Post on 23-Feb-2023
Introduction to Archaeology: Spring 2021
Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
Lecture 21: What Did They Think?
Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion.Notes and images compiled by Gregory Mumford (© 2021)
Contents:
10. What did they think? Cognitive archaeology, art, and religion.
1. Introduction: 6-7
Theory and method 10
2. Investigating how human-symbolizing faculties evolved 16
a. How human-symbolizing faculties evolved 17
b. Language and self-consciousness 20
c. Design in tool manufacture 24
d. Procurement of materials and planning time 27
e. Organized behaviour: living floor & food sharing hyp. 30
f. Lithic assemblages as functionally/culturally determined33
g. Deliberate burial of human remains 38
h. Representations 45
3. Working with symbols 49
Contents:
10. What did they think? Cognitive archaeology, art, and religion.
4. From written source to cognitive map 59
a. Introduction 60
b. Societies with restricted literacy 63
c. Widespread literacy of classical Greece 67
5. Establishing place: The location of memory 71
6. Measuring the World in past cultures: 82
a. Units of time: 83
b. Units of length 86
c. Units of weight 88
7. Planning: maps for the future 92
8. Symbols of organization and power 101
a. Money: symbols of value+organization in complex soc. 103
b. Identifying symbols of value & power in Prehistory 105
c. Symbols of power in hierarchical societies 109
Contents:
10. What did they think? Cognitive archaeology, art, and religion.
9. Symbols for the other world: archaeology of religion 114
a. Recognition of cult 119
b. Archaeological indicators of ritual 127
c. Identifying the supernatural powers 149
d. The archaeology of death 156
10.Depiction: art and representation. 164
a. The work of the sculptor: Early Upper Paleolithic 166
b. Pictorial relationships 169
c. Decoration 174
d. Art and myth 178
e. Aesthetic questions 183
11.SUMMARY: 186
12. CASE STUDY: Egyptian art 188
Instructor tips for lectures, etc.:
(1). Attend class regularly (& listen) …→ Many clarifications, tips, announcements,
reinforcement & reviews of materials/concepts.
(2). Take notes on lectures, etc. …→ The act of writing down notes, even with
most course materials and instructions online,
serves as an invaluable aid to one focusing on
a class topic and retaining information better.
(3). Complete the required textbook
readings, and/or review the ppt.,
prior to the specific class day …→ This will provide greater clarity and
comprehension of the material, and will enable
asking focused questions where something
may be less clear (in the textbook or lecture).
(4). Ask questions during the class if
you are confused/wish more data→ The class is an ideal place to ask for more
clarity or further information not contained in
the textbook, ppt., and/or lecture (If nobody
asks questions, the lecture proceeds …).
(5). Complete optional materials:→ Additional reinforcement, studying & bonus?
https://howtostudyincollege.com/how-to-get-good-grades/note-taking-strategies/
Renfrew and Bahn
2019 (8th. Ed.)
Chapter 10:
What did they think?
Cognitive archaeology,
art, and religion.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion1.1. Introduction:
• NOW we are trying to extract ways
of thought from material culture
assemblages (in addition to the
textual-pictorial record used by
historians & art historians).
• The New Archaeology attempted to
standardize approaches to
reconstructing anc. thought patterns
from artifacts.
• Chp.10 proposes systematic
procedures to analyze past
concepts & ways of thinking: e.g.,
- How people view their universe/world?
- How they planned monuments & cities?
- What people valued the most?
- What are selected as authority symbols?
- How people viewed spirit world?
- How people practiced religion?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion1.1. Introduction:
• NOW we are trying to extract ways
of thought from material culture
assemblages (in addition to the
textual-pictorial record used by
historians & art historians).
• The New Archaeology attempted to
standardize approaches to
reconstructing anc. thought patterns
from artifacts.
• Chp.10 proposes systematic
procedures to analyze past
concepts & ways of thinking: e.g.,
- How people view their universe/world?
- How they planned monuments & cities?
- What people valued the most?
- What are selected as authority symbols?
- How people viewed spirit world?
- How people practiced religion?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
1.2. Theory and Method:
• Human use of symbols distinguishes
us from other beings (for most part).
• Symbols = in thoughts & language
E.g., sound & written letters.
• Their selection = often arbitrary
• Most/all symbols = specific to
individual cultures
E.g., Scandinavian rock carving:
Is it a boat? Or a Sledge?/sled?
Normally archaeologists need more
context to interpret ancient symbols.
• How is a given symbol used with
other symbols? → see assemblage!
• Archaeologists also need to interpret
artifact/pictorial meaning
Pictish
symbols:
4th – 9th
centuries
AD
https://www.aberdeenshire.
gov.uk/leisure-sport-and-
culture/archaeology/sites-
to-visit/pictish-symbol-stones/
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
1.2. Theory and Method:
• Human use of symbols distinguishes
us from other beings (for most part).
• Symbols = in thoughts & language
E.g., sound & written letters.
• Their selection = often arbitrary
• Most/all symbols = specific to
individual cultures
E.g., Scandinavian rock carving:
Is it a boat? Or a Sledge?
Normally archaeologists need more
context to interpret ancient symbols.
• How is a given symbol used with
other symbols? → see assemblage!
• Archaeologists also need to interpret
artefact / pictorial meaning
How would ancient people view modern water hazard symbol?
Broader contexts enable decipherment …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• Remind self of multiple possible
meanings! i.e., the complexity of reality
• Be ready to modify/discard views
with new evidence! i.e., be flexible …
Karl Popper:
“World-1” = physical objects
“World-2” = subjective experiences
“World-3” = artifacts = product of
human thoughts & intentions.
Renfrew & Bahn: sugg. Methodological
individualism re: past concepts:
a. Each person has a cognitive map
of the world (past; pres.; future)
b. The same cultural grouping often
share the same overall world view
(mind set)→common cognitive map
Note: Individual variants
Specialist groups in populace
Anc. Egyptian
curling tongs
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• Remind self of multiple possible
meanings!
• Be ready to modify/discard views
with new evidence!
Karl Popper:
“World-1” = physical objects
“World-2” = subjective experiences
“World-3” = artifacts = product of
human thoughts & intentions.
Renfrew & Bahn: sugg. Methodological
individualism re: past concepts:
a. Each person has a “cognitive map”
of the world (past; pres.; future)
b. The same cultural grouping often
share the same overall world view
(mind set)→common cognitive map
Note: Individual variants
Specialist groups in populace
Changing views / concepts
Growing up in & interacting with one’s family, community, environment, beliefs,
new ideas/concepts, adjacent communities, external visitors/ideas, travel, etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.1. Investigating how human-
symbolizing faculties evolved.
• Archaeologists often tend to view
past human species as having
similar behavior & cognitive abilities.
• This may apply to all groups within
Homo sapiens sapiens
• BUT, every group has variation
within it.
• i.e., ALL races/peoples are alike
in ability:
-- Circumstances differ
-- Individuals vary
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.1. Investigating how human-
symbolizing faculties evolved.
• Archaeologists often tend to view
past human species as having
similar behavior & cognitive abilities.
• This may apply to all groups within
Homo sapiens sapiens
• BUT, every group has variation
within it.
• i.e., ALL “races” / peoples are alike
in ability:
-- Circumstances differ
-- Individuals vary
-- Individuals change
i.e., age; experience; etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.2. Language &
self-consciousness:
• H. sapiens sapiens 100,000–40,000 BP
• Scholars disagree on the advent
of modern human abilities prior to
this period (i.e., world 3)
• Prehistory = categorized by tool culture.
• Popper: views emergence of
language as linked with advent of
products of human mind (world-3)
• Some view language emerging in
2 million BP (Homo habilus)
in conjunction with chopper tools.
• Diff. to det. WHEN language appeared
1. Mimetic stage (H. erectus) = imitation
2. Mythic (early H. sap.) speech & narrative
3. Theoretic (complex) thought & writing
Origins of self-consciousness hard to pinpointhttp://ethnologie.pbworks.com/w/page/19331041/Homo%20sapiens
https://edu.glogster.com/glog/human-evolution/1wun9ktftlm
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.2. Language &
self-consciousness:
• Prehistory = categorized by tool culture.
• Popper: views emergence of
language as linked with advent of
products of human mind (world-3)
• Some view language emerging in
2 million BP (Homo habilus)
in conjunction with chopper tools.
• Diff. to det. WHEN language appeared
1. Mimetic stage (H. erectus) = imitation
2. Mythic (early H. sap.) speech & narrative
3. Theoretic (complex) thought & writing
Origins of self-consciousness hard to pinpoint
https://edu.glogster.com/glog/homo-habilis/29e6jid6soq
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.2. Language &
self-consciousness:
• H. sapiens sapiens 100,000–40,000 BP
• Scholars disagree on the advent
of modern human abilities prior to
this period (i.e., world 3)
• Prehistory = categorized by tool culture.
• Popper: views emergence of
language as linked with advent of
products of human mind (world-3)
• Some view language emerging in
2 million BP (Homo habilus)
in conjunction with chopper tools.
• = diff. to det. WHEN language appeared
1. Mimetic stage (H. erectus) = imitation
2. Mythic (early H. sap.) speech & narrative
3. Theoretic (complex) thought & writing
Origins of self-consciousness hard to pinpoint
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language#/media/File:From_where_to_what.png
Youtube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-BMQwSS-Iw
Language Areas of the brain. The angular
gyrus is represented in orange, supramarginal
gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is
represented in blue, Wernicke's area is
represented in green and the primary auditory
cortex is represented in pink.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_speech
Hyoid bone
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.3. Design in tool manufacture:
• Regarding tool use & prod., a pebble
tool (H. habilus) seems less complex
than an Acheulian hand-axe (H. erectus).
• BUT, this = subjective!
• Can we assess, quantitatively, a range
of variation in artifact assemblages?
• Does producer have “cognitive map”
regarding WHAT a tool should look like?
• G. Isaac found a trend to make better
def. tool types → implies individualism
(i.e., producers retain concept of best
tool forms per required task).
• Indicates planning & design →cognitive
abilities in early hominids (vs. chimps).
• Analyses of prod. Sequence to highlight
cognitive proc. behind artifact productionLess complex pebble tool …
Making an Acheulian hand-axe
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.3. Design in tool manufacture:
• Regarding tool use & prod., a pebble
tool (H. habilus) seems less complex
than an Acheulian hand-axe (H. erectus).
• BUT, this = subjective!
• Can we assess, quantitatively, a range
of variation in artifact assemblages?
• Does producer have “cognitive map”
regarding WHAT tool should look like?
• G. Isaac found a trend to make better
def. tool types → implies individualism
(i.e.,producers retain concept of the best
tool forms per required task).
• Indicates planning & design →cognitive
abilities in early hominids (vs. chimps).
• Analyses of prod. sequence to highlight
cognitive proc. behind artifact production
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.4. Procurement of materials
and planning time:
• Can also assess “planning time”
for early hominids: e.g., regarding
“intent” → to completion of a tool.
• E.g., Stone tool requiring:
- Travel / distance to source
- Place of manufacture (if apart)
- implies forward planning & intent
Manuport:
- Transplanting natural/completed
items (e.g., tools; ornaments; etc.)
suggests interest associated with
them → sense of “possession”
http://thetimesweekly.com/news/2015/mar/24/programs-starved-rock-massacre-flint-knapping-wate/
Flint knapping
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.4. Procurement of materials
and planning time:
• Can also assess “planning time”
for early hominids: e.g., regarding
“intent” → completion of a tool.
