Graeco-Roman Astro-Architecture:

The Temples of Pompeii

Vance Tiede

Astro-Archaeology Surveys, Inc

vance.tiede@aya.yale.edu

Presented at Historical Astronomy Division, AAS Meeting, Washington, DC

6 January 2014 (revised 1 June 2014)

Horologium

Temple of Apollo

Winter Solstice Sun Set

Temple of Fortuna

Augusta

Equinox Sun Set

Temple of Isis

Vitruvius: Principles

of Astro-Architecture

• “…[O]ne who professes himself as an architect should be…acquainted with

astronomy and the theory of the heavens. (I:i:3)

• “From astronomy we find the east, west, south, and north, as well as the theory of the

heavens, the equinox, solstice and courses of the stars. If one has no knowledge of these

matters, he will not be able to have any comprehension of the theory of sundials (horologia).

(I:i:10, cf. IX:I in toto)

• “By means of optics, again, the light in buildings can be drawn from fixed quarters

of the sky. (I:i:4)

• “…in the case of hypaethral edifices, open to the sky, in honour of Jupiter Lightning,

the Heaven, the Sun or the Moon: for these are gods whose semblances…we behold

before our very eyes in the sky when it is cloudless and bright. (I:ii:5)

-Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (d. ca. 15 BC), De Architectura Libri Decem

Horologium

Pompeii

“The quarter toward which temples of the immortal gods ought to face is to be determined on the principle that…the temple…

should face the western quarter of the sky. This will enable those who approach the altar with offerings or sacrifices to face the direction of the sunrise in facing the statue in the temple….”

-Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (d. 15 BC),

De Architectura Libri Decem, IV:v:1

Vitruvius: West- Facing Rule

of Temple Orientation

Theory vs. Praxis The number of Roman temples oriented

according to the precepts of Vitruvius hardly exceeds

one quarter. It is true that other texts refer to an

orientation of the temples to the south: it must come

from an Italo-Etruscan tradition. Take, for example, the

temple of Apollo in Circo (Flaminio), the Bellone, the

first Pantheon of Agrippa, or the temples of Fortuna

and Mater Matua the Area Sacra Sant'Omobono.

(Le Bœffle 1989, 107; cf. Varron, Langue Latine, 7,7; Varron chez Festus, 454L.; Tite-Live, 1, 18, 6-8)

North-Facing

Temple Orientation Die Natalis (21 April)

Pantheon, Rome

Hannah, Robert and Giulio Magli, “The Role of the Sun in the Pantheon’s Design & Meaning,”

Numen 58(4), 486-513, 2011

The

Emperor

emerged in a

solar spot

light at

Meridian

Transit.

Greek Temple Orientation

Nell, Erin A. Greece's Debt to Egypt: the transmission of astronomical knowledge

applied to architectural alignments, PhD. Dissertation, University of Leicester, 2013

Proposed Preliminary Alignment Group Patterns:

I) Procyon ( CMi) and Aldebaran ( Tau) (E or

W), with either Hadar ( Cen) or Mimosa ( Cru)

(SSE or SSW), or both. (n=6)

II) Equinox (E or W) with Betelgeuse ( Ori) (E or

W) and Hadar ( Cen) or Mimosa ( Cru) (SSE or

SSW), or both. (n=6)

III) a small group of singular alignments. (n = 6)

Research Question:

Why do so many Graeco-Roman temples

NOT face west as prescribed by Vitruvius?

Hypotheses: Temple Orientation

H1: Random

H2: Vitruvius only applies to Roman temples

H3: Urban Street Grid/”Landscape” (= Mt. Vesuvius)

H4: Astro-Ritual (Equinox/Solstice/Star rise/set)

T. Apollo, Pompeii Pantheon, Rome

Reject H1: Orientation was not random.

Reject H1:

Roman agrimensores & gromatici

Systematically Surveyed Urban Grids

Groma, Perpendiculum & Signa

(Transit, Plumb Line, Stakes) Tombstone of Surveyor Nicostratus

Pompeii

Dioptra

(Theodolite)

Chorobates of Vitruvius to level

hydraulic gradients for aqueducts

Reject H2:

Vitruvius applies to pre-Roman temples as well.

Date Event Temple Faces

50 AD SPQR Public Lares W

1 AD SPQR Vespasian. Fortuna Augusta, W

80 BC SPQR (Sulla) annexes Pompeii

100 BC Isis NE

150 BC Hipparchus (Eclipse Prediction) Jupiter S

250 BC Socium of Rome ( 350-200 BC) Dionysus, Ceres

Venus (rebuilt c.70 BC)

W, SW

S

428 BC Samnites defeat Greeks Apollo (rebuilt c.150 BC)

450 BC Aesculapius NE

474 BC Greeks defeat Etruscans

c. 500 BC Port to Greeks & Phoenicians.

Etruscans defeat Oscans

Doric S

550 BC TPQ: Oscans found Pompeii

Accept H3:

Drainage Slope trumps Vitruvius: Gravity Pulls Water via Aqueduct

From Serino to Pompeii

Castellum Divisorium:

aqueduct terminus & start of the

water distribution at Pompeii http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/serino/

Pace, Pietrantonio, Acquedotti di Romao, 2010 p. 116,

Accept H3:

Pompeii’s Fountains & Urban Grid

Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, Duckworth, London, 1992, p. 305

Castellum

Aquae

Accept H4:

Temples were oriented to the “equinox,

solstice and courses of the stars.”

Null-1: No major axis of a temple is oriented to the

Sun rise/set at the Equinox or Solstices.

Null-2: No major axis of a temple is oriented to the

Moon rise/set at the Lunar Standstills.

Null-3: No major axis of a temple is oriented to a

Star rise/set associated with myths of

the temple’s divinity or shared alignments

at other temples of the same divinity.

Astro-Archaeology Methodology 1. Preliminary GIS Survey (Google Earth)

- Orthorectify Google Earth Satellite Image with Architectural plan (Nappo 1998)

- True Azimuth

- Horizon Altitude

Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

- Temple Elevation

2. “Ground Truth” Survey of Temple Axis Theodolite/GPS Survey, 5-18 April 2013

- True Azimuth

- Horizon Altitude

3. Calculate Skyline Declinations Gerald S. Hawkins, Program STONEHENGE, Mindsteps to the Cosmos 1983, 328+

4. Confirm Astro-Alignment Photograph/Planetarium

Program STONEHENGE Inputs:

Pompeii

1. Date of Construction: 550 BC- AD 79

2. Latitude: N 40◦ 45’

3. Elevation Above Sea Level: 36 meters +

4. Azimuth, True: Varies by temple

[Magnetic Declination = 2.83◦ E, 5 April 2013] http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag-web/

5. Horizon-Skyline Altitude: Varies by temple

[Adjusted for Curvature of the Earth] Gerald S. Hawkins, Program STONEHENGE, Mindsteps to the Cosmos 1983, pp. 328-330.

http://www.difesa.suolo.regione.campania.it/content/view/39/80/

Pompeii

Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Table 2. Pompeii Temple Major Axis by Proposed Astro-Target Horizon Declination

Temple Date Alt. Elev. Azimuth Declination (°)

(Regio.Insula.Casa) circa (º) (m) Proposed Astro-Target Qtr. (°) Target Horizon Row Δ

Aesculapius (Front) -450 3.50 23 α Boötes- Arcturus [0.2] HR at Equinox E 47.83 33.25 33.09 -0.16

(VIII.7.25) Sunset (23 Sep) & WS+60 Days (23 Feb)

Isis (Front) (VIII.7.28) -100 3.00 24 Midwinter Moon Rise MajSS ToH E 57.68 28.86 28.50 -0.36

Isis (Rear) -100 33.30 24 Equinox Sun Set ToH W 234.85 0.00 -0.30 -0.30

Dionysus (n/a) -250 -0.05 18 Equinox Sun Set LG W 271.00 0.00 0.34 0.34

Doric (VIII.7.31) -550 3.98 24 β Orionis- Rigel HR [0.3] SS (22 Jun) E 113.00 -14.50 -14.59 -0.09

Public Lares (VII.9.3) 50 3.60 34 5 Feb & 7 Nov X-Quarter Sun Sets LG W 241.80 -16.23 -16.50 -0.27

Vespasian (VII.9.2) 1 2.08 28 5 Feb & 7 Nov X-Quarter Sun Sets LG W 243.83 -16.23 -16.22 0.01

Fortuna Augusta (VII.4.1) 1 4.00 38 Winter Solstice Sun Set LG W 237.83 -23.68 -22.93 0.75

Ceres (n/a) -250 -0.38 20 Midsummer Moon Set MajSS LG W 231.53 -28.87 -28.18 0.69

Apollo (VII.7.32) -400 4.40 34 θ Scorpionis-Sargas WS HR [1.8] S 149.67 -37.12 -37.11 0.01

Venus (VIII.1.3) -250 4.50 38 θ Scorpionisθ Scorpionis-Sargas WS HR [1.8] WS HR [1.8]S 151.17 -37.72 -37.73 -0.01

Jupiter (VII.8.1) -150 4.46 25 θ Scorpionis-Sargas WS HR [1.8] S 151.75 -38.10 -38.03 0.07

HR= Heliacal Rise; LG=Last Gleam; MajSS=Major Stand Still; SS=Summer Solstice; ToH=Tangent on Horizon; WS=Winter Solstice

Latitude N 40º 45' n/a = not applicable, as it is outside the Pompeii Archaeological Area.

Findings

Doric Temple ca. 550 BC

Nappo 1998, 79

β Orionis (Rigel) Summer Solstice

Heliacal Rise

-14.50◦ dec, -550 BC, Mag. 0.34

Hawkins & Rosenthal 1967, p. 148

T. Doric

Horizon dec = -14.59◦

Target dec = -14.50◦

Δ = - 0.09º

Az True = 113.00◦

Alt. = +3.98◦

Elev. = 24m

Date = 550 BC

Punishment of Ixion

Doric Temple:

Landscape Orientation

Interpretation

Was Vesuvius’ summit originally on

the temple’s major axis? NO

Temple of

Dionysius ca. 250 BC

Equinox Sun Set

Last Gleam on Horizon (Sea)

0◦ dec, -250 Year

Oscan mosaic

T. Dionysus

Horizon dec = + 0.34◦

Target dec = 0.00◦

Δ = 0.34º

Az True = 271.0◦

Alt. = -0.05◦

Elev. = 18m

Date = 250 BC

Temple of

Ceres

Goddess of

Agriculture ca. 250 BC

Midsummer Major Stand Still

Moon Set

Last Gleam on Horizon (Sea)

-28.87◦ dec, -250 Year

T. Ceres

Horizon dec = -28.18◦

Target dec = -28.87

Δ = - 0.69º

Az True = 231.53◦

Alt. = -0.38◦

Elev. = 20m

Date = 250 BC

Ceres-Demeter http://www.suppressedhistories.net/secrethistory/ceres.jpg

Temple of Jupiter (Capitolium) 150 BC

Θ Scorpionis (Sargas)

Winter Solstice Heliacal Rise

(-38.1◦ dec) 150 BC,

Mag. 1.8 Hawkins & Rosenthal 1967, 163

T. Jupiter Θ Scorpionis (Sargas)

Winter Stolstice Heliacal Rise

Horizon dec = -38.03◦

Target dec = -38.10◦

Δ = 0.07º

Az True = 151.75◦

Alt. = +4.46◦

Elev. = 36m

Date = 150 BC

Orion & Skorpius

Skorpios (Scorpius) was a giant scorpion sent by the earth-goddess Gaia to slay the giant Orion when he threatened to kill all the beasts of the earth. The Scorpion stung Orion on the heel (marked by the star Rigel, β Orion) and killed him. These two opponents Orion and the Scorpion were placed amongst the stars as their namesake constellations, but are positioned on opposite sides of the sky, one sets as the other rises. The Scorpion rises as Orion starts to sink into the other side of the sky, and this was seen as Orion running away from the attacker, and still in fear of him.

"Scorpius, because of its position, is one of the two ‘gateways’ to the Milky Way, the other being the opposite constellation of Orion. The Scorpion men attacked Osiris in Egyptian legend, and the Scorpions sting killed Orion in Greek myth." [3].

http://www.constellationsofwords.com/Constellations/Scorpio.html

Orion & Skorpios

“Orion went away to Crete and spent his time

hunting with Artemis and Leto. [Because] he

threatened to kill every living thing,…Earth [Gaia]

sent up against him a scorpion of very great size

by which he was stung and so perished. After this

Zeus…put him among the stars…and the scorpion

as a memorial of him and what had occurred.”

Hesiod (ca. 700 BC), “The Astronomy” (H.G. Evelyn-White trans.)

Hesiod, New York: MacMillan, 1914, 71-72

Orion & Skorpios

Hesiod (ca. 700 BC), “The Astronomy, No. 4” (H.G. Evelyn-White trans.)

Hesiod, New York: MacMillan, 1914, 70-73

Temple of Jupiter:

Landscape Orientation

Interpretation

Was Vesuvius’ summit originally on

the temple’s major axis? YES

Temple of Apollo 400 BC (rebuilt 150 BC)

Nappo 1998, p. 108

Θ Scorpionis (Sargas)

Heliacal Rise Winter Solstice

(-37.12◦ decl) 400 BC, Mag. 1.8

Hawkins & Rosenthal 1967, p. 163

T. Apollo

Θ Scorpionis (Sargas)

Horizon dec = -37.11◦

Target dec = -37.12◦

Δ = - 0.01º Az True = 149.67◦

Alt. = +4.4◦

Elev. = 34m

Date = 400 BC

Temple of Apollo:

Landscape Orientation

Interpretation

Was Vesuvius’ summit originally on the

temple’s major axis? YES

Temple of Venus Physica ca. 250 BC (70 BC Rebuilt by Sulla)

“The cult of Venus had ancient origins

in Pompeii, although it originally

related to Venus Physica, a goddess

who ruled over life and death, and

therefore both a celestial deity and a

deity of the underworld.” Nappo 1998, 164 Venus Physica Pompeiana

VII.xvi, 17-22 Pompeii

House of Maius Castricius

Marble from

rebuilding by

Romans, 70 BC Looking South, Major Axis

Temple of Venus:

Astronomical Orientation

T. Venus

Θ Scorpius (Sargas) Heliacal Rise

Winter Solstice, 22 December 250 BC Horizon dec = -37.73◦

Target dec = -37.72◦

Δ = - 0.01º Az True = 151.17◦

Alt. = +4.5◦

Elev. = 38m

Date =250 BC

Hawkins & Rosenthal 1967, 149

Temple of Venus:

Landscape Interpretation

Was Vesuvius’ summit originally on the temple’s major axis? YES

Alternate Astro-Interpretation:

α Columbae (Phact) Heliacal Rise

Sir J. Norman Lockyer, The Dawn of Astronomy London: Cassell & Co: 1894, 305

Temple of Isis ca. 100 BC

Mid-Winter Major Stand Still

Full Moon Rise (+28.86◦ dec )

Disk Tangent on Horizon

Spring/Autumn

Equinox Sun Set (0◦ decl. )

Disk Tangent on Horizon

Sun & Moon

Discs

Midwinter Moon

Major SS Rise

Horizon dec = +28.5◦

Target dec = +28.8◦

Δ = - 0.3º

Az True = +57.68◦

Alt. = 3.0◦

Elev. = 24m

Date = 100 BC

Temple of Isis: East Wall = Artificial Horizon

Sir W. Hamilton 1776

Original

wall

height

North-East Wall:

Original Artificial Horizon

& 18th Century Addition

Piranesi, F, 1804. Antiquites de la Grande

Grece: Tome II. Paris: Piranesi and Le

Blanc. (plate 61).

Sir William Hamilton (1730-1803), “View of the

first discovery of the temple of Isis at

Pompeii,” Campi Phlegraei, 1776 (w/c on

paper) Plate 41, 99

Harpocrates Niche

Mid-Winter Major Stand

Still Full Moon Rise Interpretation

"Upon her [Isis'] brow stood the crescent moon-horns, garlanded with glittering heads of golden grain, and grace of royal dignity; and at her side the baying dog Anubis, dappled Apis, sacred Bubastis and the god [Harpokrates] who holds his finger to his lips for silence sake."

Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.691.

Initiates of the Isis worshipped a compassionate goddess who promised eventual salvation and a perpetual relationship throughout life and after death.

The Diaspora Cults. (1970) Ancient History XI, High Empire 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press

Isis:

Two Hellenistic Examples from Pompeii

Bacchus Niche

Temple of Isis

Bacchus pouring wine into

panther’s mouth

Spring/Autumn

Equinox Sun Set (0◦ decl. )

Disk Tangent on Horizon

T. Isis

Horizon dec = -0.3º

Target dec = 0.0º

Δ = -0.3º Az True = 234.85◦

Alt. = +33.3◦

Elev. = 24m

Date = 100 BC

Interpretation

Bacchus & Equinox

Living:Dead::Light:Dark He was also known as Bacchus (Greek: Βάκχος,

Bakkhos), the name adopted by the Romans and the frenzy he induces, bakkheia. His companion is a panther and his thyrsus is sometimes wound with ivy and dripping with honey . It is a beneficent wand but also a weapon, and can be used to destroy those who oppose his cult and the freedoms he represents. He is also called Eleutherios ("the liberator"), whose wine, music and ecstatic dance frees his followers from self-conscious fear and care, and subverts the oppressive restraints of the powerful. Those who partake of his mysteries are possessed and empowered by the god himself.[12] His cult is also a "cult of the souls"; his maenads feed the dead through blood-offerings, and he acts as a divine communicant between the living and the dead.[13]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus

Temple of

Aesculapius

Boötes -Arcturus

Heliacal Rise

Autmnal Equinox 450 BC

Mag. = -0.24

Horizon dec = +33.09◦

Target dec = +33.25◦

Δ = -0.16º Az True = +47.83◦

Alt. = 3.5◦

Elev. = 23m

Date = 450 BC

Hawkins & Rosenthal

1967, 158

Arcturus Heliacal Rise

23 Feb 700 BC Athens

Hesiod (ca. 700 BC), “The Astronomy, No. 4” (H.G. Evelyn-White trans.)

Hesiod, New York: MacMillan, 1914, 44-45

Orion & Sirius Meridian Transit

Arcturus Heliacal Rise

Autumnal Equinox ca. 700 BC, Athens

Hesiod (ca. 700 BC), “Works and Days, line 609+” (H.G. Evelyn-White trans.)

Hesiod, New York: MacMillan, 1914, 48-49

Orion & α Canis Major (Sirius) Meridian Transit

α Boötes (Arcturus) Heliacal Rise

Autumnal Equinox, 22 Sep 700 BC, Athens

“But when Orion and

Sirius are come into

mid-heaven, and

rosy-fingered Dawn

sees Arcturus, then

cut off all the grape

clusters, Perses, and

bring them home.”

-Hesiod, Works & Days

l. 609-611.

Orion & Sirius Meridian Transit

Arcturus Heliacal Rise

Winter Solstice +60 days, 23 Feb 700 BC, Athens

“When Zeus has finished

60 wintry days after the

solstice, then the star

Arcturus leaves the holy

stream of Ocean and first

shines brilliant at dusk.”

-Hesiod, Works & Days

l. 609-611.

Temple of Fortuna Augusta ca. 1 AD

Nappo 1998, 113

Temple is Rotated from Urban Grid

“The temple was built at the crossroads between Via del Foro and

Via di Nola, on a site previously occupied by shops and probably

by a house, as suggested by some floors decorated with opus

signum, found behind and beneath the podium on the south side.”

Interpretation Sol Invictus enters the Temple of

Fortuna Augusta at Winter Solstice

Winter Solstice

Sun Set, Last Gleam

Horizon dec = -22.93◦

Target dec = -23.68◦

Δ = + 0.75º

Az True = 237.83◦ Alt. = +4.0◦

Elev. = 38m

Date = 1 AD

Temple of Vespasian (reign AD 71-79)

Originally of C. Augustus (reign 27 BC-AD 14 )

ca. AD 1 7 November/5 February Cross-Quarter Day Sun Set

(average -16.23 ◦ dec) Looking West

Augustus Vespasian

Temple of Vespasian ca. AD 1, E-W

Winter X-Quarter

Sun Set, Last Gleam

Horizon dec = -16.22◦

Target dec = -16.23◦

Δ = +0.01º

Az True = 243.83◦

Alt. = +2.08◦

Elev. = 28m

Date = 1 AD

Sanctuary of the Public Lares

ca. AD 1, E –W

7 November/5 February Winter Cross-Quarter Day Sun Set

(average -16.23 ◦ decl) Looking West

Sanctuary of the Public Lares ca. AD 50, E –W

Winter X-Quarter

Sun Set, Last Gleam

Horizon dec = -16.50◦

Target dec = -16.23◦

Δ = - 0.27º Az True = 241.80◦

Alt. = +3.6◦

Elev. = 34m

Date = 1 AD

Conclusions

1. The previously unrecognized temple astro-orientations at Pompeii are consistent with Graeco-Roman culture and demonstrate greater explanatory power than either the Random or Urban Grid/Landscape hypotheses.

2. Temples with Astro- orientation linked with Graeco-Roman literature include: Doric, Dionysus, Ceres, Isis, Aesculapius, Venus, Apollo, Jupiter, and *Fortuna Augusta (*also conforms to Vitruvius’ Western Quarter Principle).

3. Temples with Landscape orientation (i.e., towards Vesuvius) include: Venus, Apollo, and Jupiter.

4. Temples with Astro-orientation, Vitruvius’ Western Quarter Principle, and Urban Grid orientation include: Vespasian, and Public Lares.

5. Additional comparative analysis could determine the frequency and geographical distribution of the observed temple astro-orientation patterns.

6. GIS & Satellite Imaging are useful for preliminary Astro-Archaeology survey.

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References-1

Allen, Richard H. (1899) Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning, Dover, New York, nd.

Boutsikas, E. (2011) Temples, Stars, and Ritual Landscapes: The Potential for Archaeoastronomy in Ancient Greece. American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 115, 1: 55-67.

(2009) Placing Greek Temples: An Archaeoastronomical Study of the Orientation of Ancient Greek Religious Structures. Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture, vol. 21, 4–16.

Cumont, Franz V. M, Astrology and Religion Among the Greeks and Romans, Dover,

New York, 1912 (reprinted 1960).

Hannah, Robert and Giulio Magli, “The Role of the Sun in the Pantheon’s Design and

Meaning,” Numen 58(4), 486-513, 2011.

Hawkins, Gerald S. Mindsteps to the Cosmos, Harper & Row, New York, 1983.

“Astro-Archaeology-The Unwritten Evidence,” Vistas in Astronomy 10:45-88, 1968.

Hawkins, G.S. & S.K. Rosenthal, 5,000 & 10,000-Year Star Catalogs, Washington: Smithsonian 1967.

Hodge, A. Trevor, Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, Duckworth, London, 1992.

References-2

Jones, Alexander, “The Place of Astronomy in Roman Egypt,” The Sciences in Greco-Roman

Society (T.D. Barnes, ed.) Academic Printing and Publishing, Edmonton, 46-7, 1994.

Nappo, Salvatore C. , Pompeii: A Guide to the Ancient City, Vercelli, Italy: White Star, 1998.

Nell, Erin A. Greece's Debt to Egypt: the transmission of astronomical knowledge

applied to architectural alignments, PhD. Dissertation, University of Leicester, 2013.

North, J.D., “Astronomical Symbolism in the Mithraic Religion,” Centaurus: International

Magazine of the History of Mathematics, Science and Technology, 33:115-148, 1990.

Oudet, J.F., “Le Panthéon de Rome à la lumière de l’equinoxe”, in Readings in

Archaeoastronomy, (S. Iwaniszewski, ed.) 25–52. Warsaw: State Archaeological Museum, 1992.

Pace, Pietrantonio. Acquedotti di Roma e il De Aquaeductu di Frontino, 2010.

Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, The Ten Books of Architecture (De Architectura Libri Decem)

(M.H. Morgan, trans. Harvard University Press, 1914.

Acknowledgements

José Maria Luzón, Professor, Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Universidad Complutense de Madrid

Vincenzo G. Sabini, Assistente Tecnico Scientifico, Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei

Il Personale dell’ Istituto Vesuviano, Castellemmare di Stabia

Istituto Vesuviano Il Personale