(TANNINS)5 Plants containing the secondary
metabolite (Tannins). there medicinal
uses, traditional uses, there chemical
structures and qualitative tests for
this secondary metabolite.
BY
Anumah Abdulraheem okehi
COURSE: CH514 (Natural product chemistry)
COURSE LECTURER: Prof. H.M. Adamu
1
ContentsAbstract...........................................................4
Acknowledgement....................................................4Introduction.......................................................5
So what are tannins?.............................................6Classification of the tannins based on their structural properties. 8
Different polyol units of the tannins..............................9Different galloyl derivatives of gallotannins, ellagitannins, and complex tannins...................................................10Single tannin classes.............................................12
Gallotannins....................................................12Ellagitannins...................................................15
Complex tannins.................................................19Condensed tannins...............................................19
Plants containing Tannins.........................................221. Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller}............................22
Medicinal Uses..................................................23Aloe Helps with Digestion.....................................23
1. Aloe Helps in Detoxification...............................232. Aloe Alkalizes the Body...................................23
3. Cardiovascular Health.....................................234. Aloe Helps Boost the Immune System........................23
5. Aloe Vera is Great for the Skin...........................24Traditional uses................................................24
2. Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia}..............................25Medicinal Uses..................................................26
Traditional uses................................................27
2
3. Lemon balm (Melissa Officinalis)...............................29Medicinal uses..................................................30
Traditional uses................................................324. Thyme (Thymus Vulgaris)........................................33
Tra ditional uses of thyme......................................34Medicinal uses..................................................35
5. Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.)...........................38Traditional uses................................................40
Medicinal uses..................................................41Anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties...............41
Anticancer activity...........................................41Common cold...................................................41
Cardiovascular conditions.....................................42Colic/Diarrhoea conditions....................................42
Qualitative Test for Tannins......................................43Goldbeater's skin test..........................................43
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) test....................................43Other methods...................................................43
Hide-powder method..............................................43Stiasny's method................................................43
References........................................................44
3
Abstract
Nature is a unique source of structures of high stereo
chemical diversity, many of them possessing interesting
biological activities and medicinal properties. In the context
of the worldwide spread of deadly conditions such as AIDS and
a variety of cancers, an intensive search for new lead
compounds for the development of novel pharmacological
therapeutics is extremely important. The fact that the
biological activity of tannin-containing plant extracts has
been known for ages has led, especially during the last two
decades, to the isolation and characterization of many
representatives of this class. The group of unambiguously
characterized tannins includes more than 1000 natural
products. In extensive biological tests many representatives
of the tannins exhibited antiviral and antibacterial
properties, but especially prominent was the antitumor
activity. Certain tannins, for example, are able to inhibit
HIV replication selectively.
This assignment is aimed at expanding the students chemical
knowledge on the need to actually cherish our natural
4
endowment especially plants and also to put into documentation
what tannin are actually.
Acknowledgement
We would like to gratefully and sincerely thank Professor
Adamu for his guidance, understanding, patience, friendship
and most importantly for giving us the opportunity to develop
ourselves as regards to this research work.
Sir, your mentorship was paramount in providing a well-rounded
experience consistent our long-term career goals.
With this, you have encouraged us to not only grow as an
experimentalist and a chemist but also as an instructor, an
independent thinker and a researcher. We are not sure many
graduate students are given the opportunity to develop their
own individuality and self-sufficiency by being allowed to
work with such independence. Thank you Prof.
Introduction
The name ‘tannin’ is derived from the French ‘tanin’ (tanning
substance) and is used for a range of natural polyphenols.
Since ancient times it is known that certain organic
substances have tanning properties and are able to tan animal5
skins to form leather. Prehistoric tribes already knew about
the tanning of protective animal hides with brain material and
the fat of the killed animals.2 However, precisely what
happens to the skin during the tanning process was only
elucidated during the twentieth century with the help of
modern analytical techniques. the Real tanning is understood
as the crosslinking of the skin’s collagen chains, while false
tanning entails filling
of hollow spaces between the skin’s collagen chains. The
traditional tanning of animal skins by means of plant tannins
has been replaced gradually by mineral tanning, as represented
by alum tanning (or glacé tanning, a variant of alum tanning)
and more recently, since the end of the nineteenth century, by
chromium tanning. In nature the tannins are found worldwide
in many different families of the higher plants such as in
chestnut and oak wood, Divi-Divi, Sumach, Myrobalaen, Trillo,
Valonea or plant galls; depending on their origin, their
chemistry varies widely, having a molar mass of up to 20000 D.
High tannin concentrations are found in nearly every part of
the plant, such as in the bark, wood, leaves, fruit, roots,
and seed. Frequently an increased tannin production can be
associated with some sickness of the plant. Therefore, it is
assumed that the biological role in the plant of many types of
tannin is related to protection against infection, insects, or
animal herbivory. The tannins appear as light yellow or white
amorphous powdnfers or shiny, nearly colourless, loose masses,
with a characteristic strange smell and astringent taste.
6
The tannins are applied widely, with uses ranging from tanning, known over
millennia (Mediterranean since ca. 1500 BC), through medicinal uses to uses in
the food industry. In medicine, especially in Asian (Japanese and Chinese)
natural healing, the tannin-containing plant extracts are used as astringents,
against diaurrhoea, as diuretics, against stomach and duodenal tumours, and
as anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and haemostatic pharmaceuticals. As tannins
can precipitate heavy metals and alkaloids (except morphine), they can be
used in poisonings with these substances. It is also becoming clear that
tannins often are the active principles of plant-based medicines.
Tannins are used in the dyestuff industry as caustics for
cationic dyes (tannin dyes), and also in the production of
inks (iron gallate ink). In the food industry tannins are used
to clarify wine, beer, and fruit juices. Other industrial uses
of tannins include textile dyes, as antioxidants in the fruit
juice, beer, and wine industries, and as coagulants in rubber
production. Recently the tannins have attracted scientific
interest, especially due to the increased incidence of deadly
illnesses such as AIDS and various cancers. The search for new
lead compounds for the development of novel pharmaceuticals
has become increasingly important; especially as the
biological action of tannin containing plant extracts has been
well documented. During the last twenty years many
representatives of this class of compounds have been isolated
and characterized.
Currently known tannins with unambiguously determined
structures already number far more than 1000 natural products.
In extensive biological tests many representatives of this
class were found to have antiviral, antibacterial, and,
7
especially, antitumor activity. For example, certain tannins
can selectively inhibit HIV replication.
The nomenclature of the tannins is full of misunderstanding,
erroneous interpretations, and changes caused by advances in
this field. Not all tanning substances can be called tannins,
and on the other hand many types of tannin do not possess
tanning properties but are counted with the tannins because of
their structural characteristics.
So what are tannins?
Bate-Smith and Swain defined the plant tannins as water
soluble phenolic compounds with a molar mass between 300 and
3000, showing the usual phenol reactions (e.g. blue colour with
iron(iii) chloride), and precipitating alkaloids, gelatins and
other proteins. However, this definition does not include all
tannins, since, more recently, molecules with a molar mass of
up to 20000 D have been isolated that should also be
classified as tannins on the basis of their molecular
structures.