• E.g., Stone tool requiring:
- Travel / distance to source
- Place of manufacture (if apart)
- implies forward planning & intent
Manuport:
- Transplanting natural/completed
items (e.g., tools; ornaments; etc.)
suggests interest associated with
them → sense of “possession”
(2). Evolution of
Human symbolizing
faculties:(e). Organized behaviour:
living floor & food sharing
hypothesis.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.4. Organized behavior: the living
floor & food-sharing hypothesis:
• Study formation processes carefully
esp. since Paleolithic = long-time span:
E.g.,Early Hominid site: Olduvai Gorge
2 – 1.5 million years BP yielded
assoc. stone tools & animal bones
→ activity areas?
→ poss. occupation sites, camps
for kin groups (food-sharing?)
• Others (Binford) argue that these sites
= predator kill sites, where humans
extracted marrow using handy stones
→ Detailed analysis needed since
one view suggests limited intelligence
versus other view (social behavior).
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.4. Organized behavior: the living
floor & food-sharing hypothesis:
• Study formation processes carefully
esp. since Paleolithic = long-time span:
E.g.,Early Hominid site: Olduvai Gorge
2 – 1.5 million years BP
assoc. stone tools & animal bones
→ activity areas?
→ poss. occupation sites, camps
for kin groups (food-sharing?)
• Others (Binford) argue that these sites
= predator kill sites, where humans
extracted marrow using handy stones
→ Detailed analysis = needed since
one view suggests limited intelligence
versus other view (social behavior).
Opportunity: Human scavengers
Pre-planning: Human hunters
(2). Evolution of
Human symbolizing
faculties:(f). Lithic assemblages
as functionally/culturally
determined.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.5. Lithic assemblages as functionally
or culturally determined:
• Another question involves the timing of
the emergence of distinct material culture
in adjacent areas.
• E.g., Middle Paleolithic stone tool
assemblage of Neanderthals (Mousterian)
(180,000 – 30,000 BP)
• 1960s Bordes: argued = diff. groups in
SW France i.e, archaeological cultures
(or ethnic groups).
• Binford: countered that this rep. different
tool kits for diff. purposes (factor analysis)
• Mellars: = chronological sequence.
→ The argument = still on-going
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.5. Lithic assemblages as functionally
or culturally determined:
• Another question involves the timing of
the emergence of distinct material culture
in adjacent areas.
• E.g., Middle Paleolithic stone tool
assemblage of Neanderthals (Mousterian)
(180,000 – 30,000 BP)
• 1960s Bordes: argued = diff. groups in
SW France i.e, archaeological cultures
(or ethnic groups).
• Binford: countered that this rep. different
tool kits for diff. purposes (factor analysis)
• Mellars: = chronological sequence.
→ The argument = still on-going
Neanderthal fossils …
Neanderthal Cave site (in France)http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/175-000-years-old-neanderthals-cave-
discovered-in-france
Contemporary
with diff. mat. culture
Site
A
Site
B
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.5. Lithic assemblages as functionally
or culturally determined:
• Another question involves the timing of
the emergence of distinct material culture
in adjacent areas.
• E.g., Middle Paleolithic stone tool
assemblage of Neanderthals (Mousterian)
(180,000 – 30,000 BP)
• 1960s Bordes: argued = diff. groups in
SW France i.e, archaeological cultures
(or ethnic groups).
• Binford: countered that this rep. different
tool kits for diff. purposes (factor analysis)
• Mellars: = chronological sequence.
→ The argument = still on-going
Range of Neanderthal tools …
Different functions: E.g., camp sites …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2.5. Lithic assemblages as functionally
or culturally determined:
• Another question involves the timing of
the emergence of distinct material culture
in adjacent areas.
• E.g., Middle Paleolithic stone tool
assemblage of Neanderthals (Mousterian)
(180,000 – 30,000 BP)
• 1960s Bordes: argued = diff. groups in
SW France i.e, archaeological cultures
(or ethnic groups).
• Binford: countered that this rep. different
tool kits for diff. purposes (factor analysis)
• Mellars: = chronological sequence.
→ The argument = still on-going
Upper Paleolithic tool sequence …
Neanderthal tools: cultures vs. site types
or sequence …
Site A Site B Site C
Different periods, cultures, etc. in time
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human
Remains:
• Upper Paleolithic period:
- many human burials in graves,
sometimes with ornaments.
• Earlier periods:
• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)
Shanidar Cave (Iraq) flowers? in cave
• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)
(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.
Disarticulated human bones (32-50)
40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!
• Neanderthal mask (France)
• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)
• Deliberate burials imply respect/care
belief in afterlife?
• Adornment implies possession?
need in death?
Paleolithic burial customs …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human
Remains:
• Upper Paleolithic period:
- many human burials in graves,
sometimes with ornaments.
• Earlier periods:
• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)
Shanidar Cave (Iraq): flowers? in cave
• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)
(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.
Disarticulated human bones (32-50)
40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!
• Neanderthal mask (France)
• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)
• Deliberate burials imply respect/care
belief in afterlife?
• Adornment implies possession?
need in death?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human
Remains:
• Upper Paleolithic period:
- many human burials in graves,
sometimes with ornaments.
• Earlier periods:
• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)
Shanidar Cave (Iraq) flowers? in cave
• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)
(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.
Disarticulated human bones (32-50)
40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!
• Neanderthal mask (France)
• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)
• Deliberate burials imply respect/care
belief in afterlife?
• Adornment implies possession?
need in death?
http://www.revistaadios.es/noticia/1904/un-nuevo-estudio-pone-en-duda-que-la-
acumulacion-de-huesos-de-atapuerca-y-dinaledi-fuera-ritual.html
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human
Remains:
• Upper Paleolithic period:
- many human burials in graves,
sometimes with ornaments.
• Earlier periods:
• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)
Shanidar Cave (Iraq) flowers? in cave
• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)
(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.
Disarticulated human bones (32-50)
40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!
• Neanderthal mask (France)
• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)
• Deliberate burials imply respect/care
belief in afterlife?
• Adornment implies possession?
need in death?
https://journals.openedition.org/paleo/3013
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human
Remains:
• Upper Paleolithic period:
- many human burials in graves,
sometimes with ornaments.
• Earlier periods:
• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)
Shanidar Cave (Iraq) flowers? in cave
• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)
(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.
Disarticulated human bones (32-50)
40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!
• Neanderthal mask (France)
• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)
• Deliberate burials imply respect/care
belief in afterlife?
• Adornment implies possession?
need in death?
Blombos Cave (S. Africa)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human
Remains:
• Upper Paleolithic period:
- many human burials in graves,
sometimes with ornaments.
• Earlier periods:
• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)
Shanidar Cave (Iraq) flowers? in cave
• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)
(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.
Disarticulated human bones (32-50)
40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!
• Neanderthal mask (France)
• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)
• Deliberate burials imply respect/care
belief in afterlife?
• Adornment implies possession?
need in death?
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-skeletons-of-shanidar-cave-7028477/
Shanidar Cave: burial with flowers
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.7. Representations:
• Any portrayal of something from life, or
thought, = a symbol.
• Paleolithic art:
• Need to determine the date
• Need to determine the status
• Now the earliest depictions are known
to predate Homo sapiens sapiens.
• Paleolithic Cave art:
• W. Europe 30,000 – 10,000 BP
Mostly animals depicted (bison; horse)
• 1960s Leroi-Gourhan: argued for
for narrative compositions: horses
& bisons usually in featured area
versus others in peripheral areas.
• BUT, = far more complex than this!
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-02357-8
https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-neanderthals-were-artists-20180222-
htmlstory.html
64,000 BP: La Pasiega in northern Spain
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.7. Representations:
• Any portrayal of something from life, or
thought, = a symbol.
• Paleolithic art:
• Need to determine the date
• Need to determine the status
• Now the earliest depictions are known
to predate Homo sapiens sapiens.
• Paleolithic Cave art:
• W. Europe 30,000 – 10,000 BP
Mostly animals depicted (bison; horse)
• 1960s Leroi-Gourhan: argued for
for narrative compositions: horses
& bisons usually in featured area
versus others in peripheral areas.
• BUT, = far more complex than this!
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.7. Representations:
• Any portrayal of something from life, or
thought, = a symbol.
• Paleolithic art:
• Need to determine the date
• Need to determine the status
• Now the earliest depictions are known
to predate Homo sapiens sapiens.
• Paleolithic Cave art:
• W. Europe 30,000 – 10,000 BP
Mostly animals depicted (bison; horse)
• 1960s Leroi-Gourhan: argued for
for narrative compositions: horses
& bisons usually in featured area
versus others in peripheral areas.
• BUT, = far more complex than this!
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:
• NOW → assess modern humans
using cognitive archaeology:
• Assess HOW symbols were used
• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”
• Today aspire to discover some of
these relationships.
• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:
1. Establishment of place: indicating
one’s land/community with markers
2. Symbols of measurement: units of
time, length, and weight.
3. Symbols used in planning: defining
intentions via models (e.g., city plan)
4. Regulating & organizing relations
between people: E.g., money; status
5. Representing & regulating human rel.
with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion
6. Describing world via depiction:
Representative art (sculpture; painting)
The White House (North Portico)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:
• NOW → assess modern humans
using cognitive archaeology:
• Assess HOW symbols were used
• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”
• Today aspire to discover some of
these relationships.
• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:
1. Establishment of place: indicating
one’s land/community with markers
2. Symbols of measurement: units of
time, length, and weight.
3. Symbols used in planning: defining
intentions via models (e.g., city plan)
4. Regulating & organizing relations
between people: E.g., money; status
5. Representing & regulating human rel.
with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion
6. Describing world via depiction:
Representative art (sculpture; painting)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:
• NOW → assess modern humans
using cognitive archaeology:
• Assess HOW symbols were used
• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”
• Today aspire to discover some of
these relationships.
• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:
1. Establishment of place: indicating
one’s land/community with markers
2. Symbols of measurement: units of
time, length, and weight.
3. Symbols used in planning: defining
intentions via models (e.g., city plan)
4. Regulating & organizing relations
between people: E.g., money; status
5. Representing & regulating human rel.
with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion
6. Describing world via depiction:
Representative art (sculpture; painting)Constantinople city plan
Dyn.19
map of
mining
region
(Egypt)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:
• NOW → assess modern humans
using cognitive archaeology:
• Assess HOW symbols were used
• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”
• Today aspire to discover some of
these relationships.
• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:
1. Establishment of place: indicating
one’s land/community with markers
2. Symbols of measurement: units of
time, length, and weight.
3. Symbols used in planning: defining
intentions via models (e.g., city plan)
4. Regulating & organizing relations
between people: E.g., money; status
5. Representing & regulating human rel.
with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion
6. Describing world via depiction:
Representative art (sculpture; painting)
Ca.3200 BCE
The royal status of
King Narmer, versus
others, portrayed
in different, ranked
heights via “Echelon”
perspective
Royal robes & setting
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:
• NOW → assess modern humans
using cognitive archaeology:
• Assess HOW symbols were used
• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”
• Today aspire to discover some of
these relationships.
• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:
1. Establishment of place: indicating
one’s land/community with markers
2. Symbols of measurement: units of
time, length, and weight.
