Post on 23-Feb-2023
ANT.106: Spring 2021
Introduction to Archaeology.Notes & images compiled by Gregory Mumford (© 2021)
Lecture-: Background to Doc.3
Ancient Rome / Roman Empire
Table of contents: This overview follows the culture study forms.
• Zoom recordings for the online / remote version of this course 4
• Tips regarding avoiding plagiarism: i.e., how to re-word one’s answers 5
• Other clarifications & requirements for the culture study assignments 6
• Instructor tips for optimizing lecture & course material retention 7
• Background to Ancient Roman Empire (Ancient Romans) 8
1. Early Searchers: Re Ancient Romans. 9
2. The Evidence: Re Ancient Romans. 20
3. More recent archaeological investigations: Re Ancient Romans. 51
4. Approaches to dating & chronology: Re Ancient Romans. 42
5. Approaches to categorizing social organization: Re Anc. Romans 64
6. Determining the past environment: Re Ancient Romans. 91
7. Determining the past subsistence pattern: Re Ancient Romans. 109
8. Determining the past technology: Re Ancient Romans. 127
9. Trade and exchange: Re Ancient Romans. 141
10. Cognitive archaeology: Re Ancient Romans. 160
11. Appearance (clothing; health; etc.): Re Ancient Romans. 176
12. Processes of change: Re Ancient Romans. 190
• Sources: 201
For the ONLINE / REMOTE version of this course (NOT in-class):
Power point overview of culture studies:
• A ZOOM recording is available for each culture study power point overview,
being recording during the pre-scheduled week for each culture study,
and being posted in the Zoom video section of the course’s Canvas website.
• Please note: Zoom recordings are available for only 30 days from the day of
recording, and for anyone wishing to view the instructor going over this
power point verbally, this must be done within the 30-day period.
• This power point is available throughout the course, and has sufficient
text/data within it for extracting the required answers for the culture study form,
while the verbal coverage of this ppt. highlights certain points, expands on
some points (beyond the text), and may skip other details in the ppt. text.
Video/documentary options for each culture study:
• The required video has more leeway regarding having a few recommended
options, while one video (documentary) will be selected for Zoom recording,
which stays posted only for 30 days within the Canvas Zoom option.
• Otherwise, all of the suggested video/documentary options will have a web-
link (Youtube) via the Canvas assignment folder for each Culture Study.
Please report any broken Youtube links (only use a recommended video).
Non-recommended videos will not be considered (unless otherwise permitted)
Please note: Important cautions & policies regarding assignment responses …
• When utilizing the culture study overviews (& any other works), please avoid
plagiarism, such as cutting-and-pasting from this ppt, copying and submitting
answers compiled by study groups (i.e., 2+ persons), or any other such text/+
duplications that do not represent your own/sole, individual wording/ideas/etc.
Plagiarism: “The practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and
passing them off as one's own.” (Oxford English Dictionary)https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/plagiarism
• If you need to quote someone else’s work/words (albeit acceptable as only
a small % of any assignment: < 5%?), put the information in quotes and add
a full reference to the source. **For this assignment: Use your own words.
Suggestions regarding how to extract information & formulate answers:
• E.g., Ppt. information: “In 1928-1937, anthropologist Li Ji excavated the site
of Anyang (in northern Henan), and found an ancient literate society
toward the end of the Shang dynasty …(Shang Dyn. = 1500–1000 BC)”
• → Re-word the required information, such as in the following way:
E.g., Li Ji investigated Anyang in 1928-1937, in the Henan region, discovering
a culture dating to the late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500-1000 BCE).
• Please note: The re-wording is substantial, it includes re-structuring, different
words & word order, concision, but retains the core information (avoiding plagiarism)
• Plagiarism penalties: May range from a grade reduction to a zero (“0”) depending upon extent.
Other clarifications and requirements for the culture study assignments:
• Remember that a documentary/video accompanies this culture study
overview and must be utilized where/when pertinent within the following
12 sections in the response forms.
• The culture study overviews attempt to furnish the primary background
overviews to each past culture, albeit necessarily only in a superficial way:
i.e., a broad, simplified introduction to the diverse aspects of a past culture
following the 12 chapters in the course textbook (by Renfrew & Bahn).
• The documentary/video presentations and options attempt to represent
more recent, reliable (i.e., accurate), educational and pleasing portrayals
of narrower aspects of the same past cultures. Hence, most documentaries
are much more focused in scope, but will contain at least several of the
12 aspects and need to be utilized in each of the pertinent sections.
• The course assignment file has a weblink to one or more recommended
documentaries per culture study, but other viable options might be availableE.g., PBS: Secrets of Stonehenge: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jfBsyuAt_KE
• Penalties for not incorporating documentaries into the assignment:
A deduction of 2% (from the optimum 10%), which may be regained by completing this component
• Remember: Follow all the instructions for and prompts in the culture study
response forms. E.g., 3+ examples, different types of information, details, etc.
Instructor tips for lectures, etc.:
(1). Attend class regularly (& listen) …→ Many clarifications, tips, announcements,
reinforcement & reviews of materials/concepts.
(2). Take notes on lectures, etc. …→ The act of writing down notes, even with
most course materials and instructions online,
serves as an invaluable aid to one focusing on
class topic and retaining information better.
(3). Complete the required textbook
readings, and/or review the ppt.,
prior to the specific class day …→ This will provide greater clarity and
comprehension of the material, and will enable
asking focused questions where something
may be less clear (in the textbook or lecture).
(4). Ask questions during the class if
you are confused/wish more data→ The class is an ideal place to ask for more
clarity or further information not contained in
the textbook, ppt., and/or lecture (If nobody
asks questions, the lecture proceeds …).
(5). Complete optional materials:→ Additional reinforcement, studying & bonus?
https://howtostudyincollege.com/how-to-get-good-grades/note-taking-strategies/
Evolution of archaeology:
- New findings → more data
- Learning to ask the
“right questions,”
- Implementing more of the
“right methods,”
Excavating Pompeii since 1748 …New approaches
1.a-c.
Early Searchers:Past through pre-1940 AD
including historians, explorers,
early archaeologists & others(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.3
3. Where? Survey and Excavation of Sites and Features.
2.1. Discovering archaeological
sites and features:
• Various sites & features have
never been lost: Roman Forum
• Only their function awaited further
further analysis
• Many sites found by the public,
accidentally:
E.g., Painted caves at Lascaux
Painted cave at Cosquer
(found by a diver)
Terracotta army in China
(farmers cutting a well)
• Archaeologists focus on
detecting & investigating the
full range of site types.
1. ground/surface reconnaissance
2. Aerial reconnaissance
18th cent AD: Forum in Rome
Early searchers near Pompeii:
• 1709 discovery of coloured marble
during well excavation on an estate
at Resina (i.e., Herculaneum near
Pompeii) & subsequent expanded
digging from 1709–1716 by Prince
d’Elbeuf who bought the estate and
plundered Herculaneum’s theatre of
of its marble & bronze statuary, etc.
• 1738-1740+: King Charles VII made
Naples his capital in 1735, and he
pursued art & culture to gain status,
continuing the digging at the same
& former estate of Prince d’Elbeuf.
• Initial discoveries at Herculaneum
had soon inspired searches for
more artifacts in this region, while
locals made finds in their fields.
• Alcubierre initiated 1st excavation at
“La Civita” in April 1748 → Pompeii
Charles (VII) of Boubon employed
Rocque J. de Alcubierre & Karl Weber
to excavate at Herculaneum & Pompeii.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.1
1. The Searchers: The History of Archaeology.
2.2. The First Excavations:• 18th cent AD excavating major sites:
- Italy: Pompeii (1748).
- Peru: Huaca de Tantalluc (1765).
- USA: Burial mound in Virginia (1784)
(excav. by Thomas Jefferson)
→ Virginia mound:
-100s of mounds E. of Mississippi river
- Believed to be built by vanished race
- Jefferson excav. Scientifically (FIRST)
- Found multiple layers & bones
- Tested ideas against data
- Promoted builders’ indigenous origins
- Early 1800s: Richard Cole Hoare
excavated 100s of burial mounds in UK
He developed a typology of mounds.
