Язык в сфере профессиональной коммуникации

Ural Federal University

Languages in professional communication

International research to practice conference

for students and postgraduates

(Yekaterinburg, April 22, 2016)

Materials

Yekaterinburg

UMTS UPI Publisher

2016

Министерство образования Российской Федерации

Уральский федеральный университет

имени первого Президента России Б.Н. Ельцина

ЯЗЫК В СФЕРЕ

ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЙ

КОММУНИКАЦИИ

Международная научно-практическая

конференция студентов и аспирантов

(Екатеринбург, 22 апреля 2016 года)

Материалы

Екатеринбург

Издательство УМЦ УПИ

2016

УДК 81ʹ243(063)

ББК 81-99я431

Я41

Р е ц е н з е н т

Е. М. Алексеева, канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры

профессионально-ориентированного языкового образования

ИИЯ УрГПУ

Р е д а к ц и о н н а я к о л л е г и я: Л. И. Корнеева, д-р пед. наук, проф. (ответственный редактор);

А. Д. Музафарова, ученый секретарь каф.ин.яз. и перевода УрФУ;

Ю. Р. Даминова, ст. препод. каф.ин. яз. и перевода УрФУ;

И. И. Мамаева, ст. препод. каф.ин. яз. и перевода УрФУ;

Н. Х. Савельева, канд. пед. наук,

доц. кафедры каф.ин. яз. и перевода УрФУ;

Е. С. Долгополова, препод. каф.ин. яз. и перевода УрФУ

Я41 Язык в сфере профессиональной коммуникации : сб. материалов

междунар. науч.-практич.конф. студентов и аспирантов (Екатеринбург,

22 апр.2016 г.) / отв. ред. Л. И. Корнеева. – на иностр. яз. –

Екатеринбург: ООО «Издательство УМЦ УПИ»,2016. – 349 с.

ISBN 978-5-8295-0435-9

В настоящем сборнике представлены статьи студентов

и аспирантов, посвященные научным проблемам экономики,

лингвистики, межкультурной коммуникации, связям с общественностью

и развитию современных технологий. Все материалы подготовлены на

иностранных языках.

УДК 81ʹ243(063)

ББК 81-99я431

ISBN 978-5-8295-0435-9 © Авторы, 2016

© Уральский федеральный университет,

2016

3

проф., д-р пед.н. Л.И. Корнеева,

зав. каф. иностранных языков и перевода,

УрФУ, Екатеринбург

Основные методологические аспекты обучения

иностранному языку в сфере профессиональной коммуникации

Обучение иностранному языку в сфере профессиональной

коммуникации представляет собой следующий этап языковой

подготовки после общего базового курса. Как правило, это

происходит на 3-4 курсе бакалавриата, а также на второй и третьей

ступенях высшего образования (магистратура, аспирантура). На этих

ступенях образования перед преподавателями иностранного языка

ставятся уже совсем другие методические задачи.

Главные задачи обучения иностранному языку в

профессиональной сфере заключаются в следующем:

повышение исходного уровня владения иностранным

языком, достигнутого на предыдущих ступенях образования

(бакалавриат, специалитет);

формирование у обучающихся способности осуществлять

активную межкультурную коммуникацию для решения

профессиональных задач, реализации научно-практического обмена с

зарубежными партнерами в рамках своей профессиональной

деятельности на основе использования межпредметных связей с

другими дисциплинами, изучаемыми в магистратуре и аспирантуре;

формирование умений у обучающихся читать и

анализировать научную литературу на иностранном языке по

предлагаемой научным руководителем теме диссертационного

исследования.

Обучение иностранному языку в любой сфере

профессиональной коммуникации строится на общих дидактических

и методических принципах. Общедидактические и соответствующие

им методические принципы при обучении иностранному языку в

профессиональной сфере являются взаимосвязанными и

взаимодополняющими, что позволяет рассматривать их как

комплексную систему.

Рассмотрим наиболее важные из них. Это – принципы

коммуникативной направленности, профессиональной

4

направленности, автономии студентов, интегративности,

сопоставительного подхода, нелинейности.

Принцип коммуникативной направленности предполагает

широкое использование проблемно-речевых и творческих заданий,

моделирование аутентичных ситуаций профессионального общения,

развитие умений спонтанного реагирования в процессе

коммуникации, формирование психологической готовности к

различию в уровнях языковой компетенции у партнеров по

коммуникации (готовность оказать коммуникативную поддержку

менее опытному партнеру, готовность принять коммуникативную

поддержку от более опытного партнера).

Принцип профессиональной направленности основывается

на тщательном отборе содержания языкового материала, а также на

выборе методов и форм работы с учетом направления

профессиональной подготовки и будущей профессиональной

деятельности студентов. Особое внимание необходимо уделить

развитию коммуникативных умений и навыков, обеспечивающих

изучение зарубежного опыта в профессиональной области и участие в

международном сотрудничестве.

Принцип автономии студентов реализуется открытостью

информации для студентов о программе обучения иностранному

языку в профессиональной сфере; о требованиях к выполнению

заданий; о содержании контроля и критериях оценивания разных

видов устной и письменной речевой деятельности. Для

корректировки индивидуальной образовательной траектории

студенты также должны иметь возможность в рамках вуза обучаться

в системе дополнительного языкового образования. Важную роль в

повышении уровня учебной автономии играет использование

рейтинговой системы оценки знаний. Все большее значение для

работодателей приобретает наличие у выпускника языкового

портфолио, где представлены сертификаты и дипломы об уровне

языковой подготовки.

Сопоставительный принцип реализуется через обучение

путем сравнения языковых структур иностранного языка на

лексическом, грамматическом, стилистическом уровнях с

аналогичными структурами русского языка. Особое внимание

необходимо уделять корректному использованию профессиональной

лексики, как на иностранном, так и на русском языках.

5

Принцип интегративности предполагает интеграцию знаний

из различных предметных дисциплин, в том числе дисциплин,

относящихся к профессиональному циклу подготовки. Данный

принцип предусматривает обязательную ротацию ранее изученного

языкового материала применительно к новым коммуникативным

ситуациям в профессиональной сфере.

Принцип нелинейности предполагает не последовательное, а

одновременное использование различных источников получения

информации, обращение к ранее изученному материалу в различных

разделах курса для решения новых задач.

При обучении иностранному языку в профессиональной сфере

важное значение приобретает самостоятельная работа студентов.

Студентам могут быть предложены следующие формы

самостоятельной работы:

внеаудиторное чтение текстов профессиональной

направленности;

самостоятельная работа (индивидуальная) с

использованием Интернет-технологий;

повторение грамматических и словообразовательных

структур;

письменный перевод статей профессионального характера

с русского языка на иностранный и с иностранного языка на русский;

составление глоссария по профессиональной тематике;

подготовка к выступлению с докладом на иностранном

языке на конференции;

подготовка презентации текущего научного исследования

или выпускной квалификационной работы;

подготовка и презентация группового проекта и т.д.

При обучении иностранному языку в профессиональной сфере

активно используются современные профессионально

ориентированные методы и технологии, обеспечивающие

формирование и развитие языковой и профессиональной

компетенции, готовности к непрерывному самообразованию. К ним

относятся:

Проблемно-поисковый метод, предполагающий создание

таких проблемных ситуаций, которые требуют от студентов

необходимости решать профессиональные задачи, активно используя

иностранный язык.

6

Метод ролевых и деловых игр, характеризуется

исполнением обучающимися ролей, которые воссоздают типичные

ситуации профессионального общения. Ролевые и деловые игры не

только служат закреплению полученных знаний в виде

поведенческих коммуникативных навыков в стандартных ситуациях

профессионального общения, но и содержат конкретные критические

случаи в виде проблемных ситуаций, подлежащих разрешению, т.е.

способствуют выработке навыков поиска выхода из

коммуникативных конфликтов. Использование разного рода ролевых

и деловых игр при проведении занятий по иностранному языку в

профессиональной сфере дает широкие возможности объединения

рационального и эмоционального компонентов обучения. Их

применение позволяет компенсировать информационную перегрузку,

организовать психологический отдых в сочетании с приобретением

знаний и навыков общения. Игры, предъявляя высокие требования к

уровню квалификации преподавателя, позволяют создать

творческую, непринужденную атмосферу, одновременно указывая

пути решения конкретных проблем в ситуациях общения.

«Кейсовая» методика позволяет смоделировать реальную

проблемную ситуацию деловой и профессиональной коммуникации.

Кейсом называется реальный случай из профессиональной или

деловой сферы, который дает основу и тему для дискуссии, оценки

проблемы, ее причин, внутренней логики и возможных последствий

(оценочные кейсы) или предполагают анализ альтернативных

решений и выбор оптимального варианта (кейсы принятия решений).

При обучении иностранному языку могут быть использованы как

адаптированные кейс-задания (например, найти соответствия между

проблемами и возможными решениями), так и более сложные

(например, обсудить проблему и выработать возможные решения).

метод проектов или проектная деятельность. Под

проектной деятельностью в данном контексте понимают

самостоятельную (групповую или индивидуальную) работу

студентов по выполнению проектных заданий различного типа,

связанных с функциональным использованием изучаемого языка.

Процесс работы над творческим проектом позволяет использовать

все ранее сформированные навыки и умения профессионального

характера, интегрировать экстралингвистические знания,

максимально вовлекая творческие возможности личности.

7

Б. Блессинг, Г. Ользовски

Университет прикладных наук

Форарльберг, Австрия

Проблемно-ориентированное обучение в Университете

прикладных наук Форарльберга

Образовательная методика «Проблемно-ориентированное

обучение» была введена авторами статьи в Университете прикладных

наук Форарльберга в 2004 году. Данная статья дает краткий обзор

названной методики, а также обозначает основные причины, по

которым она была выбрана. Кроме того, в статье рассматривается

вопрос о дальнейшем развитии и усовершенствовании методики, и

приводятся отзывы студентов относительно ее применения на

практике.

Problembasiertes Lernen an der Fachhochschule Vorarlberg

Problembasiertes Lernen (PBL) betont ein selbstständiges Lernen

und eine vertiefte Auseinandersetzung mit einem Thema, wobei das

Lernproblem als Einstieg dient (Weber, s.12).

Im Jahre 2004 wurde diese Methode von den Autoren selbst erprobt

und anschließend zunächst in die Logistikausbildung an der

Fachhochschule Vorarlberg (FHV) integriert. In der Folge sind andere

Studieninhalte auf die Methode des PBL umgestellt worden.

In diesem Artikel soll die Methode des PBL kurz beschrieben

werden. Weiter sollen die Gründe für die Auswahl dieser Methode genannt

werden. Anschließend wird beschrieben wie die Methode weiterentwickelt

wurde und wie die Rückmeldungen der Studierenden sind.

Die Methode des problembasierten Lernens an der

Fachhochschule Vorarlberg

Bei der Integration von PBL in die Logistikausbildung an der FH

Vorarlberg haben wir uns an das Siebensprung-Konzept der Universität

Maastricht (NL) angelehnt, die diese aktive und kooperative Methode

bereits seit 1974 einsetzt.

8

An der FHV gibt es Lerngruppen mit 8-15 Studierenden. Je eine

Person leitet das Gespräch beziehungsweise führt das Protokoll. Der

Hochschullehrer bzw. der Tutor überwacht und fördert den Lernprozess

und überwacht die Lernergebnisse.

Siebensprung (Quelle: Guhl)

Mit dem Siebensprung (7 steps, 7 jump) wird eine PBL-Runde

(Dauer ca. 2 Stunden) klar gegliedert, um den Lehrerfolg zu sichern (siehe

Abbildung). Ein Study-Task stellt die Basis der PBL-Runde dar. Ein

Problem-Task kann die Lernrunde um ein Anwendungsbeispiel erweitern.

Der Study-Task wird am Anfang einer Runde als Text an die

Studierenden verteilt. Dieser – meist kurze Text - wird von den

Studierenden sorgfältig gelesen. Es werden die folgenden 7 Schritte (steps)

durchgeführt.

Schritt 1 – Gibt es unbekannte Begriffe im Text (z.B. unbekannte

Fachbegriffe)?

Schritt 2 – Was sind die Hauptaspekte oder Kernprobleme im Text?

Gibt es Teilaspekte oder untergeordnete Probleme? Was wird im Text

angesprochen?

Schritt 3 – Welches Vorwissen zu Schritt 2 gibt es in der Gruppe?

Hier wird auch frei assoziiert und es werden Vermutungen geäußert.

Schritt 4 – Die Ideen, Assoziationen und Vermutungen aus Schritt 3

werden durch die Gruppe strukturiert und in eine neue Ordnung gebracht.

9

Schritt 5 – Hier werden konkrete Lern- und Arbeitsziele formuliert.

Welches Wissen fehlt uns bezogen auf das Ausgangsproblem? Was ist für

uns ein guter Lernfortschritt?

Die Resultate aus den Schritten 1-5 werden im offenen Protokoll

(Flip-Chart) dokumentiert. Eventuell werden Aspekte durch den Tutor

ergänzt.

Die Lernziele sind Basis für das anschließende Selbststudium im

Schritt 6. Bei Anfängern werden hier Hinweise auf geeignete

Primärliteratur gegeben. Die Fähigkeit Informationen zu beschaffen prägt

sich im Laufe des Studiums aus.

Für Schritt 6 muss ausreichend Zeit zur Verfügung stehen

(mindestens 2-3 Tage).

Nach dem Selbststudium wird die PBL-Runde mit dem Schritt 7

abgeschlossen. Der Schritt 7 wird als Auflösung oder Synthese bezeichnet.

Es wird erarbeitetes Wissen vorgestellt. Lernziele werden gemeinsam

bearbeitet. Jeder Studierende trägt Wissen unter Nennung der Quellen bei.

Lernziele, die nicht erreicht wurden, werden erneut als Lernziele präziser

formuliert und bis zur nächsten PBL-Runde vorbereitet.

Wurde ein Problem-Task (Anwendung) vorgegeben, wird dessen

Lösung durch die Studierenden vorgestellt und ebenfalls besprochen.

Die Leistungsbeurteilung in unserem PBL-Modell erfolgt zweistufig.

Während der PBL-Runden werden Punkte für Engagement vergeben

(Vorbereitung und Mitarbeit). Während des Semesters muss eine

Mindestzahl an Punkte für Engagement erreicht werden. Weiter wird am

Ende des Semesters eine schriftliche Prüfung oder eine Hausarbeit

geschrieben, die auf den Lernzielen des Semesters beruht.

Der Hochschullehrer bereitet die PBL-Runden vor, indem Study-

Tasks geschrieben werden müssen, die als Grundlage für dem Lernprozess

dienen und die Lernziele beinhalten müssen. Die Konstruktion von

Problemaufgaben ist entsprechend schwierig (vgl. Weber 2004, S.- 71f.)

Die Konstruktion von guten Problem-Tasks ist entscheidend für das

Gelingen einer PBL-Runde. Diese Tasks müssen “illstructured” sein. Das

bedeutet, dass Tasks verwirrend sein sollen. Gleichzeitig sollen sie

motivierend sein, um am Thema weiter zu arbeiten. Weiter müssen Tasks

das Wesentliche des Fachgebiets enthalten, exemplarischen Charakter

haben und sollten praxisnah sein.

Alle Task der PBL-Runden werden in einem sogenannten

Coursebook zusammenstellt. In diesem Coursebook stehen auch

10

Informationen zur Anwesenheitspflicht, Prüfungsmodalitäten, Literatur

und Gruppeneinteilung.

Gründe, die für PBL an der FHV sprechen

Wie bei jeder Lernmethode soll auch beim PBL Wissen in einem

Fachgebiet erlernt werden (zum Beispiel Fachkompetenz in Logistik). Der

große Vorteil von PBL ist, dass darüber hinaus auch andere Kompetenzen

vermittelt und trainiert werden, die im Berufsleben stark gefragt sind.

Besonders für uns als Fachhochschule (University of Applied Sciences)

sind diese durch PBL vermittelten Kompetenzen wichtig:

Problemlösungskompetenz – Wie gehe ich an ein Problem

heran?

Handlungskompetenz – Was ist als nächstes zu tun?

Selbstlernkompetenz – Welches Wissen fehlt mir noch?

Kompetenz zur Informationsbeschaffung – Wo finde ich

relevante Informationen?

Argumentationskompetenz – Wie erkläre ich meine

Kompetenz?

Soziale Kompetenz – Wie leite ich eine Gruppe?

Somit wird die Fähigkeit trainiert zielorientiert Wissen anzueignen,

um aktuelle Fragen oder Probleme zu lösen. Diese Fähigkeiten sind vor

dem Hintergrund der weiter sinkenden Halbwertzeit von Wissens und der

verbundenen Notwendigkeit des lebenslangen Lernens besonders wichtig.

Wie wurde PBL weiterentwickelt

Während der Anwendung von PBL ist uns die Schwierigkeit, gute

Study-Tasks zu erstellen, bewusst geworden. Zum Beispiel war es

schwierig Praxisnähe in einem kurzen Text für unser Fachgebiet (Logistik

und Supply Chain Management) zu vermitteln.

Im zweiten Ausbildungsabschnitt integrieren wir daher Logistik-

Planspiele in die Lehrveranstaltung. Durch Planspiele werden Ausschnitte

einer komplexen Realität abgebildet. Diese kontrollierte Komplexität

liefert uns eine Vielzahl von konkreten Problemsituationen und

Fragestellungen in unserem Lehrgebiet (Logistik).

Die Problemlösung beschränkt sich nicht nur auf Erarbeiten,

Verstehen und Lernen, sondern auch auf den Transfer und die Umsetzung

im Planspiel.

Fazit – Wirksamkeit – Rückmeldungen der Studierenden

11

Studierende der Studiengänge „Internationale Betriebswirtschaft“

und „Wirtschaftsingenieurwesen“ evaluieren die Lehrmethode regelmäßig.

Sowohl die Lernmethode als auch der Lernerfolg wird von den

Studierenden als gut bewertet. Natürlich gibt es auch kritische Stimmen.

Schulung: Obwohl die Methode in einem eigenen Seminar trainiert

wird, gibt es Unsicherheiten beim selbständigen Einsatz bei den

Studierenden und auch bei den Lehrenden. Andererseits gibt es zahlreiche

Stimmen von Studierenden die schreiben: PBL – richtig gemacht ist super!

Gesprächsleiter und Studierende klagen anfänglich über eine

Mehrbelastung, da die PBL-Runden vor- und nachbereitet werden müssen.

Wirksamkeit: Wie andere aktive Lernmethoden wird PBL nicht von

allen Studierenden nur positiv beurteilt. Für einige ist nach wie vor die

Vorlesung der Standard und das Maß der Dinge. Allerdings schrieben

viele, dass das PBL eine ganz neue Erfahrung des Lernens ist. Sehr

intensiv, aber wirksam.

Thematische Vorbereitung:

Einige Studierende wünschen sich eine einführende Vorlesung bevor

die PBL-Methode eingesetzt wird. Manche Dozenten haben sich dazu

entschieden, dies zu tun. Sicher auch aus dem Grund, weil es zum

traditionellen Selbstverständnis des Dozenten gehört einen Vortrag zu

halten.

Zusammenfassung und Prüfung:

Es wird immer wieder der Wunsch geäußert, nach Schritt 7 ein für

alle gültiges, gemeinsames Dokument zu erstellen. Dieses sollte dann die

Prüfungsvorbereitung ermöglichen.

Dies wird nach Wunsch der Gruppe durchgeführt. Prinzipiell ist ein

umfassendes Protokolld aus Schritt 7 wünschenswert, aber für die

protokollführende Person aufwändig.

Abschließende Betrachtungen

Gerade an einer Fachhochschule ist es wichtig, dass ein Lernumfeld

angeboten wird, wo Lernen zu Wissen führt, das im beruflichen Alltag

angewandt werden kann. Wissen, das selbständig erarbeitet statt vom

Lehrenden präsentiert wird, bleibt als Erkenntnis besser gespeichert.

Erkenntnis ist handlungswirksam, wenn es mit eigenem Wissen, den

eigenen Erfahrungen und Theorien genügend verknüpft und verdichtet

wurde (vgl. Schwarz-Govaers 2003). Wir wollen unseren Studentinnen

und Studenten sowohl Fachkompetenz als auch Spaß an der Logistik

vermitteln – mit der Integration der Methode des problembasierten Lernen

12

in unser Ausbildungskonzept sind wir unseren Vorstellungen einen guten

Schritt näher gekommen.

Список литературы:

1. Guhl, M. 1996. Pflegepädagogik.

2. Schwarz-Govaers, R. 2003. ProblemorientiertesLernen –

neuerWein in altenSchläuchenodereher alter Wein in neuenSchläuchen ?

PR-Internet, Heft1, S.36-45.

3. Weber, A 2004. EinHandbuchfür die Ausbildungauf der

Sekundarstufe II und der Tertiärstufe.

I. Актуальные экономические проблемы

Е.Я. Дмитриева, Л.В. Ивкина

Уральский федеральный университет имени первого Президента

России Б. Н. Ельцина

г. Екатеринбург, Россия

Эссилор: инновационный менеджмент

В настоящее время во всем мире все большее развитие получают

биомедицинские технологии и инженерная медицина. От их

достижений напрямую зависит будущее человека как вида и

состояние общества в целом. Для этого необходимо объединение

усилий научных лабораторий, производственных предприятий и

образовательных учреждений. Большую пользу может принести

изучение уже имеющихся достижений. В статье описывается и

анализируется успех мирового лидера в области офтальмологической

оптики французской компании Essilor.

Essilor: management de l'innovation

De nos jours, le génie biomédical (ingénierie médicale) et ses

disciplines sont en pleine expansion: génie clinique, imagerie cérébrale,

dispositifs médicaux, ingénierie génétique, génie tissulaire et cellulaire,

etc. Ses métiers et formations sont très demandés et diversifiés, à en juger

13

sur l’offre du web. Les formations sont nécessairement pluridisciplinaires

(biologie, chimie, médicine, physique, technologies, informatique…).

Elles nécessitent également une bonne connaissance du secteur de la santé

et de ses acteurs: utilisateurs d’équipements (patients, médecins), mais

aussi fabricants et distributeurs. [1]

Essilor est le plus grand fabricant des verres optiques du monde

devant l’allemand Carl Zeiss et le japonais Hoya. C’est le numéro un

mondial de l’optique ophtalmique. De la conception à la fabrication, sa

mission est d’améliorer la vision pour améliorer la vie. Ses activités sont

toujours axées sur R&D (le budget annuel de 180 millions d’euros dont

30% sont consacrés à l’open innovation). Ses marques phares sont Varilux

(Essilor est à l’origine du Varilux, le premier verre progressif: la correction

progressive en vision de près, en vision intermédiaire et en vision de loin),

Crizal, Transitions, Definity, Xperio, Ortifog, Foster Grant, Bolon, Costa.

Essilor développe et commercialise également des équipements, des

instruments et des services destinés aux professionnels de l’optique (btob)

et, depuis peu, aux consommateurs, via Internet (btoc). En 2014, Essilor a

réalisé un CA net consolidé de près de 5,7 milliards d’euros (+12%) et son

bénéfice net est toujours en croissance (642 millions d’euros, +6,5% ). Le

groupe emploie 58 000 collaborateurs, distribue ses produits dans plus

d’une centaine de pays répartis sur les 5 continents et dispose de 33 usines,

de 490 laboratoires de prescription et centres de taillage-montage ainsi que

plusieurs centres R&D dans le monde.

Ses partenariats scientifiques sont multiples et prestigieux: le CNRS

(constant depuis 2004, un nouvel accord-cadre en 2015 pour une durée de

5 ans), l’Institut de Vision (2014), trois Centres d’Innovation et de

Technologie avec 500 chercheurs (France, Etats-Unis, Chine) et encore

deux en perspective (Créteil et Singapore), pour ne mentionner que des

plus grands… Le 14 décembre 2015 Essilor et le CNRS ont signé un

contrat qui associe Essilor et le laboratoire LAAS à Toulouse où une

équipe commune et pluridisciplinaire poursuivra des recherches sur les

verres et lunettes à fonctions actives discontinues et connectées. Ces

technologies émergentes permettront de concevoir de nouvelles

générations de verres optiques. Le LAAS-CNRS mène des recherches dans

quatre disciplines: l’informatique, l’automatique, la robotique et les micro-

et nano-systèmes, il est l’un des partenaires académiques avec lequel

Essilor entretient des relations partenariales depuis plus de dix ans. De son

coté, l’équipe de l’Institut de Vision sont des experts en neurobiologie,

psychophysiologie, évaluation clinique et modélisation mathématique, ils

14

étudient la dégénérescence liée au vieillissement visuel chez les seniors

presbytes, l’amélioration de l’autonomie des non-voyants, la conception et

l’évaluation des produits d’optique innovants, la recherche des solutions

pour compenser les effets de vieillissement visuel, interaction cerveau-

oeil-verre, etc. [3]

Essilor, ce véritable bulldozer industriel et du marketing, investit

lourdement dans la R&D. Ces collaborations, c’est d’abord pour ne pas se

faire rattraper par ses concurrents (Zeiss, Hoya). Mais elles permettent

aussi au groupe franҫais de n’inventer que 20% des technologies qu’il

utilise. A l’étranger, Essilor réussit moins à trouver des partenaires: une

niche pour la Russie? Mais c’est en cooperation avec l’université

technologique de Shanghai sur les nanotechnologies qu’Essilor a lancé, en

2011, ses verres antibuée.

Cette approche ouverte de l’innovation (partenariats de recherche

durables) intégrée à des programmes d’économie inclusive dans les pays

émergents (pour leur donner accès, de manière innovante, à la profession)

et au virage numérique sont les trois points clé de la stratégie R&D

d’Essilor.

Le numérique, chez Essilor, concerne les produits (verres

personnalisés grâce à la technique de surfaҫage numérique, simulateurs de

vision qui améliorent le design, verres et lunettes connectés et à réalité

augmentée), les clients et les consommateurs (présence dans les médias et

réseaux, acquisition de sites de vente directe: 2014, Coastal.com, leader du

e-commerce de produits optiques canadien, service de plateforme de vente

en ligne en Amerique du Nord et Amérique Latine, avec l’ambition de

devenir leader mondial des ventes en ligne vers 2018) et l’écosystème

numérique au sein de l’entreprise même (GED, Big Data) [2].

Pour les managers d’Essilor, les inventions relèvent de la stratégie et

les améliorations à la tactique: les attentes importantes des consommateurs

permettent d’identifier les besoins d’innovation à satisfaire (ex. verre

progressif, verre plastique), tandis que la mesure de satisfaction permet de

déterminer les besoins d’amélioration (confort, personnalisation, design

traitement de surface…). Amélioration est une innovation devenu

standard. Les grosses innovations mettent du temps à se diffuser.

L’optique est une industrie où ce temps est assez long (ex. Crizal, lancés il

y a plus de 20 ans, n’ont pas encore atteint 100% de pénétration). Si on

compare les marchés, on voit que l’industrie optique est encore jeune en

terme d’innovation. Il y a encore beaucoup de besoins non satisfaits.

15

Selon Fig.eco, la tactique du groupe consiste désormais dans

l’interconnexion, la complementarité et les acquisitions (la distribution).

En 10 ans le groupe a presque multiplié par 3 son chiffre d’affaires.

En 2015, Essilor est optimiste grâce à ses nouveaux marchés dans le

monde (l’Amérique du Nord, le Brésil, l’Inde, la Chine), le potentiel

d’équipements est encore une garantie pour la rentabilité du groupe.

Depuis 168 ans, aucune enterprise rivale n’est en mesure de concurrencer

ce groupe à force de ruptures technologiques. Essilor a conquis et a su

conserver sa place de numéro un mondial du verre optique et regarde

l’avenir avec optimisme.


1. Génie biomedical. URL:

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nie_biom%C3%A9dical (дата

обращения: 15.12.2015).

2. Comment la révolution numérique a transformé Essilor. URL:

http://journaldunet.com/ebusiness/le-net/transformation-digitale-

essilor.shtml (дата обращения: 20.12.2015).

3. Essilor et le CNRS partenaires pour inventer l'optique du futur.

URL: http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/communique/4357.htm?&theme1=4

(дата обращения: 23.12.2015).

Н.С. Драничникова, Е.А. Снигирева

Вятская государственная сельскохозяйственная академия

г. Киров, Россия

Краудфандинг – новый метод финансирования

бизнес-проектов

В статье разъясняется, что представляет собой краудфандинг, его

цели, субъекты, виды. Проведен краткий экскурс в историю

возникновения этой бизнес-модели. Дана оценка преимуществ и

недостатков такой формы финансирования проектов.

На фоне высоких темпов роста, на мировом рынке краудфандинг

начинает развиваться и в России. Приводится обзор основных

площадок, направлений финансирования, функционирующих

проектов.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nie_biom%C3%A9dical

http://journaldunet.com/ebusiness/le-net/transformation-digitale-essilor.shtml

http://journaldunet.com/ebusiness/le-net/transformation-digitale-essilor.shtml

http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/communique/4357.htm?&theme1=4

16

Наряду с социальными и некоммерческими задачами

краудфандинг обладает потенциалом стать альтернативной формой

финансирования бизнес-проектов на ранней стадии.

Crowdfunding is a new method of financing business projects.

The term crowdfunding has come to us from English. It is a collective

cooperation of people who collect their money and other resources

together voluntarily, usually via the Internet, to support efforts by other

people or organizations. The fundraiser can serve for different purposes for

example assistance to victims of natural disasters, support from the fans,

support of political campaigns, financing start-up companies and small

businesses, creation of free software, profit from joint investments [2].

An early predecessor of the business model of crowdfunding could be

the concept of collective fundraising which was used in the 17th century to

finance planned publications. Fans of the British rock band “Marillion”

organized an online fundraising campaign to fund a musical tour

throughout the United Statesin 1997. Crowdfunding in the film industry

was founded by the entrepreneur Eric Bauman with the launch of

FilmVenture.com in 2002. And after 2 years, a French entrepreneur and

producer Benjamin Pommeraud and Guillaume Colboc launched a

campaign to collect donations through the Internet to finish their film

«Waiting for yesterday». It was the first structured online crowdfunding

initiative to finance the project using a finance website with a variety of

offers-rewards for their supporters: bonuses, DVDs, or even visiting the set

[2].

A crowdfunding model involves three groups of actors: an initiator,

offering an idea or project that will be funded; individuals or groups that

support an idea; an organization (the «platform»- sites such as

betterplace.org/de in Germany, respekt.net in Austriaand dobro.mail.ru in

Russia), bringing together the parties to start the implementation of an

idea.

Crowdfunding can be classified according to the objectives of a

project (business, creative, political, social) and rewards for sponsors

(without consideration (donation), non-financial reward and financial

reward).

Donations are typically voluntary acts made on a basis of altruism and

without any obligation for a recipient. Most often this model is used in

17

social, political and medical projects. It should be noted that this trend was

dominant in the entire crowdfunding until 2012.

Non-financial rewards are the most common models by number of

platforms. A reward can be expressed in the form of a recorded album, an

invitation to the concert, mention in credits, the first sample of a

manufactured product, an autograph, a funded product. The most

successful platform working according to this principle is the site

Kickstarter.

A crowdinvesting is different by the presence of financial rewards.

There are three types of those. In the form of Royalties in addition to non-

financial bonuses and various incentives a sponsor receives a share of the

earnings or profits of the financed project. This approach is actively

practiced in the field of financing music (SonicAngel), game development

(LookAtMyGame), movies (Slated). National lending is the champion by

the quantity of attracted funds and the subject of close attention of

specialists. Lenders allocate higher rates and the possibility of a loan in a

very wide range of industries as the main advantages. A borrower wins in

lower rates and ease of obtaining the credit. The key feature of this form is

the presence of a clear schedule of repayment of borrowed capital to

investors. The American company Lending Club and the UK Funding

Circle are market leaders. Joint-crowdfunding is the most advanced form

where a sponsor gets a piece of property, company shares, dividends or a

right to vote at general meetings of shareholders as his reward [1].

Crowdfunding campaigns provide producers with financial benefits in

addition to a number of advantages. A compelling project can raise

prestige and reputation of a manufacturer. The initiators of a project can

show the presence of audience and market for their project. Crowdfunding

creates a forum where project initiators can engage with their audiences.

Audience can be engaged in a production process by following progress

through updates from creators and sharing feedback via commenting

features on a project's crowdfunding page. Offering pre-release access to

content or an opportunity to beta-test content to project backers as a part of

the funding incentives provides the project initiators with instant access to

good market testing feedback.

There are also potential risks and barriers:

- achieving financial goals and successfully gathering substantial

public support along with the lack of ability for different reasons to

implement the project may affect reputation adversely;

18

- IP protection. The developers and manufacturers don't want to

announce details of a project publicly because of concerns about theft of

ideas and protection from plagiarism;

- there is a risk that if the same network of supporters is often

contacted, the network will eventually cease to provide the necessary

support;

- concern among supporters that without a regulatory framework there

is a possibility of a fraud or an abuse [2].

Crowdfunding is only gaining momentum in Russia. It is not as

popular as in the West. However, it has already gained 175 million rubles.

There is a clear lag of 3-4 years in the industry. Crowdfunding platforms

Boomstarter and Planeta, released in mid-2012, rapidly gaining its

popularity (75-80% of market turnover) and the Kroogi site designed for

musicians are the most prominent players in the market at the moment. In

Russia the first open statistic service for crowdfunding projects was

launched in 2014. It is called Crowdtrack. Most of the projects were

implemented in the sphere of music, cinema, literature, charity [1].

The group of companies «Legend of the Crimea» launched the unique

project «BeWinemaker»for winemaking development in the Crimea in

2014. It was designed to help the frail economy of the region and to restore

the forest's unique grape varieties. The concept envisages the possibility of

purchasing through the online service BeWinemaker planted vines. The

project attracted the attention of Russian and foreign investors.

The growth of crowdfunding on the world market is impressive. It

raised $2.7 billion in 2012, which is 81 percent more than in 2011. The

double increase to $5.1 billion was typical for2013, and 2014 brought the

industry $10 billion. This amount will be doubled according to the

forecasts for 2015[1].

Thus, as we see crowdfunding has a great potential to become an

alternative form of financing business projects at an early stage along with

social and non-profit objectives.


1. Портал крауд-сервисов. URL: http://crowdsourcing.ru/ (дата

обращения: 21.01.2016).

2. Crowdfunding. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdfunding


http://crowdsourcing.ru/%20(дата

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdfunding

19

3. Types of Crowdfunding. URL:

https://www.fundable.com/crowdfunding101/types-of-crowdfunding (дата

обращения: 21.01.2016).

А.В. Исаков, Д.А. Кузнецова


России Б.Н. Ельцина


Зависимость федерального бюджета РФ от нефтегазового

экспорта

В данной статье автором рассматривается актуальная

экономическая проблема – зависимость федерального бюджета

России от нефтегазовых доходов. На сегодняшний день, экономика

России в значительной степени носит сырьевой характер и

существует практически благодаря добыче и продаже

энергоносителей. Это может негативно сказаться на дальнейшем

развитии российской экономики. В настоящей статье автором были

исследованы источники, объемы и особенности формирования

федерального бюджета, выявлена зависимость доходов от отдельных

его составляющих, и представлены соответствующие выводы.

Dependence of the Russian state budget revenues on oil and gas

exports

1. The structure of the state budget revenues.

The state budget of the Russian Federation is the aggregate of all

accumulated and spendable financial resources being under the authority

of the government of Russia. The budget system, in turn, consists of 3

budgetary levels: the federal budget, regional budgets of the Federation

and local budgets. The budgets of each level have their own sources of

income and expenses whose capacity depends on certain factors and

constitutes the consolidated budget of the whole state.

The state budget incomes mean funds received in a gratuitous and

irrevocable order under the control of the federal regional and local

authorities, according to the law of the Russian Federation [1, p.196]. All

revenues tend to be formed both by tax and non-tax sources and by

https://www.fundable.com/crowdfunding101/types-of-crowdfunding

20

gratuitous transfers. However, there is an existence of informal

delimitation in addition. Thus, the incomes are divided into oil&gas and

non-oil&gas budget issues on account of the raw type of Russian

economic character (table 1).

Indicator 2014 year 2015 year 2016 year

assessment % GDP assessment % GDP forecast % GDP

Revenues, total 14 496,9 20,3 12 539,7 17,2 13 958,8 16,9

among them:

oil & gas

revenues 7 433,8 10,4 5 686,7 7,8 6 292,1 7,6

including:

extraction tax 2 836,8 3,9 3 088,2 4,2 3 936,3 4,8

custom duties 4 597,0 6,4 2 598,5 3,6 2 355,8 2,8

non-oil & gas

revenues 7 063,1 9,9 6 853,0 9,4 7 666,7 9,3

including:

organization

profit tax 411,3 0,6 421,7 0,6 499,8 0,6

value-added tax 3 931,7 5,5 3 714,8 5,1 4 463,1 5,4

excise 592,4 0,8 558,3 0,8 600,0 0,7

extraction tax

(without oil&gas

incomes)

21,2 0,0 29,8 0,0 32,5 0,0

custom duties

(without oil&gas

incomes)

692,6 1 667,3 0,9 656,1 0,8

share dividends 220,2 0,3 198,4 0,3 162,5 0,2

other oil&gas

revenues 1 193,7 1,7 1 262,7 1,7 1 252,8 1,5

Table 1. Russian federal budget incomes forecast for 2016 (million rubles) [3]

Non-oil&gas earnings contain all kinds of tax, except extraction tax,

and governmental property sales profit, also known as privatization. As

outlined in table 1, they form about 55% of total governmental incomes;

this fact means that the revenue system is imperfect and it allows making a

conclusion that the economic system of the Russian Federation is

commonly based on fuel extraction and exportation.

Oil&gas profit is used in purpose of financing the oil and gas transfer

and formation of the Reserve Fund and the National welfare Fund. They

are formed by:

- mineral extraction tax in the form of hydrocarbon raw materials (oil,

flammable natural and condensate gas);

21

- export custom duties on crude oil;

- export custom duties on natural gas;

- export custom duties on oil products [2, clause 96.6].

2. Factors that influence oil&gas revenues of the Russian state budget.

Basically, there is about a dozen of such factors, but the most

essential ones that make a real difference are presented in table 2.

Indicator

Measure

2014

year 2015 year 2016 year

reported assessment change(measures) forecast change(measures)

Rate of

exchange

of the

USA

dollar

(average

annual)

ruble/

the USA

dollar

38,0 60,0 22 56,8 -3,2

Rate of

exchange

of the

“Urals”

oil

dollar/

barrel

97,6 50,0 -47,6 60,0 10,0

Rate of

exchange

of the

Russian

gas

dollar/

thousands

of cubic

meters

351,4 235,0 -116,4 187,0 -48,0

Import

volume,

total

billions

of

dollars

285,9 202,9 -83,0 221,8 18,9

Export

volume,

total

milliards

of

dollars

497,6 348,0 -149,6 376,5 28,5

Separate

export

volumes:

oil millions

of tons

223,4 224,3 0,9 225,5 1,2

gas milliards

of cubic

meters

172,6 178,0 5,4 180,8 2,8

oil

products

millions

of tons

164,8 162,5 -2,3 158,0 -4,5

Table 2. Common factors used for federal budget revenue prediction [3]

22

Based on the data presented, in 2015 year the amounts of oil had

increased, but total oil&gas revenues had dropped, thus, it is noticeable

that separate export volumes do not particularly affect the volumes of

oil&gas earnings, and on account of this it is total export volumes that

influence the incomes significantly.

It is important to observe that the volumes tend to be formed by the

exchange rates of Russian energy commodities, so the oil&gas receipts are

completely dependent on the oil&gas market prices.

3. Dependence of the Russian state budget revenues on oil and gas exports.

For the accurate analysis it is reasonable to create a consolidated

table of oil&gas and non-oil&gas and their influence on the total federal

budget incomes (table 3).

Revenues 2014 year 2015 year change 2016 year change

oil&gas 7 433,8 5 686,7 -1 747,1 6 292,1 605,4

non-oil&gas 7 063,1 6 853,0 -210,1 7 666,7 813,7

Total 14 496,9 12 539,7 -1 957,2 13 958,8 1 419,1

Table 3. Proportion of oil&gas and non-oil&gas revenues in the federal budget of the

Russian Federation (billion rubles)

According to table 3 data, it is easy to notice that the most significant

total revenue decrease had occurred in 2015 year – for about 2 billion

rubles. Moreover, the funds decreased contained nearly 90% of oil&gas

ones. The obstacle was connected with the collapse of the Russian oil and

gas market prices and caused a decrease in the monetary value of energy

exports by 30%. By the end of 2016 strengthening of the Russian fuel

products is expected, thus the total export value will consequently

increase. In aggregate, the total federal budget is thought to increase by

means of the mentioned factors.