3. Symbols used in planning: defining
intentions via models (e.g., city plan)
4. Regulating & organizing relations
between people: E.g., money; status
5. Representing & regulating human rel.
with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion
6. Describing world via depiction:
Representative art (sculpture; painting)
Pharaoh: guarantor of Maat (“justice”), protecting Egypt
Pharaoh: Crowned by gods; mediator with deities; protector …
Many other and different examples …
O.K. Royal & Private beliefs concerning the afterlife.
Akh: “a blessed spirit” or “a transfigured one”
Righteous persons permitted to be buried
in official cemetery could become an Akh.
Convicted criminals stripped of their
names, denied burial in cemetery, and
prohibited from becoming an Akh.
Ka: “life force”/“spirit double” in all humans.
All Egyptians (commoner to king) had a ka.
gods had multiple kas; statues had a ka.
The ka and body became separated upon
death and needed to be reunited for the
deceased to attain spiritual resurrection.
required sustenance (real; images; words)
Ba: “power”/”forcefulness” of an individual.
GC vs. Only the king and gods had a Ba in the OK.
Allen Jabiru-bird; changing forms; free from body.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:
• NOW → assess modern humans
using cognitive archaeology:
• Assess HOW symbols were used
• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”
• Today aspire to discover some of
these relationships.
• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:
1. Establishment of place: indicating
one’s land/community with markers
2. Symbols of measurement: units of
time, length, and weight.
3. Symbols used in planning: defining
intentions via models (e.g., city plan)
4. Regulating & organizing relations
between people: E.g., money; status
5. Representing & regulating human rel.
with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion
6. Describing world via depiction:
Representative art (sculpture; painting)
New Kingdom Egypt: Elite marsh scene …
Dyn.19:
Sety I &
N. Sinai
forts …
Karnak
Temple
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4. From Written Source to
Cognitive Map:
4.1. Introduction.
• Written symbols have enabled
a. Descriptions of the surrounding
world,
b. Communication (incl. long
distance)
c. Control / administration
d. Preserving records over time
e. Etc.
• The evolution of languages can
often be traced from initial signs
to internal developments:
vocabulary, spelling, grammar
etc.
• E.g., signs becoming more
complex
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4. From Written Source to
Cognitive Map:
4.1. Introduction.
• Written symbols have enabled
a. Descriptions of the surrounding
world,
b. Communication (incl. long
distance)
c. Control / administration
d. Preserving records over time
e. Etc.
• The evolution of languages can
often be traced from initial signs
to internal developments:
vocabulary, spelling, grammar
etc.
• E.g., signs becoming more
complex
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4.2. Societies with
restricted literacy:
• Writing is usually restricted to a
small % of past populations:
E.g., Scribes & elite in
Mesoamerica & Mesopotamia.
• Writing may have limited
applications in some societies:
E.g., Mesoamerican public
monuments: stone lintels, panels,
stairways, and stelae.
• Mayan codices (four survive)
• Mayan elite pottery & jade
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4.2. Societies with
restricted literacy:
• Writing is usually restricted to a
small % of past populations:
E.g., Scribes & elite in
Mesoamerica & Mesopotamia.
• Writing may have limited
applications in some societies:
E.g., Mesoamerican public
monuments: stone lintels, panels,
stairways, and stelae.
• Mayan codices (four survive)
• Mayan elite pottery & jade
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4.2.a. Conceptualizing warfare:
• Mayans had 4 main glyphs
denoting warfare:
1. “Capture events”
(POWs → sacrifice)
2. “Destruction events”
(Compiling objectives)
3. “Axe events”
(major battles)
4. “Shell-star”/”star-war events”
(a polity overcoming another; or
a polity breaking free of another)
See further examples in text
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion4.3. Widespread literacy
of Classical Greece:
• In contrast, cultures like Greece
had widespread literacy,
• Greeks used papyrus for writing
most documents (Pompeii; Fayum)
•Public monuments in stone & metal:
1. Council/assembly decrees
2. Honoring person/people
3. State treaty
4. Monarchical letter to populace
5. Tax list for vassal states
6. Cult lists of property & offerings
7. Divination rules (omens)
8. Major records (building; contracts)
9. Public bulletins (military service)
10.Stones (for boundaries; mortgages)
11.Epitaph (funerary)
12.Curse against defilers (tombs)
→Suggest high % of literacy (audience)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The % of literacy in Ancient Greece
is better revealed by graffiti:
E.g., voting ostrakon bearing name
• Other uses:
1. Coins (noting city mint/authority)
2. Caption naming person(s) in scene
3. Prize labels (competitions)
4. Dedication labels (offerings)
5. Price labels
6. Signature (artist; craftsperson)
7. Jury list (members)
Hence, cognitive studies on ancient
Greece rely largely on literary records.
However, archaeological techniques
are applied to these & other cultures:
There are biases in the literary record
that can be checked independently.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The % of literacy in Ancient Greece
is better revealed by graffiti:
E.g., voting ostrakon bearing name
• Other uses:
1. Coins (noting city mint/authority)
2. Caption naming person(s) in scene
3. Prize labels (competitions)
4. Dedication labels (offerings)
5. Price labels
6. Signature (artist; craftsperson)
7. Jury list (members)
Hence, cognitive studies on ancient
Greece rely largely on literary records.
However, archaeological techniques
are applied to these & other cultures:
There are biases in the literary record
that can be checked independently.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
5.1. Establishing place:
The location of memory.
• Our immediate environment has
past & current symbolic meanings
that shape us, like past societies.
• Individual cognitive map:
= linked to the foundation of place
E.g., one’s home hearth / “domus”
(perm. settlement [with a center])
• Small community’s cognitive map:
E.g., Cemetery for ancestral dead
(in a home; group tomb; shrine; etc.)
• Larger community’s cognitive map:
E.g., Public meeting place
Sacred gathering place
Each social grouping resides within a
landscape with specific meanings/assoc.
for it, shaping individuals & community.E.g., Birmingham, AL: Early days → today …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
5.1. Establishing place:
The location of memory.
• Our immediate environment has
past & current symbolic meanings
that shape us, like past societies.
• Individual cognitive map:
= linked to the foundation of place
E.g., one’s home hearth / “domus”
(perm. settlement [with a center])
• Small community’s cognitive map:
E.g., Cemetery for ancestral dead
(in a home; group tomb; shrine; etc.)
• Larger community’s cognitive map:
E.g., Public meeting place
Sacred gathering place
Each social grouping resides within a
landscape with specific meanings/assoc.
for it, shaping individuals & community.
Ceremonial center
of Orkney (above):
Stone ring of
Brodgar (right),
associated with a
smaller community
(gathering place):
Barrows
at Stone-
henge
West Thebes:
Complex
mortuary,
cultic,
& urban
landscape
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
5.1. Establishing place:
The location of memory.
• Our immediate environment has
past & current symbolic meanings
that shape us, like past societies.
• Individual cognitive map:
= linked to the foundation of place
E.g., one’s home hearth / “domus”
(perm. settlement [with a center])
• Small community’s cognitive map:
E.g., Cemetery for ancestral dead
(in a home; group tomb; shrine; etc.)
• Larger community’s cognitive map:
E.g., Public meeting place
Sacred gathering place
Each social grouping resides within a
landscape with specific meanings/assoc.
for it, shaping individuals & community.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The individual & community’s associated
landscape forms their life experience
and world view, from hunter-gatherers
to state societies.
• Ancient settlement plans/layout may
incorporate greater underlying meanings
E.g., Reflecting cosmological beliefs &
imposing harmony (Far East; Maya)
• Sacred centers may also shape the focus
of small settlements: e.g., Stonehenge.
• Hence, ancient landscapes are made up
of many symbolic elements evoking
history & memories: e.g., Birmingham
Question(s):
• What parts of Birmingham’s landscape
have symbolic meaning?
• How have they shaped Birmingham?
• How are they continuing to shape/change?
Hunter-gatherer environment …
Chiefdom setting …Early state complex society’s
varying setting …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The individual & community’s associated
landscape forms their life experience
and world view, from hunter-gatherers
to state societies.
• Ancient settlement plans/layout may
incorporate greater underlying meanings
E.g., Reflecting cosmological beliefs &
imposing harmony (Far East; Maya)
• Sacred centers may also shape the focus
of small settlements: e.g., Stonehenge.
• Hence, ancient landscapes are made up
of many symbolic elements evoking
history & memories: e.g., Birmingham
Question(s):
• What parts of Birmingham’s landscape
have symbolic meaning?
• How have they shaped Birmingham?
• How are they continuing to shape/change?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The individual & community’s associated
landscape forms their life experience
and world view, from hunter-gatherers
to state societies.
• Ancient settlement plans/layout may
incorporate greater underlying meanings
E.g., Reflecting cosmological beliefs &
imposing harmony (Far East; Maya)
• Sacred centers may also shape the focus
of small settlements: e.g., Stonehenge.
• Hence, ancient landscapes are made up
of many symbolic elements evoking
history & memories: e.g., Birmingham
Question(s):
• What parts of Birmingham’s landscape
have symbolic meaning?
• How have they shaped Birmingham?
• How are they continuing to shape/change?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The individual & community’s assoc.
landscape forms their life experience
and world view, from hunter-gatherers
to state societies.
• Ancient settlement plans/layout may
incorporate greater underlying meanings
E.g., Reflecting cosmological beliefs &
imposing harmony (Far East; Maya)
• Sacred centers may also shape the focus
of small settlements: e.g., Stone Henge.
• Hence, ancient landscapes are made up
of many symbolic elements evoking
history & memories: e.g., Birmingham
Question(s):
• What parts of Birmingham’s landscape
have symbolic meaning?
• How have they shaped Birmingham?
• How are they continuing to shape/change?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• The individual & community’s assoc.
landscape forms their life experience
and world view, from hunter-gatherers
to state societies.
• Ancient settlement plans/layout may
incorporate greater underlying meanings
E.g., Reflecting cosmological beliefs &
imposing harmony (Far East; Maya)
• Sacred centers may also shape the focus
of small settlements: e.g., Stone Henge.
• Hence, ancient landscapes are made up
of many symbolic elements evoking
history & memories: e.g., Birmingham
Question(s):
• What parts of Birmingham’s landscape
have symbolic meaning?
• How have they shaped Birmingham?
• How are they continuing to shape/change?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• The study of ancient landscapes
also entails a cognitive aspect for
the ancient population:
• Reflecting a. Social organization
b. shaping force over time
c. Etc.
• Constructed landscapes may include
deserts: i.e., a. Roadways
b. quarries / mines
c. Nazca desert lines
Tropical area: Angkor’s hydraulic-scape
• Structures are sometimes aligned to
astronomical points
E.g., Chaco Canyon house alignment
• Structures may have ceremonial
components:
E.g., Circular rooms / kivas (Chaco)
Q.: How do we approach anc. landscapes?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• The study of ancient landscapes
also entails a cognitive aspect for
the ancient population:
• Reflecting a. Social organization
b. shaping force over time
c. Etc.
• Constructed landscapes may include
deserts: i.e., a. Roadways
b. quarries / mines
c. Nazca desert lines
d. Etc.