Early searchers at Pompeii:
1748-1798:
• 1763: An inscription found at “La
Civita” identifies it as “Pompeii”:
1806-1815:
• 1808-1815: Excavations intensify …
E.g., Forum and the amphitheatre.
1815-1860:
• 1816: Major findings of “House of the
Tragic Poet,” “House of the Faun,”
& the Forum Baths … at Pompeii.
• Giuseppe Fiorelli: 1847+at Pompeii
• 1860: Pompeii is made a national
treasure by a newly unified Italy.
1860-1870:
• Excavations of housing along major
street, and a few other areas.
• 1863-75: Fiorelli director at Pompeii
1879-1923:
• 1910-1923: Excavations are made
along the Via dell’ Abbondanza.
Amphitheatre at Pompeii
“House of the Faun”
Later searchers at Pompeii:
1924-1961: Initially pre WW II →
• 1924-1939: Excavating the “Villa of
the Mysteries” & much of Region 1
• Minimal work at Pompeii during war
• 1945: Excavations resume in
Regions 1 & 2 to augment tourism …
1962-present:
• Excavation slows and concentrates
on specific areas and housing (i.e.,
the site is suffering erosion, etc.).
• 1980: Major earthquake damages
large parts of Pompeii (much now
closed off to public access).
• 1997: A special law diverting all the
tourist proceeds from Pompeii to
conserve and aid Pompeii’s heritage
and tourism.
Ca. 1930s
https://collections.museumvictoria.com.au/items/1705933
Excavators, excavation dates, and excavated remains at Pompeii:
“Early Searchers” = pre World War II (post WW II = “scientific”)
1.d.
Early Searchers:Past through pre-1940 AD
including historians, explorers,
early archaeologists & others(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
2.a-c.
The evidence:Different types of evidence,
the basis from which we
extrapolate interpretations(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
Some sites/monuments have never been “lost,” …
remaining standing, partially buried, and/or often poorly
understood: Rome (Forum; palaces; aqueducts; roads; etc.)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.2
2. What is Left? The Variety of the Evidence.
- Human impact is deliberate through
accidental construction,
use / habitation,
re-use / modification,
abandonment,
re-discovery / disturbance,
etc.
of buildings.
- Nature affects the burial & relative
preservation of archaeological record:
Volcanic ash (pumice)
Wind borne sand/soil
Flash floods, water erosion,
etc. relocating item.
Animal tunnels.
Etc.
The formation processes
are varied & complex:
i.e., = many ways in which
artifacts & ecofacts
appear in excav. contexts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinian_eruption
Plinian eruption
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.2
2. What is Left? The Variety of the Evidence.
1.2. Material culture debris
survives in many ways:
1. Cold sites:
Sub-zero temperatures (C)
E.g., Pazyryk: organic mat.
2. Dry sites:
Arid environments
E.g., Peru: organic mat.
3. Wet sites:
Water logged (no oxygen)
E.g., Florida swamps: org.
4. Natural disasters:
Volcanic eruptions (pumice)
E.g., Pompeii, etc.
Mudslides (sealed deposits)
E.g., Canada: Hope slide.
→ Need to know processes of
preservation & what = lost
→ design optimum Q and A
Exceptional preservation
of organic materials …
https://slideplayer.com/slide/776632/
Daily Life in a Roman Town: South of Rome.
Pompeii - Mt. Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD
Approx. a 550 x 770 m town
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.2
2. What is Left? The Variety of the Evidence.
1.2. Material culture debris
survives in many ways:
1. Cold sites:
Sub-zero temperatures (C)
E.g., Pazyryk: organic mat.
2. Dry sites:
Arid environments
E.g., Peru: organic mat.
3. Wet sites:
Water logged (no oxygen)
E.g., Florida swamps: org.
4. Natural disasters:
Volcanic eruptions (pumice)
E.g., Pompeii, etc.
Mudslides (sealed deposits)
E.g., Canada: Hope slide.
→ Need to know processes of
preservation & what = lost
→ design optimum Q and A
- Knowing one is seeking
hollows from bodies …
Varying – excellent preservation
of organic materials …
http://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/36706
Pompeii: reconstruction. Plaster cast from hollow.
E.g., Fore-knowledge to enable
casting bodies within hollows
Housing: Elite villas.• Upper class landowners had
country villas.
• Major cultural focal point and
agricultural production.
• Using fertilizer, machinery, etc.
to improve productivity.
• Subsumed small peasant land
owners, providing protection
against bandits.
• Free peasants tied to the land as
coloni (via Diocletian’s economic
reforms).
• People migrated from cities in
3rd cent. AD to obtain livelihood
as coloni
• Non-Roman regions emulating
Roman techniques & competing
→ reduction in trade.
Remaining evidence:
Even some partly-largely
destroyed “buried remains”
yield traces …
a. Brought up in ploughing
E.g., stone foundations
b. Partly visible at the surface,
E.g., Via discoloration
of soil and powdered stone
c. Greater visibility from the
air, such as balloons, planes
drones, etc.
Daily Life in the Roman
Empire: preserved via …• Funerary monuments yield
images of daily life
(particularly in W. empire)
• Precise detail:
- Family life & small-scale
industrial settings
- Iron working (blacksmith)
- Butcher shop
- Green grocer
- Shopkeeper
- Apothecary
- Stage coach
Recreation: Theaters• Continuing from Greek traditions, theaters
were popular places for entertainment and
socializing.
Public Baths:• Another place for socializing & cleansing oneself
Literature, etc., preserved via copies:• A. Tibullus & S. Propertius Augustan elegy
• P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid) Amores Metamorphoses
• Titus Livius Historian
• L. Annaeus Seneca Dialogues & tragedies
• Petronius Satiricon,Trimalchio’s Feast
• Cornelius Tacitus Historian, story-teller, etc.
• L. Apuleius The Golden Ass
• etc.
Medieval monks & others preserved
copies of selected classical documents by
copying and recopying → written evidence
2.d.
The evidence:Different types of evidence,
the basis from which we
extrapolate interpretations(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
3.a-c.
Recent archaeology
and surveys:1945 AD to present,
including historians, explorers,
*recent archaeologists, etc.(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.3
3. Where? Survey and Excavation of Sites and Features.
2.2. Ground Reconnaissance:
• Different means exist for
identifying specific sites.
• Examining documentary sources
for place names.
2.2.a. Documentary sources.
E.g., Schliemann’s search for Troy
(via Homer’s Iliad)
E.g., Helge & Stine’s discovery of
L’Anse aux Meadows in
Newfoundland (Canada)
(via Viking Sagas)
E.g., Old place names (early maps)
Biblical lands; Europe; etc.
E.g., 12th century AD maps & plans
of some towns.
Historical & literary research
to initiate a search for specific
through general sites
i.e., clues regarding where
one might begin searching
A quest for known, but
lost remains …
OTHER CLUES FROM STANDING / EXPOSED SITES:
=Sites never lost, partially buried, and often poorly understood:
Recent searchers at Pompeii:
1924-1961: continuing post-WW II
• 1924-1939: Excavating the “Villa of
the Mysteries” & much of Region 1
• Minimal work at Pompeii during war
• 1945: Excavations resume in
Regions 1 & 2 to augment tourism …
1962-present:
• Excavation slows and concentrates
on specific areas and housing (i.e.,
the site is suffering erosion, etc.).
• 1980: Major earthquake damages
large parts of Pompeii (much now
closed off to public access).
• 1997: A special law diverting all the
tourist proceeds from Pompeii to
conserve and aid Pompeii’s heritage
and tourism.
Excavators, excavation dates, and excavated remains at Pompeii:
“Early Searchers” = pre World War II (post WW II = “scientific”)
Pompeii: collapse of housing at the site on 7 Nov., 2010
Today, most of the work at Pompeii = conservation / restoration
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.3
3. Where? Survey and Excavation of Sites and Features.Photogrammetric plans
• can georeference/rectify oblique
views in a computer using known
reference points.
• Scale 1:2500 maps have good
detail (+/- 2 meters)
• Digital terrain modelling = good
in places of greater vertical contrast
(computer program corrections)
• Survey of surrounding environment:
- Aerial photos
- Crop marks
- Soil marks
E.g., ditches
enclosure
roadways
etc.
