CONCLUSION

1. Is Architecture in Poland till the Half of the 12th Century "Rornanesque"?

Dutch philosopher and historian Frank Ankersmit, a researcher of historical writing and its relations with historical reality and historical narrative derived therefrom, postulates a three-leveled model of relations between the reality and the text describing it. This model assumes at the basic level the existence of the past in itself (onthological level), to which for obvious reasons a historian does not have a direct access. The second level comprises a description of that past, an account contained in the text which concerns it (epistemological level). The third level of presentation or representation (defined by An­kersmit as a level of aesthetics) forms a necessary complement to the above two levels. For Ankersmit representation is an essential completion to epistemological research on the text describing the past. In this way a historian creates historical narratives, which are representatives of the past forming meanings. Thus, in his work a concept of the past reality is revealed, which is a proposal to perceive the past from a given point of view, a proposal how to organize our knowledge about the past. Historical representations (narrative substances) bear a substitutive character in relation to the subject of research, and Ankersmit himself refers to the comparison of a historian to a painter (not to a writer as do most of the researchers) quoting at the same time the works of Ernst Gombrich and Arthur C. Danto. He holds the opinion that historical representations are only substitutes of the past reality, and even worse, they tend to take the place of what they represent, trying to replace that historical reality at the ontological level. According to Ankersmit, however, an excessive constructionism can be restrained by a category of "experience", which us enables to break free from the fetters of representation. At the level ofexperi en­ce, studies of structures and processes, as well as relations of representation with rhetoric must be completed by researching the problem of "experiencing the world" by man and by investigating the differences in this process of experiencing between the past and today. First of all, memory and consciousness manifest themselves in experience, which determine interpreting the historical record. One of the important questions asked nowa­days by philosophers is how this experience leaves its stamp on a given masterpiece of art and in which way man experiences this art.

History of art, despite its sensitivity to the linguistic tum and Anthropological Revo­lution is still a historical science. Transferring the model described by Ankersmit to our discipline one can say that a masterpiece of early medieval architecture, which for its

306

researcher remains a kind of the test recorded in a specific language of forms and signs, is not only a subject of the basic description and analysis, but also the matter over which the process of creating this "representation" is being executed. The unquestionable moral requirement of Truth accompanying the masterpiece at the epistemological level is not unconditional at the level of representation. The more obvious this statement is, the fewer data a historian of art has at his disposal. The idea of "Romanism" is just such a historical narrative which is made up of a combination of the nineteenth century need of classification and representation, an interpretation resulting from it. It is a historical narrative, which for a long time was regarded as an autonomous entity and it is\sti II nowadays often considered as a substitute of historical reality. Since Romanism in its all variations has for a long time been a subject of debate, almost everybody believes that it really existed.

Apart from Ankersmit's research approach, it is also necessary to recall the theory of deconstruction, which is in itself amorfic and impossible to define clearly. Deconstruc­tion applied in the relation between the masterpiece of art and its recipient brings, among others, a possibility of a total subjective perception of this masterpiece. It brings a pos­sibility of perception beyond all categories by the recipient who does not need to pay attention to the norms and opinions imposed by critics (also by historians), as well as by artists themselves. And although the studies on Jacques Derrida's views show that they are to a lesser extent postmodernist than, for example, Richard Rorty thought, the post­modernist model of deconstruction assumes a variety of interpretations of the same text. Deconstruction is also characterized by uncertainty in relation to the presented opinions, which is always present in reasoning as an "irreducible horizon". Deconstruction also deals with studying "traces", and the concept of "trace" itself in a paradoxically ironic way fits in the subject of studies of the researcher of early medieval architecture.

The concept of romanism, created in the nineteenth century, and the term connected with this concept are thus a narrative substance, which at first on the basis of the analysis of the preserved buildings was introduced by romanticists, and then it was defined more precisely by positivists. The identification of romanism with the given epoch helped this narrative substance to live its own life and researchers to define the style and assign internal chronological divisions. The concept of romanism was introduced into Polish humanities and soon took deep root. Yet, the appearance of "competitive" terms in the European specialist literature in the first decades of the 20'h century, whose authors were trying to describe the buildings which did not fit in the generally accepted criteria testi­fies about inadequacy of the tenn rornanism in relation to a big number of the designa­tions embracing this idea. With the moment when the terms of first Romanesque art, Ottonian art, Pre-romanesque art, undermining the homogeneity and coherence of the idea of romanism, started to be used concurrently, it lost its normative significance. After the Second World War changes in the humanities affected further atomization ofroman­ism and led to a crisis of the idea of style resulting in unwillingness to use the term itself. However, in recent years after the peak of Post modernism we can again observe not only an interest in discussing the concrete problems concerning the art of the 11 'h and 12'h cen­turies, but also a need for a deeper reflection on this subject. This discussion was boosted by an intensive development of basic research of the preserved works, as well as by new possibilities for interpreting written records. In various kinds of publications one can

sense a sort of nc which would fan mal analysis. In 1

conventionality I

which had once I Returning to

whether the kno­the third quarter An extended carr excavations oyer selves, but also a complexes and c low for this class forces us to use i variants. The rea ings affects this formulating our form the existeru romanism. It is d ity of internal 51 and rhythmic ai

tension between not observe a hie vertical divisions between these b medieval cities, 1

the level of the a teria of "Romam with a precision relation with the different from UI

If at the forn buildings as Ron here we encoun1 and term of Pre - antique traditii encounter Pre-ro (in Gaul, Spain. expression of th the beginnings 0

these factors res ers. Thus, in the can have a com vonic areas beyo brought here fro

307

~f forms and signs, matter over which luestionable moral logical level is not ~ statement is, the ism" is just such a enth century need it. It is a historical miry and it is\sti II lomanism in its all body believes that

ecall the theory of early. Deconstruc­ient brings, among reo It brings a pos­~s not need to pay ansr,as well as by ws show that they thought, the post­S of the same text. resented opinions, econstruction also radoxically ironic chitecture. ae term connected tsis of the analysis was defined more ven epoch helped Ie style and assign duced into Polish rive" terms in the hose authors were pted criteria testi­er of the designa-Romanesque art, coherence of the ~ignificance. After iization of roman­sse the term itself. aobserve not only ~ I I'" and 12<h cen­

ssion was boosted as well as by new ilications one can

sense a sort of nostalgia for a simple idea of romanism deprived of excessive divisions, which would force the historian of art to penetrate too deeply into the discussion of for­mal analysis. In this way, however, the term "Romanesque architecture" acquired some conventionality resulting from the process of incorporating into this term the concepts which had once been separated from it (vide: first Romanesque art and Ottonian art).

Returning to the discussion on the architecture in Poland one should ask a question whether the known examples of buildings, in particular, the two above-described from the third quarter of the 12th century can unambiguously be defined as "Rornanesque". An extended comparative material which has been mainly obtained from archaeological excavations over the past thirty years causes reflection not only on the buildings them­selves, but also on Kalinowski's thesis presented in 1980. The remains of the residential complexes and central churches do not reveal any formal or stylistic features which al­low for this classification. Firstly, their state of preservation, whether we want it, or not, forces us to use far reaching theoretical reconstructions, almost in each case of different variants. The reality of defining in such a fluid wayan "image" of each of these build­ings affects this "irreducible horizon of uncertainty", which we cannot get rid of while formulating our conclusions. Secondly, the preserved remains do not reveal in term of form the existence of any elements which were once used to construct the definition of romanism. It is difficult to find among them a striving for the unification and homogene­ity of internal space, and for its artistic articulation and the corresponding artistic and rhythmic articulation of walls. No examples of an organic relation and a dialectic tension between architecture and sculpture subordinate to it have been preserved. We do not observe a hierarchization of the structure and a willingness to balance horizontal and vertical divisions in the composition. There are also no formal and ideological relations between these buildings and feudalism non-existing in Poland at that time, as well as medieval cities, which in the Western European terms, did not exist, either. Therefore, at the level of the analysis of the formal basic features these buildings do not meet the cri­teria of "Rornanesque" and there is no point in arguing about dating of some monuments with a precision of a decade. Only by referring to Antique Tradition we can notice their relation with the definition of romanism. The way of grasping this relation is, however, different from understanding this problem by romanticists and also by modernists.

If at the formal and stylistic levels, it is difficult without doubt to recognize these buildings as Romanesque, maybe it wi II be better to define them as Pre-rornanesque. And here we encounter serious obstacles. As it has already been said above, the definition and term of Pre-rornanesque art contains two equivalent and interwoven constituents - antique tradition and "barbarian" heritage of a given people. In the places where we encounter Pre-romanesque art a local background of late Antique art within a given area (in Gaul, Spain, Dalmatia, Britain and Italy herself) brought about a change in artistic expression of the indigenous and later incoming barbarian peoples. In those countries the beginnings of Pre-romanesque art were determined by a diffusion (osmosis) of both these factors resulting eventually in romanizing tastes and spiritual needs of the invad­ers. Thus, in the above mentioned countries the term of "Pre-romanesque architecture" can have a common (but also local) stylistic character, but in the Germanic and Sla­vonic areas beyond the Roman limes it acquires different features. Antique tradition was brought here from outside. It had already been transformed and adapted to the different

308

conditions becoming a starting point for further transformations. This differentiation of Pre-rornanesque architecture may even proceed further, if we consider a "programmatic" way of exploiting antique heritage by Carolingian art, which was entering the conquered areas of Bavaria or Saxony. Till the end of the 121h century architecture erected in the Piast state was deprived of that long lasting process of interraction between antique and barbarian elements characteristic for other parts of Europe. Unfortunately, Slavs did not conquer a Roman province in the basin of the Vistula and Warta rivers, so "a second­hand antique culture" was reaching the area, as an import resistant to the local influences of Slavonic elements. The investors and builders from the circle of the Piast dynasty could not make use of the patterns which in other parts of Europe were provided by the remains in situ of Roman architecture and imperial glory.

So, there in no point in using the same term, on the one hand, for example, for the architecture from Gaul in the 61h and 7th century, or from Asturia in the 91h century, and on the other hand, for the architecture of the Piast state in the 9th century.

The problem of using the terms - Romanesque or Pre-romanesque in reference to architecture in Poland requires considering the level of reception of antique tradition and it is necessary to answer the question about the level of awareness of this tradition These questions concern the areas of "experience" postulated by Ankersmit. As Kalinowski himself admitted, he accepted after Edward Shils and Piotr Sztompka a two-fold divi­sion of "tradition" into objective and subjective ones. Objective tradition relying on the use of material heritage of the past, as it has already been said above, did not exist in the case of architecture in Poland. However, subjective tradition is much more interesting. It is passed on at three levels - formal (stylistic), thematic (iconographic) and substance (iconologic).

In subjective tradition imported artifacts may have played a crucial role, but Roman artifacts discovered on Polish soil during excavations could not in an important way have an impact on any conscious perception of this antique tradition. What is more, Kalinowski did not classify these items as "imports", but rather as "exports" from the areas of the Empire, whose reception in the Slavonic countries was rather accidental. But in the case of architecture this issue is different, because selection of the given forms to perform the defined functions could not have been just random. So, architecture more than any other movable items better fits under some circumstances the term "import", because a Church foundation or an erection of a residence required a conscious decision concerning the workshop and material problems of the whole enterprise, as well as the concrete form of a given monument and the passed on ideas. Therefore, it was mainly an "import" of idea and form, and not of a material substance of the work.

The discussion presented in the third part of the book shows that this subjective antique tradition becomes visible in the both mainstreams of Early Medieval Architec­ture in Poland, in the South and the West, particularly at the iconographic level. The ideological substance and inspirations imprinted in the semantic layer belong to a vast range of cultural and spiritual heritage of Antiquity, which Christianity absorbed and transformed.

The reference through the form of central buildings to the universalist ideas of the Cosmos and the Church and of the perfection and the eternity of God, and to a theocen­trist comprehension of the world is rooted in Augustinian Neoplatonism. The interpre­

tation of the laj

music shows th and hence with antique origin i Wislica and the ing over the sur link between th

The problen A particular exs linked solution where there is r can just be app program, a "reI in a different ti cas perfectly e} Middle Ages. 1\ "prime object" difficult to defii to a given prob tions in a given cle of its duratii defined. Kublei replicas induce set in a given ti old and new se Shape a/Time, connected with tions within the chronology anc ent works, but j

type of the sam as its functioni ofthe basic for from the chang decoration. Thl form mainly u~

tradition of all with the forms of palatia in th belong to this •.

"Antique tn

defined pattern est stage of the 11 th century. In some kinds of I

309

mtiation of rrammatic" conquered cted in the Intique and ItVS did not "a second-influences

1St dynasty ded by the

lie, for the mtury, and

ference to dition and lion These .alinowski -fold divi­log on the xist in the rteresting. substance

ut Roman rtant way : is more, from the

ental. But i forms to :ure more "import", I decision ell as the nainlyan

ubjective l\rchitec­rvel. The to a vast rbed and

as of the theocen­interpre­

· .~

~

· -'"

..'"'" ... .. ~· ~

>~ ",.•--1'

ration of the layouts of the Little Polish palatia, as a composition inspired by theory of music shows that there was a possibility of an indirect relationship with Boetius' works and hence with a many centuries long tradition of harmony and proportion rules. The antique origin is also clearly visible in the aulae of the palatia in Krak6w, Przemysl and Wislica and there is a willingness to emphasize the character of user's authority dominat­ing over the surrounding (Wawel) and legitimized by God, which is expressed by a direct link between the audience hall and the chapel (Przemysl, Wislica).

The problem of subjective tradition presents itself a bit differently in the formal layer. A particular example are here single-apsed rotundas, George Kubler wrote: "there are no linked solution without there having been a corresponding problem. There is no problem where there is no awareness" (G. Kubler, The Shape ofTime, 1962,38). These sentences can just be applied to the relation of those simple churches with a universal missionary program, a "related problem", which must have occurred to be solved in a similar way in a different time and space, It seems that Kubler's theory of prime objects and repli­cas perfectly explains how single-apsed rotundas or tetraconchi functioned in the Early Middle Ages. Nevertheless, they can be considered as sequences which were started by a "prime object" inspired by late antique central buildings (in Kubler's theory it is always difficult to define and point to). "The prime object" must have come to light as a solution to a given problem, or a need to work out a model of the Church which met the condi­tions in a given situation. Accuracy and efficiency of this model expressed itself in a cy­cle of its duration, which lasted as long as the worked-out model met the need originally defined. Kubler combined "the idea of objects", its first implementation, and a series of replicas induced thereby into one finite series characterized by its "systematic age" and set in a given time. Kubler's idea of duration states that "the simultaneous existence of old and new series occurs at every historical moment save the first" (G. Kubler, The Shape ofTime, 1962, 56). Simultaneity of functioning of various series of objects is also connected with the introduction of the ideas such as "promorfic" and "neomorfic" solu­tions within the sequence, Co-existence of many sequences is dependent on the absolute chronology and contradicts not only a linear comprehension of relations between differ­ent works, but also denies the terms such\as primitive or archaic. Using for centuries the type of the same one-apsed rotunda and its application in similar circumstances, as well as its functioning in almost the same way and the observed modulations and mutations of the basic form - all this makes that these buildings should be regarded as independent from the changing in time stylistic features ofarchitectural detail, ornamental or painting decoration. The similar process was also taking place with regard to tetraconchi as the form mainly used for baptisteries, mausolea, or relic chapels. The "subjective" antique tradition of all central buildings from the Early Middle Ages relies on their connection with the forms of "the first object" inspired by late antique central churches. The forms of palatia in the both mainstreams, which equally refer to the late antique prototypes, belong to this "subjective tradition".

"Antique tradition" perceived in this way, and within which no concrete and strictly defined patterns are copied, already appeared in art of the young Piast state at the earli­est stage of the development of architecture, and lasted with a particular intensity in the 11 h century. In the southern mainstream, apart from five types of central churches and '

some kinds of residential complexes, it manifested itself, for example, in reference to the

310

three-apsed, naveless early Christian basilica, which was passed on through the forms known from early medieval architecture in the South of Europe and from the circle of the/irs! Romanesque art (the abbey church in Tyniec, the Gniezno Cathedral, and prob­ably the first phase of the abbey church in Lubin). It is also visible in the form of the Tyniec capitals, and in the form of the capital of antique imitation from the crypt of the basilica beneath the western wing of the Royal Castle on Wawel Hill. We can hazard the opinion that mainly the buildings connected with missionary activities are found in this mainstream. These are relic chapels, residences, in which the equal status of the spiritual authority and secular power is emphasized, or basilicas - one metropolitan and two Ben­edictine ones. The relation of the Early Piast architecture with the late antique concept of familia eccleslae epitomizes in the impressive complex of the sacred foundations within the Cracovian stronghold, and a specific type of a double cathedral is potentially reflected in the cathedrals and the nearby churches within the Poznan stronghold (suc­cessive stages of the cathedral and probably of the church of the Blessed Virgin Mary) and in Gniezno (Cathedral and the church of St. George).

In the Western mainstream an emphasis was put on another element of Antique tra­dition connected mainly with the manifestation of power. Above all, it concentrates on a large aula dominating the palace complex and its direct fusion with the chapel. Howev­er, other forms which also combined the Western mainstream with Antique tradition were only developed by Carolingian and Ottonian architecture. It manifests through the erec­tion of massive tower structures. Both, a hypothetical one at the Wawel tetraconchos and less virtual ones which frame basilicas or one-nave churches clearly point to strong ties with the architecture of the Empire. It concerns both the structures with a massive tower on axis (for example, the Benedictine church in Mogilno, the Poznan Cathedral from the 11 til century, the church of the Lateran Canonics in Trzemeszno) and the two- and three­element structures (S1. John the Baptist's Church in Giecz, the basilica beneath the west wing of the Wawel Royal Castle, the Benedictine basilica in Tyniec, S1. Andrew's church in Krakow and others), whose original form is ambiguous and each reconstruction of the relation in height of the respective elements remains questionable. The introduction of western emporas into the interior of the central buildings is a solution derived from the Carolignian and Ottonian emporas, which, in turn, reflect the late antique tradition. A strict, geometric layout of the cross section of the Poznan Cathedral based on a square module is also of Carolignian and Ottonian character, although it would not have been possible without the contribution of ancient mathematical knowledge. Besides, it is also worth mentioning the bipolarity of such complexes as the Herman Cathedral in Cracow and its replica in Tum near Leczyca, and a special character of the western choirs in the massive Benedictine churches in Mogilno and Lubin, or an atrium whose idea came to Cracow probably with Rhineland forms of the cathedral basilica. All this testifies about a fast and deep assimilation of the Carolingian and Ottonian forms together with the ele­ments of antique tradition immanently inherent therein.

The above presented examples do not, of course, solve the problem of following the formal traces and ideological background inspired by late Antique in Early Medieval Architecture in Poland in its southern and western variants. It seems that they illustrate the principle of the long duration cycle quite well. This principle acts far away from the old antique centers and distant in time from their functioning.

A particu through whic the main role usually the d as a go-betw been discuss a big numbe newcomers f bution of the edly, we owe iconographic and 11 til cent intensive cor and were urn taking shape historical rec oprnent ofco his analysis, that the soutl and althougl western mail Wroclaw, or Moselle rive

Antique t

in a direct w

course of trs

can say that accidental at expressing a person who complex. Ur strong "persi able indispul es with their we can suspr sible connec Anchorasjr

Let us re plexes and c [ think that i basic criteria a chronologi can be conta will make it our classific:

3J I

on through the forms nd from the circle of Cathedral, and prob­lie in the form of the from the crypt of the III. We can hazard the Ities are found in this status of the spiritual politan and two Ben-late antique concept

~ sacred foundations nhedral is potentially nail stronghold (suc­klessed Virgin Mary)

ment of Antique tra­ill. it concentrates on hthe chapel. I-Iowev­ntique tradition were ests through the erec­weI tetraconchos and ~. point to strong ties ~;ith a massive tower n Cathedral from the d the two- and three­liea beneath the west St. Andrew's church ch reconstruction of ale. The introduction elution derived from lite antique tradition. ral based on a square rr:ould not have been ge. Besides, it is also Cathedral in Cracow ~estem choirs in the whose idea came to

,II this testifies about ngether with the ele­

lem of following the e in Early Medieval lS that they illustrate Is far away from the

A particular kind of import was architecture, which poses a question of the ways through which those forms and inspirations were reaching the Piast state. No doubt that the main role was played by the clergy, who was closely cooperating with the founder, usually the duke or king. The question of the role of the clergy from the South in acting as a go-between the Polish court and the artistic circles of Southern Europe has recently been discussed by Rafal Quirini-Poplawski, In his work he emphasizes that there was a big number of intensive contacts particularly favored by the practice of appointing newcomers from Italy to the newly established bishopric capitals, as well as the contri­bution of the monks of Southern origin to establishing a Polish monastic life. Undoubt­edly, we owe the "subjective antique tradition", which was rooted both in the formal and iconographical layers to those people who belonged to the intellectual elite of the IO'" and II th centuries of the emerging state. However, as Quirini-Poplawski stresses, those intensive contacts with the Italian circles were weakening at the end of the II th century and were undergoing a process of stabilization at the turn of the l l" and 12th centuries taking shape of standard contacts with the Holy See. According to him, the analysis of historical records shows that there were particularly favorable conditions for the devel­opment ofcontacts with Italian art during the reign of the first Piasts. Despite the fact that his analysis concerns sculpture, his conclusions also refer to architecture. For it seems that the southern mainstream is losing its impetus in the second half of the II th centuries, and although it was still present in architecture, it was clearly being dominated by the western mainstream. The next stages of the cathedral complexes in Krakow, Poznan, Wroclaw, or the monastery churches connected with Saxonian circles or those of the Moselle river region points definitely to the main direction of the direct influence.

Antique tradition was being passed on by the people who either got in touch with it in a direct way (because they came from the South of Europe), or by those who in the course of traveling, or as a result of education gained some knowledge about it. One can say that in Poland transm ission of this tradition, as a form and substance was both accidental and highly personalized. Thus, the kind of the applied form and the way of expressing a given idea depended on experience, knowledge and personal contacts ofthe person who served the ruler as his advisor in the matter of the foundation of the given complex. Unfortunately, the state of preservation of the written records causes that this strong "personalization" is accompanied by almost a total anonymity, because we are not able indisputably to combine any names of the bishops or monks from the written sourc­es with their real impact on the given building enterprise. Only in a few circumstances we can suspect it on the basis of indirect premises, as in the cases ofbishop Unger's pos­sible connection with the foundation and the form of the Poznan Cathedra I and of abbot Anchoras' influence on the Tyniec Basilica.

Let us return to the question whether we can define the discussed residential com­plexes and central churches from the end of the 12th century in Poland as "Romanesque". I think that if we apply to them the standard definition of Romanism, they do not meet the basic criteria of "style". But, if we use the term - "Romanesque", as a conventional one in a chronological sense, generally referring to Pre-gothic architecture, then these buildings can be contained in a broad terrn deprived of the distinct features. However, this approach will make it difficult to evaluate them properly. The only firm basis on which we can base our classification of these works as Romanesque is a strong impact of Antique tradition,

312

which is mainly reflected in an indirect reference to late Christian antiquity. It is more clearly visible in the ideological layer, than in the aesthetic dispositions.

Can we then use this idea and apply the term - early Piast architecture to the architec­ture which was erected prior to the political fragmentation? Is the thesis once put forward by Kalinowski still valid? In the case of the residential complexes and central churches - definitely yes. The term "early Piast" decisively better describes their close relations with the duke, as well as with the multi-source inspirations.

The tenn - "early Piast architecture", which refers not only to the monuments of the first monarchy, but also, at least, to those of the first half of the 121h century, or even of the end of that century, is also conventional. It emphasizes the relation between the master­pieces and their patron, particularly in the light of the ruler's obligations and duties con­nected with his initiative to conduct a conscious foundation campaign. As described by Roman Michalowski, the process of building churches, monasteries, chapels and of their endowment was not only a token of good will, or artistic tendencies of the ruler. It was embedded in his charisma being part of his responsibility for the state which he ruled by God's will, which was connected with the duty of ensuring God's protection and the Light of Grace for his subjects. So, as long as we have to do with the "political system of ducal law", in which princepsfundator is the main builder, the term "early Piast architec­ture" is not only adequate to the formal multi-source, but also to the political situation in the Piast state. However, with the intensification of Gregorian ideas and strengthening of the autonomous position of the Church, the character of patronage was changing and the circle of founders was expanding. The arrival of new monastic congregations in Poland and a growing participation ofmagnatery in foundation activities in the 12'h century led gradually to a more frequent appearance of Romanesque features of French and Italian origins, especially in sculpture and architectural decoration.

The stylistically non-defining term - "early Piast architecture" is flexible and general enough to accommodate the whole range of the forms of the buildings whose erection we owe to the initiatives ofthe duke and the people in his closest entourage, and whose origins were rooted in the lands of South Europe and the German Empire. It concerns not only the selected groups of the buildings discussed by me, but also the remaining masterpieces of architecture in the Piast state till the times of the direct successors of Boleslaw Krzywousty.

2. Residential Complexes and Central Churches - Provincial Imitation or Individual Creation?

On the occasion of the 2000 jubilee, under the auspices of the General Conservator of Monuments two debates on the most ancient art in Poland were held in Warsaw. During the discussion a lot of participants pointed to the Antique heritage and the extent of origi­nality of "Romanesque" art in the Piast state. They all stressed both its "borrowed" char­acter and the fact that it had drawn examples from many different sources. Only Andrzej Tomaszewski expressed the opinion that "In Poland Romanesque art is very original and

f :. i

i I I I I I, I I

individual ized' the churches w a relatively sm Hungary. The ~

forms known f The layout

axis is just an t

only one undoi from the areas at present it is palatia is only tion, which doe and 11 1h centuri each of the ear! no similar fom the central buiI far one has not: the main part w

combined with bay. Its builder known from di conchos a circu to it from the w a crypt in the 'VI of communicati an interesting sl

It may refer have an elemen umental gate str the creativity oj back to late Ant crypt and a wesi

Hill, whose "bi an empora built tradition. The e} balcony appeare rectangular nav­cal example, if, general form of to the Ottonian nection with the and the one belt tetraconchos . A usable storeys. J

upper storey, an

trtiquity. It is more IS.

ure to the architec­isonce put forward id central churches ~eir close relations

monuments of the mry, or even of the etween the master­lOS and duties con­n.As described by ihapels and of their of the ruler. It was ue which he ruled protection and the 'political system of arly Piast architec­nlitical situation in ld strengthening of s changing and the egations in Poland he 12th century led French and ltalian

lexible and general 19s whose erection ourage, and whose mpire. It concerns also the remaining lrect successors of

iurches ation?

raj Conservator of InWarsaw. During the extent oforigi­~ "borrowed" char­rces, Only Andrzej 5 very original and

313

individualized" (Poczqtki tysiqclecia, 2000, 36-37). Returning to the spatial layouts in the churches with western emporas he pointed to a variety of architectural types within a relatively small group of buildings, which is contrary to the situation in Bohemia and Hungary. The same concerns the residential complexes and central churches. Using the forms known for centuries we encounter extraordinary solutions in these both groups.

The layout of the palatium consisting of oblong and central buildings set along one axis is just an example of these solutions. The complex in Devin is similar and it is the only one undoubtedly older than the Piast complexes. Dating of the uniaxial complexes from the areas of the Empire in relation to the palatia from Little Poland is fluid, and at present it is impossible to point out unambiguously that the form of the Little Polish palatia is only a borrowing from Ottonian architecture. However, their spatial disposi­tion, which does not have any direct parallels among the palace complexes of the IO'" and 11 th centuries, belongs to completely original elements. An important fact is that in each of the early Piast palatia a different type of the central building was designed and no similar form of the palace chapel occurs in another complex. What is more, among the central buildings there are individual projects like the Lednica chapel for which so far one has not been able to find the only prototype. Two motifs - an even-armed cross in the main part was skillfully and with a sense of proportion in the structure of this chapel combined with a motif of circle in the ambulatory and four pillars forming the central bay. Its builder used a abroad knowledge about central buildings, combining the features known from different structures in a creative way. Also in the case of the Wawel tetra­conchos a circular projection of the central part and a combination of the apse adjacent to it from the west lend a special character to it. Besides, we cannot omit the presence of a crypt in the Wawel rotunda, which together with this western structure and the system of communication presents an image of a small chapel, but of an individual concept and an interesting spatial solution.

It may refer to a possibly two-storey tetraconchos in Bergamo, however, it did not have an element from the West which could be interpreted as a massive tower, or a mon­umental gate structure. The occurrence of such a structure in the Wawel rotunda points to the creativity of its designers, who skillfully combined a tetraconchos whose origins go back to late Antiquity with some Carolignian-Ottonian features such as the presence ofa crypt and a western "annex". Another original solution is two-apsed Church B on Wawel Hill, whose "bipolarity" is probably connected with its Great Moravian prototype, but an empora built in the western apse points to a direct reference to Carolignian-Ottonian tradition. The example ofChurch B also shows that an empora in the form of a supported balcony appeared in the central church early and independently from the churches with a rectangular nave. The Zawichost tetraconchos also represents an interesting and untypi­cal example, ifwe accept that it was equipped with an empora. It would then combine the general form of the late Antique origin with an empora, which reflects a closer reference to the Ottonian solutions. And there are four chapels - the three ones have a direct con­nection with the palatium: in Ostrow Lednicki (phase II), in Przemysl, and in Wislica, and the one belonging to the multi-element residential complex, that is again the Wawel tetraconchos . All the four with a different degree ofprobability were equipped with two usable storeys. After rebuilding the Lednica chapel was undoubtedly equipped with the upper storey, and the lower vaulted one still did not have an entrance from the inside of

314

the stronghold. So, it was acquiring a character of the lower chapel, or a crypt not sunk into the ground. The Wawel tetraconchos, from the beginning a two-storey building, was a landmark within the Cracovian stronghold. It was characterized not only by the crypt relatively shallowly sunk into the ground, but perhaps also by an extraordinary role it played within the residence. Because of the fact that these two buildings cannot yet be dated precisely, it is difficult to determine if the Lednica chapel was rebuilt basing on the Cracovian building, or on the contrary. On the other hand, the reconstruction of the Przernysl rotunda, as a two-storey building would rank it with the chapels in Lednica and Krakow. It seems that in all these three constructions only the upper storey could serve a an oratorium for the ruler. On Lednica there are remains of a structure sunk into the pavement (baptismal basin) in the southern part of the lower storey, while on Wawel Hill this storey undoubtedly contained relics. In Przernysl, the lower part was accessible to the faithful. So, there is probably no one "recipe", one pattern according to which the spatial and functional projects of these buildings were designed. Above all, their com­mon feature is a central plan and a two-storey structure, and mainly a ducal foundation and location. The others are subject to change. Can we attribute the above chapels to the type of Sancta Maria Rotunda, or to the Ottonian Doppelkapelle? These three chapels can be dated broadly to the first half of the IX-th century, most probably to the reigns of Boleslaw Chrobry (Lednica II and Przernysl) and of Mieszko II (the Wawel tetra­conchos). The last and certainly two-storey structure in this group is the Wislica niche rotunda, also undoubtedly a ducal foundation. The reason of selecting its original form could be a willingness to refer to the symbolic foundations (in particular, to the Cracov­ian tetraconchos) belonging to the residential complexes of the first Piasts. Dating of the first three examples excludes the possibility of following the pattern of the Ottonian Doppelkapellen, which, as a rule, are later than the buildings under discussion. In the early Piast complexes there is no evidence for an opening linking the lower and upper storeys of these chapels. Do they therefore belong to a vast group of the early medieval central churches of St. Mary's, whose ideological and formal aspects were long ago dis­cussed by Krautheimer and Christian Sapin? The Marian patrocinium of the four-apsed Wawel rotunda has been questioned, although in my opinion this patronage cannot be completely excluded. On the contrary, it is worth considering a double patronage for the tetraconchos, which is possible, in particular, for the two-storey chapels. If we accept that the Wawel rotunda served as the main relic treasury of the Cracovian residence, then its dedication to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the intercessor and protector seems even more understandable. An additional dedication to Saints Felix and Adauct, whose relics could have been housed in the crypt, does not contradict the Marian patrocinium. Unfortunate­ly, we know nothing about the patrons of the Lednica and Przemysl chapels. Taking into account their close and organic ties to the residential buildings, Zurowska's thesis about the Marian dedication of the palace chapels of the first Piasts may also remain plausible for these two monuments.

From the presented examples we can arrive at the conclusion that the buildings, ad­mittedly not very impressive in size, are very interesting for their ideological message and formal solutions. A combination ofthe elements which come from the different main­streams of European art in the structure of one chapel, or palatium in order to perform important and various functions gives a polysemantic meaning to these masterpieces. On

the initiative oft the forms undou it is not due to c type. One canno architect of the J

chapel, the tetrac Przemysl rotund were acting on a ditions set by the architecture only Europe. Since in founder's inspire

I

From the above during the first I'

other examples of their formal i ate compilation forms expressirn the process of se ing place agains faith, and, as a CI

discussed examj patterns created "eclectic" is a n meeting the reg' broad knowledg the Great Polish ture, whose exar open set. In the we already knov divergent and CI

list of the unequ beginning of we

but it is still far a and transformati

I t J

315

or a crypt not sunk aorey building, was Dt only by the crypt rxtraordinary role it dings cannot yet be ~ rebuilt basing on econstruction of the chapels in Lednica upper storey could

l structure sunk into ley. while on Wawel 'part was accessible ording to which the bove all, their com­r a ducal foundation sbove chapels to the Ihese three chapels bbably to the reigns II (the Wawel tetra­is the Wislica niche IJlg its original form rular, to the Cracov­st Piasts. Dating of Item of the Ottonian ~ discussion. In the the lower and upper f the early medieval 5 were long ago dis­un of the four-apsed patronage cannot be ~Ie patronage for the aapels. If we accept ivian residence, then lor seems even more ~ whose relics could iinium. Unfortunate­chapels. Taking into owska's thesis about lso remain plausible

at the buildings, ad­ideological message n me different main-in order to perform

rsemasterpieces. On

the initiative 0 f the Piasts, the structures of individual character were erected basing on the forms undoubtedly borrowed from the rich resources of European architecture, and it is not due to coincidence that for the most important of them we cannot find a proto­type. One cannot deny the creativity of the designer of the Little Polish palatia, of the architect of the monumental Wawel aula, and of those who designed the Lednica cross chapel, the tetraconchos with a crypt and a western massive structure, or the two-storey Przernysl rotunda. Besides, it is possible that the designers of these "hybrid" complexes were acting on a given commission. They were adapting the forms to the needs and con­ditions set by their clients. So, it is difficult with full responsibility to call the early Piast architecture only a provincial imitation of the prototypes created in the West or South of Europe. Since in this architecture there is an individual factor resulting mainly from the founder's inspirations.

3. Early Piast Architecture - an Accidental Choice or a Deliberate Eclecticism?

From the above formulated observations we can draw the conclusion that, in particular, during the first monarchy the central churches and the residential complexes, as well as other examples of the Early Piast architecture show complexity and multi-orientation of their formal inspirations. The monuments refer to various artistic circles. A deliber­ate compilation of the features of di fferent stylistic provenance, as well as selecting the forms expressing given ideas make it possible to call this architecture eclectic. However, the process of selection and compilation of those genetically different elements was tak­ing place against the ideological background resulting from the acceptance of the new faith, and, as a consequence, from the sacred character of the ruling dynasty. Many of the discussed examples are not only borrowings in terms of form, and they do not copy the patterns created somewhere else, but they represent a new quality. In this case the epithet "eclectic" is a tribute to the builders, who were able to cope with the difficult task of meeting the requirements of the investor and his capacity. It is worth emphasizing their broad knowledge and creativity in carrying out the original and unique projects, such as the Great Polish residential buildings, or the Cracovian Aula. The Early Piast Architec­ture, whose examples we know mainly from archaeological excavations, is fortunately an open set. In the coming years other buildings will certainly be discovered. These which we already know are subject to continuous discussions and analyses, which often lead to divergent and controversial conclusions. So, the list of the questions is longer than the list of the unequivocal answers accepted by most researchers. After 150 years, since the beginning of work on Ostrow Lednicki our knowledge has been significantly broadened, but it is still far away from the possibility ofreconstructing unambiguously the beginnings and transformations of architecture in the first two centuries of the Piast state.