• Structures are sometimes aligned to
astronomical points
E.g., Chaco Canyon house alignment
• Structures may have ceremonial
components:
E.g., Circular rooms / kivas (Chaco)
Q.: How do we approach anc. landscapes?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
6.1. Measuring the world:
• Many ancient societies devised
ways to measure their environment
6.2. Units of time.
• Upper Paleolithic populations may
have kept track of time:
E.g., Plaque from Tai (France)
contains a series of notations
E.g., Tossal de la Rocca bone
(Spain) with notation(?) system.
I.e., They naturally had the concept of
aging and overall passage of time
(perhaps reflected in figurines).
• Ideally, an ancient society will yield
calendars with notational systems
linked to astronomical observations:
E.g., Maya calendars
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
Some structures appear to
have specific astronomical
alignments:
E.g.,British megalithic circles
like Stonehenge
(Analysis by A. Thom)
E.g., Mesoamerican & Andean
structures
(Analysis by A. Aveni)
Maya site of Uaxactun:
a. Mid-summer = North
b. Mid-winter = South
c. 2 equinoxes = Center
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
6.3. Units of length.
• One can reconstruct standard
units of length by analyzing
building measurements
= “Broadbent’s creation”
E.g., Ancient Egypt:
Measuring rods found,including
cubit: approx. 54 cm long.
Some building measurements
and ratios used = 2:1
i.e., Enclosure wall twice as
long as the width
i.e., Room twice as long as the
width
i.e., Brick twice as long as the
width
= consistent ratios 2:1
E.g., Royal cubit (versus std. cubit)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
6.4. Units of weight.
• One may find a series of
standard forms that reveal
successive multiples of the
smallest (std.) unit in the
grouping → system of weights
• Some items have markings
• Coinage is normally
distinguished by weight and
material (gold; silver; etc.)
and indicates different values.
E.g., Mohenjodaro 2500-2000 BC
• Found a series of weights with
the smallest std. unit = 0.836 g.
Other units: 1, 4, 8 → 64,
320 and 1600.
Dyn.30 coin (Egypt): Nectanebo …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
6.4. Units of weight.
• One may find a series of
standard forms that reveal
successive multiples of the
smallest (std.) unit in the
grouping → system of weights
• Some items have markings
• Coinage is normally
distinguished by weight and
material (gold; silver; etc.)
and indicates different values.
E.g., Mohenjodaro 2500-2000 BC
• Found a series of weights with
the smallest std. unit = 0.836 g.
Other units: 1, 4, 8 → 64,
320 and 1600.
Petrie weighed many groups of items
in case they revealed weight seq. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/297519119103569563
Weights & scales from Mohenjo Daro
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• May extrapolate from this
system of weights:
1. Concept similar to current
ones of weights: e.g. meat values
2. Application of weight system
required multiple units: obtain tally
3. A numeration system existed:
(example = ratio 16:1)
4. Weights had a functional application
i.e., scale pans → for weighing items
5(?). Concept of equivalence:
i.e., x-weight = x-material
(ratio of value)
6(?). Perhaps reflects a constant rate
of exchange between materials.
→ but exchange values do change
over time: economic decline etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
7. Planning:
maps for the future.
• Our individual cognitive map
enables us to plan in advance.
• Archaeologists rarely find physical
evidence for ancient planning of
the construction of things, unless
something is sufficiently complex.
• We usually need to extrapolate!
• Neolithic Village of Catal Hoyuk
(ca. 6500 BC; Turkey) may suggest
some pre-planning, but it may have
easily formed naturally (organically)
over time, replicating certain key
features per structure (like a beehive)
• Evidence needed to demonstrate prior
planning: e.g., sculptor’s trial piece
architect’s plan / model
Ancient plan of Nippur, ca. 1500 BC
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
7. Planning:
maps for the future.
• Our individual cognitive map
enables us to plan in advance.
• Archaeologists rarely find physical
evidence for ancient planning of
the construction of things, unless
something is sufficiently complex.
• We usually need to extrapolate!
• Neolithic Village of Catal Hoyuk
(ca. 6500 BC; Turkey) may suggest
some pre-planning, but it may have
easily formed naturally (organically)
over time, replicating certain key
features per structure (like a beehive)
• Evidence needed to demonstrate prior
planning: e.g., sculptor’s trial piece
architect’s plan / model
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
7. Planning:
maps for the future.
• Our individual cognitive map
enables us to plan in advance.
• Archaeologists rarely find physical
evidence for ancient planning of
the construction of things, unless
something is sufficiently complex.
• We usually need to extrapolate!
• Neolithic Village of Catal Hoyuk
(ca. 6500 BC; Turkey) may suggest
some pre-planning, but it may have
easily formed naturally (organically)
over time, replicating certain key
features per structure (like a beehive)
• Evidence=needed to demonstrate prior
planning: e.g., sculptor’s trial piece
architect’s plan / model
Sculptor’s
Trial piece:
i.e., portable
reference for
replicating
face of king
Akhenaten
King Akhenaten (Dyn.18, Egypt):
Completed relief scenes
https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3543
Brooklyn Museum: Dyn.19 model of temple gateway
https://discoveringegypt.com/luxor-temple/luxor-temple-pylon-of-ramses-ii/
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• Extrapolate key features:
• Pre-planning may also incorporate
astronomical alignment
E.g., Entry passage in Newgrange
tomb = aligned with mid-winter
sunrise (i.e., = a significant time).
• May infer pre-planning in industry:
E.g., Lost wax casting technique
in obtaining a finished product.
• Infer standardized ingredients in
bronze production from metal
compositions: i.e., a constant 10%
tin alongside copper (Europe EB Age)
• Infer town planning from a grid layout
E.g., Ancient Egypt: Tell el-Amarna
E.g., Indus Valley: Mohenjodaro
E.g., Cambodia: Angkor
• Design modifications: E.g.,Step Pyramid
Displays alignment with the solstices
→ = Not “chance” → = pre-planned
also a significant time …
E.g. Winter solstice
ca. Dec. 21
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• Extrapolate key features:
• Pre-planning may also incorporate
astronomical alignment
E.g., Entry passage in Newgrange
tomb = aligned with mid-winter
sunrise (i.e., a significant time).
• May infer pre-planning in industry:
E.g., Lost wax casting technique
in obtaining a finished product.
• Infer standardized ingredients in
bronze production from metal
compositions: i.e., a constant 10%
tin alongside copper (Europe EB Age)
• Infer town planning from a grid layout
E.g., Ancient Egypt: Tell el-Amarna
E.g., Indus Valley: Mohenjodaro
E.g., Cambodia: Angkor
• Design modifications: E.g.,Step Pyramid
Cire perdue: Lost wax production processhttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fonte_%C3%A0_la_cire_perdue_(Tanjore,_Inde_(13909864069).jpg
Wax
model
→
Bronze
figure
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• Extrapolate key features:
• Pre-planning may also incorporate
astronomical alignment
E.g., Entry passage in Newgrange
tomb = aligned with mid-winter
sunrise (i.e., a significant time).
• May infer pre-planning in industry:
E.g., Lost wax casting technique
in obtaining a finished product.
• Infer standardized ingredients in
bronze production from metal
compositions: i.e., a constant 10%
tin alongside copper (Europe EB Age)
• Infer town planning from a grid layout
E.g., Ancient Egypt: Tell el-Amarna
E.g., Indus Valley: Mohenjodaro
E.g., Cambodia: Angkor
• Design modifications: E.g.,Step Pyramid
Portable xrf analyzer:
E.g., $18,000https://www.911metallurgist.com/equipment/handheld-xrf-analyzer/
56 Element
Handheld
XRF Analyzer
– 911MPEXRF700Xrf of Qin crossbow
bolts …Head =
20% tin;
Shaft/tang
= ca.3% tin
(> flexible)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• Extrapolate key features:
• Pre-planning may also incorporate
astronomical alignment
E.g., Entry passage in Newgrange
tomb = aligned with mid-winter
sunrise (i.e., a significant time).
• May infer pre-planning in industry:
E.g., Lost wax casting technique
in obtaining a finished product.
• Infer standardized ingredients in
bronze production from metal
compositions: i.e., a constant 10%
tin alongside copper (Europe EB Age)
• Infer town planning from a grid layout
E.g., Ancient Egypt: Tell el-Amarna
E.g., Indus Valley: Mohenjodaro
E.g., Cambodia: Angkor
• Design modifications: E.g.,Step Pyramid
Roman grid plan of Cosa (N of Rome)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• Extrapolate key features:
• Pre-planning may also incorporate
astronomical alignment
E.g., Entry passage in Newgrange
tomb = aligned with mid-winter
sunrise (i.e., a significant time).
• May infer pre-planning in industry:
E.g., Lost wax casting technique
in obtaining a finished product.
• Infer standardized ingredients in
bronze production from metal
compositions: i.e., a constant 10%
tin alongside copper (Europe EB Age)
• Infer town planning from a grid layout
E.g., Ancient Egypt: Tell el-Amarna
E.g., Indus Valley: Mohenjodaro
E.g., Cambodia: Angkor
• Design modifications: E.g.,Step Pyramid
E.g., Changes in design concepts
over time … as time permits and
aggrandizement is possible …
Khufu’s pyramid at Giza:
• The king’s longevity permitted the
completion of the pyramid’s upper
chambers, thereby probably making
the completion of the lowest chamber
unnecessary –i.e., backup burial chamber
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.1. Symbols of organization
and power.
•Authority figures use symbols to aid
in organizing & controlling populations.
• Communicative symbols:
E.g., data, information, archives
• Power symbols:
E.g., colossal statues, structures,
8.2. Money: symbols of value &
organization in complex societies.
• Complex social organizations often
have a relative value system for
establishing exchange & rel. wealth:
e.g., money.
• An artificial medium of exchange:
Often: gold, silver, or bronze (coinage)
• Money = issued by city state or a
broader government (mint).
Dyn.19, Ramesses II’s rock-cut
Statues and shrine in North Sudan:
Abu Simbel, rock-cut royal cult temple
→ A “statement” to conquered local
Nubian peoples: i.e., the power of the
Egyptian king+state → intimidation
minimizing potential rebels, alongside
its function as a royal cult temple …
A clear symbol of the king’s power,
in addition to being a functional structure:
i.e., a royal “resurrection machine”
(8). SYMBOLS OF
ORGANIATION & POWER
(… in past cultures)
(a). Money:
symbols of value and
organization
in complex society.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.1. Symbols of organization
and power.
• Authority figures use symbols to aid in
organizing & controlling populations.
• Communicative symbols:
E.g., data, information, archives
• Power symbols:
E.g., colossal statues, structures,
8.2. Money: symbols of value &
organization in complex societies.
• Complex social organizations often
have a relative value system for
establishing exchange & rel. wealth:
e.g., money.
• An artificial medium of exchange:
Often: gold, silver, or bronze (coinage)
• Money = issued by city state or a
broader government (mint).
(8). SYMBOLS OF
ORGANIATION & POWER
(… in past cultures)
(b). Identifying
symbols of value & power
in Prehistory.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
8.3. Identifying symbols of
value & power in Prehistory.
• Non-monetary economies are harder
to assess regarding their specific
scale of material value / status.
• One can extrapolate value in various
ways:
a. Ethnographic accounts:
E.g., 18th cent. AD fur trade in North
America: 1 musket = 6 beaver pelts
b. E.g., Labor value regarding time
required to produce individual items.
E.g., Bead necklace, clothing, etc.