Soil marks: Winter plowing scraping
chalk foundations of a Gallo-Roman villa
in France. Post WW II work …
(Late 20th cent.)
Drought accentuated crop marks:
False colour high lights crop marks
Vertical photograph/image – better for planning.
July 2007 imagehttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/26706758_The_Map_of_Altinum_Ancestor_of_Venice
Andrea Ninfo, Alessandra Fontana, Paolo Mozzi, & Francesco Ferrarese (2009) in SCIENCE …
Geophysical survey at Roman
Wroxeter: Magnetometry data,
GPR, gradiometer, etc.
1990s survey
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Image-of-the-magnetic-data-of-the-Roman-city-of-Wroxeter-collected-using-Geoscan-Research_fig1_220476174
Vince Gaffney et. al.
Other documentaries on
Ancient Rome:
E.g., History Channel series:
Rome: Engineering an
Empire (94 minutes)
3.d.
Recent archaeology
and surveys:1945 AD to present,
including historians, explorers,
*recent archaeologists, etc.
(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2016 (7th ed.):
Culture Study on Roman society/culture. Empire & timeline ...
Timeline Early Rome → Republic → Imperial Rome:
• Legendary tradition of 7 kings of Rome = 750 – 510 BC
(Foundation of Rome by Romulus, etc.)
• Roman Republic (invasions; battles; etc.) = 510 – 272+ BC
• 1st Punic War → 2nd Punic War (Hannibal) = 264 – 202 BC
• Rome expanding Eastward (Greece) = 202 – 133 BC
• Rome civil wars (two phases) = 133 – 44 BC
• Roman Principate (→ death of J. Caesar) = 44 – 30 BC .
• Augustus Caesar (Octavian) = 30 – 27 BC
• Julio-Claudian dynasty = 27 BC – 68 AD
• Flavian, Nervo-Trajanic, & Antonine dynasties = 69 – 192 AD
• Severan dynasty = 193 – 235 AD
• Political anarchy & decline = 235 – 284 AD
• Western & Eastern Roman empires = 284 – 476 AD
• Barbarians invade & rule Italy = 476 AD .
• Eastern Roman empire continues = 491 – 565 AD
4.a-c.
Dating the past:Techniques by which we
obtain the absolute dates
and relative dates for past
events or sequences …(Ancient Rome/Roman Europe)
Origin of Rome:
Oral tradition: =written later
Twins Romulus & Remus
abandoned as children
on banks of the Tiber
• Rescued & suckled by a
She-wolf
• Rescued later by shepherds
• Later quarrelled →
Romulus killed Remus
• Romulus “founded” Rome
ca. 750 BC (Roman writers),
including city institutions.
• Story recorded around
3rd cent. BC (content/assoc.)
• 8th cent. BC = simple huts
found on Palatine hill (C14+)
• Romulus → king non-hereditary
• Chose 100 men → senate
→ descendants = patricians
-People → 3 tribes → each
30 units (curiae) → assembly
The foundation of Rome:• 8th cent. Small village (C14)
• 770+BC population increases
& more contact with Greece.
• Greater craft specialization
(e.g., pottery)
• Very wealthy tombs →
indicates social stratification
• Late 7th cent. BC→urbanized
settlement at Rome (C14; rel.)
• Began building stone & timber
frame houses, public square,
temples, public buildings, etc.
• Series of tyrant rulers
• Military system improved
(centuries → legion)
• Modified citizenship
• Interactions with Etruscans
• 509 BC monarchy ended →
“collegiate magistracy” =
two men (consuls) in power.
• Patricians vs. plebeians.
Stratigraphy, contextual dating (artifacts & samples),
and texts
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.5
5. How Were Societies Organized? Social Archaeology.3.2.a. Written records:
• Some civilizations have sufficient
texts regarding their social structure
• One’s main aim should be finding
such texts
• Writing is used variously by different
societies: Dated by known rulers/persons, assoc.+
- Mycenaeans (i.e., commerce)
- Greeks & Romans e.g.,marble decrees
- Coinage → individual city state mints
→ imperial rule
- Mayan glyphs also have hist. events
- Indus Valley script awaits decipherment
- Mesopotamia has innumerable texts
of many types.
E.g., Self-perception (cognitive info)
Economic texts
Law code of Hammurabi
• Maintain objectivity with all evidence
(each source has its own biases)
Recreation: Theaters• Continuing from Greek traditions, theaters
were popular places for entertainment and
socializing.
Public Baths:• Another place for socializing & cleansing oneself
Literature, etc., preserved via copies:• A. Tibullus & S. Propertius Augustan elegy
• P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid) Amores Metamorphoses
• Titus Livius Historian
• L. Annaeus Seneca Dialogues & tragedies
• Petronius Satiricon,Trimalchio’s Feast
• Cornelius Tacitus Historian, story-teller, etc.
• L. Apuleius The Golden Ass
• etc.
Histories, reign lengths, year dates, etc.,
combined with astronomical sightings and
associated radiocarbon dating → abs. dates
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.4
4. When? Dating Methods and Chronology.8.2.b. C14 history & basis of method.
• 1949 W. Libby obtained 1st C14 date
• Need organic samples-wood
-charcoal
-seeds
-plants
-bones
• Various counting errors, cosmic
radiation, etc. → uncertainty in
measurements (+/- std. deviation).
• Req. samples’ size = decreasing
a. 1950s-60s: 10-20 g. wood
b. 1970s-80s: 5 g pure carbon
c. Now: 5-10 mg samples
→ test precious items
• C14 dates expressed before 1950 AD
when listing years BP (before present)
• +/-100 yrs 68% → +/-200 yrs 95%
• Calibration with tree-rings → calendar
years.
Radiocarbon
dates calibrated
with tree-rings seq.
https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1MKDC_enUS774US774&biw=1530&bih=714&tbm=isch&sa
=1&ei=DwSuXKHcCISSsAWR9ayoDw&q=radiocarbon+dating&oq=radiocarbon+dating&gs_l
=img.3..0l10.1745183.1749333..1750221...0.0..0.144.1392.16j2......0....1..gws-wiz-img......
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.4
4. When? Dating Methods and Chronology.
9.1. Trapped electron dating:
• Thermoluminescence (TL), optical,
& electron spin resonance dating
display indirect radioactive decay.
• Focus on radiation received by sample
(assuming annual dose = constant).
9.2.a. Thermoluminescence dating:
• TL advantages versus C14, it …
a. dates pottery (i.e., clay)
b. “dates” inorganic items (burnt flint)
earlier than C14 limit (50,000 BP)
9.2.b. Basis of method:
• Dating minerals set to “0” by 500 C/932 F
accidentally/intentionally (pottery; flints)
• Clay has some radioactive elements
obtained internally & externally.
• Gauge site soil’s radioactivity → accuracy
(1 yr. capsule; radiation counter; sample)
• Lab heats sample; measures light radiation
TL-dating can be used on pottery,
and burnt flint, etc. (i.e., non-org.),
but it has an increasingly broad
error range the earlier in time
one goes …
OLS = used more now … (need specialist, including for sampling)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.1
1. The Searchers: The History of Archaeology.3.4. The Three Age System:• 1836/1848 AD: C.J. Thomsen
suggested artifacts from Danish
barrows displayed 3 Ages:
Stone, Bronze, & Iron Ages.
→ system = adopted in Europe.
• Later: Stone Age → “old” & “new”
= Paleolithic and Neolithic.
• This system was less applicable
outside Europe
• Remains a key class. system
• Conceptual advances:
- 1. Antiquity of humankind
- 2. Principle of evolution
- 3. Three-Age system
• → Other scholars → typologies:
- Oscar Montelius: fibulae
- John Evans: coins
IRON
AGE
BRONZE
AGE
STONE
AGE
= Relative sequence / dating
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.1
1. The Searchers: The History of Archaeology.3.4. The Three Age System:• 1836/1848 AD: C.J. Thomsen
suggested artifacts from Danish
barrows displayed 3 Ages:
Stone, Bronze, & Iron Ages.
→ system = adopted in Europe.
• Later: Stone Age → “old” & “new”
= Paleolithic and Neolithic.