Griffith defined tannins as “macromolecular phenolic
substances” and divided them in two major groups, the
‘hydrolysable’ and ‘condensed’ tannins. This definition of the
tannins ignores the low molecular and monomeric tannins with a
molar mass below 1000 D.
Haslam classified the plant polyphenols into two broad
structural themes:
(i) Galloyl and hexahydroxydiphenoyl esters and their
derivatives.
(ii) (ii) Condensed proanthocyanidins.
8
Galloyl and hexahydroxydiphenoyl esters and their derivatives
have been further classified into several broad categories:
(1) Simple esters. (2) Depside metabolites (syn-gallotannins).
(3) Hexahydroxydiphenoyl and dehydrohexahydroxydiphenoyl
esters (syn-ellagitannins) based upon: (a) 4C1 conformation of
D-glucose; (b) 1C4 conformation of D-glucose; (c) ‘open-chain’
derivatives of D-glucose. (4) ‘Dimers’ and ‘higher oligomers’
formed by oxidative coupling of ‘monomers principally those of
class (3) above. While in Haslam’s article, complex tannins
have not been mentioned, in the newly published review by
Ferreira et al. only two classes of tannins, namely: (i)
condensed tannins and (ii) complex tannins are treated
exhaustively.
Gross adopted the classical definition of tannins that was
formulated by Freudenberg in 1920 cited therein.
According to Freudenberg and Gross tannins are usually divided
into the flavonoid derived condensed tannins, and into
hydrolysable tannins. The former are divided into two groups,
namely: (i) gallotannins, which include also meta-depsids, and
(ii) ellagitannins. Also, the definition of tannins as a
mixture of ‘flavolanes of varying structure’ at best only
covers some tannins and does not include the hydrolysable
tannins which form a considerable portion of the tannins. An
organic chemistry textbook87 defines tannins as: “C- and O-
glycosidic derivatives of gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic
acid)”. This definition also describes only some of the
tannins and does not include the condensed tannins based on
flavan-3-ol (catechin) units. It is therefore necessary, as a
9
result of the recently greatly expanded structural range of
the tannins, to formulate a definition that includes all
tannins.
Tannins are polyphenolic secondary metabolites of higher
plants. Corresponding polyphenolic natural products have not
yet been isolated from lower plants such as algae, or from the
animal kingdom. The polyphenolic structure of the secondary
metabolites from higher plants is a necessary but not
sufficient requirement for membership of the tannin class.
When the structural characteristics of the currently known
tannins are analysed, the relatively low occurrence of C-
and/or O glycosidic derivatives of gallic acid is noteworthy.
However,
the characterized tannin structures show that, apart from the
galloyl glycosides, the galloyl residues can be linked to each
other or to other residues through their aromatic carbon
and/or phenolic oxygen atoms. By these and similar couplings
of two or more natural products to each other, nature provides
a nearly inexhaustible store of highly diverse structures. It
should be mentioned, however, that not all tannins must
necessarily contain a galloyl unit or derivative. Examples of
this type are found in the so-called condensed tannins that
are built up from flavanoid precursors. The condensed tannins,
constructed from at least two linked catechin units (C-4 with
C-8 or with C-6, see Fig. 1 below, compound 4), can
alternatively be linked through the hydroxy group of C-3 of
each catechin unit to a galloyl unit.
10
Classification of the tannins based on their structural
properties
Due to the enormous structural diversity of the tannins a
systematic classification system based on specific structural
characteristics and chemical properties would provide a
convenient framework for further study. The observation that
many tannins can be fractionated hydrolytically into their
components, for example by treatment with hot water or with
tannases, led to the classification of such tannins as
‘hydrolysable tannins’. Non hydrolysable oligomeric and
polymeric proanthocyanidins were classified as condensed
tannins. Therefore, the term ‘hydrolysable tannins’ includes
both the gallotannins and the ellagitannins. It should also be
mentioned here that there are ellagitannins that are not
hydrolysable, because of a further C–C coupling of their
polyphenollic residue with the polyol unit, but are
nevertheless for historical reasons classified as hydrolysable
tannins [see Fig. 6, vescalagin].
In 1985 the first tannins were described that contained, in
addition to the hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP) units (the
characteristic structural element of the monomeric
ellagitannins), also C-glycosidic catechin units [see Fig. 9,
acutissimin A (76).These tannins were originally classified as
‘non-classified tannins’, because they are only partially
hydrolysable due to the C–C coupling of their catechin unit
with the glycosidic part. To properly place these ‘non-
classified tannins’ in some scheme, the terms ‘complex
11
tannins’ and flavanoellagitannins were established over the
following years. These examples clearly show that the division
of the tannins into two groups, viz. hydrolysable and non-
hydrolysable or condensed tannins cannot do justice to the
structural diversity of the tannins. The terms
‘flavanotannins’ or ‘condensed flavonoid tanning substances’
that are occasionally found in the literature denote tannins
consisting of catechin units. The polymeric flavanotannins,
constructed from coupled flavan-3-ol (catechin) units, belong
to the condensed tannins (oligomeric and polymeric
proanthocyanidins).
Fig.1
Classification of Tannins
12
On the basis of their structural characteristics it is
therefore possible to divide the tannins into four major
groups: Gallotannins, ellagitannins, complex tannins, and condensed tannins
(Fig. 1).
I. Gallotannins are all those tannins, in which galloyl
units or their meta-depsidic derivatives are bound to
diverse polyol-, catechin-, or triterpenoid units.
II. Ellagitannins are those tannins in which at least
two galloyl units are C–C coupled to each other, and do
not contain a glycosidically linked catechin unit.
III. Complex tannins are tannins in which a catechin unit
is bound glycosidically to a gallotannin or an
ellagitannin unit.
IV. Condensed tannins are all oligomeric and polymeric
proanthocyanidins formed by linkage of C-4 of one
catechin with C-8 or C-6 of the next monomeric catechin.
Different polyol units of the tannins
The standard metabolism for the biosynthesis of tannins in
higher plants uses various building blocks that are coupled to
each other. For example, the gallotannins are biosynthesized
by the different coupling possibilities of a polyphenolic
building block such as gallic acid with diverse polyols such
as D-glucopyranose. A complete listing of the structures of
all known tannins falls outside the scope of this article;
however, the structures of the currently known tannins are
summarized by way of a fractionation of their components. The
following are some of the polyalcoholic components of the
13
tannins: D- Glucopyranose (5), D-hamamelose (6), sucrose
(7),92 shikimic acid (8), quinic acid (9), scyllo-quercitol (10)
93 and protoquercitol (11),94 salicin or 2-hydroxymethylphenyl
β-D- glucopyranoside (12),95 D fructopyranose (13), 6-
cinnamoyl-D- glucopyranose (14), 1,5-anhydro-D-glucitol,96
3,5-dihydroxyphenyl β-D-glucopyranoside (15),97 2-coumaroyl-D-
glucopyranose (16), 4-hydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl β-D-
glucopyranoside (19),98 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl β-D-
glucopyranoside (20),98 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl β-D-
glucopyranoside (21),98 2,6 dimethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl β-D-
glucopyranoside (22),98 4-carboxy-2,6-dihydroxyphenyl β-D-
glucopyranoside (23),99 3-carboxy-5,6-dihydroxyphenyl β-D-
glucopyranoside (24),99
4-(3-oxobutyl)phenyl β-D-glucopyranoside (25),99 triterpenoid
26,77,78 salidroside (27),89,92,100 methyl β-D-glucopyranoside
(28),92 maclurin C-β-D-glucopyranoside (29),92 maclurin 2_-O-
( p-hydroxybenzoyl)-C-β-D-glucopyranoside (30),92 mangiferin
C-β-D-glucopyranoside (31),92 iriflophenone C-β-D-
glucopyranoside (32),101 isomangiferin C-β-D-glucopyranoside
(33),92 D-gluconic acid (34),15 D-glucitol (35),89 glycerol
(36), glycosidically bound Catechins 37, Catechins,
epicatechins, gallocatechins, and epigallocatechins 3880,88 etc.
(Fig. 2). The hydroxy functions of the tannin polyol residues
may be linked fully or only partly with galloyl units or their
derivatives, in which case they may be linked to several other
residues.3, 4, 77, 78. the diversity of tannin structures is
further enriched by the capability of the anomeric centre of
the glycosidic components
14
to form C- and/or O-glycosidic, ester or acetal bonds, in the
β or α form with a great variety of building blocks.
Different galloyl derivatives of gallotannins, ellagitannins,
and complex tannins
In many tannins two galloyl units are linked to each other
through their aromatic carbon atoms to form an axially chiral
hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP) unit (39, 40), which is the
characteristic structural element of the monomeric
ellagitannins. Linking the galloyl unit of the tannins, for
instance via the phenolic oxygen atom, to a further galloyl
unit leads to formation of a meta-digalloyl unit (50), the
characteristic structural element of the meta-depsides which
are also reckoned with the gallotannins.
Other important galloyl derivatives found in many types of
tannin are: HHDP (39, 40), flavogallonyl (41), valoneoyl (Val)
(42), sanguisorboyl (San) (43), Dehydrohexahydroxydiphenoyl
(DHHDP) (44, 45 and 46), and gallagyl (Gal) (47),
elaeocarpusoyl (Ela) (48), dehydrodigalloyl (49), meta-
digalloyl (50), chebuloyl.
15
Different Galloyl units of Tannins
(Che) (51), trilloyl (52), dehydrochebuloyl (DHChe) (53),
brevifolyl (54) etc. (Fig. 3).3,4,77,78,104–106
Single tannin classes
For clarity the four major groups of the tannins are briefly
discussed by way of some selected examples.
17
Gallotannins
Gallotannins are the simplest hydrolysable tannins, containing
a polyphenolic and a polyol residue. Although a great variety
of polyol residues are possible, most of the gallotannins
isolated from plants contain a polyol residue derived from D-
glucose. The hydroxy functions of the polyol residues may be
partly or fully substituted with galloyl units. In the case of
partial substitution with galloyl residues the remaining
hydroxy groups may be either unsubstituted or substituted with
various other residues. For example, the anomeric centre of
the glycosidic residues of the gallotannins may be
unsubstituted (α,β mixture) or substituted, in α or β form, as
ester or acetal. The metadepsides (or ‘syn-gallotannins’) 10
also belong to the gallotannin group. Their galloyl residues
are esterified with the polyol residue and also with one or
more linked galloyl units in the meta position relative to the
galloyl units’ carboxyl groups. The gallotannins 2,3,4,6-tetra-
O-galloyl-D-glucopyranose (TGG) (55) and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-
galloyl-β--glucopyranose (β-PGG) (56), found in many plant
families, are key intermediates in the biosynthesis of nearly
all hydrolysable plant polyphenols.107–110 Gallotannins in
which the polyol residues are coupled to cinnamoyl (17) or
coumaroyl (18) groups (e.g. 57 and 58) are relatively
scarce.97,102,103 Most of the gallotannins substituted with a
galloyl unit at the anomeric centre of their D-glucosyl unit
have the β configuration at the anomeric centre. There are,
however, also some natural products such as 1,4-di-O-galloyl-
α-D-glucopyranose (59),17 where the anomeric centre of the D
18
glucopyranose has the α configuration.111–113 The structural
diversity of the gallotannins is demonstrated by some selected
examples (Fig. 4).
Fig 4
Structure of some of the gallotannins
19
Fig. 5 Some of the coupling possibilities of D-
glucopyranose in the 1C4 or 4C1 conformation with (R)- or (S)-
configured HHDP units.
Ellagitannins
With more than 500 natural products characterized so far, the
ellagitannins form by far the largest group of known
tannins.114 Ellagitannins are formed from the gallotannins by
the oxidative coupling of at least two galloyl units (62)
(Figs. 4 and 5), yielding an axially chiral HHDP unit (39 or
40). The chirality is caused on the one hand by the bulky ortho
20
substituents to the biaryl axis, and on the other hand by the
atropisomerism caused by the inhibition of free rotation
around the axis. This is caused by the esterification of both
ortho carboxy groups
with the polyol (usually D-glucopyranose, Fig.
3).3,4,77,78,104–106 Remarkably, all ellagitannins with HHDP
units linked via the 4,6 or the 2,3-positions of their -
glucosyl unit have an (S)- configured HHDP unit, while linkage
via the 3,6-positions seems to lead only to an (R)-configured
HHDP unit.77,78,115.
Esterification to other positions of the sugar molecule, for
example a 1,6-coupling 20,74 is rarely found in nature. In the
majority of ellagitannins with an axially chiral glucose-bound
HHDP unit, both the configuration of the biaryl unit and the
conformation of the D-glucosyl unit are determined by their
linkage positions. An HHDP unit bound to the 2,3- or 4,6- or
1,6-positions of D-glucopyranose in the natural products
always has the (S)-configuration, while most 2,4- or 3,6-
coupled HHDP units favour the (R)-configuration.
Thermodynamics govern the resulting D-glucose conformation,
which again is determined by the coupling positions of the
HHDP unit to the glucopyranose ring. While the glucopyranosyl
21
Fig. 7 The structure of a rare ellagitannin with a
triterpenoid structural unit, and of a rare α-configured
ellagitannin.
assumes a 4C1 conformation in the case of 2,3- or 4,6-HHDP
coupling, a 1,6- or 3,6- or 2,4-HHDP coupling always favours
the thermodynamically less stable 1C4 conformation (Fig. 5).
For both the C-glycosidic ellagitannins and the ellagitannins
with a D-gluconic acid unit the coupling of the HHDP unit via
the 2,3- and 4,6-positions of the D-glucosyl is highly
characteristic. The C-glycosidic bond between the open-chain
sugar and the bidentate substituent is always formed at C-1 of
23
the sugar. Typical examples of these groups of substances are
vescalagin (70) 77,78 with a C-glycosidic bond, and
lagerstannin C (71) 15 with a D-gluconic acid unit (Fig. 6).
Seemingly, for the routine biosynthesis of the tannins, nature
does not use only D-glucopyranose for the esterification with
gallic acid. For example, D-hamamelose (6) and complex
triterpenoids such as 26 are also used in tannin biosynthesis.
As example of an ellagitannin with a triterpenoid structural
unit, which could be isolated only seldomly from natural
sources, the natural product castanopsiniin A (72) 77,78 can
be mentioned. Also, the ellagitannin group contains few
examples where the anomeric centre of D-glucopyranose has the
α-configuration. Heterophylliin A (73) 36 is one of the rare
examples of this type
(Fig. 7).
24
Fig 8 the structures of punicalin (74) and
terflavin B (75).
As early as 1977 Mayer et al. published the isolation of the
ellagitannin punicalin (74) from the fruit husks of Punica
granatum L.116 However, the correct structure was published
25
only in 1986 by Nishioka et al.24 Punicalin [4,6-(S,S)-gallagyl-
D-glucopyranose] (74) contains the so-called gallagyl unit as
characteristic structural element. The gallagyl unit itself
is constructed from a lactonized HHDP nucleus which is C–C
coupled with two galloyl (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoyl) residues.21
The punicalin structure is completed with a D-
Glucosyl unit which is linked via two hydrolytically cleavable
ester bridges to the gallagyl building block. Little is known
about the biosynthesis of punicalin (74). It is known,
however, that terflavin B (75), also isolated from Punica
granatum L., is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis.
Terflavin B can be transformed directly into punicalin (74) by
oxidative coupling (Fig. 8).21,117
Complex tannins
The structures of the complex tannins are built up from a
gallotannin 43 unit or an ellagitannin 91 unit, and a catechin
unit.4,77,78,91 One example from this substance class is
acutissimin A (76), having a flavogallonyl unit
(nonahydroxytriphenoyl unit) bound glucosidically to C-1, and
linked via three further hydrolysable ester bridges to the D-
glucose derived polyol (Fig. 9).77,78
Condensed tannins
One of the striking properties of the monomeric catechins and
leukoanthocyanidins, that have no tanning properties, is their
ability to be converted into oligomers and polymers that do
have tanning properties, by the action of acids or
enzymes.3,4,77,78,88,91,118 Condensed tannins are oligomeric
26
and polymeric proanthocyanidins consisting of coupled flavan-
3-ol
(catechin) units (oligomeric or polymeric proanthocyanidins =
condensed proanthocyanidins = condensed tannins).
Biosynthetically the condensed tannins are formed by the
successive condensation of the single building blocks, with a
degree of polymerization between two and greater than fifty
blocks being reached. The coupling pattern of the catechin
units in condensed tannins can vary considerably. For example,
many con densed tannins are known where the coupling of the
single units is by way of position C-4 of the first unit
linked with C-8 (or C-6) 4,119 of the second unit, which may
have a different substitution pattern.4,120 The tannins found
in red wine (and to a lesser extent in white wine) are this
type of condensed tannins.
The properties of these tannins, and especially their
importance to winemaking, depend on their specific reaction
with proteins, which in turn is directly related to their
degree of polymerization. Oligomers and polymers consisting of
two to ten catechin units are also known as flavolans.11 Some
typical condensed tannins with unsubstituted catechin units
are procyanidin B2 [epicatechin-(4β 8)-epicatechin (77)],
proanthocyanidin A1 [epicatechin- (4β 8,2β O 7)-catechin
(78)], proanthocyanidins A2 [epicatechin-(4β 8,2β O 7)-
epicatechin (79)],
and proanthocyanidin C1 [epicatechin-(4β 8)-epicatechin- (4β
8)-epicatechin (80)] (Fig. 10).
27
Fig. 10 Different linkage patterns of condensed tannins, for
example procyanidin B2 (77), proanthocyanidin A1 (78),
proanthocyanidin A2 (79) (79) and proanthocyanidin C1 (80).
29
Plants containing Tannins
From literature, I can gallantly conclude that all plants
contains tannin but the only different lies in the percentage
yield from any plants.
1. Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller}
Structures of some of the active compounds in the plant
30
The aloe vera plant is often found near water in sand or
rocks. It has thick stiff leaves and slender, orange-colored
flower spikes. The gel found in the leaves is commonly used to
speed the healing of skin conditions, including burns and
wounds. The sap found in the base of the leaf is used as a
digestive stimulant and a strong laxative.
Medicinal Uses
Aloe Helps with Digestion
Poor digestion is related to many diseases. A properly functioning digestive tract is one of the keys and foundationsof health. Aloe is known to soothe and cleanse the digestive tract and help improve digestion. The interesting thing about taking aloe internally is that, because it is an adaptogen, ithelps with either constipation or diarrhea, helping to regulate your elimination cycles in whatever way you need.It’s been a great remedy for people with problems such as irritable bowel syndrome as well as acid reflux. Aloe also helps to decrease the amount of unfriendly bacteria and in ourgut keeping your healthy intestinal flora in balance. Aloe is also a vermifuge, which means it helps to rid the body of intestinal worms.
1. Aloe Helps in Detoxification
Aloe Vera is a gelatinous plant food, just like seaweeds and chia seeds. The main benefit to consuming gelatinous plant foods in your diet is that these gels move through the intestinal tract absorbing toxins along the way and get eliminated through the colon. This will help the proper elimination of waste from your body and help the detoxification of your body.
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2. Aloe Alkalizes the Body
Disease cannot manifest in an alkaline environment. Most people are living and subsisting on mostly acidic foods. For great health, remember the 80/20 rule – 80% alkaline forming foods and 20% acidic. Aloe vera is an alkaline forming food. It alkalizes the body, helping to balance overly acidic dietary habits.
3. Cardiovascular Health
There hasn’t been a lot of studies conducted on aloe’s effect on cardiovascular health, but there has been some research to show that aloe vera extract injected into the blood, greatly multiplies the oxygen transportation and diffusion capabilities of the red blood cells. According to a study published in the 2000 issue of the British Medical Journal, beta sitosterol helps to lower cholesterol. By regulating blood pressure, improving circulation and oxidation of the blood, lowering cholesterol, and making blood less sticky, aloe vera juice may be able to help lower the risk of heart disease.
4. Aloe Helps Boost the Immune System
I think given the stresses of our daily lives, every one can use a boost to their immune systems. The polysaccharides in aloe vera juice stimulate macrophages, which are the white blood cells of your immune system that fight against viruses. Aloe is also an immune enhancer because of its high level of anti-oxidants, which help combat the unstable compounds known as free-radicals, contributing to the aging process. (Free radicals are a bi-product of life itself, it is a naturally occurring process but we can overload ourselves with unnecessary free-radicals by living an unhealthy lifestyle). Aloe is also an antipyretic which means it used to reduce or prevent fever.
5. Aloe Vera is Great for the Skin
Because of aloe’s well-known healing properties for the skin, aloe is one of the primary compounds used in the cosmetic industry. It is a known vulnerary, (meaning it helps heal
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wounds) and is great for applying topically to burns, abrasions, psoriasis and even to bug bites. Aloe acts as an analgesic, acting to help relieve pain of wounds. It’s feels especially good to cut a stem of aloe, place it in the fridge and rub it on sun burnt skin – the immediate soothing effect feels like an absolute lifesaver. Aloe is also an antipruritic: A substance that relieves or prevents itching. Aloe vera is an astringent: which causes the contraction of body tissues, typically used to reduce bleeding from minor abrasions. Due to aloe’s high water content (over 99% water) it is a great way to hydrate, moisturize and rejuvenate the skin and fits within my general guideline: “Don’t put anything on your skin that you wouldn’t eat!” Aloe increases the elasticity of the skin making it more flexible through collagen and elastin repair. Aloe is an emollient, helping to soften and soothe theskin. It helps supply oxygen to the skin cells, increasing thestrength and synthesis of skin tissue and induces improved blood flow to the skin through capillary dilation.
Traditional uses 1. Aloe vera gel is used as an ingredient in commercially
available lotion, yogurt, beverages and some desserts. 2. Aloe vera gel is used for consumption and relief of
digestive issues such as heart burn and irritable bowel syndrome.
3. It is common practice for cosmetic companies to add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as make up, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, razors and shampoos.
4. Other uses for extracts of Aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep, use as fresh food preservative, and use in water conservation in small farms.
5. Aloe vera has a long association with herbal medicine, although it is not known when its medical applications were first discovered. Aloe vera is non-toxic, with no known side effects, provided the aloin has been removed by processing. Taking Aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts has been associated with various side effects. However, the species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of China, Japan, Russia, South Africa, The United States, Jamaica and India.
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Aloe vera is alleged to be effective in treatment of wounds.
The big leaves contain sap, which works amazingly against:
Burns
Wounds and cuts
Eczema
Skin allergies
The intake of aloe vera juice can heal:
digestive problems and appetite
Chronic constipation
ulcerative colitis
2. Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia}
Structures of some of the active compound in the plant
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This shrub is generally found in swamps and contains tiny
green leaves and wispy white flowers. The essential oils taken
from this plant are a popular antiseptic used for stings,
burns, wounds and many other skin conditions. Tea trees are
also utilized for stimulating the immune system and for
helping to treat chronic fatigue syndrome.
Medicinal Uses1. Bad breath. Early research shows that adding tea
tree oil to an essential oil mixture containing peppermint and lemon oils can reduce bad breath.
2. Cold sores (Herpes labialis). Research so far suggests that applying 6% tea tree oil gel 5 times daily does not significantly improve cold sores.
3. Eyelid infection (blepharitis). Early research shows that tea tree might cure common eyelid infections and reduce the associated symptoms, including eye inflammation and vision loss.
4. Dandruff. Early research suggests that applying a 5%teat tree oil shampoo three minutes daily for four weeks reduces scalp lesions, scalp itchiness, and greasiness in patients with dandruff.
5. Dental plaque. Results from research examining the effects of tea tree oil on dental plaque are inconsistent. Some early research shows that brushing the teeth with a 2.5% tea tree oil gel twice daily for eight weeks reduces gum bleeding butnot plaque in people who have gingivitis caused by plaque. Also, using a mouthwash containing tea tree oil after a professional teeth cleaning does not seem to reduce plaque formation. However, rinsing with a specific product (Tebodont) containing tea tree oil and a chemical called xylitol does seem to reduce plaque.
6. Gingivitis. Results from research examining the effects of tea tree oil on gingivitis are inconsistent. Some early research shows that brushing the teeth with a 2.5% tea tree oil gel twice daily for eight weeks reduces gum bleeding but
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does not improve overall gum health in people who have gingivitis caused by plaque. However, rinsing with a specific product (Tebodont) containing tea tree oil and a chemical called xylitol seems to reduce gum inflammation.
Traditional uses
1. Tea Tree Oil for Acne
One of the most common uses for tea tree oil today is in skin care products, and it’s considered one of the home remedies for acne. One study found tea tree oil to be just as effectiveas benzoyl peroxide, but without the negative side effects of red and peeling skin.
You can make a tea tree oil acne face wash by mixing five drops of tea tree essential oil with two teaspoons of raw honey. Simply rub on your face, leave on for one minute, then rinse off.
2. Tea Tree Oil for Hair
Tea tree oil has proven very beneficial for the health of yourhair and scalp. Like coconut oil for hair, tea tree oil has the ability to soothe dry flaking skin, dandruff and even can be used for the treatment of lice. To make homemade tea tree oil shampoo, mix it in with aloe vera gel, coconut milk nutrition and other essential oils like lavender oil.
3. Tea Tree Oil for Cleaning
Another fantastic way to use tea tree oil is as a household cleaner. Tea tree oil have powerful antimicrobial properties and can kill off bad bacteria in your home. To make homemade tea tree oil cleaner, mix with water, vinegar and lemon essential oil.
4. Tea Tree Oil for Psoriasis and Eczema
Tea tree oil can help relieve any type of skin inflammation, including being used as a natural eczema treatment and for psoriasis. Simply mix one teaspoon coconut oil, five drops of
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tea tree oil and five drops of lavender oil to make homemade tea tree oil eczema lotion or body soap. In addition, if you have eczema or psoriasis, you should consider going on the GAPS diet and supplementing with vitamin D3.
5. Tea Tree Oil for Toenail Fungus and Ringworm
Because of its ability to kill parasites and fungal infections, tea tree oil is a great choice to use on toenail fungus, athlete’s foot and ringworm. Put tea tree oil undiluted on the area and, for stubborn fungi, it can also be mixed with oil of oregano. Tea tree oil has also been proven beneficial for treating and removing warts, so simply put tea tree oil directly on the area for 30 days.
You must have heard about tea green a lot, especially for
treatment against loss of hair and headaches. It contains
amazing benefits like antibacterial, anti-fungal and works
best as antiseptic. In addition, it treats:
Burns
Fever
Athlete foot
fatigue syndrome
Vaginal infections
Acne and warts
Insect bites
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i
Medicinal uses
1. Sleep
In a 15 day open-label study in persons with mild to moderate stress and anxiety coupled with sleep disturbances, supplementation of Melissa officinalis (7% Rosmarinic acid and 15%
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total hydrocinnamic acids) taking 300mg at breakfast and againbefore sleep (600mg total) noted reductions in anxiety-relatedinsomnia by 42% (Overall).[25]
Melissa officinalis is commonly consumed alongside Valeriana officinalis for the purpose of sedation, and at least one multicenter study using both in a combination noted that the supplement group (120mg Valerian (4.5:1 concentration) and Lemon Balm at 80mg (5:1 concentration) taken thrice before bed) after 30 days reported enhanced sleep quality (33% of respondents reported better sleep) which was greater than placebo (9% of the placebo group reported better sleep); treatment was very well tolerated with no significant side effects.[1] One other trial has noted that this combination waseffective in reducing restlessness and dyssomnia in children.[2]
Appears to have sedative properties and promote sleep quality,but there is relatively little evidence to support it as two well controlled studies are confounded with the inclusion of Valerian
2. Anxiety and Stress
In rats given Melissa officinalis extract (9.32% Rosmarinic Acid) at120-360mg/kg bodyweight for 15 days appeared to have anxiolytic effects in an open field test as well as an elevated maze test but not in a four-hole board test at the higher two doses (240mg/kg and 360mg/kg).[26] The anxiolyic effects (30-300mg/kg ethanolic extract) have in one study beencomparable to 1mg/kg Diazepam when dosed over 10 days, and appeared to be more effective in females (with only 300mg/kg being statistically significant in males, but all doses being effective in female rats).[27]
One study has noted that inhalation of lemon oil vapor has exerted anti-stress responses, and that these effects were related to serotonergic signalling (particularly the receptor 5-HT1A).[28]
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Two animal studies suggest anxiety reducing effects of oral Lemon Balm, with one noting that lemon vapor was also effective
In a clinical setting, an acute dose of 300 or 600mg Melissa officinalis prior to an acute stress test (DISS battery of tests[29]
followed with Mood assessment via Bond and Lader VAS mood scales[30]) noted that the higher dose was associated with improved self-reported calmness, reduced alertness (increased after test) following the test while the 300mg dose failed to significantly modulate mood.[31] Another acute study noted that a Lozenge containing Melissa officinalis was able to induce brain wave alterations similar to that of standard anxiolytics.[32]
Can reduce anxiety when dosed acutely (single dose taken before stressor)
In humans consuming 300mg Melissa officinalis (7% Rosmarinic acid and 15% total hydrocinnamic acids) at breakfast and again before sleep for 15 days in an open-label trial, there appearsto be general anxiolytic propeties in regards to anxiety-related eating problems (33% lower than baseline), emotional instability (7%), fatigue (18%), feelings of guilt (15%) or inferiority (18%), psychosomatic symptoms (33%) and intellectual disturbance (28%).[25]
Appears to reduce anxiety when taken over a period of time in humans (morning and nightly doses)
3. Memory and Learning
One study has noted that Melissa officinalis have nicotinic receptorbinding properties[33] as well as muscarinic.[34] One study has noted weak acetylcholinesterase inhibiting property with fresh, but not dried, leaves of Lemon Balm;[33] a subsequent study failed to replicated acetylcholinesterase inhibiting properties up to 0.25mg/mL.[6]
Subsequently, a study conducted noting incubation with Melissa officinalis noted that the extract had little ability to displace either Nicotine or scopolamine from the receptor.[35] This was followed up on in post-mortem human neural tissue where
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nicotine was displaced at moderate concentrations of 180-3120µg/mL and scopolamine at 2.69-4.31mg/mL (ethanolic herb extract) although it could be extracted into more effective fractions (the most potent noted fractions being 4.2µg/mL nicotine displacement and 102.6µg/mL for scopolamine) althoughthere still appears to be a large degree of variability.[6]
Appears to interact with acetylcholine receptors, there appears to be some agonistic (activating) properties that are very volatile (not reliable); if looking at solely the most effective fragments, the affinity at least appears respectable
In the hippocampal dentate gyrus of aged rats, Melissa officinalis at 50-200mg/kg daily was able to enhance neurogenesis (244.1-763.9% of control group, respectively) which was associated with reduced corticosterone concentrations.[24]
Has been noted to enhance neurogenesis in at least one rat study giving oral administration
300mg Melissa officinalis given prior to an acute stress test was noted to be (nonsignificantly) associated with improved answering on mathematical questions; increasing the dose to 600mg did not help in reaching statistical significance.[31]
Following ingestion of 600mg or 1600mg Melissa officinalis acutely, improvements relative to placebo are noted in quality of memory (percentage of answers or recollections that are correct) only with trends for improvement (not significant) were noted in picture-recall, delayed word recall, spatial memory and no influence was noted on working memory nor attention in this study, and self-reported attention was similar.[6] Sporadic improvements in memory quality (digital vigilance accuracy and choice reaction time accuracy) have been noted elsewhere.[35]
There appears to be comparatively weak cognitive enhancing properties assocaited with oral Melissa officinalis supplementation at higher doses (600-1600mg)
For cognitive parameters sometimes seen as adverse, 600-1600mgMelissa officinalis has been noted to reduce the speed of memory
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without influencing memory formation per se.[6] A reduction in rapid visual information processing has also been noted, with sporadic influences on false-positive processing (neither 600 nor 1600mg, but 1000mg, being associated with increased false-positives).[6] Another study to record spatial memory found a statistically significant reduction thereof following 300-900mg acute ingestion, this reduction was also noted for word recollection.[35]
The calming effects of Melissa officinalis may also reduce the speedof learning, possibly secondary to being slightly sedative or too 'calming'
4. Neuroprotection
In hippocampal corticol neurons deprived of oxygen, 10μg/mL Lemon Balm was associated with preserving roughly half of corticol neurons that would have been lost to hypoxia and alsoreduced concentrations of caspase-3 and DNA fragmentation (both indicative of apoptosis); concentrations of 200-500μg/mLshowed inherent cytotoxicity to neurons.[4] Neuroprotection hasalso been noted in hippocampal cells exposed to ecstasy.[36]
Appears to have neuroprotective effects in vitro in pro-oxidativetoxicity
In a model of hippocampal occlusion (mice) given 100mg/kg Lemon Balm for 2 weeks prior to occlusion treatment and continued thereafter noted reduced lipid peroxidation (MDA andTEAC) and the concentrations of HIF-1α, TNF-α and IL1-β (all induced during hypoxia) were effectively suppressed by Melissa officinalis.[4]
This may extend to living models undergoing hypoxia (lack of oxygen) in neural tissue
5. Pain
One study has note dose-dependent pain-reducing effects of oral ingestion of Melissa officinalis (ID50 of 241.9mg/kg) in mice subject to a battery of tests (acetic acid writhing,
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glutamate, and formalin) which seems to be related to the Rosmarinic Acid content.[37]
May have pain relieving properties, requires more researches.
Traditional usesLemon balm is a perennial herb from the mint family. The leaves, which have a mild lemon aroma, are used to make medicine. Lemon balm is used alone or as part of various multi-herb combination products.
Lemon balm is used for digestive problems, including upset stomach, bloating, intestinal gas (flatulence), vomiting, and colic; for pain, including menstrual cramps, headache and toothache; and for mental disorders, including hysteria and melancholia.
Many people believe lemon balm has calming effects so they take it for anxiety, sleep problems, and restlessness. Lemon balm is also used for Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), an autoimmune disease involvingthe thyroid (Graves' disease), swollen airways, rapid heartbeat due to nervousness, high blood pressure, sores, tumors, and insect bites.
Lemon balm is inhaled as aromatherapy for Alzheimer's disease.
Some people apply lemon balm to their skin to treat cold sores(herpes labialis).
In foods and beverages, the extract and oil of lemon balm are used for flavoring.
The leaves of this plant have mint like smell and provides
nourishing image. It has big summer flowers, which can be
rubbed against the skin for:
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Animal bites
Mosquito bites
Sores
Herpes
The nectar that is used with water in form of juice is
beneficial for:
Fevers
Colds and cough
Depression
Headaches
Upset stomach
Insomnia
4. Thyme (Thymus Vulgaris)
Some of the active compounds in the plant
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Some of the active compounds in
thymus vulgaris
Thyme is a fragrant herb that makes a wonderful addition to
your cooking, in part because it is rich in antioxidants.
Thyme contains health-boosting flavonoids including apigenin,
naringenin, luteolin, and thymonin, and has been shown to
protect and increase the percentage of healthy fats found in
cell membranes. As reported by the George Mateljan
Foundation:12 “In particular, the amount of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid, an
omega-3 fatty acid) in brain, kidney, and heart cell membranes was increased after
dietary supplementation with thyme.”
Thyme is also nutrient dense, containing vitamin C, vitamin A,
iron, manganese, copper, and dietary fiber. When used in
cooked dishes, thyme may also help inhibit glycation and the
formation of dangerous advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
in your food, making thyme a potential preventer of heart
disease and premature aging. Due to thyme oil’s antibacterial,
antispasmodic, antirheumatic, expectorant, hypertensive, and
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calming properties, it also has a long list of topical uses,
including:
Traditional uses of thyme
Home remedy – Thyme oil is used to relieve and treat
problems like gout, arthritis, wounds, bites, and sores,
water retention, menstrual and menopausal problems,
nausea and fatigue, respiratory problems (like colds),
skin conditions (oily skin and scars), athlete’s foot,
hangovers, and even depression.
Aromatherapy oil – The oil can be used to stimulate the
mind, strengthen memory and concentration, and calm the
nerves.
Hair product – It is said that thyme oil can prevent hair
loss. It is used as a treatment for the scalp and is
added to shampoos and other hair products.
Skin product – Thyme oil can help tone aged skin and
prevent acne outbreaks.
Mouthwashes and herbal rinses – Like peppermint,
wintergreen, and eucalyptus oils, thyme oil is used to
improve oral health.
Insecticide/insect repellent – Thyme oil can keep insects
and parasites like mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and mothus
away
Medicinal uses
Thyme has antiseptic qualities that make it useful for a
mouthwash and to combat tooth decay. Its antiseptic qualities
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also make it useful in cases of anemia, bronchial ailments,
and intestinal problems, as well as a skin cleanser. It has
been known for anti-fungal properties that can be used to
treat athlete’s foot and has anti-parasitic properties that
are useful against lice, scabies, and crabs. It has shown
useful for colic, excess gas, sore throats, and as a hangover
remedy. Thyme also proves beneficial as an expectorant to
loosen and expel mucous.
Make a poultice by mashing the leaves into a paste for use on
skin inflammations and sores. Using thyme for an anti-fungal
or parasitic agent can be done by mixing four ounces of fresh
thyme to a pint of vodka or fresh vinegar with “the mother”
still in the container (the mother is the vinegar starter).
Crush the thyme leaves slightly and let sit 12 hours or
overnight. Or buy the essential oil and use it sparingly.
Apply to the affected area.
For gastric issues or bronchitis, make a tea of 1 teaspoon
leaves to each cup of boiling water and steep 10-15 minutes.
Use only once a day. Add small amounts of honey to sweeten, if
desired.
Infusions of thyme have also been useful in soothing and
healing muscle spasms and skin irritations. Thyme also
contains a compound that is helpful in preventing blood clots.
Aromatherapy of the essential oil of thyme has been used to
boost the mind, body, and spirit. Vapors of thyme’s essential
oil have been effective for treating respiratory infections.
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Thyme oil or infusion can be added to bath water to aid
bronchial problems and sooth rheumatism.
Burning thyme can repel insects and a dilution of thyme oil
can be used externally as a deodorant and antiseptic that will
prevent mildew. An ointment made with thyme has been used to
treat warts. And some have said that it is useful to help new
mothers to expel the afterbirth. Thyme ointment can be made
from its leaves to sooth the discomfort associated with gout
and killing worms internally.
Thyme has many helpful actions. It has been used as an
antiseptic, anodyne, disinfectant, antitussive, anti-
inflammatory, rubefacient, demulcent, apertif, carminative,
diaphoretic, depurative, digestive, diuretic, expectorant,
fungicide, nervine, pectoral, sedative, stimulant, and
vermifuge.
As I previously mentioned, thyme oil is an effective natural
agent against nasty bacterial strains. A study9 presented at
the Society for General Microbiology's spring conference in
Edinburgh pointed out that essential oils may be efficient and
affordable alternatives to antibiotics in the battle against
resistant bacteria.
Among the essential oils tested, cinnamon oil and thyme oil
were found to be the most successful against various
Staphylococcus species, including the dreaded MRSA. Researchers
said that this can help lower antibiotic use and minimize the
formation of new resistant strains of microorganisms.
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Oil of thyme can also function as a decontaminant for food
products. As shown in Food Microbiology, both basil and thyme
essential oils exhibited antimicrobial properties against
Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri that may contaminate food. The
compounds thymol and carvacrol in thyme oil demonstrated this
benefit.10
Furthermore, thyme oil can be used as a preservative against
spoilage and several foodborne germs that can contribute to
health problems. It is effective against other forms of
bacteria like Salmonella, Enterococcus, Escherichia, and Pseudomonas
species.11
Other reports also show that oil of thyme has anti-
inflammatory properties. In a research published in the Journal
of Lipid Research,12 six essential oils including thyme oil showed
the ability to suppress the inflammatory cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) enzyme in the same manner as the antioxidant
resveratrol does. It was noted that the chemical constituent
carvacrol was responsible for this effect.
The same study also noted that thyme and the other essential
oils activated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors
(PPARs), which help suppress COX-2 expression.
In addition to these, significant health benefits of thyme oil
include:14
Helps reduce symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome
Stimulates menstrual flow
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Increases circulation and elevates low blood pressure
Triggers the removal of waste that may lead to cellulite
Eases nervousness and anxiety
Helps fight insomnia
Eliminates bad breath and body odor
6.Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.)
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Chamomile is most popular in tea form for use to calm
upset stomach and help support restful sleep. Germany’s
Commission E (a government organization) has even
approved the use of chamomile for reducing swelling on
your skin and fighting bacteria. Chamomile is a powerful
anti-inflammatory that also has antibacterial, anti-
spasmodic, anti-allergenic, muscle relaxant, and sedative
properties. It is used to treat psoriasis, eczema,
chickenpox, diaper rash, slow-healing wounds, abscesses,
and gum inflammation, and according to Herb Wisdom may
also be useful for the following conditions:
“The oil serves many medicinal purposes, but one of the best-documented
uses is for relaxation. The oil has a calming effect on people, and can be used
to help induce sleep, ease frayed nerves, and promote a general sense of
calmness and well being. It is great for those with nervousness or anxiety
problems. Aside from having mental calming properties, chamomile is also
good at relaxing sore muscles and tight joints.
It can ease menstrual cramps and back aches, as well as relax the digestive
system to ease upset stomach or indigestion issues. When applied topically to
the skin, it soothes redness and irritation. For this reason, it is a common
ingredient in skincare. It also eliminates itchiness and is good for those with
allergic reactions. Sometimes chamomile is used on rashes. Because of its
anti-inflammatory properties, it can work to take down swelling caused by
rashes or skin irritants.”
Traditional uses
Traditionally, chamomile has been used for centuries as an
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, mild astringent and healing
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medicine . As a traditional medicine, it is used to treat
wounds, ulcers, eczema, gout, skin irritations, bruises,
burns, canker sores, neuralgia, sciatica, rheumatic pain,
hemorrhoids, mastitis and other ailments. Externally,
chamomile has been used to treat diaper rash, cracked nipples,
chicken pox, ear and eye infections, disorders of the eyes
including blocked tear ducts, conjunctivitis, nasal
inflammation and poison ivy. Chamomile is widely used to treat
inflammations of the skin and mucous membranes, and for
various bacterial infections of the skin, oral cavity and
gums, and respiratory tract. Chamomile in the form of an
aqueous extract has been frequently used as a mild sedative to
calm nerves and reduce anxiety, to treat hysteria, nightmares,
insomnia and other sleep problems. Chamomile has been valued
as a digestive relaxant and has been used to treat various
gastrointestinal disturbances including flatulence,
indigestion, diarrhea, anorexia, motion sickness, nausea, and
vomiting . Chamomile has also been used to treat colic, croup,
and fevers in children .It has been used as an emmenagogue and
a uterine tonic in women. It is also effective in arthritis,
back pain, bedsores and stomach cramps.
Medicinal uses
Anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties
The flowers of chamomile contain 1–2% volatile oils including
alpha-bisabolol, alpha-bisabolol oxides A & B, and matricin
(usually converted to chamazulene and other flavonoids which
possess anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties . A
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study in human volunteers demonstrated that chamomile
flavonoids and essential oils penetrate below the skin surface
into the deeper skin layers . This is important for their use
as topical antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) agents. One of
chamomile’s anti-inflammatory activities involve the
inhibition of LPS-induced prostaglandin E(2) release and
attenuation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) enzyme activity without
affecting the constitutive form, COX-1 .
Anticancer activity
Most evaluations of tumor growth inhibition by chamomile
involve studies with apigenin which is one of the bioactive
constituents of chamomile. Studies on preclinical models of
skin, prostate, breast and ovarian cancer have shown promising
growth inhibitory effects .In a recently conducted study,
chamomile extracts were shown to cause minimal growth
inhibitory effects on normal cells, but showed significant
reductions in cell viability in various human cancer cell
lines. Chamomile exposure induced apoptosis in cancer cells
but not in normal cells at similar doses .The efficacy of the
novel agent TBS-101, a mixture of seven standardized botanical
extracts including chamomile has been recently tested. The
results confirm it to have a good safety profile with
significant anticancer activities against androgen-refractory
human prostrate cancer PC-3 cells, both in vitro and in vivo
situation .
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Common cold
Common cold (acute viral nasopharyngitis) is the most common
human disease. It is a mild viral infectious disease of the
upper respiratory system. Typically common cold is not life-
threatening, although its complications (such as pneumonia)
can lead to death, if not properly treated. Studies indicate
that inhaling steam with chamomile extract has been helpful in
common cold symptoms; however, further research is needed to
confirm these findings.
Cardiovascular conditions
It has been suggested that regular use of flavonoids consumed
in food may reduce the risk of death from coronary heart
disease in elderly men . A study assessed the flavonoid intake
of 805 men aged 65–84 years who were followed up for 5 years.
Flavonoid intake (analyzed in tertiles) was significantly
inversely associated with mortality from coronary heart
disease and showed an inverse relation with incidence of
myocardial infarction. In another study , on twelve patients
with cardiac disease who underwent cardiac catheterization,
hemodynamic measurements obtained prior to and 30 minutes
after the oral ingestion of chamomile tea exhibited a small
but significant increase in the mean brachial artery pressure.
No other significant hemodynamic changes were observed after
chamomile consumption. Ten of the twelve patients fell into a
deep sleep shortly after drinking the beverage. A large, well-
designed randomized controlled trial is needed to assess the
potential value of chamomile in improving cardiac health.57
Colic/Diarrhoea conditions
An apple pectin-chamomile extract may help shorten the course
of diarrhea in children as well as relieve symptoms associated
with the condition . Two clinical trials have evaluated the
efficacy of chamomile for the treatment of colic in children.
Chamomile tea was combined with other herbs (German chamomile,
vervain, licorice, fennel, balm mint) for administration. In a
prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
study, 68 healthy term infants who had colic (2 to 8 weeks
old) received either herbal tea or placebo (glucose,
flavoring). Each infant was offered treatment with every bout
of colic, up to 150 mL/dose, no more than three times a day.
After 7 days of treatment, parents reported that the tea
eliminated the colic in 57% of the infants, whereas placebo
was helpful in only 26% (P<0.01). No adverse effects with
regard to the number of nighttime awakenings were noted in
either group . Another study examined the effects of a
chamomile extract and apple pectin preparation in 79 children
(age 0.5–5.5 y) with acute, non-complicated diarrhea who
received either the chamomile/pectin preparation (n = 39) or a
placebo (n = 40) for 3 days. Diarrhea ended sooner in children
treated with chamomile and pectin (85%), than in the placebo
group (58%) . These results provide evidence that chamomile
can be used safely to treat infant colic disorders of
chamomile in managing diabetes.
58
Qualitative Test for TanninsThere are three groups of methods for the analysis of tannins:
precipitation of proteins or alkaloids, reaction with phenolic
rings, and depolymerisation. (Augustine 1992)
Goldbeater's skin test
When goldbeater's skin or ox skin is dipped in HCl, rinsed in
water, soaked in the tannin solution for 5 minutes, washed in
water, and then treated with 1% FeSO4 solution, it gives a blue
black colour if tannin was present.
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) test
It is rather a test for phenolics in general. Powdered plant
leaves of the test plant (1.0 g) are weighed into a beaker and
10 ml of distilled water are added. The mixture is boiled for
five minutes. Two drops of 5% FeCl3 are then added. Production
of a greenish precipitate was an indication of the presence of
tannins. Alternatively, a portion of the water extract is
diluted with distilled water in a ratio of 1:4 and few drops
of 10% ferric chloride solution is added. A blue or green
colour indicates the presence of tannins (Evans, 1989).
Other methods
The hide-powder method is used in tannin analysis
for leather tannin and the Stiasny method for wood adhesives.
Statistical analysis reveals that there is no significant
relationship between the results from the hide-powder and the
Stiasny methods.
59
Hide-powder method
400 mg of sample tannins are dissolved in 100 ml of distilled
water. 3 g of slightly chromated hide-powder previously dried
in vacuum for 24h over CaCl2 are added and the mixture stirred
for 1 h at ambient temperature. The suspension is filtered
without vacuum through a sintered glass filter. The weight
gain of the hide-powder expressed as a percentage of the
weight of the starting material is equated to the percentage
of tannin in the sample.
Stiasny's method
100 mg of sample tannins are dissolved in 10 ml distilled
water. 1 ml of 10M HCl and 2 ml of 37% formaldehyde are added
and the mixture heated under reflux for 30 min. The reaction
mixture is filtered while hot through a sintered glass filter.
The precipitate is washed with hot water (5x 10 ml) and dried
over CaCl2. The yield of tannin is expressed as a percentage of
the weight of the starting material
60
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