→ Can establish a relative scale of labor
time between contemporary burials
and goods.Exchange value = ?
Means of payment?
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
8.3. Identifying symbols of
value & power in Prehistory.
• Non-monetary economies are harder
to assess regarding their specific
scale of material value / status.
• One can extrapolate value in various
ways:
a. Ethnographic accounts:
E.g., 18th cent. AD fur trade in North
America: 1 musket = 6 beaver pelts
b. E.g., Labor value regarding time
required to produce individual items.
E.g., Bead necklace, clothing, etc.
→ Can establish a relative scale of labor
time between contemporary burials
and goods.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
8.3.a. The gold of Varna.
• Late Neolithic cemetery at Varna
(Bulgaria), 4000 BC.
• Numerous gold items
• High value of gold argued by:
1. Associated with symbolic items:
Non-functional stone axe (friable)
2. Used for ornaments decorating
key body parts: face, penis sheath
3. Simulation: covering entire axe,
suggesting solid gold.
• Need to formulate such ideas to
approach intrinsic value, etc.
• = implicative of relatively
high social status at Varna.NOTE: The distance from source may
reveal another level of value (despite recycling)
(8). SYMBOLS OF
ORGANIATION & POWER
(… in past cultures)
(c). Symbols of power
in hierarchical societies.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.4. Symbols of power in
hierarchical societies.
• Hochdorf: 6th cent. BC chieftain’s
grave with much wealth → clue to
high status.
• Glauberg: life-size statue of a chief
found near a wealthy grave:
Decorated with arm rings, neck
torque, sword, and shield
= status symbols, as well as the
statue itself.
State societies & empires:
• More elaborate status symbols in
regalia, structures, etc.
Assyrian palace at Khorsabad (Iraq):
• Symbols to impress and subdue
foreign visitors and vassals → palace:
scenes of torture, execution, battles, …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.4. Symbols of power in
hierarchical societies.
• Hochdorf: 6th cent. BC chieftain’s
grave with much wealth → clue to
high status.
• Glauberg: life-size statue of a chief
found near a wealthy grave:
Decorated with arm rings, neck
torque, sword, and shield
= status symbols, as well as the
statue itself.
State societies & empires:
• More elaborate status symbols in
regalia, structures, etc.
Assyrian palace at Khorsabad (Iraq):
• Symbols to impress and subdue
foreign visitors and vassals → palace:
scenes of torture, execution, battles, …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.4. Symbols of power in
hierarchical societies.
• Hochdorf: 6th cent. BC chieftain’s
grave with much wealth → clue to
high status.
• Glauberg: life-size statue of a chief
found near a wealthy grave:
Decorated with arm rings, neck
torque, sword, and shield
= status symbols, as well as the
statue itself.
State societies & empires:
• More elaborate status symbols in
regalia, structures, etc.
Assyrian palace at Khorsabad (Iraq):
• Symbols to impress and subdue
foreign visitors and vassals → palace:
scenes of torture, execution, battles, …
Imperial purple
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.4. Symbols of power in
hierarchical societies.
• Hochdorf: 6th cent. BC chieftain’s
grave with much wealth → clue to
high status.
• Glauberg: life-size statue of a chief
found near a wealthy grave:
Decorated with arm rings, neck
torque, sword, and shield
= status symbols, as well as the
statue itself.
State societies & empires:
• More elaborate status symbols in
regalia, structures, etc.
Assyrian palace at Khorsabad (Iraq):
• Symbols to impress and subdue
foreign visitors and vassals → palace:
scenes of torture, execution, battles, …
Assyrian
army in
action …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Symbols for the other world:
The archaeology of religion.
• Religion has been defined as
“Action or conduct indicating a
belief, or reverence for, and
desire to please, a divine ruling
power.”
• It incorporates a set of beliefs
relating to supernatural entities
outside our everyday world.
• Such supernatural beings are
human constructs and part of
each culture’s cognitive map
(landscape; world; universe; etc.)
• Religion has a social component,
unifying & maintaining communal
and cultural concepts, rules, &
ideals.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Symbols for the other world:
The archaeology of religion.
• Religion has been defined as
“Action or conduct indicating a
belief, or reverence for, and
desire to please, a divine ruling
power.”
• It incorporates a set of beliefs
relating to supernatural entities
outside our everyday world.
• Such supernatural beings are
human constructs and part of
each culture’s cognitive map
(landscape; world; universe; etc.)
• Religion has a social component,
unifying & maintaining communal
and cultural concepts, rules, &
ideals.
Religious representations often drawing upon earthly imagery
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Symbols for the other world:
The archaeology of religion.
• Religion has been defined as
“Action or conduct indicating a
belief, or reverence for, and
desire to please, a divine ruling
power.”
• It incorporates a set of beliefs
relating to supernatural entities
outside our everyday world.
• Such supernatural beings are
human constructs and part of
each culture’s cognitive map
(landscape; world; universe; etc.)
• Religion has a social component,
unifying & maintaining communal
and cultural concepts, rules, &
ideals.
E.g., Global community: Muslims
from all over the world gathering
during annual pilgrimage to Mecca
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
• Unfortunately, the archaeological
record often does not preserve
such beliefs, at best recording
only aspects of ancient religions.
• In addition, religion often crosses
over inextricably into daily life,
being hard to isolate and analyze.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.1. Recognition of cult.
• In studying ancient cults, it is
essential to consider their
supernatural aspects and the
adherents’ acts of worship
regarding the deity/deities.
Cultic features mostly excav.:
1. Focusing of attention:
• Religious rites often entail
intensified activity, which may
require a medium through which
worship is focused: e.g., sacred
place, structure (temple), light,
sounds (music), smells (incense)
etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.1. Recognition of cult.
• In studying ancient cults, it is
essential to consider their
supernatural aspects and the
adherents’ acts of worship
regarding the deity/deities.
Cultic features mostly excav.:
1. Focusing of attention:
• Religious rites often entail
intensified activity, which may
require a medium through which
worship is focused: e.g., sacred
place, structure (temple), light,
sounds (music), smells (incense)
etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2. Boundary zone between
realms:
• The location of ritual focus
forms the interface between
earthly & spiritual realms.
It may include diverse hazards
and requirements (e.g., ritual
cleansing, dieting, abstinence).
3. Presence of the deity:
• For an effective cult, the deity is
either present, or able to
materialize.
Most cults incorporate an image
or symbol as the focus of their
religion (2-dimensional or 3-
dimensional representations).
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
2. Boundary zone between
realms:
• The location of ritual focus
forms the interface between
earthly & spiritual realms.
It may include diverse hazards
and requirements (e.g., ritual
cleansing, dieting, abstinence).
3. Presence of the deity:
• For an effective cult, the deity is
either present (always), or able to
materialize (e.g., in a cult statue).
Most cults incorporate an image
or symbol as the focus of their
religion (2-dimensional or 3-
dimensional representations).
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4. Participation & offering:
• The worshipper(s) often use words
and gestures of prayer & devotion.
This may include eating & drinking.
It often includes offering materials to
the deity via sacrifice & gifts (votives).
Example:
• ‘Ain Ghazel (Levant),
7th millennium BC:
A plaster figurine was found in a
pit buried below a house.
It may have been an ancestor
figure?
Ancient
Egyptian
gesture
of adulation,
respect,
(worship)
E.g., DYNs.19-20.
Private stelae
Official(s):
Bringing a small bird
Kneeling in adoration
Standing in adoration
(palms held out to a
deity or cartouches)
Offering:
Burning incense on a
pedestal-based bowl
Baskets of bracelets?
Triangular loaf
Bouquet of flowers
Pairs of small vessels
Pour water over items,
onto base of statue,
or into vessel.
Offering stands have
lotus flower or items:
foreleg, ox head,
cucumber, loaves.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
4. Participation & offering:
• The worshipper(s) often use words
and gestures of prayer & devotion.
This may include eating & drinking.
It often includes offering materials to
the deity via sacrifice & gifts (votives).
Example:
• ‘Ain Ghazel (Levant),
7th millennium BC:
A plaster figurine was found in a
pit buried below a house.
It may have been an ancestor
figure?
Easter Island: Ancestor Moai statues
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9.2. Archaeological indicators of ritual.
(A). Focusing of attention:
1. Ritual location may have particular
natural associations:
E.g., cave, grove, spring, mountain
2. Ritual structure:
E.g., Temple, church, shrine.
3. Ritual focal point:
E.g., Altars, benches, hearths.
Ritual furnishings:
E.g., lamps, gongs, bells, vessels,
censers, altar cloths, etc.
4. Repeated symbols (redundancy):
E.g., Sacred area often yields many
repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).
Telford Sacred Grove
Rock-cut shrine to Meretseger of the Peak & Ptah
pyramid-shaped mountain on W. Bank, Thebes
http://www.ancientluxor.com/gods-meretseger.html
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9.2. Archaeological indicators of ritual.
(A). Focusing of attention:
1. Ritual location may have particular
natural associations:
E.g., cave, grove, spring, mountain
2. Ritual structure:
E.g., Temple, church, shrine.
3. Ritual focal point:
E.g., Altars, benches, hearths.
Ritual furnishings:
E.g., lamps, gongs, bells, vessels,
censers, altar cloths, etc.
4. Repeated symbols (redundancy):
E.g., Sacred area often yields many
repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).LB Age “Fosse Temple” shrine at Lachish:
• Outside the town; a wide range of
votives from Canaan, Egypt, Aegean+
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9.2. Archaeological indicators of ritual.
(A). Focusing of attention:
1. Ritual location may have particular
natural associations:
E.g., cave, grove, spring, mountain
2. Ritual structure:
E.g., Temple, church, shrine.
3. Ritual focal point:
E.g., Altars, benches, hearths.
Ritual furnishings:
E.g., lamps, gongs, bells, vessels,
censers, altar cloths, etc.
4. Repeated symbols (redundancy):
E.g., Sacred area often yields many
repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).
Possible cultic
structure at
Khirbet al-
Mudayna, in
northern Moab,
dating to 7th
century BCE:
Offering bench
-offerings …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9.2. Archaeological indicators of ritual.
(A). Focusing of attention:
1. Ritual location may have particular
natural associations:
E.g., cave, grove, spring, mountain
2. Ritual structure:
E.g., Temple, church, shrine.
3. Ritual focal point:
E.g., Altars, benches, hearths.
Ritual furnishings:
E.g., lamps, gongs, bells, vessels,
censers, altar cloths, etc.
4. Repeated symbols (redundancy):
E.g., Sacred area often yields many
repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9.2. Archaeological indicators of ritual.
(A). Focusing of attention:
1. Ritual location may have particular
natural associations:
E.g., cave, grove, spring, mountain
2. Ritual structure:
E.g., Temple, church, shrine.
3. Ritual focal point:
E.g., Altars, benches, hearths.
Ritual furnishings:
E.g., lamps, gongs, bells, vessels,
censers, altar cloths, etc.
4. Repeated symbols (redundancy):
E.g., Sacred area often yields many
repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion(B). Boundary between earthly and
Supernatural realms:
5. Ritual involving conspicuous public
display, cost, & hidden mysteries
- May be indicated by architecture
6. Concept of ritual purity:
- Architecture and remains may yield
pools/basins for cleanliness
- Regularly cleaned sacred area
(C). Presence of the deity/deities:
7. Cult image or abstract symbol may
represent the deity/deities:
- Christian Chi-Rho symbol
8. Ritualistic symbols = often linked
iconographically to deity types and
associated myths:
- Animal symbolism real/mythical
- Some specific animals = associated
with a deity.
Egyptian temple (→ darker sanctuary)
Egyptian mortuary temple
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion(B). Boundary between earthly and
Supernatural realms:
5. Ritual involving conspicuous public
display, cost, & hidden mysteries
- May be indicated by architecture
6. Concept of ritual purity:
- Architecture and remains may yield
pools/basins for cleanliness
- Regularly cleaned sacred area
(C). Presence of the deity/deities:
7. Cult image or abstract symbol may
represent the deity/deities:
- Christian Chi-Rho symbol
8. Ritualistic symbols = often linked
iconographically to deity types and
associated myths:
- Animal symbolism real/mythical
- Some specific animals = associated
with a deity.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion(B). Boundary between earthly and
Supernatural realms:
5. Ritual involving conspicuous public
display, cost, & hidden mysteries
- May be indicated by architecture
6. Concept of ritual purity:
- Architecture and remains may yield
pools/basins for cleanliness
- Regularly cleaned sacred area
(C). Presence of the deity/deities:
7. Cult image or abstract symbol may
represent the deity/deities:
- Christian Chi-Rho symbol
8. Ritualistic symbols = often linked
iconographically to deity types and
associated myths:
- Animal symbolism real/mythical
- Some specific animals = associated
with a deity.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion(B). Boundary between earthly and
Supernatural realms:
5. Ritual involving conspicuous public
display, cost, & hidden mysteries
- May be indicated by architecture
6. Concept of ritual purity:
- Architecture and remains may yield
pools/basins for cleanliness
- Regularly cleaned sacred area
(C). Presence of the deity/deities:
7. Cult image or abstract symbol may
represent the deity/deities:
- Christian Chi-Rho symbol
8. Ritualistic symbols = often linked
iconographically to deity types and
associated myths:
- Animal symbolism real/mythical
- Some specific animals = associated
with a deity.
Apis bull manifestation
of creator god Ptah
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Ritualistic symbols:
- May also occur in funerary rites
& other rites (e.g., marriage, etc.)
D. Participation and offering:
10. Worship entails:
- prayer, specific rites, gestures of
adoration
- reflected in art & iconography
(decoration/images)
11. Ritual medium for elevating
religious experience:
- dance, music, drugs, pain, etc.
12. Sacrifice:
- Animals & humans
13. Food and drink:
- Offerings: consumed, burnt, and
poured out.
Hindu marriage rites …
Hindu funerary rites …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Ritualistic symbols:
- May also occur in funerary rites
& other rites (e.g., marriage, etc.)
D. Participation and offering:
10. Worship entails:
- prayer, specific rites, gestures of
adoration
- reflected in art & iconography
(decoration/images)
11. Ritual medium for elevating
religious experience:
- dance, music, drugs, pain, etc.
12. Sacrifice:
- Animals & humans
13. Food and drink:
- Offerings: consumed, burnt, and
poured out.
Hindu religious rites …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Ritualistic symbols:
- May also occur in funerary rites
& other rites (e.g., marriage, etc.)
D. Participation and offering:
10. Worship entails:
- prayer, specific rites, gestures of
adoration
- reflected in art & iconography
(decoration/images)
11. Ritual medium for elevating
religious experience:
- dance, music, drugs, pain, etc.
12. Sacrifice:
- Animals & humans
13. Food and drink:
- Offerings: consumed, burnt, and
poured out.
Whirling dirvishes
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Ritualistic symbols:
- May also occur in funerary rites
& other rites (e.g., marriage, etc.)
D. Participation and offering:
10. Worship entails:
- prayer, specific rites, gestures of
adoration
- reflected in art & iconography
(decoration/images)
11. Ritual medium for elevating
religious experience:
- dance, music, drugs, pain, etc.
12. Sacrifice:
- Animals & humans
13. Food and drink:
- Offerings: consumed, burnt, and
poured out.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
9. Ritualistic symbols:
- May also occur in funerary rites
& other rites (e.g., marriage, etc.)
D. Participation and offering:
10. Worship entails:
- prayer, specific rites, gestures of
adoration
- reflected in art & iconography
(decoration/images)
11. Ritual medium for elevating
religious experience:
- dance, music, drugs, pain, etc.
12. Sacrifice:
- Animals & humans
13. Food and drink:
- Offerings: consumed, burnt, and
poured out.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
14. Material items (votives):
- offering: breakage, hiding, and
discarding.
15. Material investment:
- Ritual equipment may be costly
- Offerings may be valuable
16. Architectural investment:
- Structure & facilities may be costly.
Archaeological contexts normally only
yield a few of the foregoing criteria:
E.g., Phylakopi shrine on Melos Aegean
- 1400-1120 BCE
- Two rooms with platforms (altars)
- Material culture assemblage: figurines
- Meets criteria 2, 3, 7 & 14
- The shrine matched other shrines on
Crete → religious ritual becomes more
plausible.
San Andras de Teixido, Galicia (Spain)
Sailors offering model ships → safety
Chinese votive sword …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
14. Material items (votives):
- offering: breakage, hiding, and
discarding.
15. Material investment:
- Ritual equipment may be costly
- Offerings may be valuable
16. Architectural investment:
- Structure & facilities may be costly.
Archaeological contexts normally only
yield a few of the foregoing criteria:
E.g., Phylakopi shrine on Melos Aegean
- 1400-1120 BCE
- Two rooms with platforms (altars)
- Material culture assemblage: figurines
- Meets criteria 2, 3, 7 & 14
- The shrine matched other shrines on
Crete → religious ritual becomes more
plausible.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
14. Material items (votives):
- offering: breakage, hiding, and
discarding.
15. Material investment:
- Ritual equipment may be costly
- Offerings may be valuable
16. Architectural investment:
- Structure & facilities may be costly.
Archaeological contexts normally only
yield a few of the foregoing criteria:
E.g., Phylakopi shrine on Melos Aegean
- 1400-1120 BCE
- Two rooms with platforms (altars)
- Material culture assemblage: figurines
- Meets criteria 2, 3, 7 & 14
- The shrine matched other shrines on
Crete → religious ritual becomes more
plausible.MK-LP+ Karnak Temple complex
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
14. Material items (votives):
- offering: breakage, hiding, and
discarding.
15. Material investment:
- Ritual equipment may be costly
- Offerings may be valuable
16. Architectural investment:
- Structure & facilities may be costly.
Archaeological contexts normally only
yield a few of the foregoing criteria:
E.g., Phylakopi shrine on Melos Aegean
- 1400-1120 BCE
- Two rooms with platforms (altars)
- Material culture assemblage: figurines
- Meets criteria 2, 3, 7 & 14
- The shrine matched other shrines on
Crete → religious ritual becomes more
plausible.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
Religious ritual is best proven via
specific iconography:
- E.g., Pictorial renditions of human,
animal, or mythical/fantastical images
- Identifiable offerings: usually status
items offered to / left for deity/deities.
- Some items = based on foundations:
E.g., Caches of jaguar skeletons,
jade balls, pottery & stone masks
at Great Temple of Aztec
Tenochtitlan.
Exterior natural contexts:
- Iron Age weapons placed in Thames
- 1000 BC metal hoards in Scandinavian
bogs
- Late Maya well (cenote) with numerous
costly votives at Chichen Itza.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
Religious ritual is best proven via
specific iconography:
- E.g., Pictorial renditions of human,
animal, or mythical/fantastical images
- Identifiable offerings: usually status
items offered to / left for deity/deities.
- Some items = based on foundations:
E.g., Caches of jaguar skeletons,
jade balls, pottery & stone masks
at Great Temple of Aztec
Tenochtitlan.
Exterior natural contexts:
- Iron Age weapons placed in Thames
- 1000 BC metal hoards in Scandinavian
bogs
- Late Maya well (cenote) with numerous
costly votives at Chichen Itza.
Offerings in Irish peat bogs
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
Religious ritual is best proven via
specific iconography:
- E.g., Pictorial renditions of human,
animal, or mythical/fantastical images
- Identifiable offerings: usually status
items offered to / left for deity/deities.
- Some items = based on foundations:
E.g., Caches of jaguar skeletons,
jade balls, pottery & stone masks
at Great Temple of Aztec
Tenochtitlan.
Exterior natural contexts:
- Iron Age weapons placed in Thames
- 1000 BC metal hoards in Scandinavian
bogs
- Late Maya well (cenote) with numerous
costly votives at Chichen Itza.
https://interactive.archaeology.org/cenotes/cenotes.html
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.3. Identifying the supernatural powers.
- Need criteria in archaeological record
to recognize & differentiate supernatural
entities found in cults.
a. Developed iconography:
- Pictorial renditions with religious/ritual
meaning.
- Individual deities need specific imagery
E.g., Corn with corn-god
E.g., Sun with solar-god
b. Iconographic studies → specialized
(epigraphers; art historians; etc.):
- Mesoamerica - distinct mythologies
- Mesopotamia “ “
- Classical Greece “ “
Greece: images require knowledge of
literature for interpretation; sometimes
captions = useful, but sufficient knowledge
of myths may also enable identifications.
Re-Horakhty (solar god)Mayan
maize
deity
https://ancientmayalife.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-maize-god-god-e.html
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.3. Identifying the supernatural powers.
- Need criteria in archaeological record
to recognize & differentiate supernatural
entities found in cults.
a. Developed iconography:
- Pictorial renditions with religious/ritual
meaning.
- Individual deities need specific imagery
E.g., Corn with corn-god
E.g., Sun with solar-god
b. Iconographic studies → specialized
(epigraphers; art historians; etc.):
- Mesoamerica - distinct mythologies
- Mesopotamia “ “
- Classical Greece “ “
Greece: images require knowledge of
literature for interpretation; sometimes
captions = useful, but sufficient knowledge
of myths may also enable identifications.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.3. Identifying the supernatural powers.
- Need criteria in archaeological record
to recognize & differentiate supernatural
entities found in cults.
a. Developed iconography:
- Pictorial renditions with religious/ritual
meaning.
- Individual deities need specific imagery
E.g., Corn with corn-god
E.g., Sun with solar-god
b. Iconographic studies → specialized
(epigraphers; art historians; etc.):
- Mesoamerica - distinct mythologies
- Mesopotamia “ “
- Classical Greece “ “
Greece: images require knowledge of
literature for interpretation; sometimes
captions = useful, but sufficient knowledge
of myths may also enable identifications.
Myth: Theseus & the Minotaur …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, ReligionAreas with less abundant surviving
documentation, such as Mesoamerica,
require meticulous analysis of scenes
& recurrent attributes to define individual
deities, etc.:
E.g., M. Coe studied …
a. Classic Maya pottery (painted scenes)
b. Popol Vuh manuscript (19th cent. AD),
which preserves 2000 yr old materials
on the Maya Underworld.
c. God L: 1 of 3 divine rulers of Underworld
Owl-headdress & smokes cigar
d. Hero Twins
- His opponents
- Black spots of death
- Jaguar hide over body & face
e. Maya painted pottery had funerary function
and appears in tombs frequently.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, ReligionAreas with less abundant surviving
documentation, such as Mesoamerica,
require meticulous analysis of scenes
& recurrent attributes to define individual
deities, etc.:
E.g., M. Coe studied …
a. Classic Maya pottery (painted scenes)
b. Popol Vuh manuscript (19th cent. AD),
which preserves 2000 yr old materials
on the Maya Underworld.
c. God L: 1 of 3 divine rulers of Underworld
Owl-headdress & smokes cigar
d. Hero Twins
- His opponents
- Black spots of death
- Jaguar hide over body & face
e. Maya painted pottery had funerary function
and appears in tombs frequently.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, ReligionAreas with less abundant surviving
documentation, such as Mesoamerica,
require meticulous analysis of scenes
& recurrent attributes to define individual
deities, etc.:
E.g., M. Coe studied …
a. Classic Maya pottery (painted scenes)
b. Popol Vuh manuscript (19th cent. AD),
which preserves 2000 yr old materials
on the Maya Underworld.
c. God L: 1 of 3 divine rulers of Underworld
Owl-headdress & smokes cigar
d. Hero Twins
- His opponents
- Black spots of death
- Jaguar hide over body & face
e. Maya painted pottery had funerary function
and appears in tombs frequently.
Painted
Maya
tomb at
Tikal
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.4. The archaeology of death.
- Mortuary findings give clues to
a. the structure of ancient societies.
b. differentiated wealth & status
c. Beliefs regarding death & afterlife
- Funerary items often imply an
afterlife belief
- However, the deceased may be
provided intimately personal items
that could otherwise not be recycled
i.e., less use in afterlife than their
association with the deceased.
- Food offerings in burial contexts imply
a belief and use in the afterlife:
- Some elite in Anc. Societies have full
furnishings: Egypt, China, Mesopotamia
- Sacrifice of attendants: Ur royal graves;
13th cent AD Polynesian ruler Roy Mata
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.4. The archaeology of death.
- Mortuary findings give clues to
a. the structure of ancient societies.
b. differentiated wealth & status
c. Beliefs regarding death & afterlife
- Funerary items often imply an
afterlife belief
- However, the deceased may be
provided intimately personal items
that could otherwise not be recycled
i.e., less use in afterlife than their
association with the deceased.
- Food offerings in burial contexts imply
a belief and use in the afterlife:
- Some elite in Anc. Societies have full
furnishings: Egypt, China, Mesopotamia
- Sacrifice of attendants: Ur royal graves;
13th cent AD Polynesian ruler Roy Mata
Tutankhamun: Pair of gloves …
Tutankhamun: Pair of shoes …
https://www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2010/04/08/king_tut_wore_orthopedic_shoes.html
Tut’sembroidered
tunic
from
childhood:
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.4. The archaeology of death.
- Mortuary findings give clues to
a. the structure of ancient societies.
b. differentiated wealth & status
c. Beliefs regarding death & afterlife
- Funerary items often imply an
afterlife belief
- However, the deceased may be
provided intimately personal items
that could otherwise not be recycled
i.e., less use in afterlife than their
association with the deceased.
- Food offerings in burial contexts imply
a belief and use in the afterlife:
- Some elite in Anc. Societies have full
furnishings: Egypt, China, Mesopotamia
- Sacrifice of attendants: Ur royal graves;
13th cent AD Polynesian ruler Roy Mata
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcCoIOvL9Y8
Ancient Chinese Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.4. The archaeology of death.
- Mortuary findings give clues to
a. the structure of ancient societies.
b. differentiated wealth & status
c. Beliefs regarding death & afterlife
- Funerary items often imply an
afterlife belief
- However, the deceased may be
provided intimately personal items
that could otherwise not be recycled
i.e., less use in afterlife than their
association with the deceased.
- Food offerings in burial contexts imply
a belief and use in the afterlife:
- Some elite in Anc. Societies have full
furnishings: Egypt, China, Mesopotamia
- Sacrifice of attendants: Ur royal graves;
13th cent AD Polynesian ruler Roy Mata
Great Death Pit at Ur (Sumer)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
- Special artifacts made for the deceased
a. Jade suits for early Chinese princes
b. Gold masks for Mycenaean burials
c. Jade masks for Mesoamerican burials
- Special mortuary rites:
a. Cremation vs. inhumation/burial
b. Collective burial vs. single burials
c. Etc.
→ Each practice implies different things
Mycenae
Jade
masks
China: Jade
burial suits
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
- Special artifacts made for the deceased
a. Jade suits for early Chinese princes
b. Gold masks for Mycenaean burials
c. Jade masks for Mesoamerican burials
- Special mortuary rites:
a. Cremation vs. inhumation/burial
b. Collective burial vs. single burials
c. Etc.
→ Each practice implies different things
Mayan Tomb of Pakal (Palenque)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
- Special artifacts made for the deceased
a. Jade suits for early Chinese princes
b. Gold masks for Mycenaean burials
c. Jade masks for Mesoamerican burials
- Special mortuary rites:
a. Cremation vs. inhumation/burial
b. Collective burial vs. single burials
c. Etc.
→Each practice implies different things
i.e., Cremation = destruction of body
implies body preservation is not
essential; suggests a broad range
of other beliefs: maybe spirit of
deceased freed via fire & smoke?
i.e., Mummification = preservation of
body; implies need for body in the
afterlife (perhaps life like on earth)
Roman cinerary urn
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10. Depiction:
art & representation.
- Physical representations
reflecting aspects of life
enable an interpretation
of a past cognitive map
for individuals and
communities.
E.g., Models and plans
(less frequent)
E.g., Depictions
(more common)
(10). DEPICTION:
Art & Representation(… in past cultures)
(a). The work of the sculptor:
Early Upper Paleolithic.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.1. The work of the sculptor.
Early Upper Paleolithic:
- Yields portable art portraying an
aspect of life (figurines, etc.)
- Bas reliefs in stone
- Clay models of animals (statuettes)
- Clay female figurines (baked)
- Mostly found in Euraisa during the
rise of early farming.
- Some suggestions of a Great Earth
Mother/fertility goddess, BUT, Ucko
demonstrated most figurines = not
definable as female (= ambiguous).
- M. Gimbutas claims recurrent deities
- Her theories are still debated
Prehistoric Malta & Cyclades:
- Almost life-size sculpture
Prehistoric Egypt & Sumer:
- Life size → colossal sculpture.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.1. The work of the sculptor.
Early Upper Paleolithic:
- Yields portable art portraying an
aspect of life (figurines, etc.)
- Bas reliefs in stone
- Clay models of animals (statuettes)
- Clay female figurines (baked)
- Mostly found in Euraisa during the
rise of early farming.
- Some suggestions of a Great Earth
Mother/fertility goddess, BUT, Ucko
demonstrated most figurines = not
definable as female (= ambiguous).
- M. Gimbutas claims recurrent deities
- Her theories are still debated
Prehistoric Malta & Cyclades:
- Almost life-size sculpture
Prehistoric Egypt & Sumer:
- Life size → colossal sculpture.
Malta Egypt Sumer
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.2. Pictorial relationships.
2-dimensional portrayals allow indications
of relationships between different symbols
One can assess:
- How the original artist conceptualized
space & temporal sequence.
- How the original artist portrayed animals,
humans, and other things.
- Style: i.e., = part of an activity
duplicated/similar activities → style
similar genre of form, representation
- Complex scenes are ideal for analysis:
a. Ship fresco (Akrotiri, Thera) → var. ideas
b. Mesoamerican frescoes
c. Monte Alban figures in Oaxaca:
Splayed limbs, open mouths, closed eyes
= not swimmers/dancers → = corpses!
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.2. Pictorial relationships.
2-dimensional portrayals allow indications
of relationships between different symbols
One can assess:
- How the original artist conceptualized
space & temporal sequence.
- How the original artist portrayed animals,
humans, and other things.
- Style: i.e., part of an activity
duplicated/similar activities → style
similar genre of form, representation
- Complex scenes are ideal for analysis:
a. Ship fresco (Akrotiri, Thera) → var. ideas
b. Mesoamerican frescoes
c. Monte Alban figures in Oaxaca:
Splayed limbs, open mouths, closed eyes
= not swimmers/dancers → = corpses!
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.2. Pictorial relationships.
2-dimensional portrayals allow indications
of relationships between different symbols
One can assess:
- How the original artist conceptualized
space & temporal sequence.
- How the original artist portrayed animals,
humans, and other things.
- Style: i.e., part of an activity
duplicated/similar activities → style
similar genre of form, representation
- Complex scenes are ideal for analysis:
a. Ship fresco (Akrotiri, Thera) → var. ideas
b. Mesoamerican frescoes
c. Monte Alban figures in Oaxaca:
Splayed limbs, open mouths, closed eyes
= not swimmers/dancers → = corpses!
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.2. Pictorial relationships.
2-dimensional portrayals allow indications
of relationships between different symbols
One can assess:
- How the original artist conceptualized
space & temporal sequence.
- How the original artist portrayed animals,
humans, and other things.
- Style: i.e., part of an activity
duplicated/similar activities → style
similar genre of form, representation
- Complex scenes are ideal for analysis:
a. Ship fresco (Akrotiri, Thera) → var. ideas
b. Mesoamerican frescoes
c. Monte Alban figures in Oaxaca:
Splayed limbs, open mouths, closed eyes
= not swimmers/dancers → = corpses!
Monte Alban, Oaxaca
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.3. Decoration.
- Art = not limited to scenes & objects
- Also = decoration of pottery, etc.
Symmetry analysis:
- Patterns can be divided into groups
- 17 symmetry classes → patterns
repeating motifs horizontally.
- 46 symmetry classes → patterns
repeating motifs horiz. & vertically.
- Ethnographic evidence suggests
different cultures prefer designs from
specific symmetry classes (1-2+)
- E.g., Preference for patterns on
different items: baskets & hats.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.3. Decoration.
- Art = not limited to scenes & objects
- Also = decoration of pottery, etc.
Symmetry analysis:
- Patterns can be divided into groups
- 17 symmetry classes → patterns
repeating motifs horizontally.
- 46 symmetry classes → patterns
repeating motifs horiz. & vertically.
- Ethnographic evidence suggests
different cultures prefer designs from
specific symmetry classes (1-2+)
- E.g., Preference for patterns on
different items: baskets & hats.
Much symmetry …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.3. Decoration.
- Art = not limited to scenes & objects
- Also = decoration of pottery, etc.
Symmetry analysis:
- Patterns can be divided into groups
- 17 symmetry classes → patterns
repeating motifs horizontally.
- 46 symmetry classes → patterns
repeating motifs horiz. & vertically.
- Ethnographic evidence suggests
different cultures prefer designs from
specific symmetry classes (1-2+)
- E.g., Preference for patterns on
different items: baskets & hats.
One cultural preference for representational art vs. abstract art
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.4. Art and myth.
- One must abandon an ethnocentric
approach when assessing other
cultures, especially non-western ones.
- Formerly seen as “primitive”/”savage,”
but in reality they have an equally
viable world-view.
- Myth plays a major role in many
early societies:
a. Speculative thoughts/philosophy
b. Narrative of significant past events
that contain sufficient relevance to
present → re-told/re-enacted.
c. Creation myth = common
E.g., Old Testament creation story
E.g., Navajo American Indian
creation story.
Etc.
Art, culture, and meanings differ widely
One’s own cultural & art background dictates preferences
Contrasting styles of art,
architecture, culture and
meaning …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.4. Art and myth.
- One must abandon an ethnocentric
approach when assessing other
cultures, especially non-western ones.
- Formerly seen as “primitive”/”savage,”
but in reality they have an equally
viable world-view.
- Myth plays a major role in many
early societies:
a. Speculative thoughts/philosophy
b. Narrative of significant past events
that contain sufficient relevance to
present → re-told/re-enacted.
c. Creation myth = common
E.g., Old Testament creation story
E.g., Navajo American Indian
creation story.
Etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
To understand Aztec art, one needs
to know their mythology:
E.g., Quetzalcoatl:
- Plumed serpent
- Father & creator of humanity
- Introduced knowledge
- Symbol = morning & evening stars
To understand Egyptian funerary art,
one needs to know Egyptian views
of the Underworld:
- Myths embody the wisdom of each
culture and are invaluable sources
for understanding them.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
To understand Aztec art, one needs
to know their mythology:
E.g., Quetzalcoatl:
- Plumed serpent
- Father & creator of humanity
- Introduced knowledge
- Symbol = morning & evening stars
To understand Egyptian funerary art,
one needs to know Egyptian views
of the Underworld:
- Myths embody the wisdom of each
culture and are invaluable sources
for understanding them.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.5. Aesthetic questions.
- Why do we find some early art
attractive, while other early art
is not attractive? –individually,
culturally, etc. …
→ Shared reasons:
- Some imperishable/attractive
materials are attractive to many
peoples: e.g., gold and jade.
- But, regarding the specific
application and designs in such
materials, it is harder to say why
something is attractive to one
person and culture,
versus another person & culture
→ Different values!
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
10.5. Aesthetic questions.
- Why do we find some early art
attractive, while other early art
is not attractive?
→ Shared reasons:
- Some imperishable/attractive
materials are attractive to many
peoples: e.g., gold and jade.
- But, regarding the specific
application and designs in such
materials, it is harder to say why
something is attractive to one
person and culture,
versus another person & culture
→ Different values!
i.e., ethnocentrism: individual-cultural
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion
11. Summary.
• One can extrapolate insights into past
cultures & civilization using the extant
archaeological evidence.
• Procedures have been developed for
assessing & testing cognitive theories
about the past: measuring, planning,
organization, power, cultic activity, art.
• Projects may focus on narrow through
broader issues: e.g., weighing systems
vs. cultic activity in a settlement.
• Need to impose rigorous methods and
cognitive archaeology (that need not
depend on textual-pictorial sources for
its validity).
i.e., The thought processes behind an
artifact can be obtained by inferences
and careful analyses (without texts).
Questions:
• Is it local or foreign pottery?
• Are the motifs individualistic, or
reflecting broader cultural motifs?
• Can a single artist be detected in the
corpus of these pot types?
• What is the vessel’s function?
• What do the motifs signify?
• What is the technological level? Etc.
Layout of wall scene for painting, incised or relief work:• Positioning figures Main figure
against an empty dominates
background. the scene.
• Base / register lines may
represent the ground.
• Series of base lines in
wall scenes, often with a
narrative of events.
→Narrative sequence of
events on some walls:
e.g., ploughing to reaping
• Some registers contain a
single narrative, with no
continuation above/below
→Different themes:
e.g., wrestling; fishing; …
Layout of wall scene for painting, incised or relief work:• Positioning figures Main figure
against an empty dominates
background. the scene.
• Base / register lines may
represent the ground.
• Series of base lines in
wall scenes, often with a
narrative of events.
→Narrative sequence of
events on some walls:
e.g., ploughing to reaping
• Some registers contain a
single narrative, with no
continuation above/below
→Different themes:
e.g., wrestling; fishing; …
Layout of wall scene for painting, incised or relief work:• Positioning figures Main figure
against an empty dominates
background. the scene.
• Base / register lines may
represent the ground.
• Series of base lines in
wall scenes, often with a
narrative of events.
→Narrative sequence of
events on some walls:
e.g., ploughing to reaping
• Some registers contain a
single narrative, with no
continuation above/below
→Different themes:
e.g., wrestling; fishing; …
Layout of wall scene for painting, incised or relief work:• Positioning figures Main figure
against an empty dominates
background. the scene.
• Base / register lines may
represent the ground.
• Series of base lines in
wall scenes, often with a
narrative of events.
→Narrative sequence of
events on some walls:
e.g., ploughing to reaping
• Some registers contain a
single narrative, with no
continuation above/below
→Different themes:
e.g., wrestling; fishing; …
Techniques in Painting,
Relief work, & Statuary:Wall-face:
Plaster uneven surface with mud
and a fine gypsum plaster wash.
Walls & Statuary:
•Preparation of wall-face or block
using guide-lines / squared grids.
- Square = proportional to a fist
- Usually for major figures.
• Initial outline of figure in red
• Correction of master artist in
black
Statuary:
• Cut excess stone away from the
outlined figure (5-6 planes).
Equipment:
• Hammers, copper chisels, drills,
and saws (with sand abrasive)
Old
Kingdom
Middle Kingdom – Late Period
Methods of representation:
i.e., figures, items, etc.
• NOT based on perspective
• Diagrammatic portrayal of figures
• Intent = to provide information.
• Depicted idealized human figures
using strict conventions (main figures)
• Each figure = composition of the
most recognizable parts
E.g., furniture depicted with a
front and side view.
• “False transparency” revealing parts
of an item not normally visible.
E.g., items above table top
E.g., contents of a vessel
E.g., Dog paws behind a man’s feet
Methods of representation:
i.e., figures, items, etc.
• NOT based on perspective
• Diagramatic portrayal of figures
• Intent = to provide information.
• Depicted idealized human figures
using strict conventions (main figures)
• Each figure = composition of the
most recognizable parts
E.g., furniture depicted with a
front and side view.
• “False transparency” revealing parts
of an item not normally visible.
E.g., items above table top
E.g., contents of a vessel
E.g., Dog paws behind a man’s feet
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Egyptian representation of the
human form: “twisted profile”
• usually facing to right
• head in profile
• eye & eyebrow in full view
• Shoulder & chest full frontal view
• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile
• waist, legs & feet in profile
• both feet show inner arch & big toe
Note: each part represents the most
recognizable part, and not
how someone would really
be viewed in profile.
Twisted profilein 2-dimensional art
versus sculpture
• Twisted profile
female breast
exposed in profile
in wall scene
versus covered
in statuary
• Some exceptions
to profile views:
e.g., musicians &
dancing girls
-Sometimes have
frontal view of
-breasts
-face
(Dyn.18)
Twisted profilein 2-dimensional art
versus sculpture
• Twisted profile
female breast
exposed in profile
in wall scene
versus covered
in statuary
• Some exceptions
to profile views:
e.g., musicians &
dancing girls
-Sometimes have
frontal view of
-breasts
-face
(Dyn.18)
Difficulties? with mirror-image positions:
Balanced composition in symmetrical architectural setting
Scale of figures in scenes / statuary:
“Echelon perspective”Largest figure = most important
• Other figures scaled by rank in
importance to main figure.
E.g., Tomb figure = wall height
Secondary figures in registers
• Tomb owner may be larger than wife
and children
E.g., King shown larger than people,
reflecting an important message
in the scene.
• Reduced scaling for stylistic reasons
and space:
E.g., offering bearers bringing miniature
animals
E.g., offering bearers bringing giant
animal (e.g., massive goose)
Scale of figures in scenes / statuary:
“Echelon perspective”Largest figure = most important
• Other figures scaled by rank in
importance to main figure.
E.g., Tomb figure = wall height
Secondary figures in registers
• Tomb owner may be larger than wife
and children
E.g., King shown larger than people,
reflecting an important message
in the scene.
• Reduced scaling for stylistic reasons
and space:
E.g., offering bearers bringing miniature
animals
E.g., offering bearers bringing giant
animal (e.g., massive goose)
Scale of figures in scenes / statuary:
“Echelon perspective”Largest figure = most important
• Other figures scaled by rank in
importance to main figure.
E.g., Tomb figure = wall height
Secondary figures in registers
• Tomb owner may be larger than wife
and children
E.g., King shown larger than people,
reflecting an important message
in the scene.
• Reduced scaling for stylistic reasons
and space:
E.g., offering bearers bringing miniature
animals
E.g., offering bearers bringing giant
animal (e.g., massive goose)
Scale and rank:
Pharaoh:
-portrayed larger than
his subjects.
Fan-bearer:
-Fan-bearer portrayed
larger than subjugated
foreigners.
Imagery:
-Foreigners depicted
being trampled by
victorious king.
The Symbolism of location:
Protodynastic: Narmer palette
Horus falcon = symbolizing
King (Narmer), as the living Horus
Son of Osiris, Lord of the Dead.
Anthropomorphized arm holding
Rope to which captive is bound.
Emblematic marsh plant of Lower
Egypt (= Delta / North) and glyph
T3-mhw for Lower Egypt.
Anthropomorphized as a bearded
Captive.
→ essentially the message is clear:
The Horus-King of Egypt has subjugated
the peoples of the Delta/North.
The King in different guises:
(a) Falcon before Amun
(b) A Bull trampling an enemy
(c) A falcon smiting a foe
Symbolism of colour in gylphs:
Many hieroglyphs represented an
item from life, which was associated
with a colour.
E.g., Green = baskets, vegetation,
E.g., Red = wood, male skin colour
E.g., Yellow = linen, pale animals
E.g., Blue = water, sky, etc.
Placement of colour as background:
E.g., The king’s burial chamber was
called “the house of gold” in the
New Kingdom.
It is often painted with a gold
background.
Symbolism of gestures:
Mourning:
Left hand clasped to head
(throwing dust over hair,
showing extent of grief by
making oneself unkempt)
Forearms crossed before
body
Symbolism of gestures:
Adulation:
Forearm raised with palm
outward towards the king
(or queen) and/or a deity.
The four pillars of the earth and heavens:
Pt = heavens
Ta = earth
=
W3s-sceptre
Two items really representing 4 pillars,
which are shown in some representations
Four cardinal points of the universe
represent main foreigners outside Egypt (king fires arrows at Sed-festival)
The Significance of numbers: Duality.
A male and female anthropomorphized figure personifying eternity.
neheh Djet
“eternity” “eternity”
Duality and the unification of the
Two Lands (Upper & Lower Egypt):
• Windpipe and lungs symbol for the
verb sm3 “to unite”
• Two figures symbolizing North & South
using a stem from
(a) the emblematic plant of
Lower Egypt (North; Delta)
= papyrus plant
(b) the emblematic plant of
Upper Egypt (South; Nile Valley)
= sedge plant
→ to bind together symbolically the
Two Lands.
The message provided is that the
Two Lands are distinct, but are joined
together as one.
Nature:
• The Ancient Egyptians
(and others) observed
various opposing / dual
aspects in their specific
and overall environment
• They transferred such
concepts into all aspects
of their culture
Red land vs. Black land
(Kemet) (Deshret)
East (life) West (Death)
North (LE) South (UE)
Heavens Earth
Order (maat) Chaos (isfet)
Summer (low Nile) Winter (High Nile)
The significance of numbers:
The number “Four” can often
refer to completeness.
E.g., The ritual of driving four
calves, coloured red,
black, white, & speckled.
-The colours represent
one of each of the colours
found in cattle → concept
of totality.
-New Kingdom temple
scenes.