• This system was less applicable
outside Europe
• Remains a key class. system
• Conceptual advances:
- 1. Antiquity of humankind
- 2. Principle of evolution
- 3. Three-Age system
• → Other scholars → typologies:
- Oscar Montelius: fibulae
- John Evans: coins
One may obtain relative
dates in a sequence:
• Architectural phases
• Sequential features
• Sequence of layers/deposits
• Artifacts & culture changes
(including typologies)
→Tied into absolute dates
(radiocarbon dating; TL; etc)
4.d.
Dating the past:Techniques by which we
obtain the absolute dates and
relative dates for past
events or sequences …
(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Politics: Republic.• Rome changed during wars of conquest:
• Power held by patricians & plebeians
(nobles dominating senate + magistrates)
• Nobility = part of politically powerful and
wealthy land owners.
• Rome governed by annual, elected
magistrates & senate (ex-magistrates)
• Guiding Roman foreign policy
• Improving life for lower classes
• All full citizens could participate in voting
assemblies.
• Voting tallied by groups:
E.g., local tribes: 4 “urban” & 31 “rural
with only landowners registering in “rural”
tribes versus landless urban tribes
→ wealthy landowners had more votes
whilst peasant land-holders unable to
attend assembly which was held in Rome.
302 BC
290 BC
241 BC
Conquest of Italy:
• New patrician nobility →society transformed
• Founding colonies; expanding Roman territory
• Conquest; treaties; alliances; 272+ control Italy
Julius Caesar: Building an empire → 44 BC.
Caesar’s Gallic wars; civil war (Scipio Africanus); Cleopatra VII
Rome: The City & the Forum.Octavian (Augustus Caesar) …
The principate (first among equals):
Based on general consensus
• Compromise between republican
& monarchical governments
• Power delegated by senate &
the people
• Traits:
a. Authoritarian power
b. Reverence for traditional forms
Politics: Empire. Power held by emperor
• 284-305 major reforms by Emp. Diocletian
Tetrachy (subdividing Empire E-W)
297 AD: Empire subdivided into 12 admin.
districts & 101 provinces.
• 324 AD: Constantine the Great (sole ruler)
Divine nature of emperor
• 476 AD: West Roman empire falls
Provinces and frontiers of the Empire to 106 AD:
Organization of the Roman Empire and societies within it
Roman road system:
- Part of the Appian Way
outside Rome (312 BC+).
- The surviving Roman road
system provides a definite
clue to the existence of a
central administrative system
dictating the building of roads
throughout the empire.
- Indicates Roman territory
versus areas outside empire.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.5
5. How Were Societies Organized? Social Archaeology.
6.4. Administration beyond the
primary center:
• Surveying/excavating multiple
sites enable a study of
centrally organized admin.
• One needs to find administrative
artifacts:
- Clay sealings, imperial seals,
cartouches, Roman milestone,
- Standard weights & measures
(i.e., central authority; other?)
- Broad transportation network:
Roads in land-based territory
- Military fortifications
(securing borders; regions; etc.)
- Etc.
Roman roads
Roman military:
Legion = 5000 troops
Cohorts = 500 each x 10
Centuries = approx. 100 x 5-6
Late Roman empire:• The army → increases to 75 legions
= 900,000 troops
• Army subdivisions:
a. Field army
b. Army of the frontier
c. The guard
• Neighbours provided protection
along the frontiers: i.e., vested
interest in protecting their lands.
Roman battle tactics:
• A favourite Roman military
tactic = the testudo (“tortoise”)
which was applied to approach
enemy fortifications.
• Like the Greeks, the Romans
developed many siege machines,
siege towers, etc.
• The Roman army had infantry,
cavalry, chariotry, a navy, and
foreign auxiliaries.
• War elephants were used by
Hannibal (of Carthage) against
Rome; also adopted by Rome.
Roman garrison town:- A typical permanent Roman
legionary fortress
- Barrack blocks accommodated
5000 soldiers (legionaries)
subdivided into 10 cohorts,
in turn subdivided into 6 centuries
(“100” soldiers; usually smaller).
- E.g., Novaesium (Neuss) on the
Rhine frontier, Germany.
Composition:
1. Administration & services (blue)
2. Higher ranking officers quarters
3. Granaries & magazines (green)
4. Workshops
5. Hospital
6. Cavalry barracks (purple)
7. Centurion’s barracks (hatched)
8. Infantry barracks (yellow)
Roman colony-towns:• 2nd cent. BC colony towns
used in colonizing Italy and
some territories abroad (Gaul).
• Some garrison colonies were
placed on the southern coast
to guard against possible
maritime invasions.
• Roman colony towns had a
grid plan, which survives in
many modern Italian cities
that originated as Roman
colonies: e.g., Florence
• Colonies often received
optimistic names:
E.g., “strength”, “plenty”
• Unfortunately, Roman settlers
lost their citizenship, and
became less willing to colonize.
• 177 BC colonization halted briefly.
Surviving colony grid plan, built by
Augustus: modern Florence, Italy
5.c.
Social
Organization:Different status evident via
settlements & housing etc.(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
Housing: Elite villas.• Upper class landowners had
country villas.
• Major cultural focal point and
agricultural production.
• Using fertilizer, machinery, etc.
to improve productivity.
• Subsumed small peasant land
owners, providing protection
against bandits.
• Free peasants tied to the land as
coloni (via Diocletian’s economic
reforms).
• People migrated from cities in
3rd cent. AD to obtain livelihood
as coloni
• Non-Roman regions emulating
Roman techniques & competing
→ reduction in trade.
Elite Roman housing: Reflecting social stratification / hierarchy …http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/arts-architecture/architecture/roman-house.php
https://www.quora.com/What-did-a-poor-Roman-house-look-like-
What-was-a-poor-family-like
Poorer Roman housing:-Insulae (town upper apartments)
-Farmers’ housing (kitchen below)
http://www.legendsandchronicles.com/ancient-civilizations/ancient-rome/ancient-roman
-houses/ancient-roman-houses-1/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/324399979390372602/
Insulae: Ranging
in size & quality
Social organization: the family.• Father in charge of the family, over
a. The wife (mater familias)
b. The children (liberi)
c. Slaves (servi)
d. Domestic animals
e. All property (fixed & mobile)
• Upon the death of the father →
sons dictated their own lives
and property.
• Strict discipline within household
• Transferred into military discipline
Citizenship:
• Values: virtue, liberty (conscience/action)
glory, reverence, piety, loyalty, reliability,
and a public post.
• Ideally working to improve power &
greatness of fellow Romans
• Supreme law: welfare of the people
• Individual glorified only in victory & death
5.d.
Social
Organization:Different status evident via
Tombs, burials, etc.(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
https://www.slideshare.net/Ecomuseum/session-no2-2010-roman-funeral-practices-by-rachel-brochstein
Family tombs: https://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_14.html
Diverse mortuary practices:
• Great diversity with inhumation
and cremation, plus changes in
preferences: In addition, the poor
could not afford cremation …
• Many differences in locations &
graves-tombs: status, culture, etc.
• E.g., Appian Way noble mortuary
monuments;
• Family mausoleums: vary widely
• E.g., Pompeii Street of Tombs;
• E.g., “Potters’ Fields” for pauper
class burials: E. Esquiline Hill.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Tomb_(Silistra)#/media/File:Roman_Tomb_Silistra_TB.JPG
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Tomb_(Silistra)#/
media/File:Roman_Tomb_Silistra_fresco_servant.jpg
Roman Tomb of Silistra (NE Bulgaria):
• Town in southern Dobruja, Lower Danube River;
• Mid-4th cent. AD (pre-376 AD), in Durostorum;
• Pagan art in frescoes on 11 interior panels;
• 2.60 x 3.30 metre, East-West burial chamber;
• Affluent resident of the town (tomb not completed)
An elite pyramid tomb of Caius Cestius (Rome): Roman politician …
https://www.walksinsiderome.com/en/blog/about-rome/the-mausoleums-of-rome-tombs-become-beautiful-monuments.html
5.e. Social
Organization:Different ways of categorizing
social organization ...(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
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and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
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many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
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sites, and other relevant information.
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National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Environment: heartland
• Close interaction between
plains, hills, & mountains.
• 20% land = plains
• 40% land = hills
• 40% land = mountains
• → great diversity in climate
• The Alps separate Italy
from Europe
• “Unified” mainland S. of Alps
• Hot summers
• Mild winters
• Moderate rainfall
• Crops: Wheat, barley, peas,
beans, & olives and grapes.
• Livestock: goats & pigs
• Fishing & hunting.
Italy (heartland)
versus great diversity
across empire …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.6
6. What Was the Environment? Environmental Archaeology.
3.6.b. Buried land surfaces:
• Peat has buried ancient soil
and past landscapes (U.K.)
• Neolithic farmland has
emerged from peat in Ireland
• Volcanic deposits have buried
landscapes & ancient forests:
- Pompeii
- Thera
3.7. Tree Rings and Climate:
• Tree ring growth varies
- Nothing (winter)
- Strong (spring)
- Wider (more moisture/rain)
- Dense forest (slow growth)
- Light forest (fast growth)
- Temperature gauge
Changing landscapes:
-- destruction (towns+pop)
-- renewal (fertile ash …)
Vegetation map of modern Europe:
Coniferous forest;
Med. Vegetation;
Mixed forest;
Deciduous forest;
Wooded steppe;
Grass (steppes);
Heath and moor;
Some Alpine
veg.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.6
6. What Was the Environment? Environmental Archaeology.6.3.b. Gardens:
• Various types of gardens exist
- Functional → ornamental.
- E.g., Pompeii: casts made of
trees & plants revealing
different types,
garden designs,
gardening techniques
grafting, etc.
6.3.c. Pollution of Air & Water:
• Past pollution of rivers can be
detected in fish species:
- Appearance of more pollutant
tolerant types in middens.
- Molluscs (types less oxygenated)
• Past air pollution:
- Cores from Lakes & peat bogs
→ lead levels > under Phoenicians
- Greek-Roman use of lead increased
Micro-environment …
Selected wild fauna in Europe:Reindeer;
Wild Boar.
Raccoon Dog;
Pine Marten;
Norwegian Lemming;
Alpine Long-Eared Bat;
Saiga;
etc.
For more data, see: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-animals-live-in-europe.html
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.6
6. What Was the Environment? Environmental Archaeology.6.3.b. Gardens:
• Various types of gardens exist
- Functional → ornamental.
- E.g., Pompeii: casts made of
trees & plants revealing
different types,
garden designs,
gardening techniques
grafting, etc.
6.3.c. Pollution of Air & Water:
• Past pollution of rivers can be
detected in fish species:
- Appearance of more pollutant
tolerant types in middens.
- Molluscs (types less oxygenated)
• Past air pollution:
- Cores from Lakes & peat bogs
→ lead levels > under Phoenicians
- Greek-Roman use of lead increased
Europe: SUMMER temperatures in C & F for July.
- More than 25 degrees down to 5-10 degrees Celsius from South to North
- More than 77 degrees down to 50-59 degrees Fahrenheit from South to North
Europe WINTER temperatures in C & F for January.
- Around 10-15 degrees down to less than 10 degrees Celsius from SW to NE
- Around 50-59 degrees down to less than 14 degrees Fahrenheit from SW-NE
Environment: heartland
• Close interaction between
plains, hills, & mountains.
• 20% land = plains
• 40% land = hills
• 40% land = mountains
• → great diversity in climate
• The Alps separate Italy
from Europe
• “Unified” mainland S. of Alps
• Hot summers
• Mild winters
• Moderate rainfall
• Crops: Wheat, barley, peas,
beans, & olives and grapes.
• Livestock: goats & pigs
• Fishing & hunting.
Italy (heartland)
versus great diversity
across empire …
6.d.
Environment:Landscape, vegetation,
flora, fauna & climate details(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
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details from it into as many of
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• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
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many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
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sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.7
7. What Did They Eat? Subsistence and Diet.2.9 Plant evidence from
literate societies:
• Literate societies have yielded
much evidence for anc. plant
domestication, farming, cooking, etc.:
• Strabo: much info
• Josephus: Roman army food
• Virgil’s Georgics Roman farming
• Varro’s Ag.Study Roman farming
• Apicius: Cookery book
• Fort Vindolanda: Letters noting food
• Herodotus 5th C: Egyptian food
• Pharaonic Egypt: Tombs, texts, food
= much data: elite
• Egyptian villages: Lower class data.
• Egyptian models: Other data
• Babylonian tablets: 35 stew recipes
• China granaries: Texts, grains, etc.
• Americas 16th cent: B. de Sahagun
Subsistence:
• Close interaction between
plains, hills, & mountains.
• 20% land = plains
• 40% land = hills
• 40% land = mountains
• → great diversity in climate
• The Alps separate Italy
from Europe
• “Unified” mainland S. of Alps
• Hot summers
• Mild winters
• Moderate rainfall
• Crops: Wheat, barley, peas,
beans, & olives and grapes.
• Livestock: goats & pigs
• Fishing & hunting: deer,
boars, riverine+maritime, +
Rome’s maritime
harbour at Ostia:
• FEEDING A
MAJOR CITY &
OTHER URBAN
POPULATIONS:
• Rome required
a major port
(Ostia) to receive
grain shipments
(massive grain
ships from Egypt),
which were
transferred to
smaller barges
and transported
upriver to Rome.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.7
7. What Did They Eat? Subsistence and Diet.
More about feces: . . .
• Nevada Lovelock Cave:
- 5000 feces 2,500-150 BP
- Diet: seeds, fish, birds,
feather frags. (waterfowl).
• Elsewhere, can study sewers,
cesspits, and latrines:
E.g., Roman fort latrine (UK):
→ little meat in soldiers’ diet
→ much wheat bran (bread)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.7
7. What Did They Eat? Subsistence and Diet.
5.4. Remains of individual
meals:
• Pompeii: meals found intact
on tables & food in stores.
E.g., Fish, eggs, bread, meats
• Peruvian graves:
E.g., Desiccated corn cobs
• Egyptian graves:
E.g., Dyn. 2 Saqqara tomb of
a noblewoman’s grave with
cereals, fish, fowl, beef, fruit,
cakes, honey, cheese, wine.
• China Han period 206 BC-AD 220
Tombs yield provisions, medicines
& containers with detailed content
labels.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.7
7. What Did They Eat? Subsistence and Diet.
5.3. Art & literature:
• New Mexico Mimbres pottery
depicts 20 species of fish.
• Most = marine species,
placed on pottery found
500 km from sea.
• Egypt, Hatti (Anatolia),
Mesopotamia, Greece, and
Rome →
have texts regarding veterinary
medicine+; art illustrating food+.
Art as a source for past foodways
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.7
7. What Did They Eat? Subsistence and Diet.5.1.d. Residues in vessels:
• 800 BC Austrian sherd:
→ overcooked milk
• Neolithic sherds (Germany):
→ milk fat & beef suet
• Lake Constance sherds:
→ fish fats
• Roman pottery:
→ butter & pork fat
• Early Dyn. Egyptian vessels:
→ Cheese, beer, wine, yeast
• Early Joman sherds (Japan):
→ dolphin fat (4000 BC)
• Late Paleolithic at Pirika:
→deer fat (scraper edges)
• 700 B Kg.Midas tomb (Turkey):
→ Sheep/goat meat, pulses, grape
wine, barley beer, & honey mead.
• Prehistoric midden (S. Africa):
→ sherds: marine animal (seal?)
Roman hunting:
• Deer, gazelles, boars, lions, bears,
etc.
• Also capturing animals for the
colosseum, zoos, pets, etc.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.7
7. What Did They Eat? Subsistence and Diet.
4.5.b. Fish:
• Fish weight can be derived
from bones.
• Fish species yield dietary info:
a. Riverine fish
b. maritime fish
• Some fish are salted for
preservation: consumption
out of season.
• Some fish are mummified
(Egypt)
• Romans artificially cultivated
fish and oysters in ponds.
• Also fishing: rivers and sea
wide range of sustenance …
Roman
fish
farming
Stephanie Jacomet, Cultivated food plants and probable wild foods.https://www.researchgate.net/figure/List-of-cultivated-food-plants-and-probably-collected-wild-fruits-that-were-found-in_tbl2_225786933
“The Mespilus (medlar) fruit tree, non-native in Europe, is generally
believed to have been introduced to central Europe during the Roman
occupation of the region. Archaeobotanical remains of medlar are
generally rare, resulting in a patchy knowledge of its early distribution”
7.d.
Subsistence:Types of domestic & wild
plants and animals (eaten)(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
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details from it into as many of
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• Some of the documentaries
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many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
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• The better/best documentaries tend
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National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
8.a-c.
Technology:Selected past crafts,
industries, and technology,
including their processes …(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.8
8. How Did They Make Use of Tools? Technology.2.4. How were stones worked & fitted?
Protzen’s experiments reveal var. ways
to duplicate Inca stonework (Peru).
- Hammering & dressing stone blocks,
shaping one face in 20 min.
- Preparing bedding for upper course
block-by-block
- 90 minutes to obtain a good fit.
Haselberger found architect’s drawings
in 4th Cent. BC Apollo Temple (Didyma).
- Full sized & scaled down incised plans
- Other temples with similar plans
AD 120 Roman Pantheon:
- Part of its plan found incised in paving
beside Mausoleum of Augustus.
Egyptian architect’s plans of Tomb of
Ramesses IV (12th cent BC) on papyrus:
- Including placement of interior shrines.Mausoleum of Augustus
Roman Pantheon
The craft of building …
Engineering:
Roads.• An elaborate
system of well-made
roads (+mile stones)
allowing rapid
transportation of the
army & commerce
throughout all types
of weather.
https://app.emaze.com/@AFQICWZT#1Roman roads: Techniques …
http://www.angelfire.com/hi5/interactive_learning/romanbuildingfiles/yr_7_roman_builbing.htm
Engineering: Bridges• Using the arch to span
great heights & distances
to allow roads to cross
rivers and ravines.
• Some bridges survive today
and are still in use.
Alcantara, Spain
Engineering:
Aqueducts
• Major engineering
feats using the arch
and containing a
slight decline over
long distances.
• Supplying major
towns and cities
with water.
• A vulnerable system
easily breached by
invaders, & forcing
the depopulation
of major centers.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/
2016/11-12/roman-aqueducts-engineering-innovation/
Romans: Building aqueducts
http://www.romanaqueducts.info/picturedictionary/pd_onderwerpen/construction.htm
https://interestingengineering.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-roman-aqueducts
Engineering: Water mill.• Water mills of Barbegal 4th cent. AD
• 2 metre wide water wheels
• Horizontal millstones
• Water diverted from aqueduct →
30 degree descent through paddles,
turning the mill stones & grinding grain
→ major flour production.
• Sufficient flour ground to supply
80,000 persons.
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/313915036507102369/
Roman sawmill: E.g., Hierapolis sawmill, with crank & connecting rod
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_technology
Roman construction crane reconstruction: Bonn, Germany.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_technology
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.8
8. How Did They Make Use of Tools? Technology.
Cast iron:
• A more complex furnace installation
is required.
• Some examples appear in 6th cent
BC Greece
• Cast iron = a brittle alloy of iron
• It has a lower melting point
• It has 1.5% - 5% carbon content
Steel:
• Steel is iron with 0.3% - 1.2% carbon
• It is easily worked
• It hardens with cooling
• “True steel” appears in the Roman
period.
• Carburizing → made a similar
product.
Damascus steel
8.d.
Technology:Selected past crafts,
industries, and technology,
including their processes …(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
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details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
9.
TRADE &
EXCHANGE:Exchange of materials, products,
& ideas (incl. influx of peoples).
(Roman Empire)
Roman Economy: Resources & re-dispersal
E.g., Amber from Baltic; Silk from Far East (China) via Red Sea+;
Tin from Cornwall, Hispania, Afghanistan; Ivory from NE Africa
Communication
via roads.• An elaborate
system of well-made
roads (+mile stones)
allowing rapid
transportation of the
army & commerce
throughout all types
of weather.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.9
9. What Contact Did They Have? Trade and Exchange.4.1. The study of distribution.
• Mostly relies on determining sources
and assessing trade items.
• Distribution mechanisms are
harder to reconstruct without texts
• Loc. & excavation of shipwrecks
helps such analysis.
• Internal trade information:
- Minoan Linear B tablets reveal
products sent → palace at Knossos
& redispersal from this palace.
• External trade information:
- 14th cent. BC Amarna Letters note
gifts between pharaohs & neighbors
• Preliterate & literate societies:
- Seals & sealings → > internal trade
- Manufacturer’s marks: e.g., wine jars
→distribution maps for diff. containers
Varazze (NW Italy): Divers find 2000
year-old Roman shipwreck; excellent
preservation yielding intact food.
Stamp of Sestius:• Spatial distribution of find spots of wine jars
+ stamped seals bearing the name of Sestius:
→ Reveals extent of export from Cosa estate of
this wine …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10
10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.1. Symbols of organization
and power.
• Authority figures use symbols to aid in
organizing & controlling populations.
• Communicative symbols:
E.g., data, information, archives
• Power symbols:
E.g., colossal statues, structures,
8.2. Money: symbols of value &
organization in complex societies.
• Complex social organizations often
have a relative value system for
establishing exchange & rel. wealth:
e.g., money.
• An artificial medium of exchange:
Often: gold, silver, or bronze (coinage)
• Money = issued by city state or a
broader government (mint).
Monetary economy
within most of the
Roman Empire
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.9
9. What Contact Did They Have? Trade and Exchange.
7.1.b. Further insights into the
exchange system.
- In a monetary economy further
analysis is possible.
- Examine minting & taxation
- Date coins more precisely
- Sourcing coins (mints noted)
Fort Dura Europas (E. Syria):
- Yielded 10,712 coins
- Minted at 16 Greek cities
- Coins span 27 BC-AD 256
Initial prosperity 27 BC-AD 180
Dramatic decline AD 180-256
“Buffer zone” hypothetical model:
- L. Hedeager’s suggested three
economic systems in N. Europe:
Roman empire → buffer → Germany
(Money → mixed → moneyless)Monetary economy
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.9
9. What Contact Did They Have? Trade and Exchange.• New Guinea:
- Pigs given as gifts → prestigious
“Big Man” status.
- Obligates a repayment.
• Neolithic Britain:
- Stone axe dispersal network.
- Probably involved gift exchange.
• 4000 BC Europe:
- Mediterranean shell dispersal to
Balkans & central Europe →
prestige item initiating reciprocity.
• External reciprocal exchange:
- Incorporates aim of profiting from
unrelated groups/polities (= barter)
• Trader/Consumer exchange:
- Redistribution via market exchange
• Tax collector:
- Redistribution of wealth
Constants throughout
Antiquity → present:
Death & Taxes
Roman tax collector
calculating tax …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.9
9. What Contact Did They Have? Trade and Exchange.
7.1.b. Further insights into the
exchange system.
-Fort Dura Europas (E. Syria):
- Yielded 10,712 coins
- Minted at 16 Greek cities
- Coins span 27 BC - AD 256
Initial prosperity 27 BC-AD 180
Dramatic decline AD 180-256
“Buffer zone” hypothetical model:
- L. Hedeager’s suggested three
economic systems in N. Europe:
Roman empire → buffer → Germany
(Money → mixed → moneyless)
Fort Dura Europas (beside Euphrates)
Minting coins
The economy:Coinage:
• Republican silver coinage & Caesar’s gold
coinage → double coinage (the dinar).
• Inflation in early 4th cent. → silver discontinued
Economic districts:
• Many areas throughout empire, becoming more
independent in 2nd cent. AD → reduced land
values in Rome
• 3rd cent. AD these areas became independent
economically, removing markets from Italy.
Trade:• Pax Augusta → peace throughout empire
fostered Mediterranean wide trade & prosperity.
• Building:
- land & maritime facilities (roads; lighthouses;
harbors; docks; etc.)
- Post offices & relay stations (communication)
- Canals extending riverine transport
• Long-distance trade: India, Ceylon, China
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.9
9. What Contact Did They Have? Trade and Exchange.
7.1.b. Further insights into the
exchange system.
- In a monetary economy further
analysis is possible.
- Examine minting & taxation
- Date coins more precisely
- Sourcing coins (mints noted)
Fort Dura Europas (E. Syria):
- Yielded 10,712 coins
- Minted at 16 Greek cities
- Coins span 27 BC-AD 256
Initial prosperity 27 BC-AD 180
Dramatic decline AD 180-256
“Buffer zone” hypothetical model:
- L. Hedeager’s suggested three
economic systems in N. Europe:
Roman empire → buffer → Germany
(Money → mixed → moneyless)
Rome’s maritime
harbour at Ostia:
• Sea transport:
Major shipments
from Egypt …
• Rome required
a major port
(Ostia) to receive
grain shipments
(massive grain
ships from Egypt),
which were
transferred to
smaller barges
and transported
upriver to Rome.
https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2017/06/14/the-roman-grain-trade/
Roman grain trade: ships, grains, routes
https://www.quora.com/What-would-happen-if-people-only-
ate-food-produced-locally
Roman cargo ship: wine …
https://www.naval-encyclopedia.com/goodies-naval-encyclopedia/antique-ships/roman-ships/
9.d.Trade & exchange:
Imports, exports, and
transport within & beyond(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Religion:• Polytheistic = multiple deities
• Main triad:
Jupiter (rain & wind; storm & thunder)
Mars (Agriculture → god of war;
life and death)
Quirnus (same functions as Mars)
• 506+ BC: Jupiter, Juno, & Minerva.
• Republic: other important deities
Janus (beginnings: January)
Liber (Dionysus)
Volcanus (Hephaistos) god of fire
Mercurius (Hermes) god of trade
Vesta, goddess of the hearth
Ceres (Demeter) goddess of fruitfulness
• Special deities associated with springs,
groves, and caves.
• Imperial period: worship of emperor
• Many mystery cults: Mithras (in caves)
Mithras, god of light
fighting darkness.
Creative god,
slaying bull
in cave
(blood =
source
of life).
Religion: Roman and foreign cults.
• Many foreign religions entered
Roman empire as it expanded.
• Egyptian cult of Isis was particularly
popular and later vied with Christianity
Divination:
• Romans examined entrails to predict
the future (Etruscans famed diviners)
https://www.slideshare.net/Ecomuseum/session-no2-2010-roman-funeral-practices-by-rachel-brochstein
Family tombs: https://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_14.html
Diverse mortuary practices:
• Great diversity with inhumation
and cremation, plus changes in
preferences: In addition, the poor
could not afford cremation …
• Many differences in locations &
graves-tombs: status, culture, etc.
• E.g., Appian Way noble mortuary
monuments;
• Family mausoleums: vary widely
• E.g., Pompeii Street of Tombs;
• E.g., “Potters’ Fields” for pauper
class burials: E. Esquiline Hill.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Tomb_(Silistra)#/media/File:Roman_Tomb_Silistra_TB.JPG
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Tomb_(Silistra)#/
media/File:Roman_Tomb_Silistra_fresco_servant.jpg
Roman Tomb of Silistra (NE Bulgaria):
• Town in southern Dobruja, Lower Danube River;
• Mid-4th cent. AD (pre-376 AD), in Durostorum;
• Pagan art in frescoes on 11 interior panels;
• 2.60 x 3.30 metre, East-West burial chamber;
• Affluent resident of the town (tomb not completed)
Roman art, sculpture, & architecture:
• Roman art = grew from Greek art
(arriving via Italy & Sicily; Etruscans)
• Roman architecture developed through
practical requirements
• Innovations: moulding & mortar;
baked bricks; arch & vault techniques.
• Portrait busts: replicating exact features
of face versus Greek idealization of
human form (perfect physique)
• Historic relief, including triumphal
processions.
• Wall paintings decorating homes, etc.
• Later mosaic art (later Antiquity)
• …
Origin of Rome:
• Oral tradition:Twins Romulus & Remus
abandoned as children
on banks of the Tiber
• Rescued & suckled by a
She-wolf
• Rescued later by shepherds
• Later quarrelled →
Romulus killed Remus
• Romulus “founded” Rome
ca. 750 BC (Roman writers),
including city institutions.
• Story recorded around
3rd century BC
• 8th cent. BC simple huts
found on Palatine hill
• Romulus → king non-hereditary
• Chose 100 men → senate
→ descendants = patricians
-People → 3 tribes → each
30 units (curiae) → assembly
The Law:• Some consider Roman law its
greatest contribution to the world.
• The law of the peoples
(added to customary law)
• Could be applied to non-Romans
• Separate from private, internal
family matters (legal relations)
• Initially the Priesthood maintained
the law (part of divine regulations)
• Magistracy proposed laws of the
Republic (passed by pop. Assembly)
• Jurists initially counsellors →
legal schools in Imperial Period
(Sabinians & Proculians).
• Roman law survives in modern
Europe
Recreation: The Coliseum• Public entertainment placated the
poorer masses (& unemployed)
• Major aspect of social life & relations
• Entertainment provided by local
officials in competition with other
dignitaries (= patronage).
• The emperor could out-do such
patronage with greater displays of
wealth and generosity.
The Coliseum: Entertainment for the masses• Games both placated and worsened social tensions
• Games included:
- Gladiatorial events
- Naval battles in coliseum
- Chariot races (in stadium)
- Wild beast fights
- Executions of individuals & peoples (slaves) in arena
- Combat between men and animals
Recreation: Theaters• Continuing from Greek traditions, theaters
were popular places for entertainment and
socializing.
Public Baths:• Another place for socializing & cleansing oneself
Literature:• A. Tibullus & S. Propertius Augustan elegy
• P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid) Amores Metamorphoses
• Titus Livius Historian
• L. Annaeus Seneca Dialogues & tragedies
• Petronius Satiricon,Trimalchio’s Feast
• Cornelius Tacitus Historian, story-teller, etc.
• L. Apuleius The Golden Ass
• etc.
10.d.
COGNITIVE
ARCHAEOLOGY:Religion, temples, rites, burials,
art, philosophy, and other things
(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.11
11. Who Were They? What Were They Like?
The Archaeology of People.
Late 18th/19th cent. AD New Zealand:
- Ethnographic data on Maori nuclear
families: 1 household per 2 store pits
= 6 adults per 2 store pits
36 pits →18 households →108 persons
Kalahari Desert & Aust. aborigines:
- 25 persons on average per H-G band
- Band size varies per season over time
Larger areas/populations:
- Greece in 431 BC: 315,000 population
- Greece in 323 BC: 258,000 population
- Anc. Rome at maximum(?) extent:
450,000
- World populations:
a. Paleolithic-Mesolithic 5-20 million
Diversity:
Urban to rural populations,
and Italy to other societies,
Cultures, & ethnic groups.
Multi-cultural populations too
Daily Life in the Roman
Empire: appearance• Funerary monuments yield
images of daily life
(particularly in W. empire)
• Precise detail:
- Family life & small-scale
industrial settings
- Iron working (blacksmith)
- Butcher shop
- Green grocer
- Shopkeeper
- Apothecary
- Stage coach
Various ethnic/cultural groups:• Celtic with sub-groups
• Germanic with sub-groups
• Latin with sub-groups
• Berber with sub-groups
• Balkan with sub-groups
• Semitic with sub-groups
• Iranian with sub-groups
• Caucasian with sub-groups
• Greek with sub-groups
• Other with sub-groups
The Roman Empire
contained many
ethnic groupings
https://i.redd.it/alivb01qrn541.png
https://i.redd.it/alivb01qrn541.png
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.11
11. Who Were They? What Were They Like?
The Archaeology of People.2.5. What did they look like?
• Preserved bodies = ideal:
-Tollund man; Egy. mummies.
• Portraits:
-Upper paleolithic+; mummy cases.
•
• Sculpture:
- Greek & Roman busts.
• Life & death masks:
-Sometimes comparable with portraits
• Comparisons between skeletal
remains & portraits:
15th cent. AD: Marie de Bourgogne
Tsar Nicholas II & Alexandra remains.
• Other info:
Qn.Tiye hair locket in labelled Tut’s tomb
compared with unidentified mummy.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.11
11. Who Were They? What Were They Like?
The Archaeology of People.
4.4.c. Lead poisoning.
• Past toxic substances, such as
lead, have also caused illness
and death.
Roman period England:
• High % of lead in bones at
Poundbury (via diet).
AD 1845 expedition to NW
(Canada):
• Very high % of lead poisoning
from lead-soldered food tins,
glazed pottery, lead foil lining.
United States 17th-19th cent. AD:
• Various lead glazes on ceramics,
etc., → lead absorbed via food
→ lead poisoning.
E.g., Roman lead water pipes
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.11
11. Who Were They? What Were They Like?
The Archaeology of People.
5.2. Malnutrition.
• Malnutrition affects body: Harris lines.
Teeth:
Poorly mineralized dentine (lacking
in milk, fish, oil, animal fats)
Abraded: sand & grit in food.
Palate & gum conditions:
Scurvy = a lack of vitamin C
E.g., Sailors’ diet (lacking fresh food)
Body size & condition:
Herculaneum: Flatter leg bones in
adults from malnutrition (less protein).
Textual-pictorial record:
Su Wen: 3rd millennium BC text noting
what = apparently a vitamin B deficiency
Strabo also discusses deficient diet (V-B)
Egy. art portrays famine victims Dyn.5
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.11
11. Who Were They? What Were They Like?
The Archaeology of People.4.6. Medical knowledge.
Dentistry: Egy. & Roman texts note
wiring to retain false teeth, etc.
Trepanation: removing pressure on
brain (migraines; epilepsy; etc.).
8000-7000+ BP (Andes especially).
Splints for broken bones:
3rd millennium BC Egypt
Artificial toes: Ancient Egypt
Removal of stillborn infant:
4th cent. AD burial (cemetery in UK)
Amputation: 2nd cent AD body (Rome)
Surgical equipment:
Pompeii; Roman shipwreck; Peru AD
450-750; Mary Rose wreck AD 1600s
Hospital: 11th cent AD Buddhist clinic
11.d.
APPEARANCE:Clothing, adornment, language, ethnicity,
lifeways, food, health, medicine,
nutrition, life expectancy, etc.
(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.):
Special Lecture-1: Reconstructing Ancient Landscapes.
Timeline Early Rome → Republic → Imperial Rome:
• Legendary tradition of 7 kings of Rome = 750 – 510 BC
(Foundation of Rome by Romulus, etc.)
• Roman Republic (invasions; battles; etc.) = 510 – 272+ BC
• 1st Punic War → 2nd Punic War (Hannibal) = 264 – 202 BC
• Rome expanding Eastward (Greece) = 202 – 133 BC
• Rome civil wars (two phases) = 133 – 44 BC
• Roman Principate (→ death of J. Caesar) = 44 – 30 BC .
• Augustus Caesar (Octavian) = 30 – 27 BC
• Julio-Claudian dynasty = 27 BC – 68 AD
• Flavian, Nervo-Trajanic, & Antonine dynasties = 69 – 192 AD
• Severan dynasty = 193 – 235 AD
• Political anarchy & decline = 235 – 284 AD
• Western & Eastern Roman empires = 284 – 476 AD
• Barbarians invade & rule Italy = 476 AD .
• Eastern Roman empire continues = 491 – 565 AD
12.a-c.
Change:Selected changes, and
factors behind change,
at the advent, during, or at
the “end” of the past culture(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.12
12. Why Did Things Change? Explanation in Archaeology.
8.3.c. Catastrophe theory
and chaos theory.
• Catastrophe theory, derived from
mathematics, promotes that when
a series of factors work together,
gradual changes in these factors
can produce sudden effects.
• R. Thom describe such changes
as elementary catastrophes,
applying one to an archaeological
case.
Landscape around Mt. Vesuvius
changed in AD 79, plus impact …
• Naval HQ damaged;
• Several towns & farms lost;
• Population & regional economy
sustained much damage …
Politics: Republic.• Rome changed during wars of conquest:
• Power held by patricians & plebeians
(nobles dominating senate + magistrates)
• Nobility = part of politically powerful and
wealthy land owners.
• Rome governed by annual, elected
magistrates & senate (ex-magistrates)
• Guiding Roman foreign policy
• Improving life for lower classes
• All full citizens could participate in voting
assemblies.
• Voting tallied by groups:
E.g., local tribes: 4 “urban” & 31 “rural
with only landowners registering in “rural”
tribes versus landless urban tribes
→ wealthy landowners had more votes
whilst peasant land-holders unable to
attend assembly which was held in Rome.
Religion and the State: The spread of Christianity: →
i.e., From active persecution to tolerance to official religion …
Religion & the State: Christianity
• Various persecutions of Christians
during Imperial era:
64 AD Limited persecution by Nero
81-96 AD Limited pers. by Domitan
98-117 Limited pers. by Trajan
249-51 AD 1st general/broad persecution
257-58 AD Persecution under Valerian
260 AD Edict of Toleration (40 years)
303-11 AD Persecution under Diocletian
313 AD Milan Edict of Toleration
• 330 AD: Byzantium renamed
Constantinople → Christian capital in
deliberate contrast to “heathen” Rome
• 337 AD Constantine the Great baptised
on his death bed
• 391 AD: Christianity = officially
proclaimed the state religion
with other religions being
prohibited.
Complex & debated factors behind fall of (West) Roman Empire
• Barbarian invasions:
AD 300s invading Goths; 410 Visigoth Alaric sacks Rome; etc.
• Economic decline & overreliance upon slaves:
Costly wars; overspending; high taxes; inflation; wealth disparity
• Late 3rd cent. AD division of Empire (Diocletian):
West Empire (Rome) lost resources of East; > vulnerable; etc.
• Overextended & high cost of military/defenses:
Hard & costly to administer effectively; insufficient troops; etc.
• Corruption & instability of government:
2nd–3rd cent AD assassinations of emperors; Senate corrupt; etc.
• Migrations/invasions of Huns & other barbarians:
Late 4th cent. AD Huns invade N.Europe, forcing Germans south
• Rise of Christianity & decline of traditional Roman values:
313-380 AD tolerance→official religion; eroded status of emperor
• Composition of Roman legions changed:
Late 3rd cent.+ began hiring non-Roman mercenaries (Goths+),
with minimal/no loyalty to Rome → many later aided attacks …
12.d. Change:Selected changes, and
factors behind change,
at the advent, during, or at
the “end” of the past culture(Ancient Rome/Roman Empire)
DON’T FORGET Doc./Video …
Documentary / video:
• Remember to watch one of the
recommended documentaries
and extract and fill in specific
details from it into as many of
the 12 sections as possible.
• Some of the documentaries
will be narrower in focus than
others, but ALL of them will have
some coverage of several to
many of the 12 categories.
• The details extracted from the
documentaries should be explicit,
& not “generic” broad generalities:
In other words, the information
provided should contain such data
as names of specialists, projects,
sites, and other relevant information.
• The better/best documentaries tend
to be BBC, Pbs/Nova, Discovery,
National Geographic, & others …One of the documentary recommendations:
See sources for others …
Other documentaries on
Ancient Rome:
E.g., History Channel series:
Rome: Engineering an
Empire (94 minutes)
Documentary option: 2010 (270 mins.)
NG When Rome Ruled …
https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xrq9ck
Documentary option: 2008 (611 mins.)
History Rome: Rise & Fall of An Empire
https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2w3ths
Documentary option: n.d. (50 min.)
Kulture The Romans in North Africa
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZ3EHor-Npg
Documentary option: 2001 (50 min.)
BBC Pompeii: The Last Day …
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10XtuFWrCRg
Documentary option: n.d. (50 min.)
Kultur Pompeii: The Doomed City …
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oaKM7qJNuY0
Documentary option: 1994 (60 min.)
PBS Roman City …
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9K7Yds8bWz4
Documentary option: 2005 (94 min).
History Rome: Engineering an Empire
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5obOUDyQ5s
Documentary option: (54 min.)
NOVA Secrets of Lost Empires: Colosseum
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K22D7oh4i5g
Documentary option: (54 min.)
NOVA Secrets of Lost Empires II: Roman Bath
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bo9MGYDwheo
Documentary option: 1997 (208 mins.)
TLC Byzantium: The Lost Empire …
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5c80r7YphZU