The facts presented allow the author to make a conclusion that the

formation of the total Russian federal budget financial resources

completely depends on the formation of oil&gas incomes. Oil&gas

incomes, in turn, are formed according to the energy exportation volumes

and prices on Russian fuel products. Moreover, it has been investigated

that the aggregate financial potentials of the Russian Federation consist of

energy export proportions of 45%, which means about half of the total.

The fact indicated may have a negative influence on the Russian economy

in the forthcoming future on account of its industrial narrowness because

nowadays the situation at the fuel market is getting disastrous. Thus,

23

following this way of the budget policy the government may lose a

significant income part that will lead to its insolvency.


1. Финансы: Учебник. – 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. / Под ред. В.

В. Ковалева, М.: Велби, Проспект, 2004. – 512 с.

2. Бюджетный кодекс РФ от 31.07.1998. URL:

http:/consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_19702/6e2487a3dc9a01fd4

c4697ab318177cebf6a7e8c/ (дата обращения: 7.12.2015).

3. Министерство финансов РФ. URL: http:/minfin.ru/ (дата

обращения: 08.12.2015).

А.П. Караева, Е.С. Долгополова




Падение цен на нефть: последствия для экономики России

Российская экономика является ресурсозависимой, поэтому

малейшее изменение конъюнктуры сырьевого рынка имеет серьезное

влияние на экономический климат внутри страны. За последние

полтора года цена на нефть марки Brent упала со 110$ за баррель до

38$, что повлекло за собой такие серьезные последствия как падение

курса рубля, введение жесткой бюджетной политики и падение ВВП

практически до отрицательных значений. Возможен ли выход из этой

ситуации или же единственный вариант – это подстраиваться под

существующие условия?

Falling oil prices: consequences for Russian economy

Current situation in the commodity market is excessively unstable:

the price of Brent crude has fallen sharply since June 2014 from $110 to

approximately $40 a barrel [1].

Obviously, there were many factors which had an impact on crude

prices. The first reason is that the oil market is massively oversupplied [2];

the next one is the OPEC’s decision not to reduce output [3]; and last but

24

not least, is the geopolitical situation in the world. The crisis has brought

not only drawbacks to the world economy. Countries which traditionally

buy oil from oil-producing countries like Russia, Venezuela enjoy benefits

of low prices: for instance, the price of petrol in the EU countries has

dropped too [1]. However, countries with resource-dependent economy

suffer from the crisis in the oil market.

Russian economy mostly depends on crude prices. Firstly, the export

of oil and gas is about 70% in the total export volume. Secondly, the

annual budget is based on the price of Urals crude, so if the level of prices

is low or the situation is unstable, the budget is formed in condition of

rough budgetary policy, in other words, the government is forced to cut

down expenditures. Moreover, the exports of oil and gas play the crucial

role in generating revenues for the federal budget.

Due to these issues the consequences of low prices will have an

enormous negative effect on Russian economy.

The first consequence is the falling ruble [4]. The graphs below show

the changes of RUB/USD and RUB/EUR exchange rate:

Pic.1: “RUB/USD exchange rate in the period from June’14 till December’15[5]

Pic.2: “RUB/EUR exchange rate in the period from June’14 till December’15[5]

25

These two graphs provide details on how exchange rates have been

changing. The weak ruble has a negative impact on domestic market: the

increase in prices, the high level of inflation and the demand decline

forced some producers to exit the market because of negative earnings.

The probability to set a business is becoming lower and lower every

month, that means that the economy is not developing and it is in deep

recession.

In the last two years the outflow of capital from the economy

amounted to US $90-100 billion (the outflow in 2015 amounted to US $60

billion [6]). The majority of big investors left the Russian market on the

grounds of the weak ruble, unstable situation and western sanctions.

Currently the outflow of capital is still continuing that brings the economy

to a state of recession too. The lack of investments and capital means that

the business does not have an opportunity to develop and expand. The oil

price has a crucial meaning here: falling crude price has made the ruble

weak, so the investors do not want to take risks investing their money in

the Russian market as the forecasts about the dynamics of oil prices and

interest rates are negative.

The next consequences are related to social aspects of the economy.

Firstly, the low oil prices and the weak ruble resulted into financial crisis

in domestic market. Many people lost their jobs; the amount of people

living below the poverty line increased; the real disposable income fell by

10-12% [6].

It should be noted that at first sight these problems do not correlate

with the falling oil prices. However, they are the main reason of economic

crisis in Russia as almost all sectors of the economy excessively depend on

the commodity market. Moreover, this dependence is a serious economic

“weapon” and damages Russia’s economy along with the sanctions. Other

countries may have a direct influence on Russian economy and they also

have an opportunity to control it.

There is only solution to these problems: Russian economy should

become independent of oil and gas, otherwise the economy will suffer

every time from drastic changes and consequences might be more serious

over time.

26


1. Tim Bowler. Falling oil prices: Who are the winners and losers?

URL: http://www.bbc.com/news/business-29643612 (дата обращения:

12.12.2015).

2. Aasim M. Husain, Rabah Arezki, July 2015. Global Implications

of Lower Oil Prices. URL:

https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2015/sdn1515.pdf (дата

обращения: 11.12.2015).

3. Clifford Krauss. Oil Prices: What’s Behind the Drop? Simple

Economics. URL:

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/business/energy-

environment/oil-prices.html?_r=0 (дата обращения: 11.12.2015).

4. Jennifer Rankin. The falling rouble – all you need to know about

Russia’s currency crisis. URL:

http://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/dec/16/falling-rouble-all-you-

need-to-know (дата обращения: 9.12.2015).

5. XE Currency Rate Monitor. URL:

http://www.xe.com/currencycharts/ (дата обращения: 12.12.2015).

6. Информационный портал компании «Финам». URL:

http://www.finam.ru/ (дата обращения: 12.12.2015).

Н.В. Кирилловских, Д.А. Кузнецова




Санкции после Крыма: кто пострадает больше?

В данной статье рассматриваются последствия введения

Евросоюзом экономических санкций против России. Нами было

рассмотрено влияние санкций на текущее состояние и перспективы

развития российской экономики, а также влияние ответных санкций

на доходы от экспорта основных европейских стран.

Проанализировав данные, нами был сделан вывод, что уже сейчас

экономика России пострадала в большей степени. Однако это

вызвано не только санкциями, но и резким падением цен на нефть и

обесцениванием национальной валюты. Основные же последствия

http://www.bbc.com/news/business-29643612

https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2015/sdn1515.pdf

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/business/energy-environment/oil-prices.html?_r=0

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/business/energy-environment/oil-prices.html?_r=0

http://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/dec/16/falling-rouble-all-you-need-to-know

http://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/dec/16/falling-rouble-all-you-need-to-know

http://www.xe.com/currencycharts/

27

санкций для обеих сторон конфликта будут видны спустя некоторое

время.

Sanctions after Crimea: who will suffer most?

The current sanctions were placed on Russia by the EU and the US in

July 2014 due to the certain events in Crimea and Ukraine’s Donbas

region. The restrictions in place today include:

• asset freezes and visa bans on 132 persons and 28 companies or

other entities in Russia/Ukraine deemed responsible for the violation of

Kiev’s territorial integrity;

• the suspension of preferential economic development loans to

Russia by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

(EBRD);

• a ban on trading bonds and equity and related brokering

services for products whose maturity period exceeds 30 days with some of

Russia’s biggest state-controlled banks (including Sberbank and

Gazprombank), three Russian energy companies (including Rosneft, but

not Gazprom in the case of the EU), and three Russian defence companies;

• a ban on loans to five major Russian state owned banks;

• a two-way arms embargo;

• a ban on exports of the so-called dual-use items, i.e. civilian

industrial goods that can be used as (or to produce) weaponry;

• a ban on exporting certain energy equipment and providing

specific energy-related services to Russia’s new, innovative and

technology intensive energy projects (e.g. Arctic and deepwater

exploration, shale oil).

We will start by examining how these sanctions have influenced the

Russian economy and welfare. We can see that global developments have

hit our economy rather hard. The price of oil fell from $115 per barrel in

June 2014 to approximately $65 in December. Unfortunately, this loss

cannot be offset by selling other energy resources such as gas: 80% of

Russia’s hydrocarbons revenue comes from oil. Sanctions also have

caused a fresh wave of capital outflows. Lower oil prices and capital flight

have led to a sharp depreciation of the rouble, which has lost 40% of its

value since January 2014. The country’s stock market, or Russian Trading

System (RTS) index, has also dropped by 40% since mid July. The

financial sanctions reduce the availability of capital in Russia, raising

interest rates. As a result of capital shortage, Russia’s three-month

28

interbank lending rate soared from 6.04% in March 2014 to 10.65% in

early December [1].

Moreover, our countersanctions did harm to our country. For

example, Russia’s ban on Western food imports led to higher food prices

and hence to further inflation. This was in addition to the effect of the fall

in the value of the Rouble, which had already raised the price of imported

goods and services in Roubles. Thus, recent data confirm Russia’s entry

into recession, with GDP growth of -2.2% for the first quarter of 2015, as

compared to the first quarter of 2014. Recent forecasts suggest a fall in real

GDP in the order of 3.5%-4% for 2015, and growth of around zero for

2016 [3].

To sum up, we can say that the EU’s restrictions have affected

Russia rather heavily. On the other hand, Russia is the European Union's

third-biggest trading partner (8.4% of total trade) and in 2014, trade

volume between these countries decreased. So what is the sanctions’ effect

on the EU?

The main EU exports to Russia are machinery, transport equipment

(cars), chemicals, medicines, electrical and electronic goods and

agricultural products (total value amounted to €103 billion in 2014). In

2014, the EU's exports of goods to Russia fell by 12.1%, whereas imports

from Russia fell by 13.5%. Total trade value subsequently fell from €326

billion to €285 billion in 2014. The Commission estimated the overall

effect of sanctions and countersanctions as -0.3% of the EU's GDP in 2014

and -0.4% in 2015 (€40 and €50 billion respectively) [2].

A research paper from the Vienna Institute for International

Economic Studies estimates EU losses due to sanctions and conflict in

Ukraine to be around €11 billion in the modest scenario of a 10% decline

in exports to Russia. However, in a less likely but more extreme scenario

of escalating sanctions, the estimated losses are €55 billion [4].

EU agri-food exports account for 7% of total EU exports of goods.

About 9% of these agri-food exports go to Russia, which is the second

most important destination for EU agricultural products, after the USA. In

2013, overall EU agricultural exports to Russia were worth €11.3 billion.

The Russian countersanctions covered about 43% of these exports, worth

approximately €5.1 billion (representing about 4.2% of total EU agri-food

exports).

However, Russia’s importance as a target market is quite limited for

most European countries and, European businesses have been able to find

new markets for their products, both within Europe and beyond – a

29

phenomenon referred to by economists as trade diversion. This is shown in

Table 1, again focusing on the change between the 1st quarter of 2014

(without sanctions, with the high oil price, and with Russia still growing),

and the 1st quarter of 2015 (with sanctions, with the low oil price, and with

Russia in recession). Table 1 displays the results for the 28 countries of the

European Union.

Some 21 out of the 28 EU Member States experienced a net gain in

exports to the world in spite of the Russian downturn, thanks to increases

in exports to other markets (both within and beyond the EU) that more

than compensated for the falls in exports to Russia. There are, however, 7

EU Member States that have experienced net losses [3].

REPORTER

Total exports

in 2014Q1

(EUR mn)

Change in

exports to

Russia

EUR mn)

Change in

exports to

other markets

(EUR mn)

Net change

(EUR mn)

Net change

(% of 2014Q1)

Cyprus 325 -5 182 177 54.3%

Ireland 21,107 -78 3,717 3,639 17.2%

Bulgaria 4,859 -41 646 606 12.5%

Croatia 2,364 -21 254 233 9.9%

Poland 40,223 -521 3,811 3,291 8.2%

Czech Republic 32,205 -365 2,836 2,471 7.7%

Hungary 20,433 -165 1,633 1,467 7.2%

Malta 536 0 37 37 6.9%

Denmark 20,548 -114 1,490 1,376 6.7%

Slovenia 6,597 -85 499 414 6.3%

Germany 278,427 -2,566 17,952 15,386 5.5%

Romania 12,758 -91 734 643 5.0%

Luxembourg 3,618 -14 177 163 4.5%

Portugal 11,707 -18 460 442 3.8%

EU Total 1,143,317 -8,652 49,019 40,367 3.5%

Spain 60,276 -301 2,358 2,057 3.4%

Italy 96,151 -668 3,708 3,040 3.2%

France 109,586 -612 3,667 3,056 2.8%

Slovakia 16,194 -156 547 391 2.4%

United kingdom 96,345 -333 2,599 2,266 2.4%

Austria 33,037 -360 497 137 0.4%

Netherlands 125,648 -590 988 398 0.3%

Belgium 88,707 -360 51 -309 -0.3%

Estonia 2,854 -147 132 -15 -0.5%

Sweden 31,179 -196 -72 -267 -0.9%

Latvia 2,589 -87 55 -33 -1.3%

Greece 6,379 -24 -81 -105 -1.6%

Finland 13,248 -358 23 -336 -2.5%

Lithuania 5,415 -374 118 -256 -4.7%

Table 1. Shifts in goods exports to Russia and to other countries – EU Member States. Source:

Eurostat trade statistics; 2015Q1 compared to 2014Q1; Extra-EU and Intra-EU trade.

30

In conclusion we can say that sanctions and countersanctions have

affected both sides. However, the following research proves that only

some EU countries have experienced losses after the food embargo

imposed by Russia. The European Union on the whole has received a net

gain from export. The Russian economy, unfortunately, is suffering from

many problems and is now in recession. However, some researchers

doubted that the main reasons for the crisis in Russia are sanctions, but

slump in oil price and depreciation of the ruble. We can assume that this is

true, but sanctions also have strongly attacked the Russian economy.

However, all the main consequences of sanctions are for some time to

come.


1. Iana Dreyer, Nicu Popescu. Do sanctions against Russia work?

EU Institute for Security Studies, 2014. URL:

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/Brief_35_Russia_sanctions.pdf


2. Marcin Szczepański. Economic impact on the EU of sanctions

over Ukraine conflict/ EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service,

October 2015. URL:

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/569020/EPRS

_BRI(2015)569020_EN.pdf (дата обращения: 20.01.2016).

3. Sanctions after Crimea: Have they worked? URL:

http://www.nato.int/docu/Review/2015/Russia/sanctions-after-crimea-

have-they-worked/EN/index.htm (дата обращения: 20.01.2016).

4. The Deadly Impacts of Anti-Russian Sanctions on the European

Economy. URL: http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-deadly-impacts-of-anti-

russian-sanctions-on-the-eu-economy-2-5-million-jobs-threatened-

study/5457122 (дата обращения: 22.01.2016).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/Brief_35_Russia_sanctions.pdf

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/569020/EPRS_BRI(2015)569020_EN.pdf

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/569020/EPRS_BRI(2015)569020_EN.pdf

31

Е.С. Косова, С.А. Учурова




Проблема миграции высококвалифицированных трудовых

ресурсов

Проблема «утечки мозгов» на сегодняшний день является одной

из наиболее актуальных. Одни страны выигрывают в данной

ситуации, другие же, наоборот, расходуют большие средства для

удержания «умов» внутри страны. В данной работе уделяется

внимание причинам миграции высококвалифицированных кадров и

современному состоянию данной проблемы в мире.

Migrationsproblem der hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräfte

Heutzutage ist das “Brain-Drain“-Problem sehr aktuell. Es gibt

Input-Länder, die von diesem Problem profitieren und die Länder, die viel

Geld investieren, damit die hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräfte im Land

bleiben. In diesem Artikel werden die Migrationsgründe und die aktuelle

Problemlage in der Welt erforscht.

Erstens muss man verstehen, was der Begriff „Migration“ bedeutet.

Migration ist eine Mobilität, auf einen längerfristigen Aufenthalt angelegte

räumliche Verlagerung des Lebensmittelpunktes von Individuen, Familien,

Gruppen oder auch ganzen Bevölkerungen [4]. Die Arbeitsmigration ist

eine Mobilität, wobei die Menschen aufgrund der besseren

Arbeitsbedingungen und des größeren Arbeitsmarktangebotes auswandern.

Die Arbeitsmigration ist ein großes internationales Phänomen und

deswegen gibt es zahlreiche internationale Konventionen und Dokumente,

die die Rechte der Migranten beinhalten. Dassindz.B. die Dokumente der

VN, Konventionen der Internationalen Arbeitsorganisation, europäische

Konvention über den Rechtsstatus der Arbeitsmigranten, die im Jahr 1977

vom Europarat verabschiedet wurde.

Arbeitsmigration der hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräfte unterscheidet

sich von den anderen Arten der Arbeitsmigration. Sie hat einige

Besonderheiten. Die Hochqualifizierten achten nicht nur auf das Gehalt, es

gibt ein großer Komplex der Gründe, warum sie ihre Heimat verlassen.

Sievergleichen ökonomische, soziale, politische und kulturelle Lagen in

32

den beiden Ländern und treffen ihre Entscheidungerst danach.

DieForschungender UNCTAD (Konferenz der Vereinten Nationen für

Handel und Entwicklung) haben dennoch gezeigt, dass die ökonomischen

Faktoren die Hauptrolle bei der Entscheidung über die Auswanderung

spielen.

Es gibt einige Faktoren, die die Migration der hochqualifizierten

Arbeitskräfte beeinflussen. Ein solcher Faktor ist die Internationalisierung

der Wissenschaft. Dazu gehört auch Internet: man kann reibungslos alle

Wissenschaftler der Welt kontaktieren. Die perspektiven Forscher sind

heute allen bekannt. Man bietet ihnen sehr attraktive Arbeitsbedingungen

oder innovative Projekte. So können die Länder die besten „Köpfe“ der

Welt gewinnen.

Heutzutage sind die Transportnetzte sehr innovativ. Das macht die

Mobilität viel schneller und leichter [5].

Ein weiterer Faktor, der auf die Arbeitsmigration eine Wirkung

ausübt ist die Tatsache, dass die meisten hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräfte

Fremdsprachen beherrschen, mindestens Englisch. Dank der englischen

Sprache ist es leicht geworden, internationale Forschungen durchzuführen

und die besten Wissenschaftler heranzuziehen.

Es gibt ein Modell (im Englischen heißt es “push-pullmodel“) [3],

das erklärt, warum die Leute in die Entwicklungsländer auswandern. Es

wurden einige universelle Faktoren für alle Arbeitnehmer

zusammengefasst, das sind:

niedrige Arbeitschancen;

niedrige Löhne;

politische Unstabilität;

niedriger Lebensstandard.

Für die hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräfte gibt es einige

Nebenfaktoren:

die Nachfrage auf dem Arbeitsmarkt in anderem Land ist

höher;

es gibt wenige Innovationsperspektiven im Land;

Studium in einem anderen Land ist attraktiver;

bessere Berufsaussichten und Karrieremöglichkeiten in einem

anderen Land;

in ihrer Heimat werden die Menschenrechte vernachlässigt;

Möglichkeit mit der Familie auszuwandern; als weiterer Faktor

ist die bessere Ausbildung für die Kinder.

33

Die Ursachen, warum man aus den entwickelten Ländern auswandert

sind meistens gleich:

hohe Lebenskosten und Steuern;

Bürokratie.

Es wurde schon erwähnt, dass die Arbeitsmigration

eininternationales Phänomen ist, deswegen sind fast alle Länder mit

diesem Problem beschäftigt. Die Auswanderländer wollen, dass die Bürger

des Landes nach ihrem Studium im Ausland zurückkommen und arbeiten.

Wenn die aber nicht zurückkommen, muss das Land mit großen Verlusten

rechnen, weil die hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräfte nicht nur neue

Arbeitsplätze schaffen, sondern auch die bessere Zukunft gewährleisten.

Die Einwanderländer sind an den hochqualifizierten Arbeitskräften

sehr interessiert. Es entsteht aber ein Problem für die einheimischen

Arbeitskräfte: Konkurrenz auf dem Arbeitsmarkt wird höher. Außerdem

werden es die großen Geldmengen überwießen: die gekommten

Arbeitskräfte müssen der Familie helfen. Letztendes können die

Arbeitnehmer mit der Migrationshintergrund jeder Zeit zurückkehren.

Damit müssen die Länder auch rechnen.

Grafik №1. „Brain Drain“ Karte

Quelle: Круговорот мозгов в мире URL: http://rusrep.ru/article/2013/03/13/mozgi/

Zum Schluss würde ich die obere Grafik beschreiben. Die Grafik

beweist die Tatsache, dass das “Brain-Drain“-Problem weltweit verbreitet

ist. Die heutige Welt ist durch das Internet und die Transportnetze offen

http://rusrep.ru/article/2013/03/13/mozgi/

34

geworden. Die einige Arbeitskräfte wandern aus, die anderen wandern ein;

jedes Land hat eigene “Brain-Drain“-Politik, die verschiedene Ziele

verfolgt. Die Effektivität dieser Politik wird nur nach einiger Zeit klar

werden. Eines kann man aber durch keine politische Maßnahme verwalten

die Zahl der hochqualifizierten Migranten, die jedes Jahr wächst.


1. «Утечка мозгов» как глобальное явление. Причины и

последствия. URL: http://gtmarket.ru/laboratory/expertize/2008/1653


2. Круговорот мозгов в мире. URL:

http://rusrep.ru/article/2013/03/13/mozgi/ (дата обращения: 19.01.2016).

3. Henderson G. Emigration von den hochqualifizierten

Arbeitskräften aus den Entwicklungsländern, UNITAR, U. N. New York,

1970, Seite 87.

4. Online-Lexikon zur Kultur und Geschichte. URL: http://ome-

lexikon.uni-oldenburg.de/begriffe/migration/#c110140 (дата обращения

19.01.2016).

5. UNESCO special committee, 27 August 1987 Subject: "The

brain drain problem: its causes, consequences, remedies and the role of

Unesco in this regard”. URL:

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000752/075299EO.pdf (дата

обращения 19.01.2016).

А.В. Кочкина, А.А. Лаврова




Проблемы активизации и продвижения инновационных

стартапов в России

Бизнес «эры информации» стал определяющим фактором

экономического роста, существенно изменив принципы работы

большей части предприятий прошлой экономической эпохи, как в

промышленности, так и в сфере услуг. Инновационные стартап-

компании стали значимым элементом национальной инновационной

http://gtmarket.ru/laboratory/expertize/2008/1653

http://rusrep.ru/article/2013/03/13/mozgi/

35

системы многих стран, в том числе России. Российские стартап-

компании становятся всё более активными участниками

хозяйственной деятельности. Например, в рамках программы «Wiki

старт», независимого издания о технологиях и бизнесе (Rusbase)

зарегистрировано 2107 компаний. Но у российской стартап-

экосистемы есть свои особенности, которые будут рассмотрены в

данной статье.

Problems of activation and promotion of Russian innovative start-ups

Previously defined by the way it cloned western companies, Russia is

gradually becoming a place where its undoubtedly strong education and

engineering standards are blending with original entrepreneurship. The

Russian startup scene is buoyed by the impressive Skolkovo project, which

already incubates more than 1,000 domestic and foreign startups from its

campus in Moscow. But, in a country of around 144 million, it is not just

about Moscow. In St. Petersburg and the lesser-known cities of

Novosibirsk, Nizhny Novgorod and Chelyabinsk, companies are emerging

that will define the future state of Russian economy.

What exactly is a start-up?

A startup is a young company that is just beginning to develop.

Startups are usually small and initially financed and operated by a handful

of founders or one individual. These companies offer a product or service

that is not currently being offered elsewhere on the market, or that the

founders believe is being offered in an inferior manner.

We will start with a review of the most successful Russian start-ups.

1. VK.com (St. Petersburg)

Not strictly a startup because it was founded in 2006, VK.com —

formerly known as Vkontakte.ru — is the company that all Russian

startups aspire to be. Known as the Russian Facebook, this social network

has more than 80 million registered users and focuses heavily on mobile.

Mark Zuckerberg has described the VK.com team as "the international

Olympiad computing champions, who did an awesome job of cloning

Facebook."

2. Vizerra (Moscow)

Vizerra is a 3D visualization company that enables architects,

engineers and designers to turn their CAD models into immersive 3D

worlds. It uses gaming and social technology to create interactive 3D

36

experiences of real-world buildings and environments. Clients include

Russian gas giant Gazprom and National Geographic.

3. JSC Mostkom (Ryazan)

JSC Mostkom develops and supplies equipment for wireless optical

communications based on Free Space Optics (FSO) technology. It does so

by providing wireless transmission of digital signals through the

atmosphere in the unlicensed infrared part of the electromagnetic

spectrum.

4. Ecwid (Ulyanovsk)

Taking less than five minutes to set up, Ecwid is a shopping cart

widget that can be integrated into any online website, mobile site or social

network. It has more than 350,000 registered users and clients have

included top-end brands such as PayPal, Facebook, FedEx and UPS.

5. LinguaLeo (Moscow)

LinguaLeo - Russian web service for learning foreign languages

(currently for English learning only). The main idea of this business is the

creation of a fully automated interactive solutions based on advanced

Internet technologies. It is a popular and cheap product.

6. 2GIS (Novosibirsk)

With more than 22 million registered users, 2GIS is a developer of

electronic directory guides in more than 200 cities in Russia, Ukraine,

Kazakhstan, Italy, Cyprus and the Czech Republic. The company provides

3D maps and is a complete, verified and constantly updated directory of

organizations with detailed city maps.

7. VisibleNation (Moscow and London)

VisibleNation is an Anglo-Russian startup that offers a social data

comparison service, so users can share accurate information and big data.

Its free service allows people to access categories such as travel, career,

education, finance, health and family to make lifestyle decisions.

8. Ostrovok (Moscow)

Launched in 2010, Ostrovok is a hotel booking service that has raised

more than $13.5 million. It is a leader in Russia’s rapidly growing travel

market. The company’s founders, Serge Faguet and Kirill Makharinsky,

are Russian entrepreneurs who studied in Stanford and Oxford

Universities, and worked at Google and Slide respectively.

Moscow is the 13th city on global startup ecosystem ranking. No

surprise the startup drive runs here.

The world famous contests and accelerators are experimenting with

new locations and Russia is an appealing place to experience and disrupt.

37

Mass Challenge (USA), Tech Crunch (USA), Startup Sauna accelerator

(Finland) and Seedstars World (Switzerland) are making a move to find

the best Russian startup teams, see the true value in their ideas and offer

the international connections, coaching, hands-on help.

Talking about the difference between the 2015, 2014 and 2013

applicants from Russia, the CEO of Startup Sauna Jaakko Hynynen says

that “the teams in Russia getting in a program are more progressed, they

are already doing their products with actually paying customers.”

The technical education in Russia makes it real for startups to think

bigger, go global and reach great success. The Russian companies have

intensified the efforts to go global, searching for international investors

and markets. But the local venture market shows quite a disbalanced

situation with the priority of IT industry in the distribution of capital

supply (IT 94%, Industrial Technology 4% and Biotech 2%).

Moreover, the majority of local business incubators and techno parks

(50% of the total number) are specialized on IT, outstripping hardware,

financial, biotech and other technologies. The top Russian startups are also

originated from the IT field.

The Investment company Starta Capital that works primarily with the

Russian startups marked the trend that there is a gradual shift in

distribution of deals flow. Nevertheless, mobile apps and 'not sophisticated

internet services' are left behind; and the focus is on hardware

technologies, so industrial technologies are considered to be the backbone

for the economic development of the country.

The market success is underpinned by a clear confidence that the

legal norms are taken seriously and well-understood. While the Russian

legal system endures the long period of change, the startups can ask for a

lawyer counsel to leverage the costs and cushion any possible hurdles.

Legal Space startup offers a platform to connect a startup team or a

large enterprise with a lawyer in a place to start or relocate the business.

More than 50% of inquiries come from the Russian startups thinking about

going global (mostly to the US market), 20% encompass the requests for

Asian lawyers, 10% for European lawyers and 20% are left for the Russian

and foreign startups looking for a lawyer counsel in Russia and the CIS

region. The vast majority of the company’s clients are IT-minded startups.

On the whole, the Russian University-based business incubators (that

are successfully benchmarked with the global incubators/accelerators by

UBI Index) champion the development of business competencies and

entrepreneurial mindset in the students’ community. Talents and money

38

are the best sources to make a startup flourish. The former aspect is proved

by the leading positions of Russia in the global rankings. To provide the

talent pipeline and market-adjusted education is the main issue for the

Russian Universities.

The Business Incubator at the National Research University “Higher

School of Economic” has also pivoted to the global track, providing the

platform that connects international coaches with the Russian startup

teams.

With a prevalence of IT projects, the incubator also develops the

educational programs in the social acceleration and hardware technologies,

thus making its product line more diversified and targeted for different

audiences.

The European accelerators are inclined to expand their focus to the

Russian market since the tech savvy and bright ideas attract them. That

was demonstrated by the opening of the French accelerator NUMA in

Moscow, thus providing the Russian startups coaching, connections and a

perspective on going global.

Russian millennials in their 20s disrupt the local tech communities

with enduring brands that get recognition globally. The young founders are

technology and social media natives. While some startups are on the early

stage of getting consumers trust and loyalty such as Stellar and Netbell

(the finalists in the Russian round of Seedstars World contest), others have

already got noticed by the market. The more events are being organized,

the more vibrancy and strong connections are being created.

Thus, innovative start-up companies become a significant element of

Russian national innovative system.

All these promote successful functioning of the innovative

enterprises and will create favourable conditions for realisation of

innovative model of competitive and steady economic system of the

Russian regions.


1. РВК. Пресс-релиз от 29.07.2015: Москва заняла 13 место в

глобальном рейтинге стартап-экосистем. URL:

http://www.rusventure.ru/ru/press-service/news/detail.php?ID=54974


39

2. The 20 Hottest Startups in Russia. URL:

http://mashable.com/2013/11/14/russia-startups/#eH.9lm3aVOqd (дата

обращения: 4.11.2015).

3. What exactly is a startup? URL:

http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/12/what-is-a-startup.asp (дата


4. Things Every Entrepreneur Should Know About Russian Startup

Scene. URL: http://arcticstartup.com/article/7-things-every-entrepreneur-

should-know-about-russian-startups (дата обращения: 4.11.2015).

А.А. Крещик, Г.Н. Замараева

Владимирский Государственный Университет им. А.Г. и Н.Г.

Столетовых

г. Владимир, Россия

Конверсия военного производства в России

В статье рассматривается понятие конверсии оборонной

промышленности, ее основные направления. Так же приведены

примеры перехода военной промышленности в мирное русло.

Рассмотрены планы по преобразованию военного производства на

ближайшее время.

Conversion of Defence Industry in Russia

What is conversion? The word “conversion” comes from Latin

“conversion” (stem of conversiō) which means a complete change.

And what is peace conversion? According to Brian Martin (Professor

of Social Sciences at the University of Wollongong, Australia) peace

conversion means changing from military production to production for

nonmilitary uses. For example, when equipment used to produce bullets is

adapted to produce nails. Scientists designing missiles turn to designing

mass transit systems. Machinists making military aerospace components

switch to making heating systems for the poor. Psychological warfare

experts turn their attention to helping people learn how to recognise and

resist propaganda.

Hence it is obvious that an alternative to military production exists.

And it is important to find ways of moving towards this alternative.

http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/12/what-is-a-startup.asp%20(дата

http://arcticstartup.com/article/7-things-every-entrepreneur-should-know-about-russian-startups

http://arcticstartup.com/article/7-things-every-entrepreneur-should-know-about-russian-startups

40

Michael Brzoska (research staff of the Bonn International Center for

Conversion) informs that the 1990s are known to be a period of massive

disarmament. In fact, the end of the Cold War facilitated reductions in

armaments on a scale comparable only to the end of other “real” major

wars. Armed forces have decreased by more than 20 per cent. The number

of weapons systems is down by more than 25 per cent. Approximately ten

thousand military facilities have been closed worldwide.

Undoubtedly, you could find evidence of similar processes in Russia.

So we will give the background of the significant process.

Russia's military-industrial complex (MIC) is coordinated by the

State Committee for the Defense Industry. In 1996 this agency included

about 2,000 production enterprises and 920 research organizations with a

directly employed work force of about 5 million. The research

organizations are the heart of Russian military research and development.

They take new weapons and military materiel projects from concept to

prototype, then hand them off to the production enterprises. Production

enterprises do prototype construction, production runs, and modifications.

In the Soviet time, defence industries were created solely to arm the

Soviet Union, and as such they had the highest national priority in the

allocation of technology and talent. The complex regularly consumed 20%

of the gross national product and 15 % of the industrial labor force. In the

drive for privatization after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian

planners initially believed that this, the best supplied and most efficient of

Russian industries, could be converted easily to production for the civilian

market and thereafter would become an engine of economic growth. Such

optimism obscured the complex's total lack of a civilian market for its

products and its lack of experience in developing and selling goods in a

competitive marketplace. Beginning in the late Gorbachev time, planners

mistakenly expected to achieve conversion by a Soviet-style centralized

programme and without additional funding to support the lengthy,

stagewise conversion process.

An important step on the road to disarmament and the conversion of

military production in Russia was the adoption of the basic doctrines of the

military situation. "The Basic Provisions of the Military Doctrine of the

Russian Federation" were examined at sessions of the Russian Federation

Security Council held on 3 and 6 October 1993. The Russian Federation

Security Council approved the finalized document at its 2 November 1993

session.

41

The "Basic Provisions of the Military Doctrine of the Russian

Federation" are an integral part of the security concept of the Russian

Federation and constitute a document of the transitional period - the period

of establishing Russian statehood, implementing democratic reforms, and

shaping a new system of international relations. They constitute a system

of views officially adopted in the state on the prevention of wars and

armed conflicts, on military organizational development, on the country's

defense preparation, on the organization of countermeasures to threats to

the state's military security, and on the utilization of the Russian

Federation Armed Forces and other troops for the defense of the Russian

Federation's vitally important interests.

According to the journal «ibusiness», nowadays a new stage of

conversion is expected, through which the companies will be able to earn

extra income after the government cuts the defence production. Despite the

fact that there are examples of successfully completed conversions in the

last few years, no Russian company will argue that they are doing well.

The Defense Ministry plans to increase the production of civil aircrafts

conversing United Aircraft Corporation, supplying fighters and bombers.

They have plans to export a promising medium-haul passenger aircraft

MS-21, which will have to compete with American Boeing 737 and

European Airbus 320.

The Moscow metro uses trains with the new automated control

system "Vityaz". "Uralvagonzavod", famous for its tanks, created a new

military vehicle on the platform "Armata"; it also produces tank cars,

boxcars, drills, fire equipment. Science-Production Association

"Motherland", the manufacturer of the electro-and hydro-mechanical

equipment for aircrafts, also plans to actively diversify production.

Todaythe conversion of the military complex in Russia has a huge

impact on the unstable political situation in Ukraine. Ukraine bans export

of military and dual use products to Russia in 2014. As Russia’s Industry

and Trade Minister Denis Manturov said last April, the overall portfolio of

Russian civil and military contracts placed in Ukraine was at about $15

billion, or 8.2% of Ukraine’s GDP. Disarmament and Conversion Studies

Center claimed that Ukraine’s losses resulting from the termination of

military cooperation with Russia would not exceed $300 million

(according to TASS).

On November 11, 2015 the president of the Russian Federation

Vladimir Putin held a meeting on the development of the military

industrial complex in Sochi. According to the Minister of Defense, the

42

Russian "defence industry" provides production of 70% of all

communications and 60% of complex medical equipment. In addition,

every second spacecraft in the world is carried into the orbit by Russian

rockets, and 30% of the equipment for fuel and energy is produced at the

enterprises of the Russian defence industry.

However, according to experts, in order to reorient the military

industry to civilian use, it is necessary to change the law and to find money

to replace fixed assets.

Thus, the conversion of military production in Russia is a rather

controversial issue. Nevertheless, one cannot deny the fact that every year

the number and quality of conversed pieces of equipment is growing.


1. С танков на спички. Как оборонные предприятия готовятся

к выпуску гражданской продукции. / Электронный журнал

«ibusiness». URL: http://ibusiness.ru/blog/lifestyle/40539 (дата


2. Смирнов Дмитрий. Владимир Путин: Мы не втягиваемся в

гонку вооружений, мы наверстываем упущенное в 90-х. /

Комсомольская правда. URL: http://www.kp.ru/daily/26456/3327228

(дата обращения 12.11.2015).

3. Alexeev Michael V., Sikorra Raymond C. Comparing post-

Cold War military conversion in the United States and Russia. URL:

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/ article/Contemporary-Economic-

Policy/21272795.html (дата обращения 17.01.16).

4. Ban on defense products export to Russia will ruin Ukraine’s

industries — analyst. / TASS. Russian News Agency. August 28, 2014.

URL: http://tass.ru/en/world/747104 (дата обращения 13.11.15).

5. Brian Martin. Peace conversion. /Brian Martin. Uprooting War.

/ London: Freedom Press, 1984. URL:

http://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/90uw/uw04.html (дата обращения 15.01.16).

6. Brzoska Michael. Beating Swords into Ploughshares: Military

Conversion in the 1990s. / GLOBAL DIALOGUE, Volume 1. Number 2.

Autumn 1999. Weapons and War. URL:

http://www.worlddialogue.org/print.php?id=38 (дата обращения

20.11.15).

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/

http://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/90uw/uw04.html%20(дата

43

7. Dictionary.com. URL:

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/conversion (дата обращения:

29.01.16).

8. Melman Seymour. Disarmament, Economic Conversion, and

Jobs For All. URL: http://njfac.org/index.php/us8/ (дата обращения

13.01.16).

9. The Basic Provisions of the Military Doctrine of the Russian

Federation. URL: http://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/doctrine/russia-mil-

doc.html (дата обращения 15.11.15).

А.Ю. Крысанова, Л.А. Бартель




Рынок банковских пластиковых карт России

Развитие экономики нашей страны неразрывно связано с

банковской системой, а именно, с новыми технологиями и поиском

инструментов, повышающих эффективность и доступность

банковских услуг для населения. Одним из таких инструментов

являются банковские пластиковые карты. Однако, на сегодняшний

день, рынок пластиковых карт России сталкивается с большим

количеством трудностей, такими как слабое развитие эквайриговой

сети, недостаточная защита системы от разного рода мошенничества,

менталитет российских граждан, которые с недоверием относятся к

системе безналичных платежей. С другой стороны, использование

платежных карт даёт множество преимуществ не только их

держателям, но также кредитным организациям и государству.

Именно поэтому развитие системы пластиковых банковских карт для

экономики нашей страны имеет важное значение.

The Domestic Market of Bank Plastic Cards in Russia

The development of the banking business is inextricably connected

with the search for new technologies and tools that improve the efficiency

and attractiveness of banking services. Undoubtedly, a bank plastic card is

one of such tools. Today the use of payment cards shows the degree of

http://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/doctrine/russia-mil-doc.html

http://fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/doctrine/russia-mil-doc.html

44

integration of the banking system and society. In industrialized countries,

cashless payment for goods and services reached 90% in the structure of

all cash transactions. This index is only 30% in our country. This is due to

the fact that the Russian market of plastic cards faced with a large quantity

of difficulties: the weak development of acquiring network, insufficient

protection against all kinds of fraud, the mentality of Russian citizens who

distrust the system of non-cash payments. The use of payment cards

provides many advantages, not only for their holders, but also for credit

institutions and states, so the development of the bank plastic cards system

has great importance for the economy of our country.

Analyzing the market of the bank cards, which were issued in the

period from 2012 to 2015, we can see that their number increased by 30%,

but the growth rates are reducing: in the period from 2012 to 2013, their

number increased by 14.2%, but their number increased by only 7.3%

during the period from 2014 to 2015. If to talk about the structure of the

issued cards, the payment cards account for 87% in total. Despite the fact

that their percentage was decreasing gradually since 2010, but now the

situation has changed. From 2012 to 2014, the percentage of payment

cards fell by 5.5%, but from 2014 to 2015, their share increased by 1.5%

and it is most likely that the situation won’t change in the near future,

because banks reduce the number of issued credit cards and payment cards

with overdraft.

As for the credit cards, during the year their number also

insignificantly has decreased by 1.6%, this fact interrupted the positive

dynamics over the past 3 years. The big problem is that by the beginning

of May 2015 the number of credit cards with overdue indebtedness had

risen from 1.7 million (as it was a year earlier) to 2.9 million units, this

accounts for 43% of all credit cards that are used. In monetary terms, the

amount of overdue credit card debts of our population increased from 90

billion to 195 billion rubles. Thus, the index reached 22.4% of the total

amount of such credits. Nowadays, the total amount of issued credit cards

has exceeded 30 million units, while only 6.7 million of cards are actually

used. It can be concluded that almost every second card has overdue

indebtedness.

45

The structure of the issued cards from 2008 to 2015

The number of payment cards with overdraft options decreased by

approximately 1.3% in the reporting period, breaking the rising trend over

the past 4 years. In the total amount of issued payment cards, the

percentage of bank cards with overdraft options is about 19%, but during

the reporting period their percentage in the total amount of payment cards

decreased by 1.3%.

The number of the released cards from 2008 to 2015

Analyzing the structure of operations carried out by means of credit

cards, it is possible to conclude that there is an increasing number of

46

transactions on payments for goods and services, which remains stable

despite the economic downturn. According to the results of the first quarter

2008, the total number of transactions on bank cards was 457.7 million

units - there were 352 million cash withdrawal transactions and 105.6

million payment transactions for goods and services. In addition,

according to the results for 1 April 2015, the total amount of transactions

increased to 2548.9 million units (cash withdrawal transactions were up to

750.9 and payment transactions for goods and services were up to 1798

million).

If to look at the situation in more details, in the relative values the

rate of growth of the total amount of transactions decreased from 33.35%

in 2012 to 28.61% in 2014, but in the absolute values, the growth

continues despite the crisis in the Russian banking sector. The similar

situation is observed concerning the number of cashless payments for

goods and services, where the rate of growth, in whole, has decreased by

9.9% for the current period, but the growth in absolute terms is increasing:

today 2 of 3 operations are aimed at cashless payment for goods and

services. Accordingly, the growth rate of the amount of cash withdrawal

transactions is reducing and it is most likely that the market situation won’t

change next year.

Based on the previously mentioned information, we see that the

market of bank cards in our country is developing: the banks are

improving their offers by introducing new developments and making the

market more accessible to the population. However, the presence of

unsolved problems significantly hampers this development.

In our opinion, the following conditions are necessary for solving the

problems of the domestic market of bank cards:

1. Creation of such conditions in which people will actively use

“wage cards” as a payment instrument, not just as a way to get cash from

the ATM.

2. Development of the acquiring network infrastructure. Today, the

reception of payment cards as the means of payment for goods, work and

services is mainly spread in such cities and towns, where there is the

possibility of payment terminals installation, but the insufficient number of

terminals prevents the use of payment cards anywhere and anytime. The

limiting factor of development is also the significant cost of equipment,

lack of communication, the high cost of telecommunications services.

3. Ensuring stable operation of technical facilities. ATMs and

payment terminals can be connected with banks via mobile internet or

47

satellite. These channels are often prone to failures that hamper the work

of payment terminals.

4. System security from all sorts of fraud. An insecure system does

not give confidence to users, causing distrust.

Thus, the market prospects are directly linked with the public

confidence in banks and the stability of the entire banking system. The

market of bank payment cards in Russia has great prospects for growth and

development, but the achievement of the desired effect is possible only in

case of coordinated work of the state and the banking sector, economic

development and the improvement of the external economic situation of

our country, as well as the growth of economic literacy and trust of the

population.


1. Банковское дело: учебник / О.И. Лаврушин, Н.И. Валенцева /

под ред. О.И. Лаврушина. — 10-е изд., перераб. и доп. — М.:

КНОРУС, 2013.

2. Банковское дело: учебник / под ред. Г.Г. Коробовой. - 2-e изд.,

перераб. и доп. - М.: Магистр, 2012.

3. Ефремова И. А. Проблемы банковского кредитования

населения на современном этапе / И. А. Ефремова // Молодой

ученый, №18, 2014.

4. Количество кредитных организаций, осуществляющих

эмиссию и/или эквайринг платежных карт. URL:

http://www.cbr.ru/statistics/print.aspx?file=p_sys/sheet012.htm&pid=psrf

&sid=ITM_29579 (дата обращения 15.12.2015)

5. Количество платежных карт, эмитированных кредитными

организациями, по типам карт. URL:

http://www.cbr.ru/statistics/print.aspx?file=p_sys/sheet013.htm&pid=psrf

&sid=ITM_55789 (дата обращения 15.12.2015)

48

А.С. Лукичева, Е.С. Долгополова


России Б.Н.Ельцина


Влияние санкций на российскую экономику

В статье рассмотрено влияние санкций, введенных ЕС против

РФ, и ее ответных мер на экономические связи между ними. Обмен

санкциями укладывается в логику деструктивного «экономического

патриотизма», получившего распространение в условиях

глобализации в XXI веке. Он порождает обособленность и

отрицательно, хотя и в разной степени, сказывается на возможностях

хозяйственного развития России и ЕС.

The impact of sanctions on the Russian economy

International economic sanctions appear to be a common and

recurring feature of political interactions between states. Some certain

types of sanctions are boycott and embargo which deprive the target

country of some of the gains of trade and therefore induce a lower welfare.

A boycott is a restriction of imports of one or more goods from the target

country. It aims to lower the demand for certain products from the target

country and hence to reduce the target foreign exchange earnings. An

embargo restricts exports of certain products to the target country. This is

the most common technique.

In fact, both countries, a target and a sender, are affected by sanctions

imposing. Besides, the more the economies are integrated, the more the

economic interactions should be affected.

It is well-known that in response to the annexation of the Crimea and

deliberate destabilization of a neighboring sovereign country, the EU

imposed restrictive measures against the Russian Federation:

• Asset freezes and visa bans

The response of the West to Russia’s annexation of Crimea was to

freeze assets and impose travel bans on pro-Russian Ukrainian rebels and

Russian officials, and impose a ban on doing business with organizations,

companies or political groups, which were complicit in the illegal

takeover. These restrictions came into force on March 17, 2014, initially

for six months; they were extended for a further six months in September

49

2014; and in January 2015 they were extended once more until September

2015. By November 28, the EU imposed sanctions on 132 people and 28

companies connected with the seizure of the Crimea and/or providing

support to Russian decision-makers.

• On December 20, the EU banned European investment in the

Crimea, the provision of financial and other services to Crimean

companies or for use in the Crimea, and port visits to the peninsula by

European cruise ships.

• Economic sanctions

Following the shooting down of flight MH17, on July 31 the EU

imposed sanctions on the Russian government in four areas: restrictions on

lending to Russian state banks; an arms embargo; an export ban on oil

technology and services that could be used for Arctic or deep-sea drilling,

or shale oil projects; an export ban on dual-use goods (equipment such as

heavy engineering vehicles) that could be used for military purposes.

In response to the EU’s July economic sanctions, on August 6 Russia

imposed a one-year ban (which was extended for on the import of a long

list of agricultural produce from western countries, including fruit,

vegetables, flowers, fish, meat and cheese. Wine, spirits and dry goods

(such as pasta) were not included; exemptions were made for baby food.

Later on in the Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation on

June 25, 2015 N 625 the ban was extended up to August 5, 2016.

Growth of the Russian economy has slackened due to unresolved

structural constraints and the uncertainty created by the geopolitical

tensions and sanctions.

2014 was supposed to be the year when the Russian economy began

to recover from the 2008 crisis. However, instead of growing, the economy

has slowed even more, and is now on the verge of stagnating.

It is common knowledge that the rate of exchange of the US dollar

and euro to the Russian rouble is twice as high as it was a year and a half

ago. This is a significant blow to the economy of the country, the budget of

the country's citizens, on Russian companies cooperating with foreign

companies. The appreciation of dollar caused a decline in oil prices, and

for countries, in which oil and gas exports comprise around 50% of the

Federal budget, it is a huge damage. For example, in 2014, because of the

weakening rate and declining oil prices, Russia lost about $10 billion US.

The rouble depreciation has also put pressure on inflation. The food

import ban in August stimulated an acceleration of food inflation. By

February 2015, food inflation had reached 23.3 percent, adding to the

50

already high inflation pressure from the rouble depreciation. In response to

these pressures and in support of the rouble, the CBR significantly

tightened monetary conditions in 2014. Although this was consistent with

the CBR’s goals of inflation targeting and financial stability, it increased

domestic borrowing rates and further restricted access to domestic credit

for both investors and consumers.

Although Russia is vulnerable to the dollar, one of the results of the

showdown with the West is the acceleration of the move of major

countries (not just Russia) away from using the dollar as the international

settlement currency; there will now be a diversification away from the

dollar that cannot be stopped and this will ultimately undermine America’s

political and economic power.

Another stumbling block is foreign direct investment (FDI). Foreign

investment has played a huge role in the economic development of the

country, because along with the investment modern technology, new

management techniques are also employed as well as highly qualified

managers, increasing workforce skills.

In 2014 there was a sharp decline in foreign investment into the

Russian economy. According to the Bank of Russia, foreign direct

investment in non-banking sector of the Russian Federation for the first

half of2014 amounted to 20.2 billion dollars, which is 52% lower than the

same period in 2013.

If foreign and domestic capital continues to be averse to investing,

Russia’s medium- to long-term growth prospects will suffer.

Undoubtedly, sanctions have already affected trade flows. Comparing

trade outcomes of the third quarter 2014 and the third quarter 2013 we can

observe imports plunge due to the already weakening exchange rate and

Russia’s ban on food imports from western countries.

In conclusion it should be mentioned that the economic impact of

sanctions on Russia is expected to linger. As geopolitical tensions persist,

international sanctions will continue to influence the Russian economy,

especially given lower oil prices. However, Russia is also an important EU

partner. In 2013 almost 7% of all EU exports went to Russia (approx. EUR

120 bn, putting the country in fourth place after the U.S., Switzerland and

China). The same year more than 12% of the EU's imports came from

Russia (approx. EUR 207 bn, second only to China). This makes Russia

the EU's third-biggest trading partner after the U.S. and China. The energy

sector is also critical: the EU meets around 31% of its gas demand and

20% of its oil demand from Russia, with some EU countries up to 100%

51

dependent on Russia. It is safe to say that if the EU countries continue to

impose sanctions, they will suffer more.


1. European Union Restrictive measures (sanctions) in force. URL:

http://eeas.europa.eu/cfsp/sanctions/docs/measures_en.pdf (дата

обращения: 15.01.2016).

2. The Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation on

August 7, 2014 N 778 Moscow. URL:

http://www.rg.ru/2014/08/08/postanovlenie-dok.html(дата обращения:

17.01.2016).

3. The Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation on

June 25th, 2015 N 625 Moscow. URL:

http://www.rg.ru/2015/06/25/specmery-site-dok.html (дата обращения:

21.01.2016).

4. Ben Aris «Impact of Sanctions on Russia: An Assessment», Policy

brief, June 2014.

5. The World Bank in the Russian Federation «Russia Economic

Report» № 33, April 2015. «The Dawn of a New Economic Era» (III. The

Economic Impact of Sanctions).

А.Ю. Серебрякова, Л.А. Бартель




Функционирование национальной системы платежных карт

России

В течение двух десятилетий специалистами поднимался вопрос

о необходимости принятия мер по предотвращению возможных

действий со стороны международных платежных систем (МПС) Visa

и MasterCard. При этом подчеркивалось, что единственным

эффективным решением является создание российской национальной

системы платежных карт (НСПК).

Преимущество платежных карт МПС на российском рынке

несет угрозу информационной безопасности страны, финансовой и

http://eeas.europa.eu/cfsp/sanctions/docs/measures_en.pdf

http://www.rg.ru/2014/08/08/postanovlenie-dok.html

http://www.rg.ru/2015/06/25/specmery-site-dok.html

52

социальной стабильности. Создание НСПК является значимым и

своевременным событием: после введения санкций против нашей

страны, клиенты банков не смогли воспользоваться своими картами.

На данный момент, НСПК успешно функционирует: банки

подключены к НСПК, все транзакции по МПС переведены на

российский процессинг, выпущены национальные платежные карты,

разрабатываются планы развития системы.

The National Payment Card System in Russia

Russian lawmakers got the idea of creating a national payment card

system (the NPCS) in the early 90s. The first attempts of creating the

NPCS were unsuccessful, as it became clear that there was no regulatory

framework for its functioning in Russia. In addition, the largest banks were

unable to reach an agreement on who would get the profits from the

project. This situation was exploited by such international payment

systems as Visa and MasterCard, which, in fact, divided the Russian

market among themselves.

The question was reconsidered in 2010, when the Government of the

Russian Federation proposed to create a universal electronic card, which

operations could be carried out without the participation of Visa and

MasterCard. However, this project failed because the officials faced a

skeptical attitude of professionals and market participants. Finally, the

mandatory issue of the universal card to all citizens of Russia had been

cancelled.

The turning point was the introduction of Western sanctions against

Russia. In March 2014, Visa and MasterCard stopped servicing of several

Russian banks and Moscow was under a threat of being disconnected with

the SWIFT system. It would mean the complete isolation of Russia from

global economic processes.

At the same time, the President Vladimir Putin ordered to create a

payment system, which would not be depended on Western companies,

urgently.

Therefore, the Russian National Payment Card System (the NPCS)

called "Mir" was created on 23 July 2014 in the Russian Federation under

Federal Law № 161-FZ "About national payment system" on 27.06.2011

to provide continuity, efficiency and accessibility of money transfer

service.

53

The existence of an independent national payment system has its

cons and pros.

Some difficulties appeared due to the established tight deadlines for

the NPCS launching:

1. The connection between banks and the NPCS.

The connection between banks and the NPCS in the first stage had to

be completely the same as their connection with the international payment

systems. The task of the connection actually meant the placing of the

NPCS ultimate equipment in a bank. In addition, it was necessary to

conduct a set of tests, examining the passage of basic operations such as

authorization (request or approval from the payment system to conduct

transactions), clearing (operation closing and exchange of information

about the remittance) and settlement. Russian banks were unable to test the

operations of the national card payment system.

2. The transition of international payment systems into the Russian

processing.

Not many efforts were required for the cooperation from the banks,

but with the International Payment Systems (IPS), it was not the case. It

was hampered by the significant differences in technologies and internal

procedures as well as the transmission of large amounts of data and

money. As for MasterCard, the work moved quickly, and all necessary

projects were completed even before the deadline (before March 23,

2015). But Visa was lagging seriously. Visa signed a contract with the

NPCS only on 18 February, 2015 and completed the transition on May 27,

2015.

3. Failures in the National Payment Card System.

Since such a large-scale business, as the creation of the NPCS was

carried out in a very short time and the domestic transfer of operations

were required immediately, not all operations were stabilized, which led to

some failures.

They can say that the main difficulties arose due to lack of time,

heavy workload, and IPS reaction. However, the transition into the

Russian processing was delayed, but it brought certain benefits.

Despite some difficulties, discussed earlier, the NPCS has a number

of advantages:

1. The insurance of Russian citizens from the problems with the IPS.

Today's political and economic crisis has shown that foreigners have

more power over Russia – U.S. banks may deprive Russia of the

opportunity to use cards of domestic banks simply because their

54

Government decided so. The Russian national payment system will not

depend on the instructions of foreign governments.

2. The domestic banking sector will develop.

Annually transactions are committed at $4 billion in our country, till

now a significant portion of the commissions were received by foreign

payment system, but since the creation of the national payment card

system, the money will remain in the country.

3. Personal and banking data protection.

Nowadays the Russian government is worried about the lack of

confidentiality of information about users of Visa and MasterCard since

we cannot be sure that our data is not passed on to third parties or used by

anyone without our permission. That is, a foreign state has information

about the majority of citizens in the Russian Federation, the most

important personal and banking data. Therefore, the national payment

system is more profitable for us, because the data remains within the

country.

4. Adjusting the fee by our government, not by other countries.

When international payment systems are used (Visa and

MasterCard), Russia has to live and act on their rules. Monopolistic

international payment systems dictate their conditions to other banks.

Therefore, payments for Visa and MasterCard transactions are very high.

With NPCS interbank, fees and commissions for clients are much lower

regulated by the Russian government.

The national card payment system is an important and timely step in

the development of the Russian financial system. Now there are

transactions of international payment systems handled through the NPCS,

and in December 2015, the first cards were released with a new logo.

A team of the NPCS creates a handy card, with in-demand services,

interesting features and technologies, which can be released by any

Russian bank at will. Due to co-badging programs with international

payment systems, there is an exit abroad. The agreements have already

been signed on the issue of co-badged cards under the brands of Mir-

Maestro, Mir-JCB (the issue is scheduled for 2016) and Mir-AmEx.

Thus, the NPCS is a new and significant player in the Russian

market. Undoubted benefits from the use of the national payment card

system will be interested by a wide variety of businesses. The NPCS offers

cheap, reliable and efficient financial products and solutions for banks,

companies or cardholders. This payment system will be competitive and

meet the highest standards of safety and continuity.

55

The payment system of the national level will give a new boost to the

economy and ordinary citizens of the Russian Federation will be able to

use domestic payment cards in any part of the country, and eventually

outside of Russia.


1. Федеральный закон от 27.06.2011 N 161-ФЗ (ред. от

29.12.2014) «О национальной платежной системе», «Российская

газета» №139, 30.06.2011, «Парламентская газета» №32, 01-

07.07.2011, «Собрание законодательства РФ» №27, ст.3872,

04.07.2011.

2. Национальная система платежных карт.

URL: http://www.nspk.ru/about/company/ (дата обращения: 20.12.15).

3. Правила и тарифы платежной системы «Мир» (приложение

8). URL: http://www.nspk.ru/cards-mir/terms-and-tariffs/ (дата


4. Причины создания НСПК. URL:

http://mir24.tv/news/economy/12350246 (дата обращения: 20.12.15).

5. Этапы создания НСПК. URL: http://www.nspk.ru/about/steps/


6. Russian national payment system and Japan’s JCB to issue co-

badged cards. URL: https://www.rt.com/business/272173-russia-japan-

banking-jcb/ (дата обращения: 30.01.16).

Е.К. Фитина, Г.И. Драчева




Социальное жилье в городе Екатеринбурге:

динамика развития в 2005-2015 гг.

В статье представлены основные аспекты деятельности Комитета по

жилищной политике администрации города Екатеринбурга по

социально-экономическому развитию города в 2005-2015 гг.

Рассмотрены программы по обеспечению жильем населения города

http://www.nspk.ru/about/company/

http://www.nspk.ru/cards-mir/terms-and-tariffs/

http://mir24.tv/news/economy/12350246

http://www.nspk.ru/about/steps/

https://www.rt.com/business/272173-russia-japan-banking-jcb/

https://www.rt.com/business/272173-russia-japan-banking-jcb/

56

Екатеринбурга, количество заявителей и бенефициаров. Проведен

анализ состояния рынка жилья в городе Екатеринбурге.

Social Housing in Yekaterinburg: Dynamics of the Development in

2005-2015.

During the 1950s and 1960s, changes in construction industry and

the introduction of large-block building technology partly solved the

problem of provisional housing. Crisis and changes in the country strongly

slowed the pace of construction down until 2000. It took a few more years

for the volume of commissioned housing to return to the previous

levels2.From 2005-2014 Yekaterinburg’s housing facilities increased by

1.28 times: from 21.22 million sq. m. to 34.99 million sq. m. [2]. This

happened due to the improvement of the economic situation in the country

and due to more importance placed to the construction industry.

In 1991, the process of privatization began, which made Russia a

country of owners and led to a significant reduction of public and

municipal housing stock. Since 1995, there has been a process of

transferring residential units into a non-residential category. By 2014,

5780 units went through this process [5]. These transfers directly benefit

retail development, small business, and enterprise development due to the

relatively high purchasing power and investment attraction of the city.

By the end of 2014, only 2518 [5] thousand sq. m. out of 34 996.8

thousand sq. m. were state-owned. In other words, 92,8% of all living

space was privately owned. The lack of state ownership complicates the

process of providing housing to people in need.

The need for better housing conditions weighs heavily on a

significant part of population of Yekaterinburg. The housing problem is

particularly acute for vulnerable categories of citizens. Only 15% [3] -

25% [1] of the population of Russia can afford purchasing housing (even

with the help of extra means such as loans, support from friends and

relatives, social housing programs, etc.). The implementation of Law No

14-OZ [1] in 2005 transferred the authority of managing the selection of

applicants who need to change housing conditions from Federal authority

to the government of Sverdlovsk region.

In the strategic project “Social Housing” led by E.V. Grin, project

developers suggested a definition of social housing as housing which

belongs to public and municipal housing stock and which can be given to

citizens on terms of social renting, social commercial renting, specialized

57

housing renting and housing which was purchased by citizens with public

and municipal support.[6] Program applicants of social housing must be

low-income citizens and/or vulnerable groups. Beneficiaries of social

housing programs who do not have relatives owning a house or benefits

from other social programmes should fall into one of three categories: 1)

those who do not own a house, 2) those whose housing conditions are

below housing norms, or 3) those who belong to a specific group [1].

Social housing programs which were implemented in Yekaterinburg

from 2005-2014 are described below.

Residential privatization programme.

From 1991-2014, the city of Yekaterinburg issued 323,099 contracts

on the privatization of public and municipal properties. Taking into

account that the size of an average family in big cities of Russia is 2.7-2.8

persons, it means that at least 60% of the city’s population is living in

housing units obtained due to participation in the program of the public

and municipally property privatization. The dynamics of the privatization

is shown in Table 1[4].

Year Units

Before2005 221099

2005 23000

2006 18500

2007 7100

2008 7200

2009 15500

2010 12200

2011 4000

2012 4000

2013 7700

2014 2800

Total 323099

Table 1. The number of privatized housing units in Yekaterinburg

The relocation of citizens from old and dilapidated residential

buildings.

The city is working on implementing the program named “The

resettlement of residents from old and dilapidated housing stocks”. The

total area of the dilapidated housing in Yekaterinburg is 231.7 thousand sq.

m., or 812 houses (individually identified units) and 746 apartment

buildings which are in poor conditions and 76 multifamily residential

buildings in very poor conditions [5]. Funding for the programme comes

from the government, construction companies, and companies carrying out

58

the reconstruction of architectural monuments. From 2006-2014 4,346

families were relocated from houses with extremely low living conditions

and dangerous to live in [4].

Allocation of free land plots for individual housing construction.

Beneficiaries of this program come from specific groups, such as people

with disabilities, young families, orphans, large families, etc. This program

took effect in 2010, and since then, the Committee of Housing Policy

received 16,988 applications, and rejected 2,214. The number of

beneficiaries of the program from 2010-2014 was 301, which makes 2% of

all approved applications.

Providing housing for young families.

When they consider young families, both spouses are under the age

of 35. To benefit from the program, a family must prove the need to

improve their housing conditions and the presence of certain income. In

this programme the social payment was up to 35% of the cost of the

housing unit. Social benefits provided for the purchase of housing or

payment of the mortgage. In 2014, 25 young families received social

support from the city to purchase a housing unit, and 31 young families

were supported in paying loans. In 2015, there were 2027 families whose

housing conditions needed improvement. [5] Therefore, 2.68% of

applicants beneficiated from this social housing programme.

Providing housing for large families.

This program started in 2011 year. In 2014, 154 families were

provided with social support to purchase a housing unit. To become a

beneficiary of this programme, the family should have three or more

children under the age of 18. Currently, there are 752 families on the

waiting list [5]. Hence, in 2014, 16.99% of all large families that needed to

improve their housing conditions happened to benefit from this social

housing programme.

It is important to note that the percentage of programme beneficiaries

is decreasing every year because more people are applying. For example,

in 2011, only 261 large families applied to get social support while, in

2012, this number grew to be 420. By 2014, this number almost doubled.

Taking in account that financial capabilities do not increase with the same

pace, it is clear that percentage of beneficiaries is decreasing from year to

year.

The market of social housing is growing and new programmes are

appearing, but there is still a huge gap between the number of beneficiaries

and applicants. The programme of privatization has higher number of

59

applicants and beneficiaries. However, the lowest percentage of

beneficiaries is for the programme of free land plots. Local authorities

place high priority on large families and relocation from dilapidated

housing.


1. Галлямов, А.А., Повышение доступности жилищного

фонда на основе развития арендных услуг, Управление

экономическими системами, Казань, 2014, с. 8.

2. Ерыпалова Е.С., Социально-адресное представление

земельных участков под строительство жилья для разных типов

домашних хозяйств / Е.С. Ерыпалова, С.Е. Ерыпалов, А.М. Платонов.

– Екатеринбург: УрФУ: Изд-во АМБ, 2014 г. – с. 132.

3. Матвеева, Е.С., Формирование и развитие рынка арендной

жилой недвижимости, автореферат на соискание ученой степени

кандидата экономических наук, Казань, 2012, с. 26.

4. Отчеты об итогах деятельности Комитета по жилищной

политики администрации города по социально-экономическому

развитию города за 2007-2014 гг., г. Екатеринбург.

5. Отчет: Сведения о жилищном фонде муниципального

образования «город Екатеринбург» по состоянию на конец 2014 г.,

Федеральная служба государственной статистики, Территориальный

орган федеральной службы государственной статистики по

Свердловской Области, Екатеринбург.

6. Стратегический проект «Социальное жилье»,

Екатеринбург, 2011, с. 44.

Ч.А. Чамбый-оол, Л.В. Ивкина




Аудит: состояние, стандарты, задачи

Унификация и стандартизация бухучета и аудита в России

находится на начальном этапе. Изучение и осмысление опыта

зарубежных стран является исключительно важным.

60

L’audit: état, normes, enjeux

L’audit est une expertise professionnelle effectuée par un agent

compétent et impartial aboutissant à un jugement sur les états financiers, le

contrôle interne, l’organisation, la procédure, ou une opération quelconque

d’une entité.

L’audit est perҫu comme un outil d’amélioration continue. Il est

nécessairement formalisé sous forme de rapport écrit. L’audit est un

processus systématique, indépendant et précisément documenté.

Le domaine le plus connu, le plus répandu et le plus ancien sur une

base transnationale est l’audit légal externe comptable et financier, à savoir

l’examen de la validité, conformité et sincerité des divers états financiers

et rapports publics de gestion émis par une enterprise. Il s’agit de l’audit

légal, spécifiquement règlementé pour les sociétés cotées en bourse.

Comme notion, tout audit est plus large qu’une révision et dépasse

souvent le domaine comptable et financier. Dans le domaine de l’audit

comptable et financier (externe et légal) il existe plusieurs normes,

nationales et internationals [1].

Quant à l’organisation et la normalisation de la profession comptable

en général, il faut mentionner tout d’abord l’IFAC (la Fédération

internationale des comptables, fondée en 1977) qui est la fédération

globale des comptables. L’IFAC a 159 institutions membres et associées

dans 124 pays représentant plus de 2,5 millions de comptables employés

dans les services, l’industrie et le commerce, les gouvernements et

l’enseignement. [2] A travers ses organes indépendants d’édition de

standards, l’IFAC publie des standards internationaux sur l’éthique, l’audit

et l’assurance, l’éducation et la comptabilité du secteur public. Elle publie

aussi des conseils pour encourager la qualité dans les services des

professionnels comptables. L’IFAC et ses membres collaborent pour

déveloper l’IFACnet – un réseau du savoir pour les professionnels

comptables, qui a été lancé en 2006. En 2007, l’IFAC a lancé le site

multilingue www.ifac.org dans les six langues des Nations Unis, qui sont

l’arabe, le chinois, le franҫais, le russe et l’espagnol, en plus de l’anglais,

langue officielle de l’IFAC.

En ce qui concerne les normes internationales de l’audit, les normes

ISA (International Standards of Auditing), elles sont elaborées par un

comité de l’IFAC qui est appelé IAASB (International Auditing and

Assurance Standards Board). Les normes internationales ISA élaborées par

l’IAASB sont transposées ensuite au niveau national.

http://www.ifac.org/

61

Cependant, malgré toutes les précautions fixées dans les normes, la

profession d’auditeur a été durement touchée par de grands conflits qui ont

conduit les régulateurs nationaux à renforcer leurs exigences en matière de

certification et d’indépendance des cabinets d’audit. Le scandale le plus

connu concerne les affaires Enron et Worldcom qui aboutirent à la

disparition du cabinet en cause, pourtant le numéro 5 mondial de l’époque.

Aucun grand cabinet ne peut prétendre rester à l’écart. Pour ne citer que

les Big Four transnationaux, rappelons que Deloitte est mis en cause dans

l’affaire Parmalat, Ernst &Young dans l’affaire de l’université de Genève,

KPMG est soupҫonné d’avoir aidé Xerox à maquiller ses comptes et

PriceWaterhouseCoopers est impliqué dans l’affaire Swissair [2].

D’où vient cette dérégulation lors du passage au niveau national?

Yvonne Muller-Lagarde, spécialiste de droit pénal des affaires, donne une

analyse détaillée et critique de la situation du point de vue juridique [3].

Pour elle, la normalisation comptable internationale (IFRS,ISA), issue

d’une institutioin strictement privée IFAC avec ses IASB et IAASB, est

une normalisation déconnectée du droit. La gouvernance de l’IASB est

totalement indépendante des institutions politiques. Pourtant, elle se donne

pour objectif de promouvoir ses normes dans le monde où le pouvoir

législatif des Etats est érodé en raison de la mondialisation. La

financiarisation de l’économie chasse le droit dont l’approche étatique,

fondée sur la notion de territoire, n’est plus adaptée. Donc, les normes

comptables internationales ne sont pas les normes juridiques, elles sont

fabriquées pour s’affranchir du droit, c’est une “désertification juridique”

[3]. De même, le droit est chassé de l’interprétation de la norme qui est

confiée à des organismes privés, tant au niveau de l’IFAC qu’au niveau

européen et national. Il y a là l’idée d’une mondialisation qui se réduit à

l’autorégulation du marché sans pouvoir législatif mondial.

La plupart des juristes y voient une crise de la normativité étatique

traditionnelle. Mais il y en a ceux qui défendent la thèse d’une suprématie

de l’économie sur le droit. C’est une régulation par le marché, sans

mécanisme externe de gouvernance (lois et réglements), par la seule

rationalité économique. Le marché prend donc la place de l’Etat. Selon

Y.Muller, compte tenu des prises de risque et des comportements

irrationnels, on peut se demander si ce n’est pas cela qu’a demontré la

récente crise économique. Alors, l’enjeu tient au maintien d’un véritable

droit comptable dans l’évolution de la normalisation nationale, conclut-

elle.

62

Pour la Russie qui est encore à ses débuts dans ce domaine, ainsi que

pour d’autres Etats en développement, cette idée est, parait-il, actuelle, à la

recherche de leurs propres solutions.


1. Audit comptable et financier. URL:

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_comptable_et_financier (дата

обращения: 15.12.2015)

2. Fédération internationale des comptables. URL:

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_internationale_d

es_comptables (дата обращения: 15.12.2015).

3. Y. Muller. Les enjeux de la normalisation comptable

internationale: quand la régulation remplace la loi // Notes de Conventions,

17 mai 2013. URL: http://convention-s.fr/notes/les-enjeux-de-la-

normalisation-comptable-internationale-quand-la-regulation-remplace-la-

loi/ (дата обращения: 17.12.2015).

II. Лингвистика

Л.И. Корнеева

Ма Жунюй




The history of the teaching Chinese as a foreign language

Methodology in China

The article gives a historical analysis of the development of methods

of teaching Chinese as a foreign language in China from the 19th century

to the present. The definition of the term "methodology" in the broad and

narrow sense, as interpreted by Chinese scientists, has been given. And the

features of teaching Chinese as a foreign language at different times have

been distinguished.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_comptable_et_financier

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_internationale_des_comptables

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_internationale_des_comptables

http://convention-s.fr/notes/les-enjeux-de-la-normalisation-comptable-internationale-quand-la-regulation-remplace-la-loi/



63

История развития методики обучения китайскому языку

как иностранному в Китае

Китай – одна из самых древних цивилизаций, она насчитывает

более 5000 лет истории. На протяжении истории большинство

окружающих стран и национальностей изучало и использовало

китайский язык, чтобы узнавать более развитую китайскую культуру.

Таким образом, обучение китайскому языку как иностранному имеет

богатую историю.

Чэн Юйчжэнь － китайский специалист по обучению

китайскому языку как иностранному в «Истории развития обучения

китайскому языку как иностранному» писал, что после того, как

Чжан Цянь (114 лет до н. э.) проложил «Великий шелковый путь»,

уже существовал факт учения или обучения китайскому языку как

второму языку (Чэн Юйчжэнь 2005: 53).

В начале 19 века в Китае в более открытых городах, например, в

Шанхае, в Гуанчжоу и в Чунцине, обучение иностранных учащихся

китайскому языку являлось распространенной практикой, однако на

него не обращалось достаточного внимания как на образовательное

дело, и не было никого, кто исследовал и развивал бы его как науку.

Только после того, как в 1949 г. была создана новая КНР, такое

обучение стало учебной деятельностью, организованной

государством. (там же 2005: 54).

По словам Чэна Юйчжэня, «обучение китайскому языку как

иностранному в новом Китае начинается с принятия первого потока

иностранных студентов в 1950 году и к концу 20 века проходит три

этапа: с 50-х годов до конца 70-х годов 20 века (период начала

обучения), с конца 70-х годов до конца 80-х годов 20 века (период

разработки учебных дисциплин); с конца 80-х годов до конца 90-х

годов 20 века (период развития и углубления знаний в данной

сфере)» (Чэн Юйчжэнь 2005: 54).

1. Определение термина «методика», уточнение области ее

исследования

Методика обучения китайскому языку, как специальная отрасль

научного исследования, развивается лишь с начала 80-х годов 20 века

(Жэнь Юань 1994: 90).«Методика» в узком смысле означает

конкретные методы и навыки обучения. А в широком смысле, в

качестве специального объекта исследования и научного термина,

64

она имеет гораздо больше «внутренних значений», чем в узком

смысле (там же 1994: 91).

В 1984 году Люй Бисун отметил, что «обучение языку является

наукой. Ее объектом исследования является целостный процесс,

связанный с обучением языку и с вопросами о теории, принципах и

методах обучения на каждом этапе. Ее целью являются исследование

и освещение закономерностей, которые характерны как для процесса

языкового обучения, в целом, так и для каждого этапа, в

отдельности».

В 1986 году Чжан Яцзюнь предложил название «教学法

(методика)», и внёс предложение, чтобы «термин «методика»

специально использовался для обозначения исследований в области

теории обучения, а также, чтобы «методикой» было принято называть

конкретные способы, методы и навыки преподавания».

В 1989 году Шэн Янь опубликовал статью, в которой он пишет,

что «задачей исследования методики обучения китайскому языку как

иностранному является создание теоретической системы китайского

языкового обучения».

В 1990 и 1991 годах Люй Бисун обобщил научные теории

обучения китайскому языку как иностранному и выделил следующие

разделы: основные теории (принципы обучения), теории обучения

(способы обучения) и методы обучения (навыки обучения). Он

указал, что «методика - это, в самом деле, метод соединения

закономерности языка с закономерностью изучения языка; это мост,

через который система языкового обучения создается по

закономерностям языка и закономерностям его изучения; это

прикладная теория, сформированная путем комплексного

использования закономерностей языка и закономерностей изучения

языка» (цит. по Жэнь Юань 1994: 91-92).

Таким образом, «методика обучения китайскому языку как

иностранному», с одной стороны, это целостная система теорий

обучения, ряд руководящих принципов, устанавливающих разные

отношения между обучением и изучением; с другой стороны, это ряд

методов и различные навыки, осуществляющие эти теории и

принципы на практике (Жэнь Юань 1994: 92).

2. Особенности обучения китайскому языку как

иностранному в 50-х и 60-х годах XX века

С точки зрения исследования методик, обучение китайскому

языку как иностранному в 50-х и 60-х годах имеет следующие

65

особенности: 1) лавным объектом обучения является преподавание

лексики, правил грамматики и других форм структуры языка; 2)

принципом обучения является сокращение времени на объяснение

теории, практическая деятельность студентов считается основой

обучения; 3) целью обучения является развитие у студентов 4 видов

языковых способностей: слушания, говорения, чтения и письма; 4)

системный принцип обучения заключается в постепенном и

планомерном движении вперед; в закреплении навыков слушания и

говорения, и одновременном развитии языковых и речевых навыков.

Несмотря на то, что начало обучения китайскому языку как

иностранному испытывало сильное влияние теории лингвистики в то

время, исследователи и преподаватели с самого начала уже заметили

отличия между теорией и практикой обучения китайскому языку

внутри страны. На основе практики преподаватели накопили ряд

полезных методов обучения, что заложило фундамент для

последующего научного развития (Жэнь Юань 1994: 90-91).

3. Внедрение и применение зарубежных теорий обучения

С конца 70 годов 20 века, на протяжении 10 лет, в сфере

внедрения и применения зарубежных теорий обучения, влияние на

данный научный предмет оказывали следующие факторы: 1)

системный анализ различных зарубежных школ обучения

иностранному языку; 2) внедрение принципа «функциональной

методики»; 3) подчеркивание роли культурных факторов в обучении;

4) теория языкового изучения и обучения, способствующая новому

мышлению. На основе данной теории исследователи начали

переводить внимание с «обучения» на «изучение».

В мае 1992 года редакционные отделы трех журналов – «Обучение

китайскому языку в мире», «Применение китайских языка и

иероглифов» и «Обучение языку и исследование» провели

совместную конференцию на тему «Исследование теории языкового

изучения». На этой конференции участники делились результатами

исследований, обменивались своими мнениями и взглядами, и

предложили много тезисов и положений, связанных с теорией

языкового изучения и теорией языкового обучения, что оказало

большое влияние на дальнейшие исследования обучения китайскому

языку как иностранному (Жэнь Юань 1994: 92-94).

4. Развитие исследования методики обучения китайскому

языку в период после 2000 годов

66

С 2000 годов по настоящее время китайские ученые провели

подробные исследования методики обучения китайскому языку.

Были опубликованы многие важные труды: например, «Исследование

теории обучения китайскому языку как иностранному» (Ли Цюань);

«Исследование преподавания китайского языка как иностранного»

(Цуй Юнхуа), «Исследование обучения китайскому языку как

иностранному» (Лю Сунхао); «Исследование путей преподавания

китайского языка по моему скромному мнению» (Люй Бисун) и т.д.

(Ян Чуньсюэ 2008: 140).

По сравнению с предыдущим периодом, исследование методики

обучения китайскому языку в последние годы имеет следующие

изменения и тенденции:

1) Диверсификация методики

В соответствии с такими факторами, как различный уровень

обучающихся, преподавателей, различия в содержании учебного

материала и другие аспекты преподавания китайского языка как

иностранного, ученые обращают внимание на использование

одновременно разных методов обучения, и в соответствии с типами

урока и этапами изучения детализируют и специализируют

используемые методы обучения.

2) Введение зарубежных теорий обучения

Функциональная методика и комплексная методика были

предложены в прошлом веке, но до сих пор еще они оказывают

влияние на обучение китайскому языку как иностранному.

Комплексная методика, как результат объединения различных

зарубежных школ языкового обучения с китайскими теориями и

практикой обучения китайскому языку как иностранному, вобрала в

себя достоинства обучения второму языку за рубежом, исключила

недостатки, и, учитывая особенности китайского языка, успешно

реализовала себя в практической работе. Комплексная методика

имеет ярко выраженный китайский характер.

3) Дальнейшая детализация исследований в области учебных

программ

Исследование методов обучения китайскому языку как

иностранному начинается с глубокого анализа рамочного плана,

далее подробно исследуются учебные планы. С 2000-ых годов

примером детализации и развития данной области является тот факт,

что исследование обучения китайскому языку как иностранному

детализируется отдельными иероглифами. Лю Сяомэй в своей книге

67

«Теория “иероглифического стандарта и обучение лексике

китайского языка» исследовала теорию «иероглифического

стандарта» и выделила разницу в определениях между

иероглифическим стандартом и морфемой, лексикой традиционной

лингвистики, и ее преимущества в обучении китайскому языку как

иностранному.

Чжан Ин сравнила (2004) три вида модели культурного

обучения - модель преподавания знаний о культуре, модель

тренировки межкультурной коммуникации, модель

мультикультурного взаимодействия, указала их преимущества и

недостатки, отметила, что в каждом из них существуют свои

характерные особенности и предложила, что нужно их использовать в

соответствии с типами урока, особенностями студентов, общим

количеством учебных часов и другими факторами, чтобы

максимально использовать их достоинства и минимизировать

недостатки.

Ли Вэй (2008), в процессе исследования вопроса о сочетании

обучения китайскому языку как иностранному с использованием

данного языка в реальной жизни, отметил такое явление, как

эпохальность языка. Он считал, «что в обучении необходимо

преподавать студентам такую живую языковую культуру, которая

может использоваться в реальной жизни, а не культуру, выходящую

из моды и не подходящую современному обществу» (цит. по Ян

Чуньсюэ 2008: 140 - 142).

Таким образом, исследование методики обучения китайскому

языку как иностранному началось в прошлом веке и успешно

продолжается в настоящее время. Китайские ученые добились

заметных практических результатов в формировании и развитии

учебных навыков у обучающихся, а также в области применения

зарубежных методик обучения иностранному языку. В дальнейшем,

на основе результатов полученных исследований необходимо

систематизировать полученный опыт формирования умений и

навыков владения китайским языком как иностранным и внедрять в

учебную практику наиболее актуальные методы обучения.


1. 程裕祯. 对外汉语教学发展史(1) [数字材料] / 程裕祯. //

国际汉语教学动态与研究. — 2005. — № 2. — 53-58 页. URL:

68

http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=0&CurRec=6&re

cid=&filename=GHJY200502014&dbname=CJFDLASN2014&dbcode=C

JFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx=&v=MTUzNTBkb0Z5L2xVTHZKSWlYQmQ3Rz

RIdFRNclk5RVlJUjhlWDFMdXhZUzdEaDFUM3FUcldNMUZyQ1VST

CtlWis= (дата обращения: 09.10.2015).

2. 任远. 对外汉语教学法研究的回顾与展望[数字材料] / 任远 //

语言教学与研究. — 1994. — № 2. — 90-103页. URL:

http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=0&CurRec=1&re

cid=&filename=YYJX199402006&dbname=CJFD9495&dbcode=CJFQ&

pr=&urlid=&yx=&v=MTg0NjdlWitSc0Zpam5VN3JLUERUQmRyS3hG

OVhNclk5RllvUjhlWDFMdXhZUzdEaDFUM3FUcldNMUZyQ1VSTCs

= (дата обращения: 09.10.2015).

3. 杨春雪. 2000年以来的对外汉语教学方法研究评述[数字材料] /

杨春雪 // 绵阳师范学院学报. — 2008. — № 12. — 第140-143页. URL:

http://www.cnki.net.libproxy.bjut.edu.cn/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryI

D=0&CurRec=2&recid=&filename=MYSF200812037&dbname=CJFD20

08&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx=&uid=WEEvREcwSlJHSldSdnQ0T

WcvajlmZ1I5djFac0U4djRtTHZZT2ZPV1N2NURkdkdrRWlWMGRSZnl

WNWh1Z21DckJRPT0=$9A4hF_YAuvQ5obgVAqNKPCYcEjKensW4I

QMovwHtwkF4VYPoHbKxJw!!&v=MTg1ODhaZWRzRnlEZ1ZMekFL

RFRZYUxHNEh0bk5yWTlHWTRSOGVYMUx1eFlTN0RoMVQzcVRy

V00xRnJDVVJMK2U= (дата обращения: 09.11.2015).

М.Б. Абдиев

Самаркандский государственный университет

г.Самарканд, Узбекистан

О некоторых особенностях кулинарной лексики узбекского

языка

Статья посвящена изучению истории и настоящего состояния

узбекской кулинарной лексики. А также в статье анализируется

взаимные термины, которые относятся к арабским, таджикским и

русско-интернациональным лексемам. В конце статьи рекомендуется

использование этих терминов при конкретизации отраслевой

терминологии.

Высокая культура среднеазиатских народов известна с древней-

http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=0&CurRec=6&recid=&filename=GHJY200502014&dbname=CJFDLASN2014&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx=&v=MTUzNTBkb0Z5L2xVTHZKSWlYQmQ3RzRIdFRNclk5RVlJUjhlWDFMdXhZUzdEaDFUM3FUcldNMUZyQ1VSTCtlWis=





http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=0&CurRec=1&recid=&filename=YYJX199402006&dbname=CJFD9495&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx=&v=MTg0NjdlWitSc0Zpam5VN3JLUERUQmRyS3hGOVhNclk5RllvUjhlWDFMdXhZUzdEaDFUM3FUcldNMUZyQ1VSTCs=





69

ших времен. Археологические раскопки свидетельствуют, что здесь

за несколько тысячелетий до нашей эры существовала цивилизация.

Необходимо подчеркнуть, что еще в первобытном обществе люди

занимались скотоводством, рыболовством, животновоДСТВОМ, а

также сельским хозяйством. В более позднее время наши предки

умели обрабатывать железо, медь и другие металлы, изготавливали из

них различные орудия труда, строили лодки, занимались ткачеством

и т.д.

В эту эпоху в языке наших предков начала формироваться

лексика, обозначающая лица, занятые указанными ремеслами.

Свидетельством тому являются зафиксированные в Орхоно-

Енисейских письменных памятниках названия специальностей:

бэдузчи (резчик по дереву, кости), йэрчи (проводник, путеводитель) и

т.д.

Профессиональные термины, охватывающие все стороны кули-

нарии, имеют в Средней Азии и, в частности, в Узбекистане

многовековую историю. Они прочно связаны с особенностями

социально-бытовой и культурной жизни народа. Узбекское

языкознание располагает опытом написания монографического

исследование по профессиональной лексике – это труды Н.

Мамаатова, С. Иброхимова, Н. Икрамова, Р. Даниярова, и других.

В узбекском языке слово "пазандачилик" (кулинария) обо-

значает все области, связанные с выпечкой лепешек, варкой бекмеса

(виноградная патока), халвы, нишалло (лакомство из сахара и

взбитых белков) и других блюд. Каждого мастера, даже если он

выполняет какой-нибудь отдельный процесс работы или готовит

какое-нибудь одно блюдо, называют именем, относящимся к той или

иной отрасли (профессии) нонвой, халвогар и др. Термины,

относящееся к той или иной области жизни, тесно связаны с

общественно-историческими и бытовыми особенностями жизни

народа. Следует подчеркнуть, что тема нашей работы по своему

характеру не замыкается в рамках лингвистики, и это побуждало нас

обращаться в своем исследовании к фактам истории и этнографии [5].

Кулинарная лексика, имеющая многовековую историю, яв-

ляется одной из важных составных частей словарного состава

узбекского языка. Она занимает свое особое место в двух

подсистемах лексики: I) в подсистеме бытовой лексики; 2) в

подсистеме профессионально-производственной лексики, которые, в

свою очередь занимают свое необходимое место в общей лек-

70

сической системе таджикского языка.

Несмотря на некоторые лексические, морфологические и

фонетические различия в диалектах, основная часть кулинарных

терминов является общей для всех районов республики.

С другой стороны, часть этой лексики широко употребительна в

общенародном таджикском языке, а другая известна лишь в

определенных профессиональных сферах. При этом узко-

профессиональные термины частично связаны и переплетаются с

диалектальными.

Лингвистической базой для изучения кулинарной лексики

узбекского языка и истории ее развития служат: книжные доре-

волюционные источники, специальные трактаты по кулинарным

рецептам, традиционные кулинарные каноны – дастуры, толковые

словари, поэтические произведения. Специальные словари

кулинарной лексики нами обнаружены не были. Часть лексики,

содержащаяся в этих источниках, продолжает свое существование в

современном узбекском языке и его диалектах, другая часть

неупотребительна в современном узбекском языке и является

специфической для этой группы источников.

Другую группу составляет современная узбекская кулинарная

лексика, как общенародная, так и диалектная, которая все более

проникает во все виды и жанры узбекской литературы, в том числе и

научной.

Между этими двумя группами источников существует тесная

взаимосвязь. Разница заключается лишь в степени известности и

освоенности их в современных условиях.

Если в древнее время богатый ассортимент узбекской

кулинарии существовал для ограниченного круга правящей верхушки

и специалистов, а широким массам народа была доступна лишь его

незначительная часть, то в настоящее время, в условиях независимого

строя, разнообразие блюд питания и кулинарных изделий становится

одним из самых ярких проявлений повышения благосостояния

узбекских народов. Именно этим объясняется возрождение узбекской

кулинарии, а вместе с ней и интенсивное развитие кулинарной

терминологии на базе литературно-книжной и разговорно-

диалектальной лексики, а также за счет обогащения заимствованной

лексики из языков народов СНГ и зарубежных стран. В настоящее

время интернациональный пласт узбекской кулинарной лексики

составляет значительную ее часть, и она все время развивается и

71

обогащается.

Старое кулинарное ремесло все более превращается в искусство,

причем названиям изделий в этом искусстве принадлежит не

последняя роль.

Собранные нами кулинарные термины и названия могут оказать

помощь в нахождении или создании семантически, фонетически и

эстетически целесообразных названий для различных видов быстро

развивающейся узбекской кулинарии, особенно в области

хлебопекарного и кондитерского дела, продукция которых получает

высокую оценку на республиканских и международных выставках.

Для дальнейшего исследования кулинарной лексики узбекского

языка необходима, прежде всего, ее лексикографическая обработка,

составление наиболее полного толкового и двуязычного словаря

кулинарной лексики по всем доступным источникам. При этом,

исходя из специфики этой области терминологии, следует достаточно

подробно объяснять не только общий смысл терминов и названий, но

и обозначаемые ими действия, предметы и виды продукции, указывая

там, где это возможно, все их составные части и их соотношение,

способ приготовления, назначение (общее лечебно-диетическое

питание, рекомендации при определенных заболеваниях и т.п.).

Таким образом, словарь кулинарной лексики должен быть

предназначен не только для языковедов, но и для специалистов

различных областей (этнографов и историков, ботаников, биологов,

медиков диетологов и др.); а также для широкого круга читателей.

Поэтому этот словарь должен быть смешанного толково-

энциклопедического типа.

Изучение профессиональной кулинарной лексики узбекского

языка имеет теоретическое и практическое значение. Богатый

материал, собранный в процессе изучения кулинарной лексики, и

проведенный анализ могут послужить разработке соответствующего

раздела лексикологии узбекского языка (в историческом аспекте).

Определение принципов создания кулинарных терминов и названий,

их морфологических и семантических особенностей может быть

использовано для систематизации и унификации необходимой части

кулинарной терминологии. в процессе формирования и развития от-

дельных слоев лексики изменялся удельный вес основных способов

пополнения словарного состава, среди которых главными и наиболее

интенсивными на всех этапах истории узбекского языка были

внутреннее словообразование и заимствование иноязычной лексики.

72

Из всех языков, откуда проникает заимствования в узбекский

язык, арабский стоит на первом месте. Причина этому не только

арабское нашествие, ислам и экономические, политические и

культурные связи узбеков и арабов, но и многовековая ориентация на

арабский язык, сильные арабоязычные тенденции вплоть до начала

XX века.

Все это не могло не сказаться на лексике узбекского языка, в

частности, на кулинарной лексике, в результате чего появилось много

кулинарных терминов. Среди них немало таких, которые

образовались из арабских слов или с их помощью. Например, халиca

(блюдо из пшеницы, мяса и жира), рохатул-хулкум (рахат-лукум)

”услада для горла".

Многовековое соседство таджиков и узбеков наложило опре-

деленный отпечаток на язык обоих народов и прежде всего, на

лексику. Географическая среда, экономическое развитие, культурные

и бытовые связи обоих народов постоянно служат почвой для

взаимного использования слов и терминов. Поэтому узбекские слова

термины входят в таджикский язык и наоборот, а с течением времени

становятся компонентами кулинарной лексики обоих языков. Часть

таджикских терминов этой отрасли исконно узбекские или

образованы с участием узбекских слов. Например, ковурма шурва,

ковурма палов, катлама, катик, куртоба, кайла и другие.

Русско-интернациональные термины широко используется в

кулинарной лексике. Часть из них приходила через разговорный

язык, а часть – через различные виды литературы. Например, борщ,

табака, компот, торт, салат, пирожки, мармелад и другие.

Кулинарная лексика, имеющая многовековую историю, является

одной из важных основных частей словарного состава узбекского

языка.

Результаты исследования могут быть использованы для осве-

щения отдельных вопросов, связанных с экономикой, хозяйством,

бытом и культурой узбекского народа, а также послужить основой

для конкретизации и дополнения лексической части учебной

программы по узбекскому языку в школах и вузах.


1. Маматов Н. Узбекская хлопководческая терминология: АКД.

Ташкент, 1955.

73

2. Ибрагимов С. Профессиональная лексика узбекского языка

(На материалах Ферганских говоров) – Ташкент, 1961.

3. Икрамова Н. Узбекская кулинарная лексика: АКД. – Ташкент,

1983.

4. Данияров Р. Техническая терминология узбекского языка на

современном этапе: АДД. – Ташкент, 1988. -43 с.

5. Сухарева О.А. Бухара XIX-начала XX века. М., "Наука". 1966,

с. 209-211.

Х.Х. Бердиев

Самаркандский государственный университет

г. Самарканд, Узбекистан

Метафорические термины в лексике юртовозведения

Юрта и юртообразные жилые конструкции всегда имели особое

значение в истории кочевых и полукочевых народов. Строения такого

типа по сегодняшний день используются под сезонное жилье, а также

в сфере туризма. Одним из ряда особенностей этих жилищ

связано с терминами. В статье анализируются термины этого типа.

Важным знаковым источником возникновения терминов или

слов посредством семантического метода, как в терминологических,

так и в общелитературных языках, является важным явлением в

лингвистике. Вопросы возникновения терминов семантическим

методом в узбекском языкознании в той или иной степени изучались

и ранее. Определенные мнения по поводу возникновения терминов

семантическим методом в своих монографических исследованиях

рассматривали такие ученые как Н. Маматов, С. Иброхимов, С.

Акобиров, Х. Жамолхонов, Р. Дониёров, О. Рамазонов, Т. Турсунова,

А. Хусанов, А. Мадвалиев, А. Хожиев, Г. Исмоилов. Особое место в

качестве специальной работы посвященной освещению

возникновения терминов семантическим способом в системе

терминологии занимает исследование Г. Исмоилова. В исследовании

освещаются мнения по поводу объективных причин перехода

терминов одной определенной системы в другую

(транстерминизации), духовных особенностей применения

определенных терминов в новом значении, возникновения на основе

переходности транстерминов, таких как метафора, метонимия, об их

74

синонимичности, вариативности, омонимичности терминов и месте,

которое они занимают. Несмотря на это, в узбекском языкознании,

по сей день, не осуществлены монографические исследования о месте

семантического способа в общелитературном язык или

терминологических системах.

В то же время своеобразное место занимает около пятидесяти

терминов созданных семантическим способом в сфере терминологии

юртовозведения.

Как и в терминологических системах других сфер, в

терминологии юртовозведения, в транстерминизации, то есть

возникновении терминов семантическим способом, широко

использована метафора. Действительно, на основе сходства

предметов друг с другом, возникает новое значение, а значит,

возникают новые семантические термины. Это можно наблюдать и в

терминологии юртовозведения.

Определенную часть терминологии юртовозведения, ведущую

свою историю возникновения от глубокой древности, занимают

термины, созданные семантическим способом. Изменения в

семантике слова, в основном происходит на основе таких

семантических трансформаций как метафора, метонимия, синекдоха.

Термины, возникшие семантическим способом, обладают

лексико-семантическими и семантико-синтаксическими свойствами.

В первом случае, это переход, связанный со словарным значением

термина, а во-втором случае смешивание как синтаксических, так и

семантических свойств [2, 57].

Таким образом, в настоящей статье речь идет о метафорических

терминах, применяемых в юртовозведении.

Термины юртовозведения образованные семантическим

способом, применяются, во-первых, отдельно, во-вторых,

объединено:

1. Семантические термины применяются индивидуально.

2. Термины, образованные семантическим способом

применяются объединено.

Образование имен существительных семантическим способом

связано с явлением возникновения новых лексически-значимых слов

на основании изменения значения слова в процессе исторического

развития языка. Семантический способ служит для различения друг

от друга имени существительного от имени существительного, или

имени существительного от других имен.

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Велико значение следующих клише в образовании терминов

семантическим способом:

- Основание для сходства + предмет: узук (два куска кошмы

полукруглой формы, предназначенные для покрытия купола юрты),

узукбов (Дехконобод) тканый ремень, предназначенный для

фиксации узука с нижней стороны и по краям (1, 313-с), шахмати

(Дехконобод) 1) фиксация веревок юртового покрытия по одной

стороне. 2) тип узора в стиле кашта. 3) соединенные между собой в

целостную ткань куски материи. 4) узор на ковре в стиле шахматной

доски (геометрические узоры), косагул (Дехконобод) узор из

цветной шерсти в форме круга в центре кошмы (1, 150-с.), сочоқ

(бахрома в конце недотканной материи или ткани: Гиламни (нг)

сочиғини ким кесди) (1, 259-с.), шоқилич (Шахрисабз) тип узора,

нанесенный в клетках сузане (1, 373-с.), қилич (Карши) инструмент

ткачества в форме маленького меча с одним толстым и одним

тонким краем предназначенный для удобства ткача (1, 414-с.),

қиличак (Миришкор) хлопковый или шерстяной ковер, сотканный

при помощи қилича).

- Основание для сходства + количество предмета: тўққиз

(подарок жениха невесте состоящий из тканей для одежды,

различных украшений, нарядов и сладостей), қўнқароқ1)

(Дехконобод) самец барана в возрасте от года до полутора. 2)

(Шахрисабз) узоры в стиле кашта в форме бараньего рога (1, 442-с.).

- Основание для сходства + часть предмета: пичоқучи узор,

наносимый на тканный шерстяной ковер в форме кончика ножа (1,

229-с.), ғилдировик (Дехконобод) ремень для скрепления краев

кошмы из бархата, толщиной 12-15 сантиметров (1, 447-с.).

- Основание для сходства + этноним: туркмани (тип ковра

сотканного плетением), араби (арабский ковер).

- Основание для сходства + топоним: бағдоди (Тошқўрғон) узор,

наносимый на шерстяной ковер: бағдоди деймиз шу гулни (1, 30-с.),

қашқари (Оқиртма) вид мешка сотканного из хлопка или шерсти (1,

409-с.).

- Основание для сходства + части человеческого тела:

билакламоқ (Чем) (разминание коленями кошмы несколькими

людьми одновременно), билакла (девушка или женщина,

участвовавшая в разминании кошмы), бошбов (основная веревка,

скрепляющая эрганак и керага), бошқур (основная тесьма),

урчуқбош – камень или керамическое приспособление с отверстием

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в центре, через которую продевают веретено: Урчуқбошим синиб

кетти (1, 318-с.), суяк (Давкамар) остов юртовой конструкции (1,

265-с.), ўртақулоқ (Гузор) узор на ковре в форме ушной раковины,

состоящий из двух частей соединенных тонкими частями (1, 398-с.),

қўбизқулоқ (Дехконобод) узор, наносимый на скрепляемую тесьму

юртовой конструкции.

- Основание для сходства + название животного: жилхурс

(Чиял) пуховый палас: Жилхурснинг нархи неча пул? (1, 109-с.),

туябўйин – узор, наносимый на ковер девятью парами ниток (1, 302-

с.), қўзитиш (Сувлиқ) узор, наносимый на особый женский платок

«желак» (1, 437-с.), қўйтиши (Чем) узор, наносимый на тканый

ковер; қўчқормайиз (Чем) узор, наносимый на ковер посредством

семи пар ниток.

- Основание для сходства + астрономический объект: ойнусха

(Дехконобод) узор наносимый на тесьмы юртовой конструкции (1,

203-с.), осмони (Гузор) небесно голубой цвет (1, 210-с.).

- Основание для сходства + название растения: олмагул (узор,

наносимый на тесьмы юрты).

- Основание для сходства + название птиц: қушаёқ

(Дехконобод) узор наносимый на тесьмы юрты (1, 303-с.).

В целом, метафорические термины, применяемые в

юртовозведении, обладают важным значением в качестве

этнолингвичтических, лингвокультурологических ценностей, и

являются актуальным вопросом лингвистических исследований.


1. Нафасов Т. Қашқадарё ўзбек халқ сўзлари луғати. I. –

Тошкент: Мухаррир, 2011.

2. Мирахмедова З. Ўзбек тилининг анатомия терминологияси

ва уни тартибга солиш муаммолари. – Тошкент: Фан, 2010.

77

Т.О. Боронникова, Э.В. Лелека

Уральский федеральный университетимени первого Президента



Семантика русского и английского числа существительных.

Сходства и различия.

При изучении любого иностранного языка люди волей-неволей

проводят параллель с родным языком, переносят грамматические

особенности одного языка на другой, что приводит к путанице в

процессе изучения. В статье рассматривается категория числа имени

существительного в английском и русском языках, выделяются

группы существительных, обладающих особенными числовыми

характеристиками, устанавливаются сходства и различия между

английскими словами и их русскими эквивалентами.

Semantic characteristics of the category of number of Russian

and English nouns. Similarities and differences.

Every language has grammatical categories of nouns. The English

language numbers the two of them (the category of number and case),

while the Russian language contains the three of them (the category of

number, case and gender). The category of number seems to be the most

difficult for students, but at the same time quite interesting for analysing.

In the present work we would like to study the category of number of

English nouns and compare it with the Russian one.

The category of number in modern English, as well as in Russian, is

expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular

form of the noun. Their categorical meaning is clear at first sight: the

singular number shows that only one object is meant, while the plural

number denotes more than one object. This is apparently obvious for such

correlations as table – tables (стол – столы), boy – boys (мальчик –

мальчики), etc. However, there are some nouns that do not show a contrast

between singular and plural. They are divided into several groups.

Singularia tantum nouns. These are nouns which have only a

singular form and no plural forms. The group of Singularia tantum

includes the names of abstract notions (friendship (дружба), love

(любовь), music (музыка), etc.); names of mass materials (water (вода),

78

air (воздух), snow (снег), etc.); names of some collective inanimate

objects (furniture (мебель), foliage (листва), linen (белье), etc.). These

subgroups denote concepts which are incompatible with the idea of

countability, which means that the reason for the absence of the plural

form is extralinguistic. Consequently, equivalents of such nouns in

Russian also lack plural forms for the same reason. However, there is one

more subgroup of Singularia tantum nouns of heterogeneous semantics

which presents difficulties for Russian learners of English, because the

reasons for the absence of the plural form are language-specific and the

number characteristics of these English nouns and their Russian

equivalents do not coincide. For example, some of these nouns have

equivalents in Russian which are used only in the plural (cream (сливки),

ink (чернила), etc.). There are rational explanations of numeral

characteristics of these nouns in both English and Russian. While the use

of cream and ink only in the singular is caused by their semantics (nouns

denoting things which have neither shape nor precise limits can not be

counted and therefore have no distinction between singular and plural), the

reason of the use of сливки and чернила only in the plural is both in their

lexical meanings and morphological structures. At the same time, Russian

equivalents to some of these nouns have both singular and plural forms

(advice (совет – советы), research (исследование – исследования),

news (новость – новости), etc.). It can explain why such English words

are mistakenly treated by Russian students as the ones having plural forms.

David Crystal, a British linguist, academic and author, in one of his

interview said: “The weight of usage produced by the non-native speakers

of English in the world is bound to have an effect on the way the English

language evolves. It is simply because the thing that drives language

change more than anything else is contact, mutual influence… Look at the

way non-countable nouns are being made countable in many parts of the

English learning world. Words like furniture having a plural furnitures,

information being informations, research being researches. I would never

use these forms as a native speaker of English, but you will increasingly

find them being used. And, in fact, recently, in one or two occasions I have

caught myself actually saying informations, because it seemed to be

exactly what I wanted to say, a very concrete, specific notion of

information, not the general abstract mass-noun notion. And then you look

it up in the Oxford English dictionary and you find that once upon a time

information was countable in English” [6]. Despite this observation,

79

academic English denies plural forms of these words and do not

recommend to use them.

Pluralia tantum nouns. These are nouns which have only a plural

and no singular forms. The group of Pluralia Tantum includes nouns

denoting objects consisting of two similar halves (trousers (брюки),

spectacles (очки), scissors (ножницы), etc.); nouns (concrete or abstract)

which have collective meaning. As for the first subgroup, Russian

equivalents of such nouns are also used only in the plural. The reason of

the lack of singular forms is common for both languages are connected to

lexical meanings of these words. But the second subgroup presents more

difficulties for Russian students. A limited number of such words have

Russian equivalents which are also pluralia tantum (tropics (тропики),

slops (помои), sweepings (отбросы), etc.). The others have equivalents

which either have both singular and plural forms (goods (товары –

товар), eaves (карнизы – карниз), preserves (консервы – консерва);

tidings (известия – известие), goings-on (поступки - поступок), etc.),

or only a singular form (clothes (одежда), wages (заработная плата),

oats (овес), etc.). The number characteristics of these English nouns and

their Russian equivalents do not coincide in most cases and therefore

should be learnt.

Nouns with the descriptive plural. These are uncountable nouns

which are used in the function of the countable noun. Therefore, plural

forms of these nouns have a pronounced stylistic colouring (the snows of

the Arctic (снега Арктики); the sands of the Sahara Desert (пески

Сахары); the blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea (голубые воды

Средиземного моря), etc.). The opposition of “one – more than one” does

not apply here: we could not possibly say three snows, ten sands, or five

waters. The plural forms in such correlations as snow – snows (снег –

снега), sand – sands (песок – пески), water – waters (вода – воды) serve

to denote a landscape or seascape in order to impress (the ground covered

by snow, a vast stretch of water, etc.). Such plural forms are commonly

used for stylistic purposes in English and Russian literary prose and

poetry.

Nouns with a fully lexicalised plural form. The plural forms of

these nouns develop completely new meanings which the singular do not

have at all. For some of these nouns there is the same process taking place

in Russian. The most evident example is the word paper. While in the

singular, paper (бумага)denotes material, but in the plural papers

(бумаги)meansnotes or documents. However, such cases of perfect

80

coincidence between English nouns and their Russian equivalents are rare.

There are some more examples of nouns with a fully lexicalised plural

form in English: tear (one drop falling from the eye) and tears (treacles on

the cheeks as tokens of grief or joy), potato (one item of the vegetables)

and potatoes (food), sky (the vault of heaven) and skies (the same sky

taken as a direct or figurative background), etc. A limited number of nouns

in English have only the plural form and lack the singular (pluralia tantum

nouns), but they happen to be homonyms of nouns which are used in both

forms: colour – colours (hues) – colours (regimental flags); a force –

forces (powers) – forces (an army); a custom – customs (habits) – customs

(taxis on imported goods), etc.

Names of subjects, diseases and games. This group presents the

most difficulties for learning, because there are more exceptions than rules,

and because there are only few coincidences. Names of subjects in English

and Russian are treated as singular despite they look like they are plural in

English (mathematics (математика), physics (физика), ethics (этика),

politics (политика), etc.). However, some of these nouns are occasionally

used in the plural in English when a particular person’s work or activities

are meant (politics (political belief), statistics (numerical information),

economics (financial system), etc.). Names of diseases, while plural in

origin, are treated singularly in English because just one disease is

discussed (diabetes (диабет), mumps (свинка), measles (корь), etc.).

Other rules of the usage of such nouns are given in Russian: names of

chronic or long-term diseases are used only in the singular (рак, язва,

цинга, etc.), while the names of slight or temporal diseases have both

singular and plural forms (простуда, ангина, инфаркт, etc.). Some

names of games are always in the singular (bowls, billiards, draughts;

боулинг, бильярд, домино, etc.), while others are in the plural (chees,

hide-and-seek, blind man's buff; шахматы, салки, прятки, etc.).

Collective nouns. These are nouns which denote groups of people or

animals (family (семья), clergy (духовенство), herd (стадо), poultry

(птица), etc.). Collective nouns in English are used in two ways: they

either indicate the group as a single undivided (used with singular

predicates), or as a collection of individuals (used with plural predicates).

For example, His family was well known in their town – My family keep a

close eye on me. However, it is impossible in Russian to use the predicate

in the plural form retaining grammatical structure of the collective noun

(singular number) because of the rules of concord. If we use this noun in

the plural, we still do not reach the same opposition “group as a whole” –

81

“group as consisting of a number of individuals”. Those nouns, which can

be used in the plural, denote several groups (несколькосемей,

несколькостад) while in the plural. In order to show this opposition,

either multitude valent predicates (разогнатьоркестр,

распуститьпарламент, ит.д.), or adverbs of quantity

(многомолодежи, малодуховенстваит.д.) are used with collective

nouns in the singular.

Thus, basically the grammatical category of number in both English

and Russian shows the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the

singular form of the noun. At the same time these forms are not always

connected with the idea of oneness or more-than-oneness. There are plenty

of nouns with non-numerical semantics – collective, material nouns, and

also nouns which do not change for singular and plural (the so-called

singularia and pluralia tantum). The usage of some nouns is explained by

peculiarities of their lexical meaning, grammatical structure, or origin.

However, there are still a lot of English and Russian nouns which numeral

characteristics are under discussion.


1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. –

М.: Высш. школа, 1983. – С. 57-62.

2. Викулова Е. А. Теоретическая грамматика современного

английского языка. – Екатеринбург: Изд-во Урал. ун-та, 2014. – С. 27-

29.

3. Крылова И. П., Гордон Е. М. Грамматика современного

английского языка. – М.: Книжный дом «Университет»: Высшая

школа, 2003. – 448 с.

4. Ляшевская О. Н. Семантика русского числа – М.: Языки

славянской культуры, 2004. – С. 147-150, 163-164, 309-311.

5. Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English

Language/ D. Crystal Cambridge Univ. Press. 1995. P. 200-201.

6. Macmillan EducationELT. URL:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=YJ29zDW9

gLI (дата обращения: 25.01.2016).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=YJ29zDW9gLI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=YJ29zDW9gLI

82

А.Р. Бостекова

Актюбинский Региональный Государственный Университет им.

Жубанова

г. Актобе, Казахстан

Интернациональная лексика или заимствованные слова

В этой статье рассматриваются проблемы интернациональной

лексики и заимствованных слов.

Интернациональные слова, заимствованные из одного

источника, имеют графическое и звуковое сходство, и, совпадая до

некоторой степени по смыслу, составляют общее достояние ряда

языков. На протяжении всего периода развития исторического

языкознания межъязыковые отношения всегда находились в центре

внимания исследователей. В разное время проблемами языковых

контактов и двуязычия занимались Л.В. Щерба, Ю.А. Жлуктенко,

А.Е. Карлинский, М.М. Михайлов, В.Ю.Розенцвейг, Л.П. Крысин, У.

Вайрайх, Э. Хауген и многие другие. В настоящее время, начинает

формироваться такое направление в языкознании как

«интерлингвистика», одной из задач которой является поиск

естественного языка, способного служить единым языком общения

для народов планеты. В формировании лексического фонда

различных национальных языков наблюдаются две тенденции. Одна

из них усиливает национальные элементы словарного состава, вторая

интернациональный лексический фонд, т.е., это «международный

словарный фонд». «Международные слова» или

«интернационализмы» заимствуются не в какой-либо один, а во

многие языки, следовательно, создаётся международный фонд

лексики, в который входят термины из различных областей

человеческой деятельности: политики, философии, науки, техники,

искусства и т.д.

Большая часть их является результатом параллельного

обогащения новых языков за счёт лексики древних языков, например,

«демократия», «синоним», «философия» (из латинского и

греческого). Другая часть их идёт из современных языков, например,

«соната» (из итальянского), «перестройка» (из русского). К

интернациональным словам не относятся родственные соответствия,

т.е. слова, наличие которых в ряде языков является следствием

83

родства этих языков и их происхождение от одного языка – основы,

например: англ. – mother, нем. – mutter, русск. – мать.

Таким образом, если под термином «заимствованная лексика»

понимаются «слова, морфемы, звуки, значения, перемещённые из

одного языка в другой» [1, 239], согласно А.Э. Рыцаревой,

интернационализмы, как и интернациональные слова могут считаться

лексическими единицами, функционирующие в нескольких (не менее

чем в трёх) мировых языках, близкие по звуковой, графической и

семантической форме, являющиеся следствием языкового контакта и

выражающие общие для многих культур понятия из областей науки,

техники, бизнеса, политики, искусства, средств коммуникации [2, 9].

Интернационализация общественной жизни, получившая

ускоренное развитие под влиянием научно-технической революции,

усиливает общественные потребности в изучении иностранных

языков, в переводе научной и художественной литературы.

Неуклонно ускоряется рост потока информации, в каждой области

знаний появляются новые понятия, требующие номинации. Сегодня

огромными темпами развивается тенденция к унификации языков.

Интернационализмы в современном русском языке выполняют

основную функцию – коммуникативную. Они включены в

синтагматические и парадигматические отношения, участвуют в

словообразовательных процессах и тем самым обогащают словарный

фонд русского языка.

Отличительные особенности интернационализмов как

подсистемы заимствований состоят в том, что семантическая,

графическая или фонетическая форма слова представлена как

минимум в трёх языках, поддающаяся морфемному анализу при

синхроническом подходе, имеющая в своей структуре обязательно

один иноязычный компонент.

Интернациональная лексика – совокупность

интернационализмов, используемых в различных как родственных,

так и неродственных языках в пределах данного культурно языкового

ареала [3].

Интернациональная лексика: 1. Слова и словосочетания,

термины и терминологические сочетания, которые в разных языках

имеют сходную форму и одинаковое значение. Они появляются в

языках в результате заимствования одним языком у другого какого-

либо третьего языка, например, латинского, английского,

французского и пр. 2. Слова общего происхождения,существующие

http://sociolinguistics.academic.ru/231/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0

84

во многих языках с одним и тем же значением, но обчно

оформляемые в соответствии с фонетическими и морфологическими

нормами данного языка. Основную часть интернациональной лексик

составляют термины из области науки и техники. К

интернациональным словам относятся также такие, которые обычно в

неизменном виде заимствуются многими языками из языка народа,

создавшего эти слова вместе с соответствующими предметами или

явлениями.

Интернационали́зм — слово, возникшее первоначально в одном

языке и затем из него заимствованное в большинство других языков

мира для обозначения этого понятия. Таковы прежде всего

специальные термины большинства наук, названия технических

устройств (микроскоп, телефон, спутник, Интернет), общественных

институтов (полиция, республика, академия), спортивная лексика

(прежде всего само слово спорт), разного рода «экзотизмы»

(самурай, томагавк и т. п.). Интернационализмы (кроме последнего

случая) редко бывают стопроцентными, так как в ряде языков для них

часто создаются не заимствования, а кальки (из европейских языков

кальки предпочитает исландский язык, в котором совсем мало

интернационализмов, в меньшей степени немецкий и чешский, из

ближневосточных — иврит).

В связи со значительными успехами Англии и США в науке и

технике, с 19 века много английских терминов было заимствовано

языками мира, и этот процесс продолжается и сейчас. Хотя многие

английские слова сами в конечном счёте восходят к латыни, всё

сильнее проявляется тенденция при заимствовании сохранять

английское произношение, а не реконструировать традиционное

латинское (например: комбайн).

В языках тех народов, где преобладает мусульманская религия,

основная часть научных, философских и религиозных терминов была

заимствована из арабского языка (отчасти также персидского). При

использовании арабского письма сохраняется и исходное арабское

написание.

В некоторых европейских языках употребляются слова,

заимствованные из славянских языков (русского, чешского),

например «спутник», «робот», «соболь».

Интернациональная лексика французского происхождения

является частью словарного состава многих мировых языков.

Французские слова, заимствованные разносистемными языками,

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%8B

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D0%9A%D0%90)

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C

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подвергаются изменениям, как на уровне формы, так и содержания.

На современном этапе такие лексические единицы имеют разный

семантический объем, могут разниться в написании и произношении.

Интернационализация общественной жизни, получившая ускоренное

развитие под влиянием научно-технической революции, эволюции

общества в экономическом, социальном и культурном плане,

интеграционные процессы в мировом сообществе обусловливают

возрастающую роль международных слов в самых различных

областях языковой деятельности, связанных с процессами

соприкосновения языков [4.]. Особое значение интернационализмы в

развитии современных языков приобретают в связи с тем, что они

являются общепризнанными формами лексико-семантического

выражения важнейших понятий современной культуры. Несомненно,

их значение во всех основных путях преодоления языкового барьера,

будь то обучение языкам, перевод, создание международных и

вспомогательных языков [5, 198]. Исследование особенностей

функционирования интернационализмов является важной составной

частью изучения системы языка.

Вместе с тем это изучение целесообразно и для определения их

роли и места в лексической системе современных языков.

Материалом исследования послужили слова французского

происхождения высокой степени интернационализации.

Исследование проводилось в основном на материале английского

языка в сопоставлении с эквивалентной лексикой французского и

русского языков. Языковой материал изучался нами как на уровне

лексико-семантических значений, так и на уровне формы

(фонетической, орфографической). Под интернационализмами

понимают лексические единицы, сходные до степени идентификации

в графическом (уже орфографическом) и фонематическом отношении

с полностью или частично общей семантикой, выражающие понятия

международного значения и существующие в нескольких (не менее

чем трех) синхронически сопоставляемых языках (в том числе

неродственных или неблизкородственных) [6, 61]. Английский язык в

ходе своего исторического развития служил и служит одним из

активных источников обогащения словарного состава других языков.

В принципе, любой лингвистический материал может быть

заимствован при наличии благоприятных условий. Исследователи

выделяют следующие условия, способствующие процессу

заимствования: наличие языкового контакта (контакт культур и

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народов), определенный уровень двуязычия, количественное

соотношение контактирующих народов, продолжительность и

интенсивность контактов; степень владения билингвов обоими

языками; функциональная роль обоих языков в жизни двуязычного

общества, статус и престиж контактирующих языков и культур

народов, их представляющих; оценка и отношение к би- и

мультилингвизму, а также к интерференции, сопровождающей

явление [7, 12]. План содержания изучаемых лексических единиц

предстает как сложная структура, поскольку большинство

исследуемых слов являются многозначными как в языке-источнике,

так и в языках-акцепторах. В английском языке лишь незначительное

количество единиц являются однозначными, в большинстве своем

они относятся к терминологической лексике (например, aviation,

etude, faience, façade, gram(me), oculist, parol). Большинство

лексических единиц являются полисемичными, в чем проявляется

особенность интернациональной лексики в английском языке.

Известно, что изменения значения слов происходят в направлении

его расширения, сужения, метафорического и метонимического

переноса, обобщения, специализации, улучшения или ухудшения.

Существуют слова, которые из-за сходства формы и содержания

могут привести к существенным искажениям содержания,

неточностям в передаче стилистической окраски, к ошибкам в

лексической сочетаемости, а также в словоупотреблении [8, 152].

Известно, что, в особенности, данное явление касается

интернациональной лексики, так как внешняя схожесть слова в

иностранном и родном языке заставляет пользователей языка думать

и о схожести внутренней – на уровне лексического значения, что

часто в корне неверно. Еще более сложна ситуация, когда в обучении

или своей профессиональной деятельности человек сталкивается с

двумя иностранными языками, особенно с такими, как английский и

французский, имея при этом родной русский язык. Фонетическая

адаптация заимствованных слов, прежде всего, связана с

акцентуацией. Слова же, полностью адаптировавшиеся в языке,

вошедшие в основной фонд, имеющие множество лексических

значений, в большинстве своем располагают несколькими

однокоренными единицами. В русском языке среди

интернационализмов мы выявили слова как с положительной, так и с

отрицательной словообразовательной активностью. В области

акцентуации в большинстве случаев наблюдается адаптация единиц

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под законы ударности принимающих языков. Таким образом, наш

лексический фонд наполняется за счет интернациональных слов.


1. Алефириенко Н.Ф. Теория языка. Вводный курс. М., 2004. -

368 с.

2. Акуленко В.В. Существует ли интернациональная лексика? //

Вопросы языкознания. М.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1961. № 3. С. 60–69.

3. Акуленко В.В. Вопросы интернационализации словарного

состава языка. Харьков: Изд-во Харьков.ун-та, 1972. 215 с.

4. Банкав А.Я. Роль французского языка в интернационализации

словарного состава нероманских языков // Современные проблемы

романистики: функциональная семантика: Тез. V Всесоюз. конф. по

романскому языкознанию. Калинин: Калинин.гос. ун-т, 1986. Т. I. С.

17–19.

5. Володарская Э.Ф. Заимствование как универсальное

лингвистическое явление // Вопросы филологии. 2001. № 1 (7). С. 11–

27.

6. Зеленина Т.И. Русский язык как посредник при освоении

иноязычной лексики удмуртским языком: Дис. д-ра филол. наук.

Екатеринбург, 2003.

7. Зеленина Т.И., Загуляева Б.Ш., Буторина Н.В. Многоязычный

словарь на основе французской лексики, заимствованной русским и

удмуртским языками. Ижевск: Удмуртский университет, 2003. 99 с.

8. Рыцарева А.Э. Прагмалингвистический аспект

интернациональной лексики (на материале английского языка).

Автореф. дисс. кандидат.филологич. наук. – Волгоград, 2002. - 17 с.

П.С. Васильев, Т.Н. Николаева

Северо-Восточный федеральный университет

г. Якутск, Россия

Средства выражения скандальной сенсации в медийном

тексте

В данной статье анализируются англоязычные, русскоязычные и

немецкоязычные медийные тексты о скандальной ситуации,

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происходящей вокруг кинопремии «Оскар». Исследуется структура

данных текстов, средства номинации действующих лиц скандала, а

также способы выражения авторской оценки.

Means of expression of scandalous sensation in the mass-media

text

Nowadays, media texts, or texts of mass media are the form of

existence of language. It is a form of speech activity, which combines all

taken stereotypes of text organization in the professional sphere [1]. The

main function of media texts is to impact on the reader as soon as possible

and to influence the reader's views to situation. T. Dobrosklonskaya

identifies the following features of media texts [2]:

1. The form of reproduction (oral or written)

2. The distribution channel (print, radio, television, Internet)

3. The type of the text (news, advertising, journalism)

Undoubtedly, relevant information, which is reflected in the press, is

able to cause public resonance. In most cases, the resonance can be caused

by using various kinds of media sensations in the texts.

Sensation is a type of message, which attaches extremely importance

and significance to society. The system of sensations allows you to split

information so that the audience could not acquire complete knowledge of

the posed problem. [6] Traditionally, any sensation goes beyond the event

itself, and even distorts it. There are three main types of sensations:

1. Phenomenon – a fundamental change in the world around the

person.

2. Events – greatly changing possibilities of interaction between a

man and the world around him.

3. Discoveries – changing established ideas of people [3].

There are opinions that this kind of message – the prerogative of the

so-called "gutter press", which often publish scandalous information to

increase ratings and attract the attention of many readers. However, if the

accuracy of the information is confirmed, then containing scandalous texts

are published in major editions, supported by references to the source of

information [4]. That is why the study of ways to organize messages

containing scandalous sensation is of great interest.

The first thing that can be noticed by every reader in the newspaper

is the header that explains what will be discussed in the article. Headers

about the scandalous statement by Jada Pinkett Smith distinguished by

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diversity and have different functions, regardless of the construction or

lexical content: informative (Jada Pinkett Smith suggests boycott of Oscars

over lack of diversity (“The Guardian” 18.01.16), Jada Pinkett Smith will

Oscars boykottieren (Focus, 19.01.2016), expressive(Вокруг Джады

Пинкетт-Смит и Уилла Смита разгорается настоящий скандал (“OK

Magazine” 21.01.16).

Along with the title there are the following components of the

content of the analyzed articles: lead (from the eng. Lead – prologue). The

task of the lead – to keep the reader, to offer him such a fascinating

information he continued to read the article. [5] Also, there is a whole

spectrum of intertextual relations: quote or verbatim repetition in various

articles. For example, the electronic version of the edition "Süddeutsche

Zeitung" presented a quote from the statement of Jada Pinkett Smith in a

social network: "Auch wir sind Menschen mit Würde und auch wir haben

Macht." Deshalb werde man weder "um Anerkennung betteln, noch darum

bitten". Auch ihr Ehemann ging in diesem Jahr wie alle anderen

afroamerikanischen Schauspieler leer aus. (Süddeutsche Zeitung,

19.01.16).

It is also necessary to mention the ways of nomination of the

protagonist in different media texts, because exactly the process of

correlation of the different language units with a designated object allows

you to make the text logically and stylistically complete. In the analyzed

texts from various publications there is an overwhelming majority of

neutral designations of protagonist: the wife of Will Smith, actress Jada

Pinkett Smith, die Schauspielerin und Ehefrau des zweifach Oscar-

nominierten Kollegen Will Smith, Hollywood-Schauspielerin Jada Pinkett

Smith, актриса и продюсер Джада Пинкетт-Смит, Джада Пинкетт-

Смит, супруга голливудской звезды Уилла Смита.

You might also notice that the authors of the articles from the United

States and Germany use a neutral vocabulary for expressing the author's

position. Undoubtedly, the use of this kind of vocabulary depends on the

cultural position of these two countries, in which the problem of racial

discrimination is particularly acute. Another situation is observed in the

Russian media. Here, along with neutral, authors use negative staining

vocabulary to express their own attitude: Джада Пинкетт-Смит

выступила с резким заявлением, очевидно надуманное заявление

мисс Смит(OKMagazine,21/01/16), скандальная голливудская

актриса(spletnik.18.01.16), заявление «высосано из пальца» (elle

22.01.16).

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From the analysis, you can clearly see that the scandalous publicity

in the media texts is characterized by the alternation of expressive and

neutral language. At the same time, the structure of the text can be similar,

but the interpretation of events and tools of nomination of protagonists

may vary.

In conclusion, it should be noted again that cultural identity is

reflected in the theme of the text, and in the process of organizing

information. The theme of the text could be determined by various factors.

Obviously, due to the originality of the described situation, the basic

strategy is aimed at attracting the attention of readers. This strategy is

carried out by various grammatical, lexical means, relying on many

factors, the leading of which is the cultural context.


1. Белл А. Язык Масс-медиа, 1991.

2. Добросклонская Т.Г. Медиалингвистика: системный

подход к изучению языка СМИ: современная английская медиаречь.

– М., 2008.

3. Дускаева Л.Р. Интенциональность медиаречи: онтология и

структура. Медиатекст как полиинтенциональная система. – СПб,

2012.

4. Иванова С.В. Политический медиа-дискурс в фокусе

лингвокультурологии. Политическая лингвистика. - Вып. 1(24). -

Екатеринбург, 2008.

5. Колесниченко А.В. Практическая журналистика. Учебное

пособие. Издательство Московского университета, 2008.

6. Левченко А.Е. Формы и методы воздействия СМИ на

общественное сознание // Пресс-Служба. 2005.

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А.В. Васильева, С.А. Учурова




Нарратив как особая разновидность текста

В статье рассматриваются структурные и функциональные

особенности нарратива. Нарратив – повествовательный текст,

функция которого заключается в информировании адресата о

событиях. Событийность как главная черта нарративных текстов

является главной предпосылкой для выделения подобных текстов в

особый тип.

Narration als Sondertexttyp

Der Mensch lebt in einer intersubjektiven kulturellen Lebenswelt, die

zu einem großen Teil über Erzählen und Erzählungen hergestellt, bewahrt

und weiter entwickelt wird. In den sozialen Wissenschaften werden die

meisten Angaben durch narrative Form geprägt: Texte von Interviews,

literarische Werke, Erzählungen von Patienten bei der

psychotherapeutischen Behandlung, Zeugenerklärungen, Nekrologe,

Werbetexte, Nachrichten, Liedertexte, Anekdoten, Liebesbriefe usw.

Die meisten modernen Definitionen der Narration stammen aus der

Zeit des russischen Formalismus der 1. Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts. Unter

der Narration versteht man einen erzählenden Text, dessen Funktion ist,

den Empfänger über Ereignisse zu informieren. Das ist eine Sonderform

der Darstellung, die im Vergleich zu der deskriptiven (beschreibenden)

oder der explikativen (erklärenden) Form eine Geschichtehat. Dabei ist es

wichtig, wie der Autor seinem Sprechpartner die Information überreicht.

Die Narration hat im Vergleich zu anderen Textarten ihre besondere

Charakteristik. In allen Definitionen der Narration wird direkt oder

indirekt die Zustandsänderung des Protagonisten oder der Situation im

Ende der Erzählung ihrem Anfang gegenüber hervorgetreten. Die

Narration setzt die Notwendigkeit der impliziten oder expliziten Dynamik

der Zustände voraus, die als Ergebnis der Tätigkeit von Protagonisten gilt.

Die anderen erzählenden Textformen fordern keine gewisse Aktivität der

handelnden Personen und keine Änderungen.

92

Schmid W. unterscheidet die Ereignishaftigkeit als wichtige

Eigenschaft des narrativen Textes. Unter der Ereignishaftigkeit versteht

man „die Veränderung der zugrundeliegenden Situation unabhängig

davon, ob dieser Text die kausalen Verbindungen dieser Veränderung mit

anderen seinen thematischen Elementen weist oder nicht“ [4, 10-11]. Um

die volle Ereignishaftigkeit zu erreichen, sollen folgende Bedingungen

erfüllt werden. Eine der wichtigsten Bedingungen ist dabei die

Tatsächlichkeit oder Gegenständlichkeit der Veränderung in der fiktiven

Welt. Die fiktive Welt ist die Welt, die nur dargestellt wird. Die

Veränderung soll unbedingt in der fiktiven Welt passieren. Für das

Ereignis ist es ungenügend, wenn das Subjekt der Handlung nur diese

Veränderung wünscht, davon träumt und sich sie einbildet. Mit der

Tatsächlichkeit ist die zweite Bedingung eng verbunden – die

Leistungsfähigkeit. Die das Ereignis bildende Veränderung soll bis zum

Ende der Narration geschehen sein. Die Ereignishaftigkeit ist solche

Eigenschaft, die graduiert werden kann. Diese Graduierung beeinflussen

fünf Kriterien. Die Ereignishaftigkeit erhöht sich in dem Maße, wie

wesentlich die Veränderung im Rahmen der fiktiven Welt ist. Als das

zweite Kriterium gilt die Unvorhersagbarkeit. Je unerwarteter die

Veränderung ist, desto höher ist die Ereignishaftigkeit. Gesetzmäßige

voraussehbare Veränderung hat keine Ereignishaftigkeit, selbst wenn sie

für einen Protagonisten wichtig ist. Die Konsequenz, Unumkehrbarkeit,

Einmaligkeit sind sekundäre Eigenschaften.

Die Struktur von Erzähltexten wurde vor allem von der Pariser

Semiologischen Schule analysiert. K. Stierle unterscheidet mehrere

Abstraktions- oder Operationsebenen des narrativen Textes: das

Geschehen, die Geschichte und den Text der Geschichte oder Diskurs. Das

Geschehen bezeichnet die Menge aller Ereignisse, die der „Gegenstand“

eines Erzähltextes sein können. Die Geschichte stellen die chronologische

Abfolge von Ereignissen dar, „die sich zwischen einem Anfangs- und

Endzustand entwickeln, welche in Opposition zueinanderstehen“ [6,S.55].

Der Text der Geschichte schließt die sprachliche Seite des Erzählens ein.

Zum Diskurs I gehören alle an der Geschichte vorgenommenen

Manipulationen, die zu einer „subjektiven Kunstintention“ zuschreibend

sind. Diskurs II stellt ein sprachlicher Ausdruck dar. Dazu können der Stil

eines Autors, einer Gattung oder einer Epoche gezählt werden. Für den

narrativen Text ist es der Erzählerdiskurs wichtig, dessen Kunstgriff die

Verbindung mehrerer Geschichte miteinander ist. Man unterscheidet drei

Möglichkeiten: „Verketten“ oder einfaches Nacheinander,

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„Einschachtelung“ einer Geschichte in einer anderen Geschichte,

„Alternieren“ oder abwechselnde Darstellung zweier oder mehr

gleichzeitig ablaufender Geschichten.

Russische Formalisten W. B. Schklowski, B. M. Eichenbaum, B. W.

Tomaschewski haben bei narrativen Texten „Fabel“ und „Sujet“

unterschieden. B. W. Tomaschewski bezeichnet „Fabel“ als die Menge

aller Ereignisse, die chronologisch miteinander verbunden sind und über

die in einem Text mitgeteilt werden. „Fabel“ und „Sujet“ stehen einander

gegenüber. Sujet sind jene Ereignisse aber in solcher Reihenfolge, in der

sie im Text erwähnt sind, in solcher Verbindung, in welcher Berichte über

sie im Text gegeben sind. Auf solche Weise ist „Sujet“ eine Art der

Entwicklung von der „Fabel“, die motiviert vom Autor zusammengestellte

Darstellung von Ereignissen in einer bestimmten Folge. Fabel

widerspiegelt die chronologische Reihenfolge der tatsächlichen Ereignisse,

Sujet repräsentiert die Verbindung zwischen Ereignissen im Text. Diese

Verbindung kann chronologisch, kausal, heldzentrisch, thematisch,

teleologisch usw. sein.

Laut W. Labov gibt es sechs Strukturelementen der Narration, die

bestimmte funktionale Belastung haben:

1) einen Aufriss für den Zuhörer über die Sache des

Geschehens, um die es weitergeht;

2) Orientierung des Zuhörers bezüglich Zeitraum, Ort,

Situation, Teilnehmer der Ereignisse;

3) Übergabe der Reihenfolge von Ereignissen;

4) Bewertung der Bedeutung und Sinn der Handlungen,

Ausdruck des Verhältnisses vom Erzähler zu Ereignissen und

Handlungen;

5) Lösung der Situation (was ist im Ende passiert);

6) Kode (Rückkehr zu der Gegenwart).

Barte R. definiert die Funktion eines Elements des narrativen Textes

als „die Fähigkeit des Elements korrelative Verbindung mit anderen

Elementen oder mit dem ganzen Text zu haben“. Unter allen Elementen

unterscheidet er „Funktion-Element“ und „Index-Element“. Die

„Funktion-Elementen“ werden in Hauptelementen (Kernelementen,

kardinale Elementen) und Hilfselementen (Katalysatoren) aufgeteilt. Die

Elemente der ersten Gruppe bestimmen die Sujet-Linien, bilden oder

erledigen die spannende Situation und geben den Protagonisten die

Möglichkeit, eine Entscheidung zu treffen. Die Elemente der zweiten

Gruppe ändern die Situation nicht, schaffen im Text die Zonen der

94

Sicherheit, Ruhe usw. und beschreiben, wie eine konkrete Handlung

vorgenommen wurde. Die Index-Elemente decken den Charakter der

Protagonisten, ihren emotionalen Zustand auf und reißen die Atmosphäre

um, in der sich die Handlung entwickelt hat.

Was die narrative Kommunikation im Text angeht, unterscheiden die

meisten Forscher den Autor, den Erzähler, fiktiven Leser und realen Leser.

Dabei spricht man über die Erzählhaltung, darunter wird die Erzählweise

des narrativen Textes gemeint. Bei der neutralen Erzählhaltung ist ein

Erzähler kaum spürbar. Der auktoriale Erzähler verfügt spürbar über die

Geschichte. Er kann z.B. die erzählten Ereignisse kommentieren oder sich

an den fiktiven Leser wenden. Der Ich-Erzähler nimmt an der Handlung

der erzählten Geschichte teil. Er kann an der Stelle des Protagonisten oder

einer dem Protagonisten nahestehenden Person sein. Deswegen können in

der Geschichte zwei unterschiedliche Ich-Subjekte sein: das „erlebende

Ich“ oder „erzähltes Ich“ und das „erzählende Ich“. Das erste gilt als Figur

der erzählten Geschichte, das zweite – als Subjekt des Erzählens. Bei der

personalen Erzählhaltung werden die Ereignisse aus dem Blinkwinkel

einer Romanfigur gesehen, hinter die der Erzähler zurücktritt.

Schmid W. unterscheidet erzählende narrative Texte und mimetische

narrative Texte. Erzählende narrative Texte umfassen alle Texte, in denen

die Geschichte vom Erzähler dargelegt wird. Das sind Romane,

Erzählungen, Novellen usw. Zu mimetischen narrativen Texten gehören

solche Texte, die die Geschichte ohne Mitwirkung vom Erzähler

darstellen: Theaterstücke, Filme, Ballett, Pantomime usw.

Laut oben angeführten Angaben kann man eine Schlussfolgerung

ziehen, dass die Narration als ein besonderer Texttyp ist, der seine

spezifischen Eigenschaften hat. Der Autor schafft ein Sujet, im Rahmen

dessen der Erzähler über die Geschichte mitteilt. Das dieser Geschichte

zugrunde liegende Ereignis entwickelt sich dynamisch und ändert sich

während der ganzen Narration, was bedingt die wichtigste Eigenschaft der

narrativen Texte – die Ereignishaftigkeit. Im Rahmen des Diskurses

verwirklicht der Autor die narrative Kommunikation mit dem Leser, dabei

benutzt er eine besondere Erzählweise.


1. Барт Р. Введение в структурный анализ повествовательных

текстов // Французскаясемиотика: От структурализма к

95

постструктурализму / Пер. с фр. и вступ. ст. Г.К. Косикова. М.:

Прогресс, 2000.

2. Евстигнеева Н.В., Оберемко О.А. Модели анализа

нарратива // Человек. Сообщество. Управление. – 2007. – №4. – С. 95-

107.

3. Томашевский Б.В. Теория литературы. Поэтика. М.: Аспект

пресс, 1996.

4. Шмид В. Нарраталогия / М.: Языки славянской культуры,

2003.

5. Labov W. Language in the Inner City. Philadelphia: University

of Philadelphia Press, 1972

6. Schulze-Witzenrath E. Literaturwissenschaft für Italianisten:

Eine Einführung / Gunter Narr Verlag Tübingen, 2006.

7. Stierle K. Geschehen, Geschichte, Text der Geschichte // Text

als Handlung. –München, 1975. – S. 49-55.

А.А. Володенко, А.И. Конторских




Актуальность использования образов животных в качестве

персонажей современной детской английской сказки (на примере

произведений Дж. Дональдсон)

В данной статье рассматривается актуальность использования

образов животных в качестве персонажей современной детской

английской сказки. С помощью метода контент-анализа выявляется

количество персонажей-животных, их характеристики. В заключении

делаются выводы о том, какие животные встречаются в качестве

персонажей английских детских сказок и с какой целью автор

применяет этот прием.

The relevance of using images of animals as characters of modern

English children's literature (on the example of J. Donaldson’s books)

Images of animals are very common characters of children’s

literature. The authors endow these characters with different traits, which

96

makes it simpler for the young readers to understand why they appeared in

the story, why they behave in this way or another. Animal characters have

always been an integral part of children’s literature, and we would like to

discover whether it is still relevant today for the modern English children’s

literature on the example of Julia Donaldson’s books who is a very popular

writer in Great Britain and in Russia as well. We would also like to explain

this phenomenon and examine which characteristics are the most common

for this or that animal character.

To make this research we picked out all the Julia Donaldson’s fairy

tales that were translated into Russian and they are as follows: ‘The

Gruffalo’, ‘The Gruffalo’s Child’, ‘Room on the Broom’, ‘Superworm’,

‘A Squash and a Squeeze’, ‘The Snail And the Whale’, ‘Monkey Puzzle’,

‘The Smartest Giant In Town’, ‘Charlie Cook's Favorite Book’, ‘Stick

Man’, ‘Tiddler’, ‘The Highway Rat’, ‘The Singing Mermaid’, ‘The

Scarecrow’s Wedding’, ‘Tabby McTat’.

The main characters in most of the listed above fairy tales are

animals. Due to applying content-analysis to our research, we have been

able to estimate how many characters of Julia Donaldson’s books are

animals and which characteristics are given to them by the author

(positive, negative or neutral). We have also been able to determine which

animals are mostly positive characters and which are mostly negative and

also which can be both depending on the situation.

The results are shown in Table 1. The first column states how many

times this or that animal appeared in the books we listed above (we

counted ‘1’ with the first mentioning, the very same character was counted

only once notwithstanding how many times it appeared through one story).

The second column shows how many times it has been the main character,

the third – how many times it has been the secondary character, and the

last three columns show how many times it has owed a positive, negative

or neutral characteristic.

Character Number of

appearances

Main

character

Secondary

character

Positive

characteristic

Negative

characteristic

Neutral

characteristic

Gruffalo 2 1 1 1 1

Gruffalo’s

child

1 1 1

Mouse 4 2 2 4

Fox 3 3 1 2

Owl 3 3 2 1

Snake 3 3 2 1

Hen 1 1 1

Goat 2 2 1 1

97

Pig 1 1 1

Cow 2 2 1 1

Cat 4 2 2 2 2

Dog 3 1 2 2 1

Bird 1 1 1

Frog 4 1 3 1 3

Dragon

Worm 1 1 1

Bees 2 2 2

Beetle 1 1 1

Lizard 1 1 1

Crow 1 1 1

Caterpillar 1 1 1

Slug 1 1 1

Toad 2 2 1 2

Spider 4 4 4

Snail 3 1 2 2 1

Whale 2 1 1 1 1

Fish 2 1 1 1 1

Shark 1 1 1

Butterfly 2 1 1 1 1

Monkey 1 1 1

Elephant 1 1 1

Parrot 1 1 1

Bat 1 1 1

Giraffe 1 1 1

Crocodile 1 1 1

Bear 1 1 1

Sheep 1 1 1

Ray 1 1 1

Seahorde 1 1 1

Dolphin 1 1 1

Crab 2 2 1 1

Squid 1 1 1

Turtoise 1 1 1

Prawn 1 1 1

Starfish 1 1 1

Seal 1 1 1

Lobster 1 1 1

Swan 1 1 1

Rat 1 1 1

Hare 1 1 1

Squirrel 1 1 1

Ants 1 1 1

Horse 1 1 1

Duck 1 1 1

Goose 1 1 1

Jelly-fish 1 1 1

Seagull 1 1 1

Table 1

98

Having done this content-analysis research, we have come to several

conclusions.

First of all, in most books all the characters are animals and, what is

curious, the animals are of different classes – domestic and wild animals,

insects, birds, reptiles, etc. In all the stories that have been analyzed we

found only about ten main and ten secondary characters that were not

animals.

Secondly, every animal from the list can be found not more than

three or four times in different stories which means the author does not

give any preferences to this or that animal, the images she creates are not

hackneyed, the qualities the author endows her characters with are not

trivial or dull. This is very important for letting the young readers develop

their own imagination and helps cultivate tolerance through the images

because the children learn to evaluate behavior, not the appearance of the

character.

Third, one and the same animal can be either a positive or a negative

character, which also shows the kids that in different situations one can

behave differently. This helps avoid judging by appearances or words of

the character.

Last, we have seen that there are more positive characters than

negative which proves the rule that good always triumphs over evil.

Thus, having done this content-analysis research of the modern

English children’s fairy tales by Julia Donaldson, we can conclude that

appearance of animal images is very relevant today and is one of the most

peculiar devices in modern children’s literature.


1. Donaldson J. The Gruffalo / Macmillan Children's Books,

1999.

2. Donaldson J. The Gruffalo’s Child / Macmillan Children's

Books, 2005.

3. Donaldson J. Room on the Broom / Macmillan Children's

Books, 2002.

4. Donaldson J. Superworm / Alison Green Books, 2013.

5. Donaldson J. A Squash and a Squeeze / Macmillan Children's

Books, 2004.

6. Donaldson J. The Snail And the Whale / Macmillan Children's

Books, 2004.

99

7. Donaldson J. Monkey Puzzle / Macmillan Children's Books,

2000.

8. Donaldson J. The Smartest Giant In Town / Macmillan

Children's Books, 2003.

9. Donaldson J. Charlie Cook's Favorite Book / Macmillan

Children's Books, 2006.

10. Donaldson J. Stick Man / Alison Green Books, 2009.

11. Donaldson J. Tiddler / Alison Green Books, 2008.

12. Donaldson J. The Highway Rat / Alison Green Books, 2012.

13. Donaldson J. The Singing Mermaid / Macmillan Children's

Books, 2013.

14. Donaldson J. The Scarecrow’s Wedding / Scholastic, 2015.

15. Donaldson J. Tabby McTat / Alison Green Books, 2010.

А.А. Геoргиева, Л.Ю. Дондик

Нижнетагильский государственный социально-педагогический

институт (ф) РГППУ


Метафорическая репрезентация терактов в СМИ Франции

Данная научная статья посвящена репрезентации проблемы

терроризма во французской прессе, а именно метафорам, которые

используются авторами публикаций в заголовках газетных статей.

Среди них наиболее употребительными являются милитарная

метафора, а также образы сравнения терроризма с человеческим

организмом, криминалом, обществом, религией и мистикой.

La représentation métaphorique des actes terroristes

dans les médias français

Aujourd’hui on ne peut pas nier que les médias jouent un grand rôle

dans la vie de la société. Un des sujets les plus fréquents dont onentend

parler de plus en plus souvent, c’est le terrorisme qui est devenu une partie

de notre vie actuelle. Effectivement, ce phénomène se représente

largement dans le discours des médias.

Comme auparavant, la radio et la télévision occupent les premières

places dans le code de popularité des médias mais en même temps on

100

constate qu’également la valeur de la presse est en voie de croissance. Il

est à noter que l’objectif des journaux, ce n’est pas seulement la

transmission de l’information mais c’est aussi l’influence sur le public. Le

langage des médias se caractérise par l’expression qui est très particulière

et intentionnelle. Sa spécifité se révèle, par exemple, en titres et en sous-

titres des articles. A nos jours ce problème est assez actuel, il attire

l’attention des linguistes, des psychologues, des savants tels que

Korobova, Foménko. Un texte de publiciste a souvent des titres se

caractérisant par des combinaisons de clichés standards et de formes

expressives de langue. Comme la fonction du journal c’est la présentation

rapide du matériel, le journaliste est obligé d’utiliser des moyens

d’expression concrets pour que le texte soit clair et compréhensible pour

tous les lecteurs. Il faut bien noter que le titre d’article devrait s’associer

avec une image ou cacher une appreciation, avoir de l’expressivité, voilà

ce qui garantit l’attention des lecteurs. Pour produire cet effet, les auteurs

utilisent des moyens stylistiques, surtout les métaphores.

Le terrorisme comme un phénomène social a deux caractéristiques

très fortes: le côté international et le côté médiatique. En alliance avec les

fonctions de la presse on reçoit sûrement une arme très puissante et

spécifique qui attire l’auditoire. A nos jours, ce problème de la

représentation langagière du terrorisme reste actuel et discutable, et il

représente un champ énorme des recherches linguistiques.

L’objet de nos études, ce sont les métaphores que les journalistes

français utilisent dans les médias, comme dans les articles des

hebdomadaires «Le Monde», «Le Figaro», «Le Point», «La Libération».

Ces éditions ont servi de base de notre recherche.

L’analyse de tous les titres conсernant notre sujet (à partir du

novembre 2015 jusqu’à la fin de janvier 2016, environs 100 unités) nous a

permis de les classifier en 7 groupes avec des proportions suivantes. Les

métaphores militaires (LA GUERRE) est le groupe le plus nombreux – 28

% de tous les cas envisagés. On représente aussi le terrorisme par les

métaphores des champs lexicaux de source LE CORPS HUMAIN (en 24

% de titres), LE CRIMINEL (en 20%), LA SOCIETE (en 17 %), LA

RELIGION et LE MYSTERE (en 8 % et 3 % en conformité). Ici il faut

ajouter que ce classement porte un caractère particulier parce qu’on a

travaillé un peu plus avec des éditions désignées et on a rangé les

exemples d’après le critère fréquentiel.

Avant tout, il faudrait remarquer que les journalistes utilisent très

souvent des métaphores militaires. Dans les articles on répète sans cesse

101

les mots liés à LA GUERRE, les participants des hostilités actives, l’armée

etc. :

L’incursion d’un avion de combat russe dans l’espace aérien

israélien se termine sans dommage (par Outbrain, Le Monde,

30/11/2015) ; on tache d’expliquer l’incident avec un avion russe abattu en

Turquie.

Attaques à Paris : les spécialistes du terrorisme s’attendaient à

un nouvel attentat(par Laurent Barredon, Le Monde, 14/11/2015) ; après

les actes terroristes au Bataclan et au Stade de France les gens expriment

leurs opinions et leurs prévisions.

L’armée sur tous les fronts, à la limite de l’usure(La Libération,

27/01/2016) etc.

Puis on constate également l’emploi des métaphores du champs de

source LE CORPS HUMAIN. Pour faire réagir le public, leur montrer les

conséquences des attentats, pour qu’on réunisse toutes les forces contre le

terrorisme, les journalistes décrivent la réalité comme une personne

vivante qui a le corps, l’esprit, les sentiments :

La radicalisation relève de la santé publique(par Philippe

Bernard, Le Monde, 14/12/2015).

Avion russe abattu : Poutine dénonce «un coup dans le dos»

(Le Parisien, 24/11/2015).

Alors le troisième champ de source par la fréquence d’utilisation

c’est la sphère nommée LE CARACTERE CRIMINEL réunissant des

victimes, de la violence, de la peur, des attentats. Voici des exemples :

Attentats de Paris : François Hollande dénonce «un acte d’une

barbarie absolue» (Le Monde, 14/11/2015).

Il nous faut plus de justice internationale pour lutter contre

l’islamisme radical (Le Monde, 14/12/2015) etc.

En parlant du champ de source LA SOCIETE, on y trouve plutôt des

métaphores liées aux changements et aux mouvements du niveau social.

Par exemple :

Menace terroriste : «Etre préparé permet d’éviter la panique»

(par Marine Chassagnon, Le Figaro, 08/01/2016).

De l’Etat de droit à l’Etat de sécurité (Le Monde, 23/12/2015)

etc.

Et finalement, selon l’opinion des certains savants, le terrorisme

porte uniquement le caractère RELIGIEUX et MYSTIQUE :

102

L’auteur de l’agression antisémite à Marseille dit avoir agi «au

nom del’Etat Islamique» (Le Monde, 11/01/2016).

Mystère autour de l’identité de l’agresseur tué devant un

commissariat parisien (par Soren Seelov, Le Monde, 07/01/2016) etc.

Donc, dans cet article nous avons essayé de montrer une des

tendances qui se manifestent aujourd’hui dans la presse écrite française.

On voit bien qu’en entitulant les articles parlant des actes des terroristes les

journalistes utilisent régulièrement la métaphore, surtout la métaphore

militaire, pour attirer l’attention des lecteurs, leur produire des effets

stylistiques et pragmatiques, provoquer la réaction du public contre cet

ennemi commun appelé le Terrorisme.


1. Баранов А. Н. Лингвистическая экспертиза текста: теория и

практика: учебное пособие. – 2-е изд. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2009.

2. Болдырева М.М, Шамова П.И. Французский язык:

Общественно-политическая лексика: Учеб.пособие для ин-тов и фак.

иностр.яз. – М.: Высш.шк., 1989.

3. Будаев Э.В. Метафора в политическом интердискурсе;

Урал.гос.пед.ун-т. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – Екатеринбург, 2006.

4. Кожина, М.Н. Стилистика русского языка. – М.: Просвещение,

1993.

5. Прозоров В.В. Власть современной журналистики, или СМИ

наяву / В.В. Прозоров. – Саратов: Изд-во Сарат. ун-та, 2004.

6. Французская ежедневная газета «LeMonde» URL:

http://www.lemonde.fr/ (дата обращения 26.01.2016).

7. Французская ежедневная газета «LeFigaro» URL:

http://www.lefigaro.fr/ (дата обращения 26.01.2016).

8. Французская ежедневная газета «LePoint» URL:

http://www.lepoint.fr/ (дата обращения 26.01.2016).

9. Французская ежедневная газета «LaLibération» URL:

http://www.laliberation.fr/ (дата обращения 26.01.2016).

103

И.В. Голубкова

Самарский государственный аэрокосмический университет им.

академика С.П. Королёва (Национальный исследовательский

университет)

г. Самара, Россия

Немецкоязычный дискурс справочников по подаче

заявления: специфический текстотип как транслятор

актуального знания

В статье представлен и анализируется культурноспецефический

немецкоязычный дискурс, в основе которого особый вид текстов –

популярные сегодня справочники по подаче заявления в конкурсной

ситуации (Bewerbungsratgeber). На конкретных примерах

демонстрируется, как через комплексный текстотип транслируется

востребованное в обществе знание о нормах, правилах и

особенностях коммуникации в условиях конкурса.

Diskurs der Bewerbungsratgeber: eine kulturspezifische

Textsorte als Vermittler des sozialkommunikativen Wissen

Die Diskursanalyse hat in den letzten 20 Jahren in der Linguistik

immer mehr an Bedeutung gewonnen. Es besteht aber immer noch keine

Einigkeit, wie der Diskurs definiert sein soll. Den meisten linguistischen

Diskursbestimmungen ist gemeinsam, dass sie Diskurs als praxisbezogene

kommunikative Einheit ansehen, die vor allem textuell konstituiert wird

(vgl. Wrana, 79-82). Diskurs wird hauptsächlich als ein textübergreifender

Verweisungszusammenhang definiert, dessen Grundlage eben der Text ist

(vgl. Spitzmüller/Warnke, Niehr). Der Diskurs lässt sich immer nur über

„die Zusammenstellung mehrerer (möglicherweise sogar vieler) Texte

materialisieren, ein Textkorpus ist mithin unverzichtbar, um die Eigenheit

eines Diskurs zu erforschen“ (Niehr, 31).

D. Busse und W. Teubert haben in einem programmatischen Aufsatz

den Diskursbegriff eingegrenzt und erläutert. Unter Diskurs im

forschungspraktischen Sinne verstehen sie ein Textkorpus, „dessen

Zusammensetzung durch im weitesten Sinne inhaltliche (bzw.

semantische) Kriterien bestimmt wird“ (Busse/Teubert, 14). Ihnen zufolge

gehören zum Diskurs „alle Texte, die sich mit einem (…) Gegenstand,

Thema, Wissenskomplex oder Konzept befassen, untereinander

104

semantische Beziehungen aufweisen und/oder in einem gemeinsamen

Aussage-, Kommunikations-, Funktions- oder Zweckzusammenhang

stehen“ (ebd., 14).

Hauptsache ist, dass eben eine Textsammlung d.h. ein Textkorpus

bildet die materielle bzw. sprachliche Grundlage des jeweiligen Diskurses.

Beispielsweise macht die Sammlung aller beratender Texte zum Thema

Bewerbung die sprachtextuelle Grundlage für den Diskurs der

Bewerbungsberatung. Ein konkreter Diskurs wird prinzipiell nur über den

Text zur Analyse zugänglich. In dieser Weise lässt sich der untrennbare

Zusammenhang von Text und Diskurs erschließen.

Weiter wird noch ein wichtiger Zusammenhang aufgedeckt und zwar

der logische Übergang von Diskurs zum Wissen. In einem

textlinguistischen Programmartikel beweist G. Antos bereits 1997, dass

Texte eine grundliegende Konstitutionsform von Wissen sind. Wichtig ist,

dass Texte in der heutigen Gesellschaft nicht nur Mittel zur

Wissensrepräsentation und -archvierung ausmachen, sondern auch, dass

sie zentral an individueller und sozialer Wissenskonstruktion beteiligt sind.

„Die moderne Evolution des Wissens mit ihrer kulturellen, historischen

und funktionalen Vielfalt wäre ohne die Existenz von Texte nicht

möglich“ (Antos, 45). Daraus lässt sich ableiten, dass der jeweilige

Diskurs als komplexe Erweiterung von Texten dasselbe schaffen kann und

zwar den jeweiligen Wissenskomplex durch Texte, die dem Diskurs

zugrunde liegen, zu repräsentieren, zu archivieren und zur Evolution des

Wissens beizutragen (vgl. ebd., 45-51).

Heute können wir aber sehen, dass die Regale im Buchhandel voll

von Publikationen sind, die sowohl trickreiche Tipps als auch ganz seriöse

Methoden rund um das Thema Bewerbung liefern. Seit Anfang des 21.

Jahrhundert werden diese so genannten Bewerbungsratgeber immer mehr

gefragt, weil sie den Ratsuchenden in Bewerbungssituationen das nötige

Expertenwissen «mit Zufriedenheitsgarantie» zur Verfügung stellen

(Püttjer/Schnierda, Einband).

Bewerbungsratgeber, die in der Periode seit den 2000-er Jahren bis

heute herausgegeben wurden, als eine themazentrierte Textmenge bzw. ein

relativ einheitliches Textkorpus zum Thema Bewerbung bilden den

Diskurs der Bewerbungsratgeber. Gemeinsame Funktion und Zweck dieser

Texte sind primär die Beratung und praxisorientierte Wissensvermittlung

zur Optimierung des Bewerbungsprozesses. Das bestätigt den diskursiven

Zusammenhang dieser Texte.

105

Bewerbungsratgeber gibt es heute mehr als 200. Die erfolgreichsten,

d.h. die meistverkauften, erscheinen regelmäßig in erneuten Ausgaben.

Autoren der Ratgeber sind meistens Experten, die eine einschlägige

Ausbildung haben (z.B. in der Psychologie, in Organisation &

Management u.a.) und als Trainer oder Coaches in Fragen Beruf &

Karriere tätig sind. Ihr Praxiserfahrung und ihr Fachwissen teilen sie mit

den ratsuchenden Bewerbern über ihre Publikationen. Zu der Zielgruppe

der Bewerbungsratgeber gehören hauptsächlich alle ratsuchenden

Menschen, die auf der Suche nach einer neuen Stelle sind und sich optimal

bewerben wollen.

Bewerbungsratgeber lassen sich thematisch in vier Gruppen

einteilen. Inhaltlich liefern diese Gruppen spezifiziertes Wissen über den

Bewerbungsprozess oder richten sich an unterschiedliche Lesergruppen.

Bewerbungsratgeber lassen sich folgenderweise einteilen:

1) Umfassende Bewerbungsratgeber, die sich im Prinzip den

themazentrierten Enzyklopädien als Textsorte ähneln. In den werden alle

Stationen des Bewerbungsprozesses (von Stellensuche bis Einstellungstest

und Probezeit) definiert und beschrieben, unterstützt mit entsprechenden

Handlungstipps und -hinweisen. Das ist der Grund, warum

Bewerbungsratgeber der ersten Gruppe sich als Bewerbungsenzyklopädien

bezeichnen lassen.

2) Enger spezialisierte Bewerbungsratgeber bzw.

Bewerbungsenzyklopädien, die primär dem Zweck dienen, bestimmte

kommunikative Fertigkeiten beim Ratsuchenden zu entwickeln.

Beispielsweise, wie man form- und sprachkorrekt eine schriftliche

Bewerbung vorbereitet und erstellt, oder wie man sich optimal im Internet

bzw. Online bewirbt.

3) Bereichspezifische Bewerbungsratgeber, die sich

folgenderweise untergliedern lassen: entweder richten sie sich an

unterschiedliche spezifische Lesergruppen (z.B. für Führungskräfte,

Hochschulabsolventen, Akademiker u.a.) oder gehören themeninhaltlich

zu den engeren spezifischen Fachbereichen (z.B. für den öffentlichen

Dienst, Wirtschaftsbranchen, für Juristen u.a.).

4) Atypische Bewerbungsratgeber. Das können Anti-Ratgeber

sein, beispielsweise „So bleiben Sie erfolgreich arbeitslos: Ein paradoxer

Bewerbungsratgeber“ von C. Riechers, oder literarische

Bewerbungsgeschichten, beispielsweise „Bewerbung mit

Blasenentzündung: P.S. Erzieherin sucht Arbeit“ von M.G. Utkuseven

u.a., die einzeln erscheinen.

106

Die Textstruktur der Bewerbungsratgeber entspricht streng der

Themenentfaltung. Die Themenentfaltung im Ratgeber als Textsorte ist

hauptsächlich dreiteilig. Erstens kommt ein Explanandum d.h. eine

autorisierte Problembeschreibung bzw. Problemdefinition, zweitens –

Explanans d.h. eine Problemexplizierung, drittens – von den ratgebenden

Autoren wird eine Problemlösung vorgeschlagen. In der Weise werden in

Bewerbungsratgebern einzelne problematische Stationen des

Bewerbungsprozesses nacheinander definiert bzw. von Experten

beschrieben mit Hinweisen auf aktuellen Tendenzen und Praxiserfahrung

(z.B. „Vorbereitung der Bewerbung“, „Mappenerstellung“,

„Initiativbewerbung“ usw.). Jeder Ratgeber ist entsprechend derartigen

Makrothemen inhaltlich in noch engere Mikrothemen gegliedert. (z.B.

„Potentialanalyse“, „Reflexion“, „Die Suche nach potentiellen

Arbeitgeber“ usw.). Je nach den Mikrothemen gibt es entsprechende

Problembeschreibungen bzw. autorisierte Definitionen mit argumentativen

Explizierungen. Und es gibt unbedingt themenentsprechende Lösungen

d.h. Handlungspläne, die für den Ratsuchenden „in der Zukunft

handlungsleitend sein können“ (Fandrych/Thurmai, 250).

Diese Handlungspläne bzw. Denkpläne sind für jeden

Bewerbungsratgeber kennzeichnend. Sie haben aber je nach den

Mikrothemen unterschiedliche Funktionen und Textmusterformen.

Weiter werden beispielsweise Handlungspläne aus dem Kapitel

„Vorbereitung der Bewerbung“ des Ratgebers von Püttjer & Schnierda

(2014) aufgezeigt. Dieser Ratgeber stellt einen typischen

multithematischen Bewerbungsratgeber bzw. eine typische

Bewerbungsenzyklopädie dar.

Damit der ratsuchende Leser eigenen Fähigkeiten und Potentiale

zunächst systematisch analysieren, dann ordnen und auswerten und

folglich bei der Bewerbung beschreiben kann, gibt es eine Liste mit

anleitenden Suggestivfragen. Der Fragenliste folgt ein Muster, wie diese

Fragen beispielsweise von einem Controller beantwortet werden könnte.

Ziel der Fragenliste ist es, den Ratsuchenden zu motivieren, eigene

Erfahrungen zu katalogisieren, damit er sie beim selbstdarstellenden

Bewerbungsschreiben als Argumente nutzten kann. Solche Listen mit

anleitenden Suggestivfragen machen Denkpläne aus.

Es gibt Lückentexte bzw. „Übungen“ oder „Trainings“ mit

Schlüsselwörtern, z.B. „Systematische Auflisten des

Weiterbildungsengagements“ (Püttjer/Schnierda, 28) und „Systematische

Erfassung der Freizeitaktivitäten“ (ebd., 29). Solche Lückentexte machen

107

den Ratgebertext strukturell dialogisch. Es sieht so aus wie bei einer

mündlichen Beratung mit Experten, als ob die beiden, Ratgeberautor bzw.

Bewerbungsexperte und Ratsuchender bzw. potentieller Bewerber,

substanziellan der Konstituierung des Textes beteiligt sind. Eine derartige

Textstruktur beweist die Funktion der Wissensvermittlung.

Am Ende der meisten Kapitel und Paragrafen in

Bewerbungsratgebern gibt es themaentsprechenden Checklisten, z.B.

„Checklisten für Ihre Selbstpräsentation“ (ebd., 47). Sie erscheinen wie

ein kontrollierender Handlungsplan post factum.

Eben durch derart spezifische Textelemente wie „Checklisten“,

„Übungen“, „Übersichten“ oder „Trainings“ kann der Ratsuchende die

Informationen sowohl über sich selbst als auch über seine

Bewerbungssituation zielbewusst und systematisch heraussuchen, ordnen

und dann kommunikationssprachlich beim Bewerben verwenden. Diese

spezifischen Textmuster helfen die Gedankenweise produktiv zu steuern.

Zu den weiteren Sprachmerkmalen der Bewerbungsratgeber gehören:

Bewertende und auch trendabhängige

Situationsbeschreibungen, z.B. „Die Firmen haben heute eine sehr viel

genauere Vorstellung davon, wie ihr idealer Kandidat oder ihre ideale

Kandidatin auszusehen hat. Es gilt also, im gesamten

Bewerbungsverfahren nicht nur das eigene Fachwissen richtig

darzustellen, sondern auch die Soft Skills zu zeigen, die von den Firmen

verlangt werden.“ (ebd., 17)Diese Situationsbeschreibungen vermitteln

das aktuelle Wissen über kommunikative Besonderheiten der

Bewerbungssituation.

Aufgelistete einleitende bzw. Suggestivfragen, die die

Denkweise der Ratsuchenden in eine produktive Richtung lenken sollen,

z.B. „Kennen Sie Ihre Einstellungsargumente?“ (ebd., 17)

Auflistungen bzw. thesenhafte Explizierungen, z.B. „Bewerben

mit der Püttjer&Schnierda-Profil-Methode: 1. Passgenauigkeit 2.

Stärkenorientierung 3. Glaubwürdigkeit“ (ebd., 19). Solche thesenhafte

Explizierungen dienen vorrangig der Anschaulichkeit der erörterten

Probleme und empfohlenen Problemlösungen.

Oftmals verwendete Anrede mit „Sie“, die das Selbstwertgefühl

des Ratsuchenden stärken soll, z.B. „Sie sollten Ihre Selbstpräsentation so

aufbauen, dass der Bezug zur ausgeschriebenen Stelle deutlich wird. Das

bedeutet für Sie, dass Sie zuerst Ihre jetzige Tätigkeit darstellen, da diese

die Basis für Ihren Stellenwechsel ist.“ (ebd., 73)

108

Oftmals verwendete Imperative entweder in der Sie-Form, z.B.

„Stellen Sie die Aufgaben, die Sie in Ihrer momentanen Position

bearbeiten, an den Anfang Ihrer Selbstpräsentation. Heben Sie die

Tätigkeiten hervor, die einen Bezug zu der neuen Stelle haben. Erläutern

Sie Ihre berufliche Entwicklung: Machen Sie klar, welche Stationen in

ihrem Leben Sie für Ihre Jetzige Position qualifiziert haben.“ (ebd., 73)

oder in der Infinitiv-Form, z.B. „Fachliche Anforderungen erkennen.

Attraktivität zeigen. Individuelles Profil darstellen. Beispiele für

persönliche Fähigkeiten geben. Beschreiben statt bewerten.“ (ebd., 80)

Mäßig verwendete, allgemein verständliche Fachsprache, z.B.

„Erstellung und Auswertung von Betriebsstatistiken, Abweichungsanalyse,

Mitwirkung am internen Rechnungs- und Berichtwesen, Kostenrechnung,

Budgetierung, Erstellung von Quartalabschlüssen“ usw. (ebd., 80).

Viele unterstützende Textmuster zum Bewerbungsschreiben

(Anschreiben, Deckblatt, Lebenslauf u.a.).

In diesen Beispielen ist ersichtlich, dass z.B. thematische

Problembeschreibungen im Text des Ratgebers das Wissen über aktuelle

Tendenzen im Bewerbungsprozess bedeutungszuschreibend liefern.

Unterschiedlich geformte Handlungspläne tragen auch dazu bei, dass die

kommunikativen Fertigkeiten sich bei dem ratsuchenden Leser entwickeln

können. Alle diese oben dargelegten Textelemente der

Bewerbungsratgeber haben bestimmte, meist eben praktische Funktionen

der Wissensvermittlung oder Fertigkeitsentwicklung. Das bestätigt die

Tatsache, dass Diskurs der Bewerbungsratgeber eben durch die

multifunktionelle Textsorte zur Vermittlung des gesellschaftsrelevanten

Wissens im Wesentlichen beiträgt. Es muss auch bemerkt werden, dass in

den Bewerbungsratgeber beinhaltete Bewerbungsmuster und

entsprechende Kommunikationsprinzipien und -regeln die deutsche

Sprachnorm beim Schriftverkehr im öffentlichen Kommunikationsbereich

formen und festigen.


1. Wrana D. DiskursNetz. Wörterbuch der interdisziplinären

Diskursforschung / hrsg. von Daniel Wrana. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2014.

2. Spitzmüller J.; Warnke I.H. Diskurslinguistik: eine Einführung

in Theorien und Methoden der transtextuellen Sprachanalyse. Berlin [u.a.]:

de Gruyter, 2011.

109

3. Niehr T. Einführung in die linguistische Diskursanalyse.

Darmstadt: WBG, 2014.

4. Busse D.; Tuebert W. Ist Diskurs ein sprachwissenschaftliches

Objekt? Zur Methodenfrage der historischen Semantik, 1994. In: Busse D.,

Hermanns F., Tuebert W. (Hg.) Begriffsgeschichte und Diskursgeschichte.

Methodenfrage und Forschungsergebnisse der historischen Semantik.

Opladen: Westd. Verlag, S.10-28.

5. Antos G. Texte als Konsitutionsformen von Wissen. Thesen zu

einer evolutionstheoretischen Begründung der Textlinguist, 1997. In:

Antos G.; Tiertz H. (Hg.) Die Zukunft der Textlinguistik. Traditionen,

Transformationen, Trends. Tübingen, Niemeyer, S.43-63.

6. Püttjer C.; Schnierda U. Das große Bewerbungshandbuch.

Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag, 2014.

7. Fandrych C.; Thurmair M. Textsorten im Deutschen:

linguistischen Analysen aus sprachdidaktischer Sicht. Tübingen:

Stauffenburg, 2011.

К.Е. Есенова

Актюбинский Университет им.С. Баишева

г. Актобе, Казахстан

Особенности англо-русских научно-технических переводов

Научно-техническая революция, охватывающая все новые

области жизни, и связанные с ней международное сотрудничество

наук, ожидаемый демографический взрыв и другие важнейшие

явления цивилизации приводят к небывалому развитию всякого рода

контактов между государствами и другими разноязычными

обществами людей. В этих условиях чрезвычайно актуальной

становится тема перевода научно-технической и другой литературы с

английского языка на русский.

Научно-технические работники, инженеры и другие

специалисты в самых разнообразных отраслях народного хозяйства

должны постоянно следить за всем новым, что появляется за рубежом

в области науки и техники, по иностранным периодическим

изданиям, специальным бюллетеням и патентной литературе. Но так

как не все специалисты владеют иностранными языками, они не

могут пользоваться оригинальной литературой и обращаются за

110

помощью к техническим переводчикам, которые очень часто

сталкиваются с общелексическими проблемами перевода научно-

технической литературы с английского языка на русский. Все это и

делает актуальнымтему исследования.

Для научно-технических материалов английского языка

характерно преобладание простых предложений, которые,

составляют в среднем свыше 50% общего числа предложений в

тексте. В то же время число сложных предложений сравнительно

невелико. Это явление не свойственно соответствующему стилю в

русском языке, где сложные предложения используются очень

широко. В связи с этим в англо-русских технических переводах часто

используется прием объединения предложений, в результате чего

двум или более простым предложениям английского оригинала

соответствует одно сложное предложение в русском переводе.

This condition, however, changes at certain critical energies of the

electrons. At these critical energies the gas atoms do absorb energy, and a

sudden drop in the electron current is simultaneously observed.

Однако это условие нарушается при некоторых критических

энергиях электронов, когда атомы газа поглощают энергию, и

одновременно наблюдается внезапное падение электронного тока [2,

127].

Например:

1. The success of Einstein’s theory again required thinking of light as

“quantified”. The indivisible quantum of light is called the photon, and it

has the energy hv. This success served to give further support to Planck’s

quantum hypothesis for black body radiation.

Успех эйнштейновской теории снова потребовал рассматривать

свет как поток неделимых частиц, называемых фотонами и имеющих

энергию hv, и послужил дальнейшей поддержкой планковской

квантовой гипотезе излучения абсолютно твердого тела.

2. Classically, we should expect the stopping voltage to be different

for different intensities. Furthermore we should not expect any simple

direct dependence of the stopping voltage on the frequency of.

С точки зрения классической теории, можно ожидать, что

запирающее напряжение будет различным для различных

интенсивностей, но не будет зависеть от длины волны падающего

света [2, 127].

При переводе на русский язык английских текстов,

принадлежащих к художественной литературе или к газетно-

111

информационному стилю, преобладает противоположное явление –

членение предложения при переводе, когда одному исходному

предложению соответствуют два или более в тексте перевода. В

англо-русских научно-технических переводах прием членения

используется сравнительно редко:

The limitations of the existing theories must be adequately

understood if they are not to be used in places where they are not valid.

Ограничения существующих теорий должны быть обязательно

поняты. Это поможет избежать применения этих теорий в тех

случаях, когда они несправедливы [2, 128].

Специальная теория перевода описывает различные формы

стилистической адаптации при переводе текстов, принадлежащих к

определенному функциональному стилю. Подобная адаптация

обусловливается не только языковыми различиями. Стилистическая

адаптация при переводе может оказаться необходимой и в отношении

тех стилистических признаков, которые одновременно

обнаруживаются в аналогичных стилях ИЯ и ПЯ. Одна и та же

стилистическая черта может в различной степени проявляться и в

каждом из языков, и ее присутствие в оригинале еще не означает, что

она может быть просто воспроизведена в тексте перевода.

Вспомним, к примеру, что для научно-технического стиля, как в

английском, так и в русском языке характерно стремление к четкости

и строгости изложения, точному употреблению терминов, отказу от

косвенных, описательных обозначений объектов, широкому

использованию штампов и стереотипов специальной лексики. Однако

более детальный анализ показывает, что строгость в употреблении

терминов и привычных формулировок, в целом, более свойственна

русскому научно-техническому стилю, чем английскому [1, 56].

Поэтому переводчик нередко чувствует себя обязанным

осуществлять «стилистическую правку» оригинала, вводить вместо

парафразы точный термин, разъяснять, что конкретно имеется ввиду,

заменять авторский оборот более привычным штампом:

Однако было обнаружено, что рентгеновское излучение,

рассеянное на атомах, содержит не только частоту V0 падающего

излучения, но также новую частоту V1, которой не было в спектре

первоначального рентгеновского излучения.

It was discovered, however, that X-rays scattered by atoms

exhibited not only the frequency V0 of the incident X-rays but also a new

frequency V1 not present in the original X-rays [2, 129].

112


1. Ванников Ю.В. Типы научных и технических текстов и их

лингвистические особенности. – М.: Международные отношения,

1985.

2. Комиссаров В.Н. Теория перевода. – М.: Международные

отношения, 1980.

А.Д. Ильина, Д.А. Кузнецова




Эсперанто – ключ к единству?

В мире политических страстей, религиозных войн и разногласий

сейчас как никогда не хватает того, что могло бы объединить людей

под единым началом, создав нейтральный базис для свободных

международных коммуникаций. Со всеми этими задачами справился

бы единый международный общепринятый язык, а именно эсперанто

– искусственно созданный язык польским лингвистом Людвиком

Заменгофом. Он легок в освоении, достаточно благозвучен и именно

ему удалось продержаться на плаву в течение более ста тридцати лет

в отличие от других искусственных языков. Данная статья раскроет

историю его зарождения и развития во времени, отличие от иных

языков, включая естественные, его преимущества и недостатки, а

также причины, почему эсперанто не удалось продвинуться дальше и

стать официальным международным языком.

Is Esperanto the key to unity?

It is worth remembering one of the most prominent Biblical legends,

which have come up to our days. It is the legend of the Tower of Babel.

According to the story, a united humanity following the Great Flood,

speaking a single language and migrating from the east came to the land

of Shinar. There they agreed to build a city with a tower up to the sky; and

seeing this, God deprived them of a common language so that they could

no longer understand each other and scattered them around the world [5].

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_race

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinar

113

No one can state with certainty that this story is true and a lot of centuries

ago there was a common language, in which people could communicate

without any bounds. However, about one hundred and thirty years ago a

Polish linguist Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof gave the world something that

would be a worthy prototype of such a common language [4]. It is called

Esperanto.

Esperanto is a constructed international auxiliary language and the

most widely spoken constructed language in the world as well. Nowadays,

according to various estimates, there are from several hundred thousand

(theory of Jouko Lindstedt, Finnish linguist) to several million (theory of

Sidney S. Culbert, American linguist and Esperantist) speakers of

Esperanto, or Esperantists [6]. Unfortunately, more accurate data does not

exist and it is extremely difficult to ascertain. Esperanto was created in the

late 1870s and early 1880s by L. L. Zamenhof and as a result in 1887 in

Warsaw the first manual of Esperantowas published, «First Book» or in

the language Esperanto «Unua Libro». Zamenhof signed the work as

"Doktoro Esperanto" (Doctor One-Who-Hopes). Those who learned the

new language began to call it "Esperanto" after Zamenhof's pen name, and

Esperanto soon became the official name of the language, although

initially the language was called «Internacia», i.e. «International» [6].

But what is the difference between Esperanto and all other native or

artificial languages? Why has not it sunk into oblivion, and a century later

still has its place of honor in the linguistic world? What are the pros and

cons of Esperanto and any international language in general? And

nevertheless, why has not Esperanto gained more popularity, and has not

become the number one language all over the world?

First of all, Esperanto is a unique language because its grammar,

vocabulary and orthoepy are maximally simple and easy for memorizing

and studying. An interesting fact is that the Institute of Cybernetic

Pedagogy at Paderborn (Germany) has compared the length of study time

it takes native French-speaking high-school students to obtain comparable

standard levels in Esperanto, English, German, and Italian and the results

were surprising. Studying German takes 2000 hours, English requires 1500

hours and Italian (or any other Roman languagesuch as Spanish,

Portuguese and Romanian) requires 1000 hours, while Esperanto takes just

150 hours [6]. It is an incredible difference. What is the reason for this?

Perhaps, the greatest advantage of learning Esperanto is the absence of any

exceptions to the rule. There is no doubt that memorizing thousands of

exceptions to the rules is one of the main problems in the study of any

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Lazarus_Zamenhof

114

language. For example, in the German language there are about 5000 of

rules and 45000 exceptions. Grammar basics of Esperanto are constituted

only by 16 rules and the alphabet is based on the Latin script, using a one-

sound-one-letter principle, but the vocabulary is a mix of several major

world languages: about 75% of the vocabulary comes from Latin and the

Romance languages (especially French), 20% are German (German and

English) and other expressions are taken from the Slavic languages

(Russian and Polish) and Greek (mostly scientific terms). Also it uses large

quantities of international words; therefore, people who speak Russian,

even without knowing the language, would be able to read about 40% of

the text in Esperanto. The language does not have grammatical genders

and word order is arbitrary. There are only two cases, three tenses, three

moods of verbs and an extensive system of prefixes and suffixes, which

can be used to create many new words from a single root [2].

The idea of creating an international artificial language has existed

for a long time in the minds of peopleand there were quite a lot of attempts

to do that. In 1868 a French linguist Jean Pirro invented the «universal

language», Universalglot, but unfortunately, the project of Pirro stayed

unnoticed by the public. In 1879 a German Catholic priest Martin Schleyer

composed the constructed language Volapük, which was forgotten as well.

Only Zamenhof's Esperanto was able to achieve such a global fame, which

it possesses at the present day due to the most successful structure of the

language. However, nowadays the international community is not ready to

make an effort and raise Esperanto to a new level because of strained

relations between many countries, nations and entire civilizations and as a

consequence the lack of need in spiritual and linguistic unity [7].

What benefits could the humanity acquire, if it used a neutral

international language? At first, it is certainly omniparity. For instance, if

one of the interlocutors is English-speaking and the other is not, he or she

will have to be able to understand a different language. Thus, Esperanto is

a step towards each other because both participants of communication

should make an effort to understand each other. Secondly, it can be used to

see the world. There are lists of Esperanto speakers, who are ready to host

other speakers in their own home or apartment [3]. Thirdly, it is

translations of literary masterpieces. Many works have been translated into

Esperanto while some of them may not be available in the native language

of Esperantist ("Hamlet" by Shakespeare, "Iliad" of Homer, as well as the

Bible and the Koran) [1].

115

However, Esperanto, like everything else, has some drawbacks. For

example, writing letters is difficult using a modern keyboard because of

diacritical marks such as ĉ, ŝ and ĝ. What is more, representatives from

different countries are constantly trying to make the amendments to

improve the language. This leads to disputes and differences in educational

materials. Also its euphony is called into question, butthe majority of

peopleargue that it resembles Spanish or Italian [2].

Esperanto has not received the world fame and there are several

reasons for this. Political turmoil of the 20th century had a significant

impact on the spread of Esperanto in the world. In Nazi Germany, there

was a motivation to persecute Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish. In

Mein Kampf Adolf Hitler specifically mentioned Esperanto as an example

of thelanguage that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy

once they achieved world domination. In the USSR there was an active

dissemination of Esperanto in the 1920s, on the proposal of Leon Trotsky;

it was widely studied as the "language of the world revolution." But from

the middle of 1930s Esperantists were persecuted by Joseph Stalin on

suspicion of espionage. As a result, the Esperanto movement in the Soviet

Union and Germany in fact ceased to exist [6].

Howbeit, Esperanto definitely has a future. It could be the first step

towards the convergence of different nations and mentalities because this

language is neutral to the political and religious views. Ludwik Zamenhof

did not choose his pseudonym «One-Who-Hopes» in vain; he hoped that

one day his creation will become the main tool opening the new vistas for

all mankind in the spheres ofpolitics, tourism, business, culture,

communication, etc. Perhaps, someday humanity will realize that for

common prosperity, peace and welfare everybody should stand united, not

physically or even politically, but spiritually; and everyone will be able to

understand other people and will be understood by them.


1. Сайт Эсперанто. URL: http://www.esperanto.mv.ru/ (дата

обращения: 29.12.2015).

2. Эсперанто – что это? Международный язык эсперанто.

URL: http://fb.ru/article/173780/esperanto---chto-eto-mejdunarodnyiy-

yazyik-esperanto/ (дата обращения: 29.12.2015).

3. Multlingva Informcentro pri Esperanto. URL:

http://www.esperanto.net/ (дата обращения: 2.01.2016).

http://www.esperanto.mv.ru/

116

4. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. URL:

https://en.wikipedia.org/ /wiki/L._L._Zamenhof/ (дата обращения:

05.01.2016).


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Tower_of_Babel/ (дата обращения:

05.01.2016).


https://ru.wikipedia.org/ /wiki/Эсперанто/ (датаобращения: 05.01.2016).

7. Wikipedia, thefreeencyclopedia. URL:

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Список_искусственных_языков/ (дата

обращения: 05.01.2016).

А.А. Корюкова, Ю.Р. Даминова




Английские имена собственные в произведениях о Гарри Поттере

Статья посвящена этимологии и разным прочтениям имен,

терминов и названий магических мест в серии книг о Гарри Поттере,

написанной британской писательницей Джоан Роулинг. Особое

внимание уделено семантизации иноязычной лексики романов.

Proper Names in Harry Potter books

Every person at least once in their life has heard about “the boy who

lived”. Fourteen years, seven books and eight blockbuster films later, the

Harry Potter brand, valued at over $15 billion, is still going strong [1]. The

huge advantage of Harry Potter novels is that this is a good literature for

English learners. Many non-native speakers reread it in English. The

language is beautiful and quite simple, partly because J. K. Rowling has

written her novels for children. In addition, the books and the films based

on them have produced an incredible amount of new words and phrases.

The author thought through every detail in her Harry Potter series.

Rowling's work is so thought-out and profound that the words, names and

terms deserve a close look. This article deals with etymology and

semantics of the words used in these novels.

117

First, we will take a closer look at words that came from Old English

and modern English. The most important place in the Harry Potter

universe, Hogwarts Castle, is a wondrous, magical building with many

towers and turrets. It is home to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and

Wizardry. “Hogwarts” is actually the name of a flower. Once a friend from

London asked J. K. Rowling if she had remembered when they first had

seen Hogwarts. She did not understand what she was talking about until

she recalled the day they went to Kew Gardens and saw those lilies that

were called Hogwarts. “I had seen them seven years before and they'd

bubbled around in my memory. When Hogwarts occurred to me as a name

for the school, I had no idea where it came from”, – said Rowling

[2]. Nobody knows if it is true, although the «wort» part does mean

“plant”, as in St. John’s Wort.

The four Houses at Hogwarts are Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw,

and Slytherin. Each name is worth a look. The name Gryffindor is closely

associated with the mythical griffin, also spelled gryphon and griffon. The

griffin has the head and wings of an eagle and the body of a lion.

Gryffindor’s animal is a lion, and the house colours are gold and scarlet,

lion-like colours. In Old English, “dor” means gate or door. In French

“d'or” means “of gold”, one of the Gryffindor House colors, though it can

also come from the Greek word “dora” meaning “gift”. The name

Hufflepuff conjures up images of huffing and puffing. Its animal is the

badger. The Ravenclaw is an obvious combination of the well-known bird

and claw. Its colors are bronze and blue. They are easily associated with

the sky, flight and birds. The name of the fourth House – Slythering – has

the idea of snakes in it due to the word “slither”.

People that readers get to know on the first page of the first book are

the Dursleys, an ordinary English family. Mr. Dursley and Mrs. Dursley

are Harry’s uncle and aunt. They have a spoiled and fretful son Dudley.

“The Dursleys were what the wizards called Muggles (not a drop of

magical blood in their veins)” [3]. Rowling claims that she made it up

herself: “I was looking for a word that suggested both foolishness and

lovability. The word “mug” came to mind, for somebody gullible, and then

I softened it. I think “muggle” sounds quite cuddly” [4]. Although she said

that she had never heard it before, it has been around in one form or

another for almost a century. Lewis Carroll used it as the name of the

villain in his short story “Wilhelm von Schmitz” in 1854. The word has

also been used in American drug slang and Louis Armstrong and his

orchestra recorded a song called “Muggles” in 1928. A British writer Carol

118

Kendall used the word “muggles” in two stories, written in the 1940s and

1950s (the name of candy maker). So the question is whether Rowling just

popularized the word, genuinely created it without realizing that she has

heard it before or really invented it.

Hermione Granger and Ronald Weasley are Harry’s best friends.

Rowling chose the name Hermione from a queen in Shakespeare's play “A

Winter's Tale”. She chose a very unusual name because she worried that if

there were a real child somewhere whose appearance or personality might

be similar to Hermione that had the same name, she may be teased.

Hermione is pronounced “Her-MY-oh-knee”. Weasley means “like a

weasel”. Rowling once said that she had had a great fondness for the

Family Weasel. Ginny is a Ron’s little sister and Harry’s future wife.

Ginevra is the Italian form of Guinevere (“fair one”), the name of King

Arthur's wife.

The second group of names is borrowed from other languages. Most

of them have Latin and French roots. For example, Draco (Draco Malfoy,

Harry Potter’s antagonist at Hogwarts) is Latin for dragon, ultimately from

the ancient Greek “drakōn”, meaning serpent. Draco is also the name of a

constellation of stars, and of the first lawgiver in ancient Athens. This is a

perfect name for a nasty child from Slytherin. The surname Malfoy

consists of two word. The first part “mal” shows up in English in words

such as malevolent, malicious, or malign, and comes from the Latin

adjective “malus” meaning evil or bad. The second part “foy” (“foi”) is

French for faith and comes from the Latin “fides”, meaning trust,

confidence, reliance, belief, or faith. This Latin word gives us in English

faith, fidelity, and related words. Therefore, these two parts combined

result in “bad faith”, “evil belief”, or any other combination of the above

meanings.

Arch-villain and ultimate antagonist in the Harry Potter series is the

evil wizard who started life as Tom Marvolo Riddle. “Tom Marvolo

Riddle” is an anagram to “I am Lord Voldemort”. Voldemort in French

means flight (Vol) of (De) Death (Mort). In addition, according to

Rowling, “Voldemort” is pronounced with a silent “t” at the end, as in the

French word “mort”.

Combinations of these two ways create some interesting meanings, in

Albus Dumbledore’s case, for instance, who was the Headmaster of

Hogwarts and a great wizard. “Albus” is “white” in Latin;

“Dumbledore” is the word for “bumblebee” in England in 18 century.

Rowling said she had wanted to associate his name with bees because she

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mort

119

imagined him wandering around the castle humming to himself.

Interestingly, the word “Dumbledore” has another possibly important

meaning. Christopher Woosley wrote that Dumbledore was a style of hat

that had been popular in London in the 1880s-1890s. Considering this

meaning, Albus Dumbledore's name would have the meaning “White

Hat”. “White Hat” is a term for the good character or protagonist of a

story. Rowling might have named her character taking it into account.

Later Rowling revealed interesting details on the relevance of alchemy in

the series. She said that the colours red and white represented two different

sides of human nature. These colors inspired the names of two hugely

important to Harry people Rubeus (red) Hagrid and Albus (white)

Dumbledore. The red is warm, practical and wild; the white is impressive,

intellectual, and somewhat detached. Regardless the word “Hagrid”, the

source of his name is an Old English word. If you were hagrid, you had

had a bad night. “Hagrid is a big drinker – he has a lot of bad nights”, –

said Rowling about him [5].

J. K. Rowling uses a pun in her books. The first magic place Harry

visited is Diagon Alley. The words “Diagon” and “Alley” when

pronounced together produce the word “diagonally” which is most

probably the origin of the name “Diagon Alley”. Unfortunately, the

wordplay in the name Diagon Alley is lost in other languages, since it is

simply not reproducible.

It only remains to say about Harry Potter himself. Rowling said that

she named her character for her old friend Ian Potter. Moreover, Harry is

the favorite author’s name. According to The Daily Mail, the real man

named Harry Potter was born in 1989 in Portsmouth. His mother named

him for Prince Harry. Therefore, Harry Potter is a usual English name and

the reader can learn it from the beginning of the story: “– What’s his name

again? Howard, isn’t it? – Harry. Nasty, common name, if you ask me. –

Oh, yes – said Mr. Dursley, his heart sinking horribly. – Yes, I quite

agree” [6]. However, Harry is name for kings. Harry is an English short

form (“spoken form”) of Henry in medieval England. Most English kings

named Henry were called Harry. In addition, it is possible that the name

“Harry” originate from Greek name: Haris (χάρις), which means “grace”.

In Old German it means “master of the house”, “heim” is “house” and

“ric” is “power”. This meaning can be associated with the fact that Harry

is an heir of Gryffindor House. The surname might come from Latin

“potens, potentis”, meaning “powerful”. In English, the word “potter” has

another meaning. A potter is a person who spends time in a relaxed way

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_(name)

120

doing small jobs and other things that are not very important. Therefore,

the name Harry Potter might mean that he is a boy who is destined to

create great things, but he is just a kid and cannot spend all his time on

fulfilling the prophecy.

Overall, it is evident that J. K. Rowling has done a tremendous job.

She chose names of her characters, magical places and terms wisely.

Unfortunately, the real meaning of the word might get lost in translation

process or simply cannot be understood by people speaking a foreign

language. In this case, readers lose important details. That is why people

who are interested in gaining a better understanding of the text or learning

English more thoroughly should look into a question of origin and

meaning of significant words in the Harry Potter universe.


1. Business Insider. URL: http://www.businessinsider.com/jk-rowling-

business-methods-2011-7 (дата обращения: 22.01.2015).

2. An interview with the Sydney Morning Herald, 2001. URL:

http://www.accio-quote.org/articles/2001/1001-sydney-renton.htm(дата

обращения: 25.01.2015).

3. J. K. Rowling. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. Croydon,

Bloomsbury, 2012. 4 p.

4. JK Rowling's World Book Day Chat. URL: http://www.accio-

quote.org/articles/2004/0304-wbd.htm (дата обращения: 22.01.2015).

5. Lydon, Christopher. J.K. Rowling interview transcript, The

Connection (WBUR Radio), 12 October, 1999. URL: http://www.accio-

quote.org/articles/1999/1099-connectiontransc2.htm (дата обращения:

26.01.2015).

6. J. K. Rowling. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. Croydon,

Bloomsbury, 2012. 8 p.

http://context.reverso.net/%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4/%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9-%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9/has+done+a+tremendous+job+organizing

http://www.businessinsider.com/jk-rowling-business-methods-2011-7

http://www.businessinsider.com/jk-rowling-business-methods-2011-7

http://www.accio-quote.org/articles/2001/1001-sydney-renton.htm

http://www.accio-quote.org/articles/2004/0304-wbd.htm

http://www.accio-quote.org/articles/2004/0304-wbd.htm

http://www.accio-quote.org/articles/1999/1099-connectiontransc2.htm

http://www.accio-quote.org/articles/1999/1099-connectiontransc2.htm

121

А.Ю. Кошелева, Э.В. Лелека




Ошибки в текстах современных песен на английском языке

Музыка сопровождает людей на протяжении многих веков. С

некоторых пор стали популярны песни на английском, особенно

среди молодежи. Слушая их, люди запоминают какие-то выражения,

грамматические конструкции. Но правильно ли полагаться на

современные тексты при изучении английского? В данной статье

рассмотрены случаи наиболее часто встречающихся в текстах песен

ошибок.

Mistakes in modern songs in English

Undoubtedly, music has always played an important role in people’s

lives. It is something that has been beside us for a very long time, which is

why we trust it. English is considered to be an international language, that

is why nowadays we can hear songs in English almost everywhere, from

shops to TV shows. It is said that if a singer wants to make it, they

probably should write songs in English so that most of the population can

understand them. In general, songs in English are often known, heard and

translated all over the world. People hear songs in English and memorize

some grammar constructions, set phrases, etc, and do not even check them

to make sure they are correct as we consider song lyrics to be 100 per cent

accurate because they were written by the native speakers. How can they

make mistakes? But they can and they do. Why would songwriters do

that? It is highly unlikely that they are illiterate or careless.

To begin with, mistakes can be made for the sake of rhythm and

rhyme. It should be pointed out that this type of errors prevails. It was

found out that the word “ain’t”, that means any type of negation, is often

used in songs for this purpose, also songwriters can avoid a great deal of

problems with complex grammar constructions by using it. However, it is

not considered to be a mistake in this very article as it can be found in

dictionaries.

Talking about songs, several mistakes of this category can be

mentioned.

122

To start with, Timbaland’s “The Way I Are” is full of errors as the

title itself manifests. Evidently, that is because the phrase is used in every

chorus of the song. The verb “are” is used instead of the correct variant

“am” in order for the line “Can you handle me the way I are?” to rhyme

the previous one “Cause I like you just the way you are”.

Furthermore, a song “Sun Don’t Shine” has an obvious mistake in its

title as well as in its lyrics. This error was made for the sake of rhythm as

the longer word “doesn’t” instead of “don’t” wouldn’t fit in.

Moreover, although some of such mistakes may appear to be faults,

they can turn out to be slang words orexpressions. This type of errors can

often be found in hip-hop. E.g., a song “Lonely” by Akon has some slang

words and expressions like the word “playas”, which seems to be a

modified “players”, and in the context it means “men who dates several

women at the same time”, which you may be known only to people who

live in the area where the word is widely used or if they look it up in the

Internet because the meaning is not popular.

Besides, mistakes may be made as a reference to some quote or set

phrase.

For instance, The Killers’ “Human” has a line “Are we human or are

we dancer”, which is obviously incorrect as far as the grammar goes. On

the other hand, the songwriter Brandon Flowers wrote it intentionally as

the reference to a quote that is "America is raising a generation of

dancers", so "dancer" in the song refers to a brand new race, not a group of

people who like to dance, as well as “human” stands for the human race.

What is more, Panic! At The Disco has a song called “Collar Full”

which seems to be a derivative from such an expression as “handful”,

“mouthful”, “spoonful”, etc, even though the structure is changed.

Nevertheless, there are mistakes in some songs that look like nothing

more than slips. It should be pointed out that this kind of faults is thought

to make lyrics seem more natural for young people (who are considered to

be the main audience) because these inaccuracies are a part of spoken

language which is normal for the youth, and it helps to diminish

artificiality that can destroy the song.

For instance, Bruno Mars’ song “Grenade” for some reason goes

“You was trouble” despite the fact that the accurate sentence, i. e. “You

were trouble”, would fit the rhythm.

Another example is a song “Bad Romance” by Lady Gaga in which

she sings “You and me could write a bad romance” while it should be

123

“You and I could write a bad romance”. Although the correct phrase

would sound fine, the original one seems to sound better.

One more category is semantic mistakes. They usually prevent us

from understanding a line or a sentence and seem to be made in order to

get a metaphor or beautiful phrase.

For example, the singer Taylor Swift has a song “Love Story”, that

tells a story of two young people who can’t be together because of their

families. That seems to be quite a familiar story, especially when you hear

the sentence “Cause you were Romeo - I was a scarlet letter”. But the

question is, why a scarlet letter? Romeo’s lover’s name was Juliet. Frankly

speaking, the girl in the song is called Juliet a couple of times. Apparently,

the fact the she “was a scarlet letter” means that she was stained because of

the relationships with Romeo. But, truth to be told, a scarlet letter used to

be fasten to women when they commited adultery, and as it is known Juliet

did nothing of the kind. So the mystery of this line remains unsolved, but it

was not understood how the lyrics can be changed.

Next, a song “Empire State of Mind” by Jay-Z&Alicia Keys contains

a line “Concrete jungle where dreams are made of” (“concrete jungle”

meaning New York), which sounds somehow confusing. It seems to

combine an expression “Concrete jungle where dreams are made” and

“Concrete jungle from which dreams are made of”. Since the next line is

“There’s nothing you cant’t do”, the mistake in the previous sentence

seems to be made in order to fit the rhythm. It should be underlined that

the phrase might have been written like this: “Concrete jungle where

dreams are made and there’s nothing you can’t do”. In this case, the

rhythm would stay the same, but on the whole the meaning would change.

By the way, double negation can also be regarded as a mistake, but as the

song on the whole is written in spoken English, this error can be referred

to the previous category.

Of course, there are much more songs with mistakes out there,

considering only a few modern ones were mentioned in this article. During

the research it was found out that, firstly, the author of this article is not

the only one who notices inaccuracies in songs, especially in the ones

mentioned above, secondly, a lot of people appear to criticize recent music

and lyrics because of numerous errors, and thirdly, old-style music and

lyrics also contain a number of mistakes, and it is never too late to bring

them to light.

All things considered, it should be said that all the mistakes in songs

are in fact made on purpose no matter what purpose they actually pursue.

124

Songwriting is a form of art, and even though some of the mistakes do not

make sense to most of us, they make perfect sense to the writers and can

carry some additional meaning we do not understand; maybe errors were

intentionally written this way for us to think why or to pay special

attention to a line. As a matter of fact, grammar in songs can be regarded

not as wrong, but as different from the one we learn in schools, colleges

and universities. Nowadays musicians often reflect contemporary

language, the language of their audiences and music styles so that people

can easily relate to their music. And though mistakes in songs are not very

appealing, there is nothing wrong with expressing yourself in this way and

maybe even making others see some things differently as long as it doesn’t

affect your actual speech.


1. Greenspan S. 11 Painful Grammatical Errors In Song Lyrics.

URL:

http://www.11points.com/Music/11_Painful_Grammatical_Errors_In_Son

g_Lyrics (дата обращения 24.01.2016).

2. Lee P. 30 Worst Taylor Swift Lyrics. URL:

http://www.hooksandharmony.com/30-worst-taylor-swift-lyrics/ (дата


4. Woodford K., Glenno D.The Top 5 Ungrammatical

Song Lyrics. URL: http://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/2014/04/03/the-

top-5-ungrammatical-song-lyrics/ (дата обращения 26.01.2016).

Н.А. Куракина

Балтийский Федеральный Университет имени И. Канта

г. Калининград, Россия

Вербализация региональной идентичности в комплиментах

представителями английской и американской национальных

идентичностей

Для лингвистики феномен региональной идентичности

представляется новым полем исследования. Несмотря на очевидную

актуальность исследования, данный вид социальной идентичности

еще не получил должного освещения. Цель данной статьи состоит в

http://www.11points.com/Music/11_Painful_Grammatical_Errors_In_Song_Lyrics

http://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/kate-woodford/

http://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/dom-glennon/

125

рассмотрении вербализации региональной идентичности в

комплиментарных высказываниях.

Verbal expression of regional identity in compliments by the

representatives of English and American national identities

In spite of the many studies using the concept of regional identity,

few have provided a clear and theoretically driven account of the

manifestation of the speaker’s regional identity in the language. This

research is focused on the theory of regional identity and is aimed to study

the way the place people live in influences the structure of complimentary

utterances in the Britishand American linguacultures. The characteristic

features of compliments of people living in the city (the representatives of

urban-related identity) and those living in the suburbs (the representatives

of rural-related, or settlement identity) are examined.

The proponents of the theory of regional identity claim that place can

be considered to be a social category within social identity theory [10,

206]. It should be notedthat people use place identifications to distinguish

themselves from the other people. Therefore, the main function of a place

is similar to a social category. Correspondingly, place identifications are

comparable to social identifications [10, 207]. People who have the same

specific values and are unified by one living territory (place) have equal

regional identity.

A. Paasi acknowledges that regional identity is defined as the extent

to which people identify themselves with the region as the whole of

institutionalized practices, discourses and symbols [3, 20].

Consequently, it is relevant to consider regional identity as one of the

components of social identity which testifies to the identification

withagroup of people belonging to a certain place. If this position is taken

we should admit that regional identity manifests itself in the language we

speak. This exemplifies the tendency to use a certain dialect that reveals

regional identity of the person.

1. “Apple ain’t fallen far from the tree, bruv, for real” [8, 76].

This is an example of a compliment which displays English regional

urban-relatedidentity of the speaker. This complimentary address of a

South Londoner is characterized by the mixed dialect: the Estuary English

word “bruv” (the shorter version of ‘bruvva’), which is a slang word for

“brother”, mainly used by South Londoners, and thegrammatically

incorrect form “ain’t” (meaning “am not, are not, is not, have not, has not,

126

do not, does not, did not”), used in some varieties of Black and Cockney

English, nonstandard and more common in the everyday speech. “It is

used in both speech and writing to catch attention and to gain emphasis. In

fiction “ain’t” is used for purposes of characterization; in familiar

correspondence it tends to be the mark of a warm personal friendship” [7].

2. “- Your man’s got his feet on her seat, blud.

- But it is your business, though? Why you tryna make it your business?

- Who you callin’ blud? I ain’t your blud.

- I didn’t say it was my –” [8, 118].

This compliment is expressed by the laudatory address “blud” which

has the meaning “brother” mostly used in the UK. The form “blud” comes

from “bredrin” (brother) or blood brother; “it doesn't have to mean a literal

brother, it’s more like a friend” [11]. The response of the interlocutor

includes unintelligible “tryna” (“try to”), contraction “calin” with the

absence of nasal postdorsal “-n” (“calling”) and the absence of auxiliary

verb “are” in the Present Continuous tense in the interrogative sentence

“Who you callin’ blud?” that shows irritation. All these features of

communication exhibit the English urban-related regional identity of the

citizens of London, who speak Cockney dialect.

3. “Bob leaned down and peered at the white bundle of soft

blankets, looking into his son’s face for the first time. The power of speech

returned.

- Yes, wee fella. Hello, there. You’ll like it out here, I think,

Master JAS. Hope you’ll like us.

- No doubt about that, copper,” said his wife. “Hey! JAS – I like the sound

of it. James Andrew Skinner, aka Jazz. Spelled J-A-Z-Z. That’s what we’ll

call him. Yes, Bob?

The new father threw back his head and laughed” [2, 2].

The compliment with the intention of greeting presents the situation

of communication in which the couple is delighted to see the newborn

baby. Addressing the baby the father calls his son “wee fella” using the

Scottish word “wee” (“tiny”) which is normallyused by the representatives

of Scottishregional identity.

4. “I’m sorry, too. I’m just a jealous, no-good bastard, I can’t help

it, I’m crazy about you.”

And he kissed her again” [6, 61].

This highly emotional compliment “I’m crazy about you”, meaning

“I’m very much in love with you” is uttered by the representative of

American regional identity. The compliment is accompanied by the

127

apology in which the speaker uses colloquial American vulgar slang

“bastard”, a derogatory term meaning “a wretched and repellent male, a

son of a bitch” [4, 19]. In spite of the note in the reference books: “Crude

and provocative. Caution with bastard this slang word is frequently used

by Americans in their speech.

5. “– Skeeter, those poplin pants are just the cutest thing, why

haven’t I seen those before?” Carroll Ringer says a few chairs away and I

look up at her and smile, thinking Because I wouldn’t dare wear old

clothes to a meeting and neither would you” [5, 207].

We can judge the American regional identity of the speaker, firstly,

by the use of the word “pants” in the meaning of “trousers”. In American

English, the word “pants” is used to refer to men's or women's trousers

whereas in British English “pants are underpants, esp. for women and

children” [9]. And secondly, by the use of the expressive adjective “cute”

in the superlative degree (“the cutest”), frequently used young American

speakers.

7. “… Pretty nifty, Franklin” [12, 103].

The compliment of praise “pretty nifty” of the representative of

settlement identity reflects American regional identity of the speaker, who

uses an American slang word “nifty” with the meaning “neat, smart” [4,

253].

In this article the characteristic features of compliments produced by

the representatives ofBritish and American regional identities, urban-

related and rural-related identities in particular, such as British English,

American English, Cockney, Estuary English and Black English have been

analysed. The research has been based on the material of Englishand

American fiction of the XX and XXI centuries. The results of the study

testify to the fact that speaking regional dialects people identify themselves

with the place they live in, and their regional identity manifests itself in the

language. This holds true with complimentary utterances: as a rule, they

display the distinctive linguistic features characteristic of regional speech:

phonetic peculiarities, contractions, typical slang words, vulgar slang,

words and phrases frequently used in this or that dialect, units of

vocabulary which are different in their usage while denoting the same

notions, etc.

It is of importance to emphasize the fact that the compliments of the

representatives of urban-related identity differ from the compliments

produced bythe representatives of rural-related, or settlement identity. The

former being produced by educated or more or less educated people

128

contain national slang, national forms of address and certain dialect words

which can be understood by the listener, whereas the compliments

produced by the representatives of settlement identity especially by

uneducated people are very often difficult for an interlocutor of different

identity to understand due to the accent, mispronunciations, the usage of

different substandard words, non-standard contractions and grammar

mistakes.


1. Fowles, J. The French Lieutenant’s women. – London: Guild

Publishing, 1979. 445 p.

2. Jardine, Q. Skinner’s Trail. – London: Headline Book Publishing,

1994. 499 p.

3. Messely, L., Dessein, J, Lauwers, L. Regional identity in rural

development: three case studies of regional branding // Applied studies in

agribusiness and commerce — Vol. 4 — Budapest: Agroinform Publishing

House, 2010. P. 19-24.

4. Spears, Richard A. NTC’s Dictionary of American Slang. – М.:

«Русскийязык», 1991. 528 с.

5. Stockett, K. The Help. – NY: The Berkley Publishing Group,

2011. 535 p.

6. Baldwin, J. Another country // BookReader. URL:

http://bookre.org/reader?file=1379724 (дата обращения: 28.01.2015).

7. Merriam Webster Collegiate English Dictionary. URL:

http://slovar-vocab.com/english/merriam-webster-vocab/ain-t-

7427514.html (дата обращения: 28.01.2015).

8.Smith, Z. NW // iDOC. URL: / http://www.idoc.co/read/28576/nw-

zadie-smith/118 (дата обращения: 28.01.2015).

9. The Free Dictionary. URL:

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/pants (дата обращения: 28.01.2015).

10. Twigger-Ross, Clare L. and Uzzell, David L. Department of

Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 5XH. Place and

Identity Processes // Journal of Environmental Psychology — № 16 —

U.K.: Academic Press Ltd, 1996. P. 205–220. URL:

http://www.wsl.ch/info/mitarbeitende/hunziker/teaching/download_mat/07

-1_Twigger-Ross_Uzzell.pdf (дата обращения: 28.01.2015).

http://bookre.org/reader?file=1379724

http://slovar-vocab.com/english/merriam-webster-vocab/ain-t-7427514.html

http://slovar-vocab.com/english/merriam-webster-vocab/ain-t-7427514.html

http://www.idoc.co/read/28576/nw-zadie-smith/118

http://www.idoc.co/read/28576/nw-zadie-smith/118

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/pants

http://www.wsl.ch/info/mitarbeitende/hunziker/teaching/download_mat/07-1_Twigger-Ross_Uzzell.pdf

http://www.wsl.ch/info/mitarbeitende/hunziker/teaching/download_mat/07-1_Twigger-Ross_Uzzell.pdf

129

11. Urban Dictionary. URL:

https://ru.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=blud (дата обращения:

28.01.2015).

12. Yates, R. Revolutionary Road // vk.com. URL:

https://vk.com/doc16932426_246424216?hash=1563faa5c9995a63c2&dl=

cd7764d0c13f8e83b0 (дата обращения: 28.01.2015).

Е.В. Логинова, В.К. Кадыкеева, О.Ю. Ольшванг




Перевод названий кинофильмов: анализ переводческих

подходов и решений

Данная статья представляет собой анализ переводческих

подходов и решений при переводе названий кинофильмов на основе

двадцати отобранных названий кинофильмов.

La traduction des titres des films: l'analyse des approches et des

décisions de traducteur

L'introduction

Notre vie est indissolublement liée à l'art. Aujourd'hui, c’est la sphère

de l'industrie cinématographique qui est une des plus demandeés et

comprend une partie importante des spectateurs dans le monde entier.

Derrierè chaque film il y a un travail immense non seulement des

scénaristes, des réalisateurs et des acteurs, mais aussi et des traducteurs,

qui traduisent non seulement les sous-titres du film, mais aussi son titre.

C’est le traducteur et sa traduction dont le succès du film dépend, en effet,

les titres, comme le titre de presse, doivent être traduits non seulement

conformément à l'original, mais doivent attirer aussi l'attention du

spectateur, l'intéresser, de plus être assez clair et rester dans la mémoire.

Le traducteur est l'intermédiaire entre la langue de l’original et de la

traduction. Il doit prendre en considération les particularités culturelles et

historiques de la langue de la traduction, afin de l’adapter au maximum

pour les spectateurs parlant n’importe quelle langue sans perdre le sens et

l'originalité du titre.

https://ru.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=blud

https://vk.com/doc16932426_246424216?hash=1563faa5c9995a63c2&dl=cd7764d0c13f8e83b0

https://vk.com/doc16932426_246424216?hash=1563faa5c9995a63c2&dl=cd7764d0c13f8e83b0

130

Ce problème est d’actualité dans la traduction et subissait l’étude

bien des fois. L'objet de cette étude est la traduction des titres des films.

On a étudié 20 titres des films contemporains et/ou populaires.

Au cours de la traduction du texte, le traducteur fait des

transformations concrètes de traducteur, qui permettent de réaliser la

traduction au meilleur niveau et atteindre l'équivalence. Ces types des

transformations sont décrits par L.S. Barkhoudarov qui met en relief les

types suivants:

• le remplacement (c’est le changement de la disposition (la

succession) des éléments de langue dans le texte de la traduction en

comparaison du texte de l'original)

• l’omission (au cours de la traduction les mots qui sont

excèdentaires du point de vue sèmantique subissent le plus souvent

l’omission, c'est-à-dire ceux qui expriment les significations excédentaires

peuvent être tirés du texte)

• le supplément (ce type de la transformation de traducteur est fondé

sur la restitution des mots opportuns omis au cours de la traduction)

• le réarrangement (c’est le changement de la disposition des

éléments de langue du texte de la traduction en comparaison avec le texte

de l’original. Par les éléments, pouvant subir le réarrangement, sont

d'habitude les mots, les groupes de mots, les parties de la proposition

complexe et les propositions indépendantes dans l'ordre du texte.

L’étude

Pour la partie pratique de notre article nous avons choisi 20 titres des

films populaires avec leur titres originaux en anglais, et nous avons trouvé

leurs traductions en russe et en français. Nous allons essayer de comparer

ces variantes de traduction et de les systématiser selon les types de

transformations de la traduction, qui sont proposé par le linguiste

Barkhudarov.

Comme le premier groupe nous voudrions distinguer les traductions

des titres qui sont faites mot à mot, sans transfomatioms en russe ainsi

qu’en français. Ces films sont:

‘The Devil Wears Prada’, ‘Le Diable s'habille en Prada’.

«ДьяволноситПрадо».

‘The Fifth Element’, ‘Le Cinquième élément’,

«Пятыйэлемент».

‘Iron Man’, ‘l'Homme de Fer’, «Железныйчеловек».

131

‘Fifty shades of grey’, ‘Cinquante nuances de Grey’,

«Пятьдесятоттенковсерого».

‘Night at the Museum’, ‘La Nuit au musée’, «Ночьвмузее».

‘PlanetoftheApes’, ‘La Planète des singes’,

«Планетаобезьян».

Sans aucune doute, cette variante de traduction des tirtes est la plus

simple, mais malgré ce fait, elle n’est pas la plus populaire. Au contraire,

les traducteurs qui travaillent dans ce domaine préfèrent changer les titres

originaux.

Le groupe suivant de traduction des titres comprend les titres qui sont

faits littéralement en russe mais la variante française a subi des

transformations. Ces films sont:

‘TheMazeRunner’, ‘Le Labyrinthe’, «Бегущийвлабиринте».

‘Home Alone’, ‘Maman, j'ai raté l'avion’, «Одиндома».

‘Life of Pi.’, ‘L'Histoire de Pi’, «ЖизньПи».

‘The Martian’, ‘Seul sur Mars’, «Марсианин».

‘Despicable Me’, ‘Moi, moche et méchant’, «Гадкийя».

‘How to Train Your Dragon’, ‘Dragons’, «Как приручить

дракона».

‘The Great Gatsby’, ‘Gatsby le Magnifique’,

«ВеликийГэтсби».

‘The Walk’, Rêver plus haut’, «Прогулка».

Eu égard à la présence des transformation de traduction dans chaque

version de titre, nous pouvons continuer la classification par leur division

selon les types de transformation.

Le premier groupe comprend les titres avec la transformation de

traduction qui porte le nom omission. Avec ceci la variante russe du titre

est faite mot à mot. Ces films sont:

‘The Maze Runner’, ‘Le Labyrinthe’, «Бегущий в

лабиринте».

‘How to Train Your Dragon’, ‘Dragons’, «Как приручить

дракона».

C’est évident que la variante française des titres de ces films est plus

succincte, elle est caractérisée par l’absence de concretisation, c’est

pourquoi le titre implique une plus grande spectre de signification, qui fait

reculer le spectateur de la conjecture du contenu du film.

Dans le groupe suivant on inclut les titres où la traduction n’a pas été

faite.

http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%b2%d0%b2%d0%b8%d0%b4%d1%83&translation=eu%20%c3%a9gard%20%c3%a0&srcLang=ru&destLang=fr

http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%bd%d0%b0%d0%bb%d0%b8%d1%87%d0%b8%d0%b5&translation=pr%c3%a9sence&srcLang=ru&destLang=fr

http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%ba%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%82%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9&translation=succinct&srcLang=ru&destLang=fr

http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%be%d1%82%d0%bb%d0%b8%d1%87%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%81%d1%8f&translation=se%20caract%c3%a9riser&srcLang=ru&destLang=fr

132

Le traducteur a créé un nouveau titre selon le sujet de film. Voilà ces

films:

‘Home Alone’, ‘Maman, j'ai raté l'avion’, «Одиндома».

‘The Martian’, ‘Seul sur Mars’, «Марсиа́нин».

‘The Walk’, ‘Rêver plus haut’, «Прогулка».

Comme d’habitude les spectateurs ordinaires qui ont vu cette

variante de traduction, aiment se moquer et dire que les createurs de tels

titres ne connaissent pas du tout la langue, mais pourtant ils ne tiennent pas

compte de choses qui determinent tels titres. Souvent ils sont conditionnés

par certaines traditions culturelles du pays de la langue de traduction, par

certains paysages politiques et sociaux, ils prennent en compte des aspects

différents de la langue et la perception du titre en général, et parfois aussi

par le manque d’équivalens lexicaux dans la langue de traduction.

Le seul représentant des titres dont le titre a été influencé pendant la

traduction par 2 types de transfomations est le titre connu dans le monde

des dessinsanimés “DespicableMe”, dont la version française est “Moi,

moche et méchant”. Le supplément et le remplacement ont fait le titre du

film un peu moinsreconnaissable qu’en russe. Premièrement, le mot

‘despicable’ n’a pas été traduit littéralement en français. Deuxièmement,

au lieu d’un mot original on a utilisé deux mots, qui ont une définition

proche. On peut dire que cela s’explique par le manque d’équivalents

directs et ils ont décidé de transmettre le sens avec l’utilisation de deux

notions qui caractérisent la variante originale le plus précisement.

Et finalement, le quatrième groupe de films, dont les titres ont été

traduits avec l’utilisation des transformations de traduction.

‘The Great Gatsby’, ‘Gatsby le Magnifique’,

«ВеликийГэтсби».

‘Life of Pi.’, ‘L'Histoire de Pi’, «ЖизньПи».

Par exemple dans le titre du film TheGreatGatsby l’adjectif “the

Great” a été remplacé par “magnifique”, mais il y a un équivalent de ce

mot dans la langue française, c’est le mot “grand”. Selon ce modèle, le mot

original “life” dans le titre du film “Life of Pi” dont l’équivalent français

est “la vie” a été remplacé par “histoire”.

Nous ne pensons pas que le sens des titres a été changé absolument,

mais il faut noter qu’après la traduction le titre a une nuance un peu

différente.

1. Il faut mentionner aussi une telle transformation lexicale que

l'omission. Par exemple:

http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%bc%d1%83%d0%bb%d1%8c%d1%82%d1%84%d0%b8%d0%bb%d1%8c%d0%bc&translation=dessin%20anim%c3%a9&srcLang=ru&destLang=fr

133

‘TheMazeRunner’ (littéralement: «Бегунлабиринта»), ‘Le

Labyrinthe’, «Бегущийвлабиринте».

‘Paddington' (littéralement: «Паддингтон»), Paddington,

«Приключе́нияПа́ддингтона».

‘Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles’ (littéralement: «Подростки

мутанты ниндзя черепашки»), ‘Ninja Turtles’, «Черепашки-ниндзя».

Ici le traducteur a ajouté exprès dans le titre le mot sémantique

excédentaire, ayant compté que le titre propre sera assezbien, puisque

notamment il porte l’accent principal et il reste dans la mémoire du

spectateur.

Ainsi, après l’analyse, nous voyons que les films en russe et en

français ont souvent des titres différents, bien que ils aient le même titre

original et qui est le plus intéressant, ces titres se diffèrent de ce titre

original. Nous ne pouvons par dire si c’est bon ou mauvais, mais il y a

quelque chose qui mérite le respect. C’est que les traducteurs mettent sur

la première place l’adaption culturelle après quoi un film reçoit plus

d'attention parmi les spectateurs, ce qui signifie qu’il a plus de succès et

leurs ctreareurs gagnent plus d'argent.


1. Бархударов Л. С. Язык и перевод. М., "Междунар.

отношения", 1975.

2. Официальный сайт Википедия — свободная энциклопедия.

URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/ (дата обращения: 15.12.2015).

А.Ю. Малкершина, Т.В. Сластникова

Московский Городской Педагогический Университет

г. Москва, Россия

Звукоподражания и их деривационные возможности

В статье определяется статус такого лингвистического

феномена, как звукоподражание, приводятся различные точки зрения

отечественных ученых лингвистов о самостоятельности этих единиц

в предложении, а также обих сходстве и различии с междометиями.

Подчеркивается возможность образования новых лексических единиц

на основе звукоподражаний.

134

Les onomatopées et leurs possibilités dérivationnelles

L'onomatopée estune classe très spécifique des unités linguistiques.

Aujourd'hui dans leslangues modernesil y a entre 2-3 mille d'onomatopées.

Les onomatopées ont une longue histoire ce qui détermineleur place

particulière dans le système actuel des parties du discours.

Pour un examen plus approfondi de la notion d'onomatopée suivons

les définitions d'onomatopéedans les dictionnaires linguistiques

différentes.«On appelle onomatopée une unité lexicale créée par imitation

d'un bruit naturel: tic-tac, visant à reproduire le son du réveil;

cocorico,imitant le chant du coq, sont des onomatopées» [12, 334]. «Par

l'onomatopée, signifiant proprement «formation de mots», on appelle à

présent la création de mots qui par leur aspect phonique sont des imitations

plus ou moins proches, toujours conventionnelles, des cris d'animaux ou

des bruits différents, par exemple: cricri, crincrin, coucou, miaou,

coquerico, ronron, glouglou, froufrou» [5, 119]. En suivant les définitions

de dictionnaires, nous considerons les onopatopées comme l'unité lexicale.

Dans les langues modernes, il y a beaucoup de mots appelés

onomatopées, qui par leur ensemble d'attributs devraient être combinés

dans une catégorie lexicale et grammaticale particulière, parce qu'ils ne se

conviennent à aucune catégorie traditionnellementdistinguée. Pour

comprendre mieux la nature des onopatopéesessayons de déterminer la

partie du discours dontles unités de ce type devraient être classés.

Il existe le point de vue largement répandu que les onomatopées sont

en dehors du système des moyens de communication linguistique et donc

elles ne peuvent pas avoir la placeparmi les parties du discours. En outre,

les onomatopées lexicales nedisposent d'aucune autonomie, elles sont

dépourvues de toute valeur définie.

Tout dépend de la façon dont la partie du discours est définie.Charles

Bally, par exampe, l'appelle «la catégorie lexicale». Les parties du discours

se distinguent les unes des autres par leur sens lexical: les substantifs

désignent avant tout des objetsou des phénomènes, les verbes expriment

des processus, des actions ou des états, les agjectifs - des qualités, etc. Il

serait pourtant faux de traiter les parties du discours de catégories

purement lexicales. En même temps, les parties du discours sont étudiées

par la grammaire: elles constituent la base de la morphologie. Réformatsky

A.A. affirme que «les parties du discours sont déterminées par un

ensemble de différences et capacités morphologiques et syntaxiques...» [6,

135

323]. C'est pourquoi il serait plus juste de qualifier les parties du discours

de catégories lexico-grammaticales.

Shuba P.P. dans son travail détermine les onomatopées comme une

catégorie à part, et affirme que ce sont des «quasi-mots —les unités qui ne

reçoivent pas un traitement exact ni lexicalni grammatical» [7, 159]. À cet

égard, l'onomatopée est très similaire à une autre classe de quasi-mots —

interjections.Dans le système du discours les onomatopées aussi bien que

les interjections sont utilisées comme des mots syntaxiquement

indépendants.

En effet, il y a certains points communs entre ses classes de mots.

Les interjections et les onomatopées sont capables d'effectuer presque

toutes les fonctions dans une phrase restant un élément périphérique du

système lexical et sémantique. Pour les interjections c'est souvent «un

élément introductif, qui exprime la réaction de l'orateur» [2, 459]: «Oh,

Papa, devine, devine!» (la joie);«Ah, si j'avais de raisins secs pour

manger» (la malheur, le regret).

En outre, les interjections et les onomatopées sont tout à fait capables

d'agir comme une proposition isolée, comme dans le cas d'énoncés

nominatives: «Pardon, mais vous n'avez pas le droit de jujer»; «Chut!

Mimi va dormir»; «Paf! le voilà disparu...»; «Toc-toc! la marchande

regarde avec surprise», etc.

Malgré toutes leurs similarités les onomatopées et les interjections

sont très différentes. Chtcherba L.V. estime que «... pour les onomatopées

il n'y a aucune raison de définir les interjections» [11, 82]. Le degré

d'indépendance de ces unités par rapport aux autres parties du discours est

également différent. Une interjectiona besoin d'un contexte

linguistique,gestes, intonation, car elles peuventavoir plusieurs valeurs:

«Ah! Les beaux château de la Loire!» (l'admiration);

«Ah! que j'en suivi de ses petit vieilles!»(l'insistance);

«Ah! que c’est gentil d’être venu!» (le plaisir);

«Ah! vous me faites mal!»(l'indignation);

«Ah! ah! Elle est bien bonne!» (sert à transcrire le rire).

Une onomatopéen'aqu'une seule valeur: coin coin (cri du canard);coa

(cri de la grenouille);paf (coup, gifle);tic tac (réveil, mécanisme de

minuterie);tchou tchou (locomotive à vapeur), etc.

Ces unités sont marquées par des fonctionnes différentes. Les

interjections, exprimant les émotions, les sentiments de toutes sortes, ne

les représentent pas et ne les nommentpas. Les onomatopées sont utilisées

136

comme un moyen expressif et visuel. Elles n'expriment pas les émotions, à

la différence des interjections.

Il est à noter que les onomatopées contrairement aux interjections ont

des dérivés.Ce procédé de formation offre une particularité par le fait qu'il

s'appuie sur une motivation naturelle ou phonique qui s'oppose à la

motivation intralinguistique caractéristique de tous les autres procédés de

formation.Selon le dictionnaire Le Petit Robert, dans la langue française il

existe 145 nids dérivationnels des onomatopées.

Des nouveaux mots sont formés par la suffixation(glouglou —

glouglouter; tictac — tictaquer; crac!— craquer, le craquement,

craquelé,-e)— le moyen le plus productif. En revanche la préfixationne

montre pas d'efficacité dans la production de nouveaux mots. Il n'y a pas

de mots formésavec l'aide des préfixes dans la langue française.

Le phénomène de la conversion, quand l'onomatopée est

utiliséecommela partie du discours indépendantetel que le substantif, est

répandudans la langue française, contrairement à la russe (le badabum; le

glouglou; le murmure).

L'onomatopée est d'une productivité restreinte, ce qui s'explique en

particulier par le caractère relativement réduit des sons perceptibles par

l'oreille humaine. Signalons pourtant les créations récentes: bang — bruit

produit par un avion supersonique, glop — bruit ressemblant à un cœur qui

bat, yé-yé — formé par imitation du refrain d'une chanson américaine (de

«yeah... yeah», altération de yes), blabla(bla) employé familièrement pour

bavardage, verbiage sans intérêt, boum — bruit sonore de ce qui tombe ou

explose, baraboum! imitant un bruit de chute, bim! et bing! qui évoquent

un coup.

Les formes impersonnelles du verbe français (participe présent)

peuvent facilement transformer dans les adjectifs (grincer — grinçant,-e;

murmure — murmurant,-e).

Selon la recherche de Habiboullina O.A. dans la langue française

66%de dérivés sont les substantifs, tandis que dans la langue russe la

plupart des dérivés est constituée de verbes (90%). Elle explique cette

grande différence par la possibilité des verbes français d'avoir les dérivés.

Les verbes onomatopées peuvent servir de base pour la production de

nouveaux mots [8, 5].

137


1. Балли Ш. Общаялингвистикаивопросыфранцузскогоязыка.

– 2-еизд., стер. – М.: ЭдиториалУРСС, 2001. – 416 с.

2. Гак В.Г. Теоретическая грамматика французского языка. –

М.: Добросвет, 2000. – 832 с.

3. Гак В.Г. Сопоставительная лексикология. На материале

французского и русского языков. – М.: Международные отношения,

2010. – 266 с.

4. Комарова А.В. Словопроизводство лексических единиц со

звукоподражательной производящей основой во французском языке

(диахронный аспект): автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук: 10.02.05 / А.

В. Комарова; Московский гос. обл. ун-т. – М. 2007. – 25 с.

5. Лопатникова Н.Н. Лексикология современного

французского языка: Учеб. – 5-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Высшая

школа, 2006. – 335 с.

6. Реформатский А.А. Введение в языковедение. – М.:

Просвещение, 2000. – 536 с.

7. Тихонов А. Н. Междометия и звукоподражания – слова? –

М.: Русская речь. – 1981. – С. 72-76.

8. Хабибулина О.А. Звукоподражательные слова в немецком

языке в сопоставлении с французским и русским: автореф. дис. ...

канд. филол. наук: 10.02.04, 10.02.20 / Башкир. гос. ун-т – Уфа, 2003.

– 154 с.

9. Цыбова И.А. Lexicologie francaise / Французская

лексикология. – М.: Либроком, 2011. 224 с.

10. Шуба П.П. Современный русский язык: словообразование,

морфология. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – Мн.: Плопресс, 1998. – 543 с.

11. Щерба Л. В. О частях речи в русском языке / Избранные

работы по русскому языку. М.: Учпедгиз, 1974. – 188 с.

12. Dictionnaire de linguistique. P.: Larousse, 2002. – 514 p.

13. Dictionnaire des onomatopées Text. / P. Enkell P. Reseau. P.:

PUF, 2003. – 578 p.

14. Le Petit Robert: Dictionnaire alphabetique et analogique de la

langue française : Version electronique du Nouveau Petit Robert. 2012.

138

Ю.В. Пономарчук, Э.В. Лелека




Роль древнеанглийских слов в литературе

В статье рассматривается роль древнеанглийских слов в

литературе на примере романа «Ярмарка тщеславия». Приводятся

примеры обогащения смысловой и эмоционально-экспрессивной

речи исторической прозы, усиления ее выразительности, связанное с

употреблением в ней устаревших слов.

The role of the Old English words in the literature

The progress of development of speech is directly dependent on the

development of thinking, and on the practicalities of life, which is further

complicated by the forms of communication and by the historical

development of native speakers. Language can be considered as the keeper

of the historical memory of the people. It is not just a companion on the

historical ways of development, but also an active force, on which the

choice of these ways depends in many aspects. Language provides the

continuity of life and the preservation of original worldview of ethnos

when changing its historical forms. In other words, if people's thinking

progresses in connection with the development of society, it cannot be

"indifferent" to the movement along the path of progress. It also progresses

in its development.

The words of the Old English period as a component of the language

have significant stylistic opportunities in modern English. Stylistic

functions of Old English words are in the maximum realization of these

opportunities. Availability of Old English words in the literary work, their

interaction and correlation with other words at different levels is a

manifestation of stylistic functioning of obsolete language in the context of

works of modern novelists (e.g. the phrase "abound in villains").

"Vanity Fair: A Novel without a Hero" was published for the first

time in 1847–1848 by William Makepeace Thackeray. In this novel he

satirizes the British society at the beginning of the 19th-century. The

obsolete words do not create a sense of the archaic language of the novel;

they are only linguistic hints of the portrayed time. Their use allows

139

approaching and understanding the general character of the whole era and

its language (for example: "partiality for the tavern" - this expression

reflects the particular time of the epoch).

As Smirnitskaya writes, the Old English "vocabulary" should be

understood not just as words denoting key epic concepts and not occurring

outside the poetic corpus, but any lexical items in the text. This view is

based on the fact that filling of the vocabulary of the work with the cultural

information, additional to the common language, takes place directly

inside the poetic text, at its various levels and specific vocabulary

organization provides special use of the most common words.

Using the Old English words in the novel "Vanity Fair" is caused by

the need to choose the most appropriate version in the artistic sense as

much as possible. The opportunity of a choice manifests itself in the nature

of Old English words; they are stylistically colored units with a certain

stylistic significance. The assignment of the Old English vocabulary in the

category of stylistically marked words is caused by the fact that they bear a

special stylistic shade - a sign of obsolescence.

High archaic coloration and expressivity distinguish Old English

words and stylistic historicism among other categories; make them a

valuable means of artistic representation of reality. Old English words are

bright, distinctive, contrasting, because they are rarely used in the

language, so they contribute to a certain emotional impact of the text (e.g.

"Hall" usually means "corridor", but in the sentence "... is my own good

hall", it means "palace").

The opportunity of using of this archaic group vocabulary in a

figurative sense, and in a system of tropes increases their stylistic

potential. Old English words introduced by the writer into the novel

"Vanity Fair", are stylistically diverse, and perform a variety of stylistic

functions, which are closely connected with stylistic coloration of the

words.

With the appearance of new meanings an Old English word can get

new emotional or a new functional-stylistic coloration, and then their use

in speech is caused not only by semantic, but also stylistic paradigmatics.

The opportunity of using Old English words depends on their expressivity,

so as a result of a rare applicability they bring some singularity,

expressiveness in language.

The main reason to turn to the Old English by Thackeray is the

ability of these words to get speech stylistic coloring, as well as the ability

to be combined in some cases with neutral words of different functional

140

styles. This causes a certain stylistic effect, because they bear absolutely

other stylistic meaning. In the case of archaisms’ using with a

metaphorical reinterpretation, they serve for realization of such traits of art

style as figurativeness and emotionality. The main task of these words is

the emotional impact on the reader.


1. Смирницкий А.И. Древнеанглийский язык. / М.: МГУ имени

М.В. Ломоносова, 1998.

2. Смирницкий А.И. Хрестоматия по истории английского языка

с VII по XVII в. С грамматическими таблицами и историко-

этимологическим словарем: учеб. пособие для студ. филол. и лингв.

фак. высш. учеб. заведений – 5-е изд., испр. и доп. / М.: Издательский

центр «Академия», 2008.

3. Смирницкая О.А. SiðBeowulfes: границы «культурной

лексики» в древнеанглийском эпосе // Избранные статьи по

германской филологии / М.: МАКС Пресс, 2008.

4. Cruse Аlan Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics / Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 2006.

5. Discenza Nicole The King’s English: Strategies of translation in

the Old English Boethius / Albany: State University of New York Press,

2005.

6. Thackeray William Makepeace Vanity Fair / Ware: Wordsworth

Classics, 2001.

А.П. Функ, Е.М. Божко, Е.В. Григорьева

Уральский федеральный университет имени первого президента



Условия формирования билингвальной языковой личности

В данной статье рассматриваются условия, под влиянием

которых формируется билингвальная языковая личность в настоящее

время. При определении этих условий были исследованы традиции

билингвального образования за рубежом, а также особенности

билингвального образования в России. Приведены результаты

141

экспериментальных исследований российских и зарубежных

специалистов.

Conditions for forming a bilingual personality

Nowadays many people involved in educational process are familiar

with such term as “bilingual education”. This form of education

presupposes that two languages – mother tongue and foreign language -

are to be used in the teaching process. Ideally, these languages are used

both by teachers and by students. Bilingual education exists in many

countries, and some bilingual educational programs are carried out in

Russia. As for bilingualism phenomenon itself, it is rather controversial.

Some researchers regard it as the most effective method of education for

modern people, other researchers claim that this approach can have an

adverse effect on our cognitive abilities, especially if we consider children.

But for us it seems that effectiveness or ineffectiveness of bilingual

education is mainly determined by conditions of the teaching process. It

means that if we want to educate a bilingual personality, we should take

into consideration linguistic situation in a particular country, goals of

learning foreign language, age of students and many other factors. Having

analyzed some research works in the sphere of bilingualism, we can come

to a conclusion that mistakes in making up an educational program can

cause some problems of different character such as fusion of speech,

stuttering, lack of motivation, and assimilation. That’s why in this paper

we try to point out the main factors which nowadays should be taken into

account in the process of forming a bilingual personality.

One of the most important factors is natural bilingualism. This form

of bilingualism takes place in such countries as Canada, Belgium,

Luxembourg, India and many others where people speak at least two

languages not only in educational institutions, but also use while speaking

to their parents, and friends, while reading magazines, advertisements and

in many other activities [2]. Such people get used to living with the help of

two or three languages; it is natural and not difficult for them. It results

that in school they obtain foreign languages quite freely and fluently.

However, in the context of achieved bilingualism – which is the

distinguishing feature of the Russian society – this process is much more

complicated. First of all, if we consider Russian students, they don’t

understand why they should learn foreign language, because many of them

don’t have the opportunity to use it beyond a classroom. Secondly, the

142

study of foreign language in Russia is more focused on such aspects as

grammar, reading, translation of texts from foreign language into mother

tongue, but not on the speaking itself. Thus, students often can’t put their

knowledge into practice. It shows us that the aim of linguistic education in

Russia differs from that in the European countries, where students have

many possibilities to speak foreign language to each other and to a teacher

as well. Thirdly, psychological factors have their crucial influence on the

learning process. It means that many researchers confirm that language

shapes our way of thinking, and that’s why bilingual children and students

are more open to study foreign languages, to learn new information about

other countries. On the contrary, monolingual Russian students don’t strive

to learn something interesting and new, sometimes they can seem even

ethnocentric, and it considerably affects the reasons why they are going to

perceive information – to open their mind for new things or just to get

excellent marks. Nevertheless, Russian education is changing, and some

obstacles typical for the situation of achieved bilingualism are being

surmounted. For instance, the number of schools specializing in English

increases. Some schools and universities try to implement new advanced

methods in the learning process such as role-plays and case studies.

Moreover, some Russian educational institutions introduce bilingual

programs in their curriculum. And one of the most effective methods being

implemented in the system of Russian education is international student

exchange programs.

The next factor is more concerned with the organization of academic

process. As many researchers confirm, the study of a foreign language

should be stepwise or separate. The research conducted by professors of

the University College London and the City University showed the

following results:

Bilingual children were more likely to stutter in comparison

with the monolingual children.

The rate of stuttering was higher with children who were

brought up in bilingual families.

The rate of stuttering was higher with children who learned two

languages at their early childhood (up to 5 years old) [6].

Another research was made by the German scientist W. Stern. As a

result, he pointed out that the separate usage of languages with different

people promotes and develops the child’s understanding that one set of

words is used with one person – for example, with mother, and another set

of words is used with another person – for example, with father [5]. Such

143

principle can be seen in some Russian educational institutions. For

instance, it exists in the kindergarten “The Sunbeam” (Yekaterinburg)

where there are at least two tutors. One of them speaks only Russian, and

another speaks only English. Thus, we can see that the learning of two

languages shouldn’t be disorganized and chaotic, even if we are going to

teach children under school age.

One more factor to be considered is socialization. Many modern

linguists claim that socialization is closely connected not only with the

mastering of language, but also with the mastering of culture, “a

personality lives by culture, culture is provided by a personality” [4]. In

connection with this we mention the research carried out by A.K.

Shayakhmet. She had been working with Kazakh children for 4 years

while they studied from the 1st up to the 4th forms. At the beginning all

these children spoke Kazakh as their mother tongue. Then one group of

children entered the school where the language of teaching was Kazakh,

and another group entered the school where the language of teaching was

Russian. The results showed that the children from the first group were

mostly bilingual and had no problems in switching over from one language

to another, whereas the children from the second group either spoke freely

only Russian, or demonstrated diglossia. As A.K. Shayakhmet notes, the

children from Russian schools couldn’t retell and even read short texts in

Kazakh language, but dealing with Russian texts they demonstrated

excellent results; this phenomenon has occurred because of socialization.

Children from both Kazakh and Russian schools spoke Kazakh in their

families, but they used Russian when they communicated with their

friends. Also it is important to mention that the Russian language

penetrates many life spheres in Kazakhstan. Every educated person in

Kazakhstan should know Russian at high level. That’s why we can

conclude that family has some kind of influence on a child, but then, when

this child grows, he or she acquires norms, customs, habits from other

people, and this process, i.e. socialization, becomes for him or her much

more important than relationships within the family.

The last factor which seems to us no less significant is

prestigiousness. Many linguists and translators claim that student

motivation is mainly predetermined by this fact, and that it is crucial when

we try to form a bilingual personality. For example, European students can

be monolingual personalities, and they can live in monolingual society (for

example, Italians, Spanish, etc.). But, Margina Bleil, a headteacher of the

Leo Tolstoy elementary school in Berlin, notes that today “in multilingual

144

and multicultural European society the number of intercultural contacts

increases” [1]. That’s why students feel that knowing one or two foreign

languages, they are going to be successful in their future life. Besides, if

any person – a child, a university student, or an adult – realizes that they

need mastering a language in order to climb up the career ladder, to

communicate fluently with their peers, or just to understand the

government language, this person will surely learn foreign language and

foreign culture with interest and willingness to get new knowledge. But if

a person doesn’t understand the final goal of their activity, if they can do

without foreign language in everyday life, such person will most likely be

unmotivated to study a foreign language. The last situation is typical for

the Russian society.

There is no doubt that many other factors influence the forming of a

bilingual personality, for instance, individual personal characteristics, such

realities as internationalization, integration, etc. But the analysis of

theoretical and practical works and their results shows us that natural

bilingualism, stepwise or separate study of a foreign language,

socialization and prestigiousness are crucial factors in the process of

forming a bilingual personality. In general, we should take the foregoing

factors into account not only because of psychological or social

constituents, but also due to the modern international situation in the

educational sphere.


1. Бляйль М. Билингвальное образование в начальной школе

Германии. [Текст] / Статья. Начальная школа. Ежемесячный научно-

методический журнал №7. – Москва: Изд-во «Начальная школа и

образование», 2009. – 92-96 с.

2. Мампория И.Ф. Билингвальное обучение как способ

оптимизации процесса обучения иностранному языку в неязыковом

вузе. [Текст] / Статья. Кавказские научные записки. Научный журнал

№3 (4). – Москва: Издатели: Академия наук Абхазии. Российский

государственный торгово-экономический университет, 2010. – 198-

203 с.

3. Шаяхмет А.К. Формирование билингвальной личности в

Казахстане. [Текст] / Статья. Многоязычие в образовательном

пространстве: сб. ст. Том 6 / ред.: Т. И. Зеленина, Л. М. Малых, Н. М.

145

Шутова. – Ижевск: Изд-во «Удмуртский университет», 2014. – 93-99

с.

4. Gabdulchakov V.F. The Problems of Language Personality

Formation in Russia (the Analysis of Language Processes and Pedagogical

Technologies) [Текст] / Third Annual International Conference «Early

Childhood Care and Education». Procedia - Social and Behavioral

Sciences. - Published by Elsevier Ltd. 2014. – 158-162.

5. Stern, W. Diе Kindersprache. [Текст] / 4-e Aufl. Leipzig, 1928.

6. Howell P., Williams R., Roger Davis S. The effects of

bilingualism on stuttering during late childhood. URL:

http://adc.bmj.com/content/early/2008/09/09/adc.2007.134114.abstract


Н.П. Постникова, Ю.С. Пожарицкая




Внедрение программ автоматизированного перевода в

процесс обучения переводчиков

Данная статья посвящена рассмотрению вопроса необходимости

внедрения новых цифровых технологий в обучение и работу

переводчиков. Представлена дополненная модель переводческой

компетенции и необходимый для работы переводчиком набор

навыков.

Implementation of machine translation programs in the process

of teaching translators

Digital technologies are becoming integral part of the way that

people communicate and part of the context in which language is used.

Especially they are widely used in education. Training of translators is no

exception. There is no doubt that process of translation and translation

teaching change with the development of modern technologies. Digital

tools offer ways to support teaching and learning of “traditional language

and skills”, they help to optimize translator’s work and become its

http://adc.bmj.com/content/early/2008/09/09/adc.2007.134114.abstract

146

essential part, which helps the translators to save time, improve quality of

work and speed of operation.

Over the past few years translation industry has undergone

significant changes due to the emergence of new technologies, in

particular with the advent of the computer. These changes resulted in

rethinking of the creative nature of translation, especially for technical,

legal and scientific texts. Consequently, it is difficult to imagine a person

professionally engaged in translation that has never used electronic

dictionaries, translation software or a computer.

Modern translation software has all kinds of dictionaries in its

databases and it is able to build meaningful sentences. Today, there exist

two great classes of translation programs, namely MT (Machine

Translation) and CAT (Computer-assisted / aided translation). The first

class seeks to completely displace a person from the translation process,

and the second class only automates and facilitates the work of the

translator in its various aspects. Primarily, these are programs,

implementing the concept of translation memory (TM), such as Trados,

DejaVu, Word Fast, Smart CAT etc. [1]. However, both of these classes

fundamentally change the translator working process. On the one hand

they can optimize the process of translation and make it more efficient,

but, on the other hand, they enable students to translate without any further

development of language command.

In this respect, many teachers do not make full use of the

technologies available. Some of them are just afraid of changes and some

others suppose that it is not translation: “postediting, the correction of

erroneous electronic translations, is something that “almost anyone” can

do. When you do it, you often have no constant need to look at the foreign

language; for some low quality purposes, you may have no need to know

any foreign language at all, if and when you know the subject matter very

well” [4, p. 489].

The evidence indicates that this is partly true, modern translators are

no longer translators in the common sense of the word, as it was before.

Their work now includes specific activity – working with different

translating programs which require new set of skills and knowledge. For

example, according to the model of “translation competence”, developed

for the European Masters in Translation (EMT) in 2009, “translation

service provider” (since this mostly concerns market, oriented technical

translation) needs competence in business (“service provision”),

languages, subject matter (“thematic”), text linguistics and sociolinguistics

147

(“intercultural”), documentation (“information mining”), and technologies

(“technological”) (see pic. 1).

It seems fair to say that the EMT configuration is important precisely

because it is the result of significant consensus, agreed to by a set of

European experts and is providing now the ideological backbone for some

54 universities level training programs in Europe. Machine translation is

indeed there, listed under “technology”. But here it is knowledge, not a

skill, apparently – you should know that the thing is there, but don’t think

about doing anything with it [4].

Picture 1. The EMT model of translation competence

Today, on the contrary, as technologies continue to enter our life and

professional sphere, teaching to use machine translation programs should

exist not only on a theoretical level, but also on a practical one. Several

things might change some components of the model of translation

competence:

1. The first one, “information mining”, is no longer a visibly separate

set of skills: much of the information is in the translation memory, the

machine translation, the established glossary, or the online dictionary feed.

Of course, translator may have to go off into parallel texts and the like to

consult the fine points. But there, the fundamental problems are really little

different from those of using MT/TM feeds: translator has to know what to

148

trust. And that issue of trust would perhaps be material for some kind of

macro skill, rather than separate technological components [4].

2. The “language” component must surely suffer significant

asymmetry when TM/MT is providing everything in the target language.

No doubt it helps to consult the foreign language in cases of doubt, but it is

now by no means necessary to do this as a constant and obligatory activity.

Someone with strong target language skills, strong area knowledge, and

weak source of language skills can still do a useful piece of postediting,

and they can indeed use TM/MT to learn about languages.

3. Area knowledge (“thematic competence”) should be affected by

this same logic. Since TM/MT reduces the need for language skills, or can

make the need highly asymmetrical, a lot of basic postediting can be done

by area experts who have quite limited foreign language competence. This

means that the language expert, the person we are still calling a translator,

can come in and clean up the postediting done by the area expert. That

person, the translator, no longer needs to know everything about

everything. What they need is great target language skills and highly

developed teamwork skills [4].

4. The one remaining area is “intercultural”, which in the EMT

model turns out to be a disguise for text linguistics and sociolinguistics

(and might thus easily have been placed under “language”). Indeed,

anyone working with TM/MT will need a lot of these supra-sentential

texts, producing skills, probably to an extent even greater than is the case

in fully human translation.

The basic point is that “technology” is no longer just another add-on

component. The active and intelligent use of TM/MT should eventually

bring significant changes to the nature and balance of all other

components, and thus to the professional profile of the person who is still

called translator [4].

Therefore, the main points that translation students should be taught

can be distinguished as follows:

to be able to evaluate critically the working process with the

tool;

to learn to trust and mistrust data;

to learn to revise translations as texts [4].

Moreover, it is important to say that despite modern technologies are

in a continual state of change and improvement, they are not so highly

developed to displace human resources. In other words, translation

industry still needs traditional educated translators who have appropriate

149

spoken and written language. However, implementation of machine

translation programs in the process of teaching translators will make

students more qualified and adapted to the modern conditions of the

constantly changing world [3].

In conclusion, it seems clear that machine translation does not tend to

displace the human translation process. Conversely, it is aimed at its

facilitation and acceleration. Now translators have an opportunity to make

their work more efficient: to spend less time and earn more money without

losing quality. Therefore, considering all of the above, it can be

concludedthat changes in the translation industry, and particularly changes

in training approach of the future translators, are necessary.

Implementation of MT programs is a great opportunity to propel the work

of translators to a new level.


1. Андреева А. Д. Обзор систем машинного перевода / А. Д.

Андреева, И. Л. Меньшиков, А. А. Мокрушин // Молодой ученый,

2013.

2. Рыбкин С. Ф. «Доступная память: Почем translation memory

для народа?» "Компьютерра" №42, 2006.

3. de Chazal E., English for Academic Purposes / Oxford

University Press, 2014.

4. Pym A., Translation skill-sets in a machine-translation age,

Meta, LVIII, 3, 2013.

Р.М. Фархуллина, Ю.С. Пожарицкая




Развитие навыков критического мышления в обучении

чтению научных текстов

Данная статья посвящена рассмотрению понятия критического

мышления и его развития при обучении чтению научных текстов. В

статье рассматриваются основополагающие навыки и принципы,

которые позволяют мыслить критически, а также приводятся

150

основные типы заданий, направленные на обучение критическому

чтению и формирование способности мыслить критически.

Developing critical thinking skills in teaching academic reading

Critical thinking is one of the approaches to teach and study English

for academic purposes (EAP) as well as one of the defining characteristics

of EAP.Perhaps more than any other aspect, critical thinking differentiates

EAP from general EFL. EAP materials need to encourage and develop

students’ critical thinking skills; EAP teachers should foster the ‘state of

mind’ in which critical thinking moments emerge naturally in the

classroom. In doing so, students will be much better prepared for their

academic study [2].

Dating back to the mid-late 20th century critical thinking is a notion

which has a range of definitions. Some scientists define it as a set of

independent cognitive abilities which can be taught in relation to any

propositional content [5]. Three main notions can be singled out from this

definition: first, critical thinking takes place in our mind as it is cognitive.

Second, it is teachable. And the last one it is related to any material which

we teach.

Tara DeLecce defines critical thinking as ‘a process when a student

makes reasoned judgments that are logical and well thought out; it is a way

of thinking in which they do not simply accept all arguments and

conclusions they are exposed to but rather have an attitude involving

questioning such arguments and conclusions; it requires wanting to see

what evidence is involved to support a particular argument or conclusion’

[4].

According to this definition Tara DeLecce argues that critical

thinking can be divided into three core skills: curiosity (to be open to new

ideas, to have a desire to learn more information and seek evidence),

skepticism (not to blindly believe everything everyone tells you but to

have a healthy questioning attitude about new information) and humility

(the ability to admit that your opinions and ideas are wrong when faced

with new convincing evidence that states otherwise) [4]. It means that in

doing a task, a critical thinking student undergoes a cognitive process of

logic and inference, for example when finding relations in meaning

between elements in a text. In doing so, it is useful to show skepticism

towards what is being presented, together with a degree of uncertainty and

self-doubt. It is not always necessary for the student or a teacher to be sure

151

they are right; it is better to attempt to construct meanings and in the

process make mistakes than not make this effort at all. Therefore, it is

essential that EAP students and teachers as critical thinkers reflect on and

challenge the nature and sources of knowledge and how it is presented [2].

Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, Englebert, Furst, Hill and Krathwohl

1956) offers a helpful tool for mapping and classifying aspects of

knowledge. It deals with what is called the ‘cognitive domain’. It consists

of six key cognitive processes conceived in hierarchical order of

complexity which help to come to the deeper understanding of a

phenomenon (see pic.1).

Picture 1. Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain

In simple terms, one starts out with what he knows, and learns new

information (‘knowledge’) after which he learns to understand it

effectively (‘comprehension’). He can then do something with it, such as

make use of it in a given situation (‘application’); later he can deconstruct

it and work out what its parts are and how they interrelate (‘analysis’). The

next stage is to deal with other sources of knowledge, repeat the process,

and start selecting from the different sources and pitting them together into

something new and creative (‘synthesis’). Finally, one critically responds

to the whole by asking and answering questions relating to its reliability,

validity, influence, effectiveness, and other criteria (‘evaluation’). With

regard to this article, the three higher cognitive processes – analysis,

synthesis and evaluation – are of particular relevance to critical thinking

[2].

Therefore, in its ideal form, critical thinking is based on such

intellectual principles that go beyond subject matter divisions, i.e.

precision, correctness, uniformity, relevance, sound evidence, good

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reasons, depth, breadth, and justice [5]. It seems plausible that critical

thinking requires students to go beyond simple thinking and to perform at

a more complex level. It helps students analyze the truthfulness of

utterances and come to a deeper understanding of a phenomenon.

However, although critical thinking may benefit from creativity and

imagination which help to go beyond simple thinking, it should not be

confused with free ‘blue skies thinking’. In other words, it needs to be

grounded in evidence and supported by logic and rigour.

In academic context, two types of critical thinking with more

restricted meanings can be usefully identified: critical reading and critical

writing [2]. They have a great chance to overlap because critical reading of

others’ work will usually be in preparation for producing someone own

written text. Wallace and Wray define critical reading as follows: ‘The

skill of critical reading lies in assessing the extent to which authors have

provided adequate justification for the claims they make. This assessment

depends partly on what the authors have communicated and partly on other

relevant knowledge, experience and inference’ [3, p.7].

In the context of academic reading, the methods of critical reading

can be very helpful. In order to make students read critically, their teacher

needs to encourage them:

to find a purpose of reading (for questions, problems and issues;

for information and data; for concepts, theories, and ideas; for

interpretations and conclusions; for assumptions; for implications and

consequences; and for points of view) and this purpose in reading must

take into account the author's purpose in writing;

to concentrate on the texts in order to make out the importance

of minute details for identifying patterns (order patterns and sequences,

similarities and contrasts, guessing and predicting, and finding the

relationships);

to classify parts of the text while reading;

to understand the core, secondary and peripheral ideas of the

text because the primary ideas explain all the other ones;

to construct system of thoughts as students read;

to think within the scientific system as a whole. When students

understand core scientific ideas, they can begin to think scientifically;

to relate the core ideas students learn within one discipline to

core ideas in other systems of knowledge, for knowledge exists not only in

a system but also in relation to all other systems of knowledge. For

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example, if in studying botany, we learn that all plants have cells, we

should connect this idea to the fact that all animals have cells (which we

learned in studying biology). We can then begin to consider the similarities

and differences between animal and plant cells [2,5, 6].

Generally, a teacher can give some tasks associated with critical

reading to their students such as observation of a text as a system,

examination of patterns of the text, interpretation of author’s thoughts,

analysis of author’s ideas, evaluation of author’s grounds and evidence,

synthesis of ideas observed in this text with other groups of knowledge

existed in their mind, reasoning of their own ideas, making connections

between patterns of the text, justification of the information stated in the

text and their own arguments[2].

In conclusion, it is necessary to say that developing critical thinking

skills in teaching academic reading may take a large amount of practice

and diligence. As such, EAP teachers should put much effort to handle

their classes in this way. However, the outcome of these classes will be

students who think critically and can be successful in dealing with the

complexities of the modern world. It is worth noting that strategies

presented here are only some samples of devises for developing students’

critical thinking and teachers can devise many more activities on their own

based on the tasks which can be integrated in the process of studying.


1. Bloom, B.S., Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E. J., Hill W. H.,

Krathwohl D.R. ‘Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification

of educational goals’. New York: David McKay, 1956.

2. de Chazal, E. ‘English for Academic Purposes’ / Oxford


3. Wallace, M., Wray, A. ‘Critical Reading and Writing for

Postgraduates’ / SAGE Publications, 2011.

4. DeLecce, T. ‘What is critical thinking – Definitions, skills and

meaning’, lesson 20. URL: http://study.com/ (дата обращения:

13.01.2016).

5. Khajavi, Y., Shahvali, N. ‘Promoting Critical Thinking in the

Language Classroom’. URL: www.hltmag.co.uk (дата обращения:

10.01.2016).

http://study.com/

http://www.hltmag.co.uk/

154

6. The Critical Thinking Community ‘The art of close reading’.

URL: http://www.criticalthinking. org/pages/the-art-of-close-reading-part-

one/ 509 (дата обращения: 15.01.2016).

Г.А. Федорова

Северо-Восточный федеральный университет им. М.К. Аммосова

г. Якутск, Россия

Древняя якутская письменность

В статье раскрывается гипотеза о существовании древней

письменности у якутов. Представлены доказательства и гипотезы о

существовании древне-якутской рунической письменности.

Die alte Schrift der Jakuten

Als Runen bezeichnet man die altenSchriftzeichenderGermanen.

Aber es gibt auch die alttürkische Schrift. Wegen ihrer Ähnlichkeit mit den

nordisch-germanischen Runen werden die Schriftzeichen Turk-Runen

genannt.

Viele Forscher wie A.P. Okladnikow, I.I. Baraschkow, P.W. Popow

gehen davon aus, dass die Jakuten auch eine Schrift hatten. Die Annahme,

dass die Jakuten Schriftzeichen hatten, beruht auf den Untersuchungen der

Felsenzeichnungen aus dem mittleren Lena-Gebiet. Die Entzifferung

dieser Schriftzeichen auf den Lenafelsen durch A.I. Krivoshapkin

untermauert die Gültigkeit dieser Annahme.

Die Mehrheit der Wissenschaftler nimmt an, dass die Vorfahren der

Jakuten Hunnen waren, diese wiederum benutzten eine Runenschrift, die

große Ähnlichkeit mit den Inschriften auf den Lenafelsen aufweist.

Es gibt verschiedene Legenden, alte Geschichten und Auszüge aus

dem Oloncho, dem jakutischen Volksepos, die davon erzählen, dass die

Jakuten ihre eigene Schrift hatten, die einem der jakutischen Vorfahren

namens Ellej Bootur während der Flucht in den Fluss Lena fiel. Erst im 17.

Jahrhundert, als Jakutien an das russische Zarenreich angeschlossen

wurde, bekamen die Jakuten eine Buchstabenschrift. Diese Zeit bis Mitte

des 19. Jahrhunderts nennt P.V. Popov "die Phase der Entstehung der

Buchstabenschrift".

155

Es gibt Beweise dafür, dass die Jakuten ebenfalls eine Runenschrift

hatten und bereits vor Ankunft der Russen eine Schrift existierte, und auch

Beweise dafür, dass die Ursprungsgeschichte der Jakuten vielleicht

umfangreicher als bisher gedacht ist und tiefe Wurzeln hat.

Seit dem Jahr 2000 wurden in Jakutien zahlreiche runenähnliche

Zeichen gefunden, die bedeutendsten davon in Hotugu Chelgierije im

Gebiet Churapcha. In einer Scheune, die im achtzehnten Jahrhundert

gebaut wurde, wurde eine Inschrift mit 83 Zeichen gefunden.

Untersuchungen der Scheune ergaben, dass 60 dieser Zeichen den Orchon-

und Jenissej-Runen entsprechen, weitere 22 Zeichen stimmen mit

runenähnlichen Inschriften im Baikal-Lena-Gebiet überein. Keine

Übereinstimmungen mit alten Turk-Runen konnte für 4 Zeichnen

gefunden werden.

Die Inschriften im Lena-Baikal-Gebiet können also in 4 Gruppen

unterteilt werden:

1) alte Inschriften (auf Felsen geschrieben)

2) spätere Inschriften (XIV.–XVIII. Jh.) auf verschiedenen kleinen

Gegenständen

3) kombinierte Inschriften (XVII.–XVIII. Jh.), runenähnlich

4) nicht identifizierte Inschriften (XVII.–XIX. Jh.) auf einem

silbernen Gürtel, einer Schnupftabakdose und auf Felsen. Diese

unterscheiden sich von den Runeninschriften.

Archäologische Untersuchungen zeigen, dass die runenähnliche

Schrift in Jakutien recht verbreitet war. Mit ihrer Hilfe erfolgte bis zum

XVIII. Jh. die Korrespondenz unter den jakutischen Fürsten. Doch trotz

sorgfältiger Untersuchungen konnten viele Runeninschriften noch nicht

entschlüsselt werden. Gegenwärtigen Ansichten zu Folge hatten alle

Runeninschriften religiösen Charakter und wurden als Gegenstände der

Verehrung und Opferbringung sowie für religiöse Zeremonien wie Geburt,

Tod und Jagd verwendet. Anderen Annahmen zu Folge sind diese

Felsinschriften Zeichen, die etwas Konkretes mitteilen, etwa dass sich in

der Nähe ein Schatz oder ein guter Ort für die Jagd befindet oder aber

Gefahr droht.

Erwähnungen der alten Schrift bei den Vorfahren der Jakuten findet

man nicht nur im Oloncho, in den Legenden und Geschichten. Sehr oft

wird auch erzählt, dass diese Runenzeichen von Schamanen, Heilern und

Oloncho-Erzählern verwendet wurden.

156

Heute verwendet man Runen nur noch als mystische Symbole für

Wahrsagerei, Talismane, Tattoo-Motive oder als reine Dekoration.

Dennoch tragen all diese Zeichen eine Bedeutung.

Dank der Entdeckung dieser Runeninschriften, unter anderem bei

den Jakuten, kann man eine Menge über die Geschichte, Kultur, Religion

und Lebensweise eines Volkes sagen. Runen enthüllen zahlreiche

Geheimnisse der Geschichte, aber gleichzeitig stellen sie uns auch vor

viele Fragen.


1. Левин Г.Г. Былыргы туур тыла/Древнетюркский язык

(орфография и морфология) – Якутск: изд-во СГУ, 2009 г.

2. Сафронов Ф.Г., Иванов В.Ф. "Письменность Якутов",

Якутское книжное издательство, 1992 г.

3. Сайт проекта "Sakha Open World" - "Саха Диаспора", статья

«Якутская письменность в прошлом». URL:

http://diaspora.sakhaopenworld.org/5c.shtml (дата обращения

28.01.2016).

А.А. Шевченко, Ю.С. Пожарицкая




Роль ошибок и обратной связи при усвоении второго языка

В данной статье поднимается вопрос полезности совершения

ошибок при усвоении второго языка, а также рассматриваются

различные типы обратной связи, которую получает обучающийся при

изучении иностранного языка. В работе также анализируется влияние

типа и качества обратной связи при совершении ошибок на

эффективность обучения.

http://diaspora.sakhaopenworld.org/5c.shtml

157

Usefulness of Errors in SLA Depends on Type and Quality of

Feedback

The usefulness of errors in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a

very controversial topic. At first, it might seem strange to pay attention to

what learners do wrong rather than to what they do correctly [2]. Errors are

considered to be signs of learning failure. However, there are several

reasons why errors can be useful. On the one hand, making errors may

help learners in their learning, for instance, when they self-correct the

errors they make. On the other hand, it can be practical for teachers to

know which errors learners usually make and pay more attention to the

most difficult aspects for learners during teaching. Thus, according to

Littlewood, errors “are the clearest evidence for the learner’s developing

system and can offer us insights into how they process the data of the

language” [6, 22].

Before considering the usefulness of errors, it seems reasonable to

make a distinction between errors and mistakes. Even when we speak our

native language, we can make some slips, “lose track of a complex

structure as we utter it, begin an utterance and abandon it, and so on” [6,

31]. The second language learner makes slips of the same nature as well.

According to Littlewood, these slips are called ‘performance errors’, in

other words, ‘lapses’ or ‘mistakes’ [6, 31]. They result from some gaps in

memory which means that the learner knows what is correct but for some

reason is unable to perform the correct form. Errors occur because of the

learner’s lack of knowledge [2]. In particular, if the learner doesn’t know

how to convey what he means correctly, simply because he/she has not

learnt it yet.

It is not possible to distinguish whether it is a systematic error or a

non-systematic mistake by single occurrence during the communication

process. The most reliable criterion is regularity. When an incorrect form

appears regularly in learner’s speech, it is the best evidence of the gaps in

learner’s knowledge. Whereas, when a mistake occurs it is more likely that

the learner will recognize it, self-correct and won’t make it next time [6,

31-32].

Errors occur due to different reasons. When the learner constructs an

utterance for the second language, he/she can transfer patterns from his/her

first language. Errors of this type are common to learners who have the

same mother tongue or whose mother tongue has the same linguistic

property [2, 18-19]. Some errors which learners make have direct

158

reference to the second language itself. This is exactly what error analysis

reveals. Sometimes learners make errors that they create by themselves,

for instance, when the learner constructs some kind of a rule but this rule is

different from that of the second language [6, 22]. Thus, we can conclude

that errors mostly occur due to incomplete learning.

We use language to communicate with each other; therefore, it is

possible to make comments about the language production during the

communication process. The interactions in which the interlocutor makes

comments to the learner provides learner with feedback about his/her

language use. The interlocutor may be a language teacher or a native

speaker. Following Vanpatten and Benati, feedback is the response that

learners receive regarding the language they produce. In other words, it is

the information about learner’s success or failure during the

communication process given by the interlocutor [9, 84].

As feedback is responsive and provides a learner with information

about success or failure of a communication process, therefore, it can be

positive or negative. Positive feedback is a confirmation that what the

learner has said is well-formed or correct. Negative feedback, in contrast,

is used to state that the learner’s production of language is not well-formed

or incorrect and is not possible in the second language [1, 21-23].

Feedback can vary in the form it takes when provided to learners [4,

222]. Two types of feedback are distinguished: explicit and implicit.

Explicit feedback includes “an overt correction” [9, 84]. The overt

correction is when the interlocutor points out to the learner: “say like this,

not like that.” Explicit feedback also involves comments about what the

learner generally does [9, 84]. For example, when the learner makes the

same error several times, the interlocutor may draw the learner’s attention

to it by saying something like: “when you try to say… you always say… it

is incorrect.” “Implicit feedback is an indirect […] way to show that

learners’ utterances are problematic” [4, 222]. It “occurs during

communicative interactions and can take the form of the recasts” [9, 84]. A

recast appears when the learner’s interlocutor rephrases what the learner

has said without making any explicit statement. This recast can be

considered as a confirmation to the question ‘Did I understand you

correctly?’ [9, 84-85]. Recasts usually occur as responses to grammatical

and phonological errors and their effectiveness as feedback seems to be

inconclusive.

Feedback is used to characterize the utterances which are produced

by native speakers or teachers, and are used by learners to derive positive

159

and negative evidence about SLA [1, 21]. Negative evidence is the

situation when the learner has not understood anything and the interlocutor

indicates it and corrects it [2, 47]. In other words, negative evidence is the

feedback that learners receive about what they do incorrectly. Positive

evidence is what learners hear or read during the communication process

[9, 84]. The importance of negative evidence and its connection to

feedback is obvious for this research, since it occurs when the learner

makes errors.

Feedback and correction are required to learn the second language.

“Correction […] is an indirect or tacit form of negative feedback” [1, 317].

Learners get enriched information in the form of feedback and correction.

The feedback occurs as a response to something that the learner has said.

This response only counts as a feedback for the purposes of SLA if the

learner so construes it [1, 21]. Feedback plays a causal role in the

restructuring of learner’s knowledge. The ways in which learners interpret

and deploy the feedback they get are important for SLA. On the basis of

feedback received during the communication process, learners may notice

some mismatches between their production of the second language and

native-like production and correct their utterances [4, 222].

Explicit correction in learning is often taken as the most ‘natural’ and

frequent form of feedback [1, 316-317]. In some studies about the

feedback and correction (The Tomasello and Herron; the Carroll and

Swain; the Tanaka (1999)) mentioned by Carroll [1, 313-321], learners

were asked to apply what they had learned to novel items. The learners

who received feedback and correction were more successful than learners

who did not. These studies provide considerable support that learners can

learn the information about second language on the basis of feedback of

explicit correction.

In this paper, we have seen that errors are useful in SLA. Making

errors does not mean that the learner failed in learning the second language

They help learners to learn the second language and teachers to focus their

attention on the most serious ones. A learner receives a response regarding

the language he/she produces which is called feedback. This process

involves a language teacher or a native speaker, who provides the learner

with the information about accuracy of his/her representing of the

language. It is closely related to negative evidence because most of the

times when the interaction occurs and the interlocutor makes a comment, it

indicates that the learner said something incorrectly and there is trouble in

the communication.

160

Explicit correction is usually considered as the most frequent and the

most useful type of feedback learners can get. However, both, explicit and

implicit feedback, are helpful in learning and can be construed as positive

and negative feedback depending on what intention the interlocutor has.

Feedback is used by learners to derive positive and negative evidence

about SLA. The importance of negative evidence is obvious when we talk

about usefulness of errors and its dependence on feedback, since negative

evidence is the feedback that learners receive about what they do

incorrectly during the communication. Therefore, negative evidence

occurs when the learner makes errors.

In conclusion, feedback received during the communication process

is linked to second language development. The more useful feedback a

learner receives, the more helpful it will be in SLA. Since explicit

correction is believed to be more beneficial than the other types of

feedback, we can say that it helps in learning second language the most.

However, implicit feedback should not be excluded either, since it can be

useful during SLA process as well.


1. Carroll, S. E. 2001. Input and Evidence. The raw material of

second language acquisition / Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

2. Ellis, R. 1997. Second Language Acquisition / Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

3. Ellis, R. 1986. Understanding Second Language Acquisition /

Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

4. Del Pilar, M. García M. and Eva Alcón Soler 2013. “Negotiated

input and output/interection”: The Cambridge Handbook of Second

Language Acquisition / Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

5. Johnson, K. 2001. An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning

and Teaching / Pearson Education Limited.

6. Littlewood, W. 1984. Foreign and Second Language Learning /

Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

7. Loewen, S. 2012. “The role of feedback”: The Routledge

Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Eds. Susan M. Gass, Alison

Mackey / Abington: Routledge. – 24-41 pages.

8. Saville-Troike, M. 2006. Introducing Second Language

Acquisition / Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

161

9. Vanpatten B. and Benati A. G. B. 2010. Key Term in Second

Language Acquisition / Continuum International Publishing Group.

Е.Н. Шнайдер, А.И. Конторских




Языковые средства выражения иронии в художественном

фильме

Значение иронии в кинематографе очень велико. Её способность

воздействовать на человека превращает данный лингвистический

феномен в неотъемлемую черту кинематографических произведений

любого жанра. Сочетание в фильмах и мультфильмах оптических и

акустических элементов с вербальным компонентом усиливает

эффект влияния иронического смысла на массовую аудиторию.

Language Means of Expressing Irony in Feature Films

The world of modern art is based on humor: literary works, poetry,

songs, scenarios for films and cartoons have a lot of comic elements.

Modern film-makers and screenwriters use jokes in their films to show

social injustice with humor and to attract the audience.

Irony is one of the most popular things in creation of comic sense in

cinematography. It is used in films of different genres. However, there is a

term which includes all the genres existing in cinema and describes the

main field of ironic influence in cinematography. It is called feature film

or fictional film, or also narrative film.

The Encyclopedic dictionary of S. I. Jutkevich defines it as a work of

cinematography with a plot represented in scenario and interpreted by a

film-maker. It is worth noting that a plot is made not only by directors but

also by actors, staff and special effects.

In the narrow sense, feature film or fictional film, or narrative film is

a film that tells a fictional or fictionalized story, event or narrative. The

aim of this type of films is to make the audience believe that the unfolding

fiction is real or taken from real life.

In the wide sense, feature film is a result of art work of any genres. It

can include different elements created for convincing people that all the

162

actions are sincere. This aim can be reached by using actors’ play,

computer effects or even means of animation (in animated films or

cartoons).

There are a lot of ways to create irony in cinematography, but all of

them are based on the work with three main components influencing the

audience – words, image and music. All of them can express irony.

As a linguistic and cultural phenomenon the irony can be defined as

means expressing skepticism or mockery, superiority or condescension.

Due to the irony we can oppose literal meaning of words and expressions

to their real meanings.

Speaking about irony in movies, the linguists consider it to be a

combination of language and non-language means expressing the author’s

idea. We consider some of them with the example of the animated feature

film «Frozen» in its French version «La Reine des Neiges». All the

quotations are taken from the web sites with subtitles and scripts of the

animated film in its French and English versions [6], [7].

There are 4 language levels and their units: phonetic level

(phonemes), morphological level (morphemes), lexical level (words),

syntactic level (expressions and sentences). A number of scientists believe

that there is also stylistic level (tropes). This level is realized not only

within a word, an expression or a sentence, but even within a whole text.

Irony can be based on all of these levels. According to phonetics this

phenomenon is provided by different sounds and exclamations with

comical meanings which are indentified by the situation or context; it also

can be represented by change of intonation, speech tempo, ton, accent and

pausing.

For example, in the considered animated film, Oaken, the owner of

Wandering Oaken's Trading Post and Sauna, is German. Screenwriters

added a German accent to the speech of this character to show his

nationality (there is no nasalization of vowels, «r» isn’t pronounced in the

French manner etc – these things are not typical for the French language

and the French pronunciation): «Ce sera dans notre section «hiver» /

«That would be in our winter department». At the end of his speech there

is also a typical thing for the Germans – the question «Ja?».

Different pauses can characterize awkwardness of a situation: «C’est

bizarre... ce n’est pas vous qui est bizarre, c’est nous, enfin... c’est moi...

Vous, vous êtes beau…j’ai dit quoi?» / «This is awkward… Not «You’re

awkward», but just because we’re… I’m awkward… You’re gorgeous.

Wait, what?».

163

In cinema irony is often represented in the speech of a character

when he or she stutters pronouncing words with syllabification, or

interchanges morphemes in a word: «Me preparer pour quoi? – Pour le

couronnement de votre sœur, madame. – Le cournement... de ma sœur?..»

/ «Ready for what? – Your sister’s coronation, ma’am. – My sister’s

corneration?».

According to lexicology there are 2 types of irony connected with the

sense of words: closed and opened. The first type is not often used in

animated films. Closed irony cannot be noticed at once. It becomes

understandable after character’s response to the idea. But in animated

films it is difficult to use this type of irony because children have to

understand the idea immediately after watching an episode. Sometimes

screenwriters use the closed irony with explication of their ideas: «Vous,

un monstre aussi? – Non, je suis une femme un peu plus ordinaire. – Oui,

très ordinaire. Mmm, dans le bon sens du terme» / «You! Are you a

monster, too? – No, no. I’m completely ordinary. – That’s right. She is…

in the best way».

The opened irony is a type of irony where we can see comic sense

immediately without thinking about the idea: «Pourquoi il faut que je

porte ces habilles? – Parce que la princesse a atteint l’âge d’être reine.

C’est le jour de son couronnement. – Et alors, c’est pas ma faute!» / «Why

do I have to wear this? – Because the queen has come of age. It’s

Coronation Day! – That’s not my fault! ».

There is also an antithesis, which is a figure of speech involving a

seeming contradiction of ideas: «Vous avez failli me brûler! – Mais je ne

l’ai pas fait! » / «You almost set me on fire! – But I didn’t».

Screenwriters also use consonance of words to create ironic context.

These words have similar pronunciation, but different meanings which can

be opposite to each other. For example, they changed the name of the

Duke to show a negative association with him and to show the audience

that he is not a good character: «Le duc de Vicieuxton... – Vicelton! Le duc

de Vicelton!» (in English version «The Duke of Weaseltown… - Weselton!

The Duke of Weselton!»). «Vicieux» means «Weasel» that is a person who

is guileful, artful and dishonest. So is this character.

There is also an opposition between the imaginary picture and the

real one: «J’ai tellement hate de voir la reine et la princesse. Je suis sûr

qu’elles sont adorables ! – Moi, je parie qu’elles sont très belles!» / «Oh !

Me sore eyes can’t wait to see the queen and the princess. I bet they are

absolutely lovely. – I bet they are beautiful! » (at the same time on the

164

screen there is a «beautiful» princess: in her bed, unwashed, uncombed

and snoring).

According to syntax the irony exists in expressions and sentences

which have comic sense. The most effective type of syntax used in

cinematography is communicative syntax. It defines the irony as a comic

effect made by using different types of sentences – narrative, interrogative

and exclamatory; it also includes rhetorical questions.

V. M. Pivoev gave the definition to the irony represented by

rhetorical questions and addresses – rhetorical irony. This type of irony

does not have an addressee and, at the same time, it addresses the

audience. The character seems to speak to himself or herself, and it creates

irony: «Arendelle, le plus mystérieux de nos partenaires commerciaux.

Ouvrez ces portes, que je puisse percer vos secrets et exploiter vos

richesses. Ai-je parlé à haute voix?» / «Arendelle, our most mysterious

trade partner. Open those gates so I may unlock your secrets and exploit

your riches. Did I say that out loud?».

According to stylistics, the irony is a special meaning of the word,

expression, sentence or a whole text. There are a lot of figures expressing

the irony. The most frequent of them are metaphors and parodies. For

example, Kristoff Bjorgman, one of the main characters of this animated

feature film, speaks with his friend reindeer Sven. He parodies Sven

changing intonation, mimicry and gestures: K: «Bien sûr que je n’ai plus

d’envie de l’aider... / S: Mais, elle mourra toute seule! / К: Ça m’est

égale! / S: Mais si elle meurt, tu ne verras jamais la couleur de ton

nouveau traîneau! / K: Tu me assois par moments...» / K : Of course I

don’t want to help her anymore... / S : She’ll die on her own! / K : I can

live with that. / S: But you won’t get your new sled if she’s dead! / K:

Sometimes I really don’t like you».

As for metaphors, there are a lot of them in the texts of this animated

film (dialogues, monologues and texts of songs): L’amour est un cadeau

(in English version: «Love is an open door»); Je peux quitter ma tour

d'ivoire (in English version: «A chance to change my lonely world» - this

is the sense of the line from the French song).

Different language means can create the irony in cinematography.

The received results are represented in the diagram (pic. 1):

165

Language Means Percentage

Morphologic 12%

Lexical 17%

Stylistic 17%

Phonetic 25%

Syntactic 29% Table 1. Language Means of Expressing Irony

In conclusion, it should be mentioned that the irony plays a very big

part in modern cinematography. Among the most frequent language means

of expressing the irony there are phonetic and syntactic ones. Lexical and

stylistic means are also used to create comic sense. Morphological means

are less popular. It is worth saying that the irony in films and animated

films is based on three main components (verbal, audio and visual) which

intensify the influence of the irony on the audience and simplify the

understanding of the comic sense.


1. Большая советская энциклопедия / под.ред. А.М. Прохорова.

– 3 изд., т. 10. – Москва: издательство «Советская энциклопедия»,

1972.

2. Пивоев В.М. Ирония как феномен культуры / Петрозаводск:

Издательство Петрозаводского гос. ун-та, 2000.

3. Юткевич С. И. Энциклопедический словарь / Москва:

Советская энциклопедия, 1987.

4. Потёмина М.С. 2010. Полифункциональность иронии. URL:

http://journals.kantiana.ru/vestnik/202/566/ (дата обращения 15.01.2016).

5. Официальныйсайт Encyclopedia Infoplease. URL:

http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/antithesis.html


http://journals.kantiana.ru/vestnik/202/566/
















166

III. Межкультурная коммуникация

Р. Хенфлинг,

Лектор ДААД




Языковая политика как проблемное поле миграции и

интеграции в Германии и кризис беженцев в 2016 г.

За последние 9 месяцев миграционный кризис обострился, в

связи с многократным увеличением потока беженцев и нелегальных

мигрантов в Европейский союз и неготовностью ЕС к их приёму и

распределению. Термин «кризис» по отношению к беженцам и

мигрантам впервые стали использовать апреле 2015 года. Слово

«беженец» было выбрано словом года в Германии в 2015 году.

Sprachpolitik als Problemfeld der Migration und Integration in

Deutschland und die Flüchtlingskrise 2016

„Die Flüchtlingskrise ist die größte Herausforderung, vor der

Deutschland je stand. Größer als die Wiedervereinigung. Damals trafen

Menschen aufeinander, die alle Deutsch sprachen und einen ähnlichen

kulturellen Hintergrund hatten. Das ist heute anders.“ [1]

Rückblickend auf meinen letzten Beitrag von 2015 zu dieser

Studentischen Konferenz scheint mir zunächst, dass sich die Thematik der

Sprachenpolitik in Deutschland, die ich in den Mittelpunkt gestellt hatte,

auch in Deutschland in den letzten 9 Monaten, in Bezug auf die Migration

und Integration, in Bezug auf die Identitätsbildung und Gesellschaft bzw.

Zivilgesellschaft in Deutschland, aber auch in Europa noch stärker

fokussiert zu haben.

Zum Wort des Jahres 2015 hat die Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache

„Flüchtling“ gewählt. In Anbetracht der Ereignisse der letzten 2 Jahre, die

globale Präsenz und die Auswirkungen auf jeder erdenklichen Ebene

sowohl zivil, national, transnational als auch international trifft die Wahl

der Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache den Zeitgeist und bündelt jene in

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C

167

personalisierter Form. Faktisch sind fast 60 Millionen Menschen

insbesondere vor 5 Krisenherden auf der Flucht. Aufgrund dieser

immensen Zahl wird häufig bereits von einer Völkerwanderung

gesprochen. Die Flüchtlingsströme rückten stärker in den Fokus der

westlichen Medien als noch vor 3-4 Jahren, da sich das Ziel der Bewegung

intensiver nach Europa insbesondere Westeuropa verschoben hat. Jedoch

hat sich nicht nur die Bereitschaft einer Auseinandersetzung für diese

Thematik in Westeuropa erweitert, sondern bringt eine Dynamik für

Europa mit sich, die in unerwarteter Weise an den Grundfesten und dem

europäischen Wertekanon rüttelt. Wie kann Europa bzw. die Europäische

Union zum einen nach innen gewandt faire Bedingungen für ihre

Mitgliedsstaaten erarbeiten und zum anderen nach außen gerichtet den

Hilfesuchenden Schutz gewähren, ohne eigene Sicherheitskonzepte in den

Hintergrund treten zu lassen? Welche Konsequenzen eine

Vernachlässigung des Bedürfnisses nach zumindest gefühlter Sicherheit

nach sich ziehen kann, veranschaulicht sich in Deutschland – gemeinsam

mit Schweden zu Beginn der Flüchtlingskrise auf dem äußeren Spektrum

der Willkommenskultur verortbar – auch am Ergebnis der zum Zeitpunkt

des Verfassens dieses Artikels aktuellsten Landtagswahlen vom 13.3.2016.

Während die deutsche Bundeskanzlerin Angela Merkel trotz heftiger

Kritik, sowohl parteiintern als auch über Partei- und Landesgrenzen

hinweg, an ihrer Linie festhält, kristallisiert sich umso mehr die

Notwendigkeit nach interkulturellem Dialog im Sinne einer Integration

und eines gegenseitigen Verständnisses heraus. Dass das Wort

„Flüchtling“ nicht bloß im Jahr 2015 in aller Munde war, sondern die

hinter diesem Begriff stehenden Individuen auch in den nächsten Jahren

im Zentrum der Aufmerksamkeit und der gesellschaftlichen Widmung

stehen, ist hoffentlich etwas mehr als der bloße Wunsch der Autorin; dafür

bedarf es einer durchdachten und konsequenten Kette an

Integrationsvorgängen: Angefangen bei psychologischer Betreuung, über

adäquate Vermittlung von Normen, Werten und Sprache, bis hin zu

verlässlicher Klärung der Zukunft der Flüchtenden.


1. Hessens Ministerpräsident Volker Bouffier (CDU) in der „Welt“

am 19. Oktober

2. URL: https://www.uno-fluechtlingshilfe.de/fluechtlinge.html (дата


168

А.А. Белозерова, Л.И. Корнеева




Метод тренинга как средство межкультурного образования

Статья посвящена одному из важнейших компонентов

межкультурного образования и воспитания, межкультурному

тренингу. Межкультурный тренинг представляет собой

неотъемлемый элемент практического аспекта межкультурного

образования, успешно применяется в образовательной системе

европейских стран и США. В статье раскрываются особенности

явления межкультурного тренинга и основные методы, используемые

при его проведении.

Trainingsmethode als Mittel interkultureller Bildung

Die Theorie der interkulturellen Kommunikation dringt sich ins

Ausbildungssystem der Studenten der Hochschulen allmählich ein.

Hauptsächlich erlernen die theoretischen Hauptlagen dieser Disziplin die

zukünftigen Fachkräfte, die mit den ausländischen Partnern unmittelbar

zusammenwirken werden. Das sind meistens die Studenten der Geistes-

und Wirtschaftsