Zaranis, N. (2011). The influence of ICT on the numeracy achievement of Greek kindergarten children,...

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Title: Old Meets New: Media in Education – Proceedings of the 61st International

Council for Educational Media and the XIII International Symposium on

Computers in Education (ICEM&SIIE'2011) Joint Conference.

Editors: António Moreira

Maria José Loureiro

Ana Balula

Fernanda Nogueira

Lúcia Pombo

Luís Pedro

Pedro Almeida

University of Aveiro

Campus Universitário de Santiago

3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal

ISBN: 978-972-789-347-8

Copyright: 2011

"Old meets new - media in education"

ICEM&SIIE ' 2011 Jo int Conference

September 28-30, 2011 | Aveiro, Portugal

The ICEM&SIIE'2011 conference was organised by the

University of Aveiro (Portugal) – a member of the European

Consortium of Innovative Universities – and aimed at gathering

researchers, teachers and other professionals, at national and

international level, around a focal topic that might trigger and

centre the discussion on the ―old/new‖ duality of media in

education. Participants were invited to discuss:

old and new media in education, in isolation or

comparatively;

how old and new media in education can be combined,

adopted and adapted;

what old and new media in education imply in terms of

technological, professional and social barriers;

what cost-benefit relationships old and new media in

education entail;

how to compare old and new media in education given their

particular educational contexts and the students' learning

profiles.

76 papers were selected and organised in 15 paralel sessions,

13 posters and 9 workshops.

The conference is characterized by the international character of

contributions, gathering 38 papers in Portuguese, 32 in English

and 6 in Spanish.

These procedings are organised according to the programme of

the conference. First we find the full and short papers, per

session, then posters and finally the abstracts for the workshops.

Proceedings of ICEM&SIIE‘11 Joint Conference

390

The influence of ICT on the numeracy achievement of Greek kindergarten children

Nicholas Zaranis

Assistant Professor, Department of Preschool Education University of Crete, Greece

[email protected]

Abstract

Aim of this study is to investigate the question: ―If information and communication technologies (ICT) help to improve kindergarten students‘ mathematical achievements‖. Initially, we present the important role of computers in the learning and teaching of mathematics. Then, we describe the research process, the educational software for teaching numbers (one to ten) and the activities that followed. The study dealt with kindergarten children in Crete, who were divided in two teams. Every team consisted of experimental and control group. Participants were 90 students (girls and boys) who studied in kindergarten classes. Approximately 47 children participated in the experimental group of each team, which taught numbers by the support of computers and 43 children in the control group. Initial and final tests were given to groups in order to measure these skills for the numbers. The results showed that the use of information and communication technologies is important for understanding the concept of numbers for children of preschool education.

Keywords: information and communication technologies; teaching mathematics;

kindergarten; understanding numbers in early years.

1. Introduction

The recent concern about the quality of education in Greece has contributed to the rapid growth of the number of computers being used in classrooms. The pervasiveness of the computer revolution has even pushed downward into kindergarten and preschool classrooms. Children have been thrust into the world of computers. If implemented in an appropriate manner, computer use can be meaningful, motivating and rewarding for children 3 years of age and up (Haugland, 2000; Haugland & Wright, 1997; Sarama, 2004; Sarama & Clements, 2002).

Children need to be engaged with the uses of computers in order to meet the challenges presented by the present and future technological society (Lipinski et al., 1986; Nastasi & Clements, 1992; Teng, 1997; Nicholson et al., 1998; Solomon, 1998; Lomangino et al., 1999; Haugland, 2000, Zaranis & Oikonomides, 2009). Young children seem to have a good grasp of the workings of the standard keyboard, even though 3-year-olds take longer to become familiar with it than 5-year-olds (Sivin, Lee, & Vollmer, 1985). In fact, the act of typing becomes a source of pride for many (Clements & Nastasi, 1993), as these children type their own names into empty box fields (Leung & Ginsburg, 2004). A pointing device, such as a mouse, is the preferred tool of choice for activities that involve selecting, moving or drawing objects (Borgh & Dickson, 1986; Lipinski, Nida, Shade, & Watson, 1986; Muller & Perlmutter, 1985).

Indeed, using technology in a developmentally appropriate manner depends on the features embedded in the software, the goals set for the computer activity, and the children engaged in the task. The developmental gains for young computer users range from improvements in hand-eye coordination, mathematical thinking and social creativity to higher levels of effectance motivation, a term used by Nastasi and Clements (1994) to describe the belief that children have, in competently changing or affecting their environment. However,


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research shows that various types of software lead to different outcomes (Haugland & Wright, 1997).

2. Children and Educational Mathematics Software

Studies demonstrate that from a developmental standpoint, children are more able to construct their own conceptual understanding from open ended software than from drill and practice software (Haugland, 1992, 1999). The former allows for solution path exploration, maintains children's interest, and encourages active participation rather than sitting and watching (Judge, 2001). The latter encourages competitive behavior, and discourages creativity and the exchange of ideas (Clements, 2002; Haugland, 1992, 1999). Providing children with a developmentally appropriate computer based learning environment can contribute not only to what they learn but also to how they learn (Judge, 2002).

Additional researches show that students learn more deeply from well-designed multimedia presentations than from traditional learning, including improved performance on tests of problem solving transfer (Mandl & Levin, 1989; Schoenfeld, 1992; Schnotz & Kulhavy, 1994;

Van Merrienboer, 1997; Najjar, 1998; Sweller, 1999; Mayer, 2001). According to standards in the area of mathematical education, using technology is an integral part of fostering mathematics from an early age in the kindergarten (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics - NCTM, 2000). At this age children develop many mathematical concepts, at least in their intuitive beginnings, even before they reach school age.

Young learners can use computer assisted instruction (CAI) to practice basic arithmetic skills and to foster deeper conceptual thought (Clements, 2002). Drill and practice programs can help primary grade children develop competence in mathematics (Clements & Nastasi, 1993). Reports of gains in mathematical skills have been found in young children (Hungate, 1982; Niemiec & Walberg, 1984). Likewise, kindergartners earned higher scores on certain numeral recognition tasks as a result of being in a computer group (McCollister, Burts, Wright, & Hildreth, 1986). On a similar note, interaction with a computer game for an hour or so over a two-week period allowed second graders to answer correctly to twice as many problems on an addition facts speed exam (Kraus, 1981). In fact, young children can make significant learning gains by spending ten minutes per day on CAI (Clements & Nastasi, 1992, 1993). Children who consistently use such computer drills show somewhat statistically significant learning gains (Clements & Nastasi, 1992; McCoy, 1996; Roblyer, Castine, & King, 1988).

However, the use of any drill and practice program under any conditions by students does not guarantee positive results. The effectiveness of any product is based on the quality of the software, the amount of time spent on it, and the manner in which it is used (Clements & Nastasi, 1993). In short, computer assisted instruction alone may be effective only in limited ways in teaching children basic math skills. The current study investigates the effects of using educational software embedded in learning versus traditional learning on mathematical achievement.

3. Methodology

This research was conducted during the 2010-2011 school year in six public kindergartens located in the city of Rethymno (Crete, Greece). The sample consisted of 90 kindergarten children (48 girls and 42 boys). The six kindergarten classes were divided, so that three classes served as the experimental group (n=47) and the remaining three classes served as the control group (n=43). All the students in a given class were exposed to the same treatment and the group assignment was chosen so that each of the three teachers involved taught at one experimental group and one control group. In the experimental group the schools had a computer, which was available for daily use.


392

A pre-test was given to the class during the first week of November 2010 to isolate the effects of the treatment by looking for inherent inequities in the mathematics achievement potential of the two groups. The test was the Early Numeracy Test (ENT), which has been developed to determine the level early mathematical competence of toddlers (Van de Rijt et al., 2003; Van Luit, Van de Rijt, 2005).

The control group functioned as this class has in previous years. Emphasis was placed upon a deductive development of numbers from ―one‖ to ―ten‖. Activities was assigned and collected daily (Figure 1), there were quizzes given periodically, to be carried out individually and in small groups (Figure 2, 3). In addition, procedures were given at the conclusion of each number (Figure 4).

Figure 1 – The house with the 7 notes.

Figure 2 – The children draw their palms.

Figure 3 – The construction of the five Olympic circles.


393

Figure 4 – The construction of equivalent groups.

The experimental group covered the same material at roughly the same pace, but spent two or three class hours per week with the computer. In order to help keep students in the task, the computer activities served as a quiz. The activities were selected to complement what children had previously taught in class. The content of the six week syllabus was about numbers from ―one‖ to ―ten‖. Some examples are listed below from the activities of the children with computer (Figure 5, 6, 7).

Figure 5 – The animals have to pay ticket to enter the Noah's ark.

Figure 6 – The children should draw nine bees in the comb.


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Figure 7 – The children need to find how many seals are identical as that in the box and enter the correct number.

In order to find the final values for numeracy achievement, all respondents in both the experimental and control groups were administered the ENT during April 2011. This was used to test the total numeracy achievement for both groups.

The independent variable was the use of educational software. The control group received no exposure to the program, while the experimental group spent over 50% of their class time with the computer for about six weeks after January 2011.

The educational software was designed by the group of kindergarten teachers and developed in cooperation with the researcher in the Department of Preschool Education of the University of Crete according to the kindergarten curriculum. The main purpose of the software is to foster young students‘ mathematical concepts and skills about numbers and operations and to engage them in self-regulated learning. The multimedia is composed of ten different stories, situated and visualized by voices, animations, words and numbers. Each story is based on a different number from ―one‖ to ―ten‖ and followed by activities with various levels of mathematical skills. There were three different levels of mathematical computation skills. At the first level of skills (number recognition and counting) students were asked to recognize and count numbers from ―one‖ to ―ten‖. Examples of such questions could be ―how many elephants are there?‖, ―which picture shows 9 bees?‖, ―click on the box and type the number of koalas‖, etc. In the second level of skills (grouping objects and comparing numbers) students were asked to form a group of objects and compare numbers, such as ―match Indians with their horses‖ or ―click on the group that has fewer penguins‖. Finally, at the third level of skills (adding and subtracting numbers) students were asked to add or subtract between numbers in a story context.

The dependent variable was the students‘ arithmetic task achievement scores. This was measured by the Early Numeracy Test (Van Luit, Van de Rijt, 2005). The same test was given to all children in the study as a pre-test and post-test. The ENT has been developed for kindergarten 1st and 2nd year and grade 1 of the primary school. The test was not tied to a certain mathematical course nor to a mathematical method. The ENT consisted of 40 items, which divided in eight parts; the tasks were spread over these parts in group of five. The components of the ENT were: concepts of comparison, classification, correspondence, seriation, using counting words, structured counting, resultative counting, and general knowledge of numbers. Due to the young age of the students the pre and post tests were administrated individually to each student. Cronbach's α for the whole pre test was 0.91.

4. Results

The ENT was taken by 90 students. Forty-two of the students were male and 48 were female. Analysis of the data was carried out using the PASW (ver. 18) statistical analysis computer program. An independent sample t-test was conducted. The independent variable had two levels: exposure to educational software (experimental group) and no exposure (control group).


395

The dependent variable was the student's ENT score. Levene's Test for equality of variances was not significant (F = 3.832, ρ = 0.053). The t-test for equality of means was also not significant (t = -1.500, ρ = 0.137), indicating no significant differences initially, in numeracy achievement between the experimental and control groups. Though the experimental group had a mean score higher than the control group, the mean difference in the ENT scores was less than -2.49. The results of this test are summarized below:

Group

Ν

Mean

Std. Dev.

Std. Error

Experimental

Control

47

43

19.4894

17.0000

8.61463

6.94879

1.25657

1.05968

Table 1 – Group Statistics of ENT pre test.

t

df

mean difference

Sig. (2-tailed)

Test

-1,500

88

-2,48936

0,137

Table 2 – Independent Samples Test of ENT pre test.

In order to determine if the performance of the experimental group is significant, a paired t-test was performed using the grades of this group for a comparison between pre-test and post-ENT scores. The mean grade for the pre-test in the study was 19.49 (SD=8.62) compared to 27.57 (SD=8.99) for the post-test. At α = .05 and df = 46, the critical value of the t ratio was less than 0.001. Therefore, the post-ENT score was significantly different from the pre-ENT score in the experimental group.

Experimental Group

Ν

Mean

Std. Dev.

Std. Error Pre-test

Post-test

47 47

19.4894 27.5745

8.61463 8.99455

1.25657 1.31199

Table 3 – Paired Samples Statistics of pre and post ENT in the experimental group.

t

df

Mean

Sig. (2-tailed) Pair 1 pre-test- post-test

-9,714 46

-8,08511 ,000

Table 4 – Paired Samples Test of pre and post ENT in the experimental group.

Similarly, to determine if the performance of control group is significant, a paired t-test was performed using the grades of this group for a comparison between pre-test and post-test scores. The mean grade for the pre-test in the study was 17.00 (SD=6.95) compared to 24.58 (SD=7.29) for the post-test. At α = .05 and df=42, the critical value of the t ratio was less than 0.001. Therefore, the post-ENT score was significantly different from the pre-ENT score in the control group.

Control Group

Ν

Mean

Std. Dev.

Std. Error

Pre-test

Post-test

43

43

17.0000

24.5814

6.94879

7.29394

1.05968

1.11232

Table 5 – Paired Samples Statistics of pre and post ENT in the control group.


396

t

df

Mean

Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 pretest- posttest

-10.289

42 -7.58140 0.000

Table 6 – Paired Samples Test of pre and post ENT in the control group.

Finally, an independent sample t-test was conducted. The independent variable had the same two levels as in the previous test: experimental and control. The dependent variable was the student's post-ENT score. Levene's Test for equality of variances was not significant (F = 2.02, ρ = 0.16). The t-test for equality of means was not significant (t = -1.724, ρ = 0.088) indicating significant differences, in ENT scores between the experimental and control groups.

Group

Ν

Mean

Std. Dev.

Std. Error

Experimental

Control

47

43

27.5745

24.5814

8.99455

7.29394

1.31199

1.11232

Table 7 – Group Statistics of ENT post test.

t

df

Mean difference

Sig. (2-tailed)

Test

-1.724 88

-2.99307 .088

Table 8 – Independent Samples Test of ENT post test.

Results of this study expand the research on the effects of appropriate programmes embedded in a computerized environment as a tool for visualization and mathematical reasoning (NCTM, 2000; OECD, 2003; Kramarski & Ritkof, 2002; Mayer, 2003)

5. Conclusions

The purpose of the study was to determine if there was a difference in numeral ENT scores of kindergarten children receiving computer-assisted instruction and those receiving teacher-assisted instruction. Findings reported above only partially support the hypothesis. Initially, there was no significant difference in the pre-ENT scores for experimental or control group achievements. However, throughout the study, the experimental group had higher numeracy achievement than the control group. Despite that, the difference was not statistically significant. The research question has not been answered positively.

During the study observational notes were taken by the teacher who reported that children in experimental group were eager to have their turn in computer, and all of the children were generally attentive. The children in the computer group were able to use the computer with relative ease and exhibited mutual consulting, cooperation, and collaboration. Subjects did not explore the keyboard and few of the children in the experimental group consistently requested assistance as to whether their answer was correct. These children seemed unwilling to allow the computer to "tell them" if their answer was correct or incorrect. Moreover, the computer may not be as effective with children who are just beginning to recognize numerals but may be superior with children who have a better understanding of the concept. The observations suggest that these children are more comfortable with the computer than children with less understanding. These results tend to support the conclusion that computers may not be equally beneficial to all children, and for those with less representational competence, concrete instructional activities may be more appropriate.


397

Results of this study tend to confirm that computers can be an effective method for teaching selected beginning math concepts and skills (Clements & Nastasi, 1992, 1993; Clements, 2002). For children who already have a good understanding of the concept of numeral recognition, it may be superior to the teacher because children are able to proceed through lessons as rapidly as they choose. However, with those who haven't developed this concept, teacher assisted instruction appears to be a more appropriate method of facilitating beginning numeral recognition.

The study strengthens other research conclusions that computers can be an effective method for teaching selected beginning math concepts and skills (Schoenfeld, 1992; Nastasi and Clements, 1994; King, 1994; Webb & Farivar, 1994; Cohen, 1996; Kramarski & Mevarech, 2003). Further research may continue to investigate task structures and the way in which they promote mathematics achievement (Crook, 1994; Kramarski & Ritkof, 2002).

The educational software of this research provides a way of investigating mathematical notions that will undoubtedly assist some students. Technology can be best utilized in education and the use of the computer in the kindergarten classroom could help to free the teacher to work with those children who would profit most from the individual instruction.

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