H. (1953). Bird-life at Caron. West. Aust. Nat., 4, 12 20. Sedgwick, E. H. (1962). A Williams bird list. West. Aust. Nat., 8, 87-96. Sedgwick, E. H. (1974). Birds of the Gibb Rock area. West. Aust. Nat., 13, 7-14. Sedgwick, E. H. (1986). Further notes on the avifauna of the Gibb Rock area,

Western Australia. Australian Bird Watcher, 11, 171-80. Sedgwick, L. (1952). A Gabbin bird list. West. Aust. Nat., 3, 152 55. Serventy, D. L. (1977). The use of data on the distribution of birds to monitor

climatic changes. Emu, 77, 162-6. Serventy, D. L. & Whittell, H. M. (1976). Birds" of Western Australia, 5th. edn.

University of Western Australia Press, Perth. Serventy, V. (1958). Bird notes from the Dumbleyung camp-out, 1956. Emu, 58,

5-20. Storr, G. (1953). Bird-life at Yoting. West. Aust. Nat., 4, 21. Wallace, K. J. & Moore, S. A. (1987). Management of remnant bushland for nature

conservation in agricultural areas of southwestern Australia--operational and planning perspectives. In Nature Conservation: The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation, ed, D. A. Saunders, G. W. Arnold, A. A. Burbidge and A. J. M. Hopkins. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 259-68.

A P P E N D I X

The Occurrence of Birds in the Wheatbelt of Western Australia Based on Bird Lists from Various Sources

Data are arranged in periods of: 1900-20 (columns 1-8); 1930-37 (9-11); 1946-57 (12-20); 1970-79 (21-37) and 1985-87 (38-42). Within these periods the data are presented by location from north to south. Locations are shown on Fig. 1.

Statements of abundance are based on a subjective interpretation of the source material: VC = v e r y common; C = c o m m o n ; U = uncommon; R = rare; E = extinct and * = present but insufficient information to gauge abundance.

Changes (column C) have been assessed from the table and from comments published in the literature cited: - , the species has declined in range and/or abundance; 0, no change or insufficient data to gauge any

change; +, an increase in range and/or abundance; ?, species not seen by the author of the relevant list but believed by the author to be still in the district. Species not assessed occur in aquatic habitats or appear only as occasional vagrants.

Data for 1900-20 are from: (1) Milligan (1905); (2) Orton & Sandland (1913); (3) Milligan (1904); (4) Lawson (1905); (5) Leake (1962); (6) Crossman (1909); (7) Carter (1923); (8) Milligan (1903); 1930-37 from (9) Jenkins (1931); (10) Sedgwick (1937); (11) Carnaby (1933); 1946-57 from (12) Sedgwick (1953); (13) Reid (1951, 1952); (14) Sedgwick (1952); (15) Loaring & Serventy (1952); (16) Ford & Stone (1957); (17) Storr (1953); (18) Sedgwick (1947); (19) Sedgwick (1962); (20) Serventy (1958); 1970-79 from (21) Dell & McGauran (1981); (22) Dell (1979a); (23) Dell (1979b); (24) Dell (1979c); (25) Halse et al.

(1985); (26) de Rebeira & de Rebeira (1977); (27) G. S. Chapman & L. A. Moore (pers. comm.); (28) Dell (1981); (29) Dell (1978b, 1980a); (30) Masters & Milhinch (1974); (31) Dell (1980b); (32) Sedgwick (1974); (33) Dell (1977); (34) Harold & Dell (1979); (35) Dell (1978a); (36) Dell & Johnstone (1976); (37) Dell (1976); 1985-87 from (38) W. H. van Veen (pers. comm.); (39) Sedgwick (1986); (40) Saunders (unpublished data); (41) A. J. E. Lyneham (pers. comm.); and (42) Wheatbelt Checklist Survey.

Appendix cont&ues

1 2 0 D. A. S a u n d e r s

APPENDIX 1--contd.

Name I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO II 12 13 14 15 16 17

Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae

Hoary-headed grebe

Polioeephalus poliocephalus Australasian little grebe

Taehyhaptus novaehollandiae Crested grebe

Podiceps cristatus Austral ian pelican

Pelecanus conspicillatus Darter

Anhinga melunogaster Little black cormorant

Phalacroeorax suleirostris Black cormorant

P. turbo Little pied cormorant

P. melanoleucos Pied cormorant

P. varius White-necked heron

A rdea pac(fica White-faced heron

A. novaehollandiae Nankeen night heron

Nycticorax caledonicus Large egret

Egretta albu Glossy ibis

Plegadis [ah'inellus Straw-necked ibis

Threskiornis spinicollis Black bittern

Dupetor .[tavicollis Brown bittern

Botaurus poiciloptilus Royal spoonbill

Platalea regia Yellow-billed spoonbill

P. [lavipes Black swan

Cygnus atratus Freckled duck

Striclonella naevosa Mountain duck

Tadorna tadornoides Black duck

Anas superciliosa Grey teal

A. gibberi#ons Chestnut teal

A. caslanea Shoveller

A. rhynchotis

* - C U U ? U C C C * R

* * U * V C C

C * R C C

C * * C *

* C U U *? R

* * C U *

* R * *

* * V C C C V C * *

* C C V C

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

* V C R R U C R R * U C - R * * -

C R C * C U * * *

U R R * R C * * *

* U * U * *

* R R U

* C U R C

U C U * C

* U U U U * *

U * C U U U C

* C R * * C *

* R R *

* * C U V C C U U * 13

R U U * * * 24 0

R U C U * * U * * * U * 42 0

* * U U

U C U *

C U R U U V C C * U U C + U * C * U C * * * U * 86 +

U C U C - * * * * 40

U V C C C C * * C * * * 48

U * * * * *

(conttnued)

122 D. A. Saunders

APPENDIX 1--contd.

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Pink-eared duck

Malacorhynchus membranaceus White-eyed duck

Aythya australis Wood duck

Chenonetta jubata Blue-billed duck

Oxyura australis Musk duck

Biziura lobata Black-shouldered kite

Elanus notatus Letter-winged kite

E. scriptus Square-tailed kite

Lophoictinia isura Black kite

Milvus migrans Black-breasted kite

namirostra melanosternon Whistling kite

Haliastur sphenurus Brown goshawk

A ccipiter fasciatus Collared sparrowhawk

A. cirrhocephalus Wedge-tailed eagle

Aquilla audax Little eagle

Hieraetus rnorphnoides Spotted harrier

Circus assimilis Marsh harrier

C. aeruginosus Black falcon

Falco subniger Peregrine falcon

F. peregrinus Little falcon

F. longipennis Grey falcon

F. hypoleucos Brown falcon

F. berigora Nankeen kestrel

F. cenchroides Mallee fowl

Leipoa ocellata Stubble quail

Coturnix novaezealandiae Brown quail

C. australis Painted button quail

Turnix varia

U U * C

C * C C * * *

C C * - U C * R U *

U * * C C C * * U

C * * U C

• U R

U * * C

U U R R

R * U C U U U U

C U U * C VC C V C * VC C * C C U

U U U * - C C C V C * * C U C * C *

R - * U - C - ? R - U - U R -

R U C U * V C * C

• C U R U

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

C C * R

• C * U

• U U U * * U R C +

• * C *

• * U * R

* U R R R R U * R U C C * R

* U * C * * * * U * 65 +

U * * U * 55 +

U C R 9

* C U R U * U U C - R U * * 11 + ?

U U * * R R * * U U C R * U * * R 29 0

* * * R R U * * * * R 18 0

* * U - C R U C U C * U U U U * U * U * * * * U * 82 +

* * C R R R U * * U U C U * U

R R R * * R R R U *

R R * * R U *

• U R U R * * R U U *

* * U 29 0

* * U 18 0

* * * 15 0

U * * * * R 25 0

U * * C U R U * * U U C U * U * U * * * U * 41 0

U * C C U U U C C * U C C C * U * U * * * * U * 63 0

* R U * U U R

* C U C * C

* * * U U U U

* C * * *- - 19 .-

* * * * 53 +

U C U * * 8 0

(contmued)

124 D. A. Saunders

A P P E N D I X 1--contd .

Name I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO II 12 13 14 15 16 17

Little button quail T. velox

Marsh crake Porzana pusilla

Black-tailed native hen

Gallinula ventralis Dusky moorhen

G. tenebrosa Swamphen

Porphrio porphrio Coot

Fulica atra Bustard

Ardeotis australis Bush stone curlew

Burhinus magnirostris Banded plover

Vanellus tricolor Red-kneed dotterel

Erythrogonys cinctus Hooded dotterel

Charadrius rubwollis Red-capped dotterel

C. ruficapillus Black-fronted dotterel

C. melanops Austral ian dotterel

Peltohyas australis Pied stilt

Himantopus himantopus Banded stilt

Cladorhynchus leucocephalus Red-necked avocet

Recurvirostra novaehollandiae Wood sandpiper

Tringa glareola Greenshank

72 nebularia Marsh sandpiper

T. stagnatilis C o m m o n sandpiper

T. hypoleucos Sharp-tailed sandpiper

Calidris acuminata Red-necked stint

C. ruficollis Curlew sandpiper

C. lbrruginea Silver gull

Larus novaehollandiae Whiskered tern

Chlidonias hybrida Gull-billed tern

Gelochelidon nilotica

U * * C

C * R U R *

C * U * - U U + R U U

R C C * V C C V C * * *

C + * * U C +

VC * C * C * * C U

VC * C

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4l 42 C

* C R *

* * C * R R U * U

* C V C * C

* * R - R * E *

* * R R R * R U * R

U C C C U U U C * * C U C U * U *

C * * C

• C U U R * C

R * * *

• U * U V C * C C *

• U C * C

R * C * R C

• * R * R

* * * 8 0

* * R 13 0

* * * 18

* R * 2 4 - -

* * U 6 9 +

* * * * 18

* * 16 +

* * 18

It ontinued)

126 D. ,4. S a u n d e r s

APPENDIX 1--contd.

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 I1 12 13 14 15 16 17

Domest ic pigeon Columba livia

Laughing turtledove Streptopelia senegalensis

Diamond dove Geopelia cuneata

Brush bronzewing Phaps elegans

C o m m o n bronzewing P. chah'optera

Crested pigeon

Ocyphaps Iophotes Red-tailed black cockatoo

Calyptorhynchus magni[icus Carnaby 's cockatoo

C. [unereus latirostris Galah

Cacatua rosek'apilla Little corella

C. sanguinea Long-billed corella

C. pastinator Pink cockatoo

C. leudbeateri Purple-crowned lorikeet

GIossopsitta porhyrocephala Regent parrot

PolyteliL~ unthopeplus Cockateil

Nymphicus holhmdicus Budgerigar

Melopsittacus undulatus Red-capped parrot

Purpureicephalus spurius Western rosella

Plao'cercus icterotis Port Lincoln ringneck

Barnardius zonarius Mulga parrot

Psephotus varius Elegant parrot

Neophema elegans Pallid cuckoo

Cuculus pallidus Fan-tailed cuckoo

C. pyrrhophanus Black-eared cuckoo

Chrysococcyx osculans Horsfield's bronze cuckoo

C. basalis Shining bronze cuckoo

C. lucidus Boobook owl

Ninox novaeseelandiae

C * * - C C

C R C * - U C C

1920 R +

* V C C

VC C VC C VC V C * VC

* U * R * R

U * U U

* - C U R

C U * C C U R * VC

R * V C * V C * * U *

• * C * R

• V C V C V C * C *

VC * VC U C * * C U

* V C C C V C V C V C V C * V C V C V C

* U * * C

C * R R

VC U * * C C C C? * V C *

R C C C U * V C

R * R *

R C U U * U *

VC C * C? *

U * * * - C C C * C * *

VC VC VC

* * C *

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

R R U C

R R U C U

U C C C U C R C * * C U C - U * C * U C

V C C C U V C C * U C U C * U

V C U U U * U *

U * U * R U R * U R * U C *

U U V C V C V C U V C C V C C C U C U U *

• C R R U * * R U R

U * C U

C * * R

* R R U * U * U C *

* R * C

* * R R * R

R R * R * C * *

* U * 3 4 +

* * U * 3 9 +

* * U * 7 4 0

* * C * 9 2 +

* * 3 2 +

* * 3 0 -

* * V C * 9 6 +

U 39 +

* 13 -

* R * 2 9 -

* * * 19 0

* 21 0

* * 2 0 -

C * * V C V C C U V C V C * V C V C C V C * C C V C C * * * V C * 97 0

U C U U * * C U R U * U * * C * 41 +

C * R C * U C U * C * U C * U * 42 +

C * * C U U R C * * U U C U * R * U * * * * C * 76 0

U * * U R * U * R C U * * * U * 13 -

• C R U * * R R 9 0

C * * C U U C * * U U * U * R U * * *? * U * 27 0

U * * * R * * R C * U * C U 12 -

• * * C R U R * * R R U U * R * U * C * C * 30 0

(continued)

128 D. A. Saunders

A P P E N D I X 1 - - c o n t d .

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Barking owl

N. connivens Barn owl

Tyto alba Tawny frogmouth

Podargus strigoides Owlet-nightjar

Aegotheles cristatus Spotted nightjar

Caprimulgus guttatus Fork- tailed swift

Apus pae(ficus Laughing kookaburra

Dacelo gigas Red-backed kingfisher

HakTon pyrrhopygia Sacred kingfisher

H. sancta Rainbow bee-eater

Merops ornatus White-backed swallow

Cheramoeca leucoslernum Welcome swallow

Hirumlo neoxena Tree martin

Cecropis nigricans Fairy martin

C. ariel Richard's pipit

Anthus novaeseelandiae Black-faced cuckoo-shrike

Coracina novaehollandiae Ground cuckoo-shrike

C. maxima White-winged triller

Lalage sueurii Southern scrub robin

Drymodes brunneopygia Scarlet robin

Petroica multicolor Red-capped robin

P. goodenovii Hooded robin

Melanodryas cucullata Western yellow robin

Eopsaltria griseogularis Jacky winter

Microeca leucophaea Crested shrike-tit

Faleunculus fi'ontalus Gilbert 's whistler

Pachycephala inornata Golden whistler

P. pectoralis

* R * * * *

C * * C C C * C * * * C

* - C * * * C

* - ? * •

R * * *

R R R R * R

* R * * U

VC C C U C C * *

VC C * C C VC * C * C U

R * * - U R C * * * * C U

R * * C C U V C * U + * * * C *

VC C C C C C VC * VC * C * * C U

R * * C U * * C U

VC C C * C C C V C * V C * VC * * C C

VC U C * C C C V C * V C * C * C U U

R U * - * C R

VC C * C C C * * * * C

• U * C R * R

R * C C C U * C R

C U * C C C * C U C U

R * - C C U C R U

R R * C C C * C R

C C C * C U U C R R C

R U C U R R

• C R R

R U U * C R * R

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

* * - - * 0

* C R R * * C U U * R * * * * 19 0

* * C U U R R * * U C C U * * * C * * * * U * 45 0

R * * C U * U U * U * * * * * C U U

* C R * R R R * R

U R * * R *

* * U R R * * R R * R

* - * 5 0

* 37 +

* * 34 0

* * * U * 58 0

* U 16 0

* * U * 85 +

C * * V C U R U C * C C * U * *

C R U C C * * U * U * R

U * * U U U R V C C * U U C C * R * *

C C * C U C R V C * * C C V C C * C * C C * * * C * 37 0

U U * * 7 0

C * * V C C V C R V C C * V C V C C C C C C C C R * * V C * 71 + ?

U * * C C U C C * * C C C C * U * C C * * * C * 84 0

R R * * * -

C * * U R U * * C C * U R * U * * * * U * 33 0

C * C C C ? C * C C C C U C C * - U 10 0

• * R U * U * * 18 -

C * * C C U C C C * V C C C U * C C U * C * * C * 52 0

* * R C R * U *

U U * C R U * * R U C R * U * U C *

C * * U R U * R C U R R R U *

* * U U U

* * 5 --

* - - U * 17 -

* U * 16 -

* C * C C U * * - R * 23 0 * * U U R

(continued)

130 D. A . S a u n d e r s

A P P E N D I X 1--contd.

Name l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO II 12 13 14 15 16 17

Rufous whistler

P. rufiventris Grey shrike-thrush

Colluricinela harmonica Crested bellbird

Oreoica gutturalis Restless flycatcher

Myiagra inquieta Grey fantail

Rhipidura .[uliginosa Willie wagtail

R. leucophrys Chestnut quail-thrush

Cinclosoma castanotum White-browed babbler

Pomatostomus superciliosus Rufous song lark

Cinclorhamphus mathewsi Brown song lark

C\ cruralis Splendid wren

Malurus splendens Variegated wren

M. lamberti Red-winged wren

M. elegans Blue-breasted wren

M. pulcherrimus White-winged wren

M. leucopterus Southern emu wren

Stipiturus malaehurus Thick-billed grass wren

Amytornis textilis White-browed scrub wren

Sericornis .[rontalis Shy hylacola

S. caulus Redthroat

S. brunneus Field wren

S. fidiginosus Southern whiteface

Aphelocephala leucopsis Weebin

Smierornis brevirostris Western warbler

Gerygone.[usca Broad-tailed thornbill

Acanthiza apk'alis Chestnut-rumped thornbill

A. uropygialis Yellow-rumped thornbill

A. ehrvsorrhoa

* V C * U C V C * R U U * C U

* U C C * - C C C C * C * * * * C U

* - C C C * C C C * * C *

C * - C C C U C U R

* U C U C * C * *

U * C C C V C * C U C * C C U

R * - * C *

C C * C C VC VC * C * * * C U

VC R * C * * U

U * * C U * * * * C

• R C U C C *

C * - * R U

• R C U U

• R U C

U * ? U * C

U VC C C C

C * - C * ? C C

VC V C C * - C C * * C * C VC C C U

U C C * C C C R C * C C

VC C * - C V C C C C C U * U *

• V C * C C * C U

• V C C C * - C V C C V C * C * C C * C V C

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

C C * C U U U C * * C C C C * U * U * * * * C * 42 0

C U * V C C C C C * * C C U U * C C C C C * * - C * 45 0

U * C C C C U * * C C * C U C * * * C 23 -

U * * U R U * * * R * 20 -

U * * C C C R V C * * C C C U * R * * C * * * U * 55 0

U * * V C V C C C V C * * C C C C * U * U * * * * C * 98 0

• U R *

U * * C C C R * * C C C C * U * U * R * * C * 44 0

U * * U U * * * U * R 14 0

• * U R R R * * U R * C * R * U * U * 42 0

• V C C R R U - * * 18 -

V C C ? C * * 0

• C ? C * U U * C * U C C * - R * 21 -

U C R R C C C * C * 7 -

• R U C -

• C U R U * C C * * 11 -

U * * U C * R * C C C * - R * 0

V C V C C U U * * V C R U C * * * - R 5 0

U * C U C U * R C - * C C U * * * 0

• 5 0

V C * * V C C C R C C * V C V C C V C C V C V C C V C C * V C * 40 0

U * * U R U R C * U U C U * R C U * * * U * 20 0

U C * V C V C V C R C C * C C R C V C V C C C * * C * 20 0

C * V C C C R C C * V C C * U * C C U * * * - C * 19 0

C * * V C C C C V C C * V C C C - U * U * U * * * * C * 59 0

[~'ontinued)

132 D. A . S a u n d e r s

APPENDIX 1--contd.

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II 12 13 14 15 16 17

Western thornbill

A. inornata Varied sittella

Daphoenositta chrysoptera Rufous treecreeper

Climacleris ru[~t Red wattlebird

Anlhoehaera caruneulata Little wattlebird

,4. ehrysoptera Spiny-cheeked honeyeater

Acanthagenys ru]ogularis Western spinebill

Acanthorhynchus superciliosus Yellow-throated miner

Manorina fhwigula Singing honeyeater

tiehenoslomus vireseens White-eared honeyeater

L. leucotis Purple-gaped honeyeater

L. cratitius Yellow-plumed honeyeater

L. ornatus Grey-fronted honeyeater

L. plumulus White-plumed honeyeater

L. penieillatus Brown-headed honeyeater

Melithreptus brevirostrix White-naped honeyeater

M. lunatus Brown honeyeater

Lichmera indistincta New Holland honeyeater

Phylidonyris novaehollandiae White-cheeked honeyeater

P. nigra White-fronted honeyeater

P. albiJt'ons Tawny-crowned honeyeater

P. melanops Black honeyeater

Certhionyx niger Pied honeyeater

C. variegalus Crimson chat

Ephthianura tricolor Orange chat

E. aur(#ons White-fronted chat

E. alb~[rons Mistletoe bird

Dicaeum hirundinaceum

R C C *

C U C * - C C C U * C C U

C C C * C C C U

C C C * C VC C * * C * * U * C U

* C VC

* U C U *

C R * C * C * U

* * C C C C * C C C * C U

* C U U C * C * C * C U

C * * C * C * C *

VC VC C C C U

C C C *

* C VC

C C * *

C C * * C * C *

U * ? U

U C * * C * U C C U

VC C * U *

C * * R

C VC * VC * U C

C + C * * C C VC U * VC U * * * C C

• U * * R U *

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

• * U

U * * U

U U R C

U * R U C R

* U 6 0

U * U * * * U * 18 -

R * C * * * 13 -

U U * R U U C U C C * * U * 57

* 15 -

* * R U * C R

* * U U

U * * C C C U R * * U U C C * U

* * U 21 -

* * * * C 71 0

C * * V C C V C V C C C * C C C V C U U U U * * * * C * 64 0

U * U C R * * V C C C C U U * * C 22 0

• * * U U C * * * 0

U * * U U R C * C * R * 10 -

• U * 2 4 0

• I1 -

V C V C C V C C C C V C C C * * C * 41 0

C * * C U C R U * * C U C U * C C U * *

• U R

C C * C R C U V C C

• * * C C

• V C U * U U

? C U U * C C * U R

U * * U C V C R R R C U U V C C *

U * * C U C C V C C * C U * V C * *

• * U R U R C

* 16 0

* * 13 0

* U 5 -

* R * 9 -

U U * * * U * 46 0

• * 16 0

{contmuedl

134 D. A. Saunders

A P P E N D I X 1--contd.

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Spotted pardalote

Pardalotus punctatus Yellow-rumped pardalote

P. xanthopygus Striated pardalote

P. striatus Silvereye

Zosterops lateralis Zebra finch

Poephila guttata Australian magpie lark

Grallina o'anoleuca Masked woodswallow

Artamus personatus Black-faced woodswallow

A. cinereus Little woodswallow

A. minor White-browed woodswallow

A. superciliosus Dusky woodswallow

A. o'anopterus Grey butcherbird

Cracticus torquatus Pied butcherbird

C. nigrogularis Australian magpie

Gymnorhina tibicen Grey currawong

Strepera versicolor Australian raven

Corvus coronoides Little crow

C. bennetti

No. species seen

R * - U C C

C C C C C C V C * C U C U U

C C C * U C C C C U U

• U * C U * * R U * U U

C U R * R C U VC * U + U * C * C U

VC U C * * *

VC U * VC V C * R U C C U C VC

U C C C U VC *

VC C * * C C C C * C * C * C U

• * * C C * R C * U R U

VC * C * C C C V C * C * V C * * C U

U U * - C C R * C U * U

VC C C * C R + V C * R + * VC ? * C

• * R + * C

- 118 74 52 100 85 123 68 91 75 126 77 52 48 64 133 46

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 C

* R * R U U C C * C U * 12 0

* * - 5 0

V C * * U U C R C C * V C C C U * * C C U * * * C * 41 0

C * U R U C * U C R U * U C C R * 33

U * C U R U * U U C R

U * * C U U U C C * U U C U * U

U * C R * * R *

C * * U R C U V C C * U U C V C * C * U *

R * * * R R R

U * U C U U R U U U C - R * U

• C U U U C * U U U U * R

* * U 29 0

U * * * * C * 92 0

* * V C * 55 -~

U C * * 20 -

U U * * * C * 61 0

• * C 61 0

U * * C C U R C C * C C C U * C * C U R * * C * 95 0

U * * C U U U * U U * C U U C * * * - R * 35 -

U C * V C V C V C U V C C * V C V C C V C * C C C C C * * V C * 92 0

V C C C * R * * C U * * U * * * * U 21 0

80 85 142 1 2 7 7 1 90 77 88 124 99 89 9 6 150 81 9 0 85 67 84 88 82 82 1 1 5 9 7 85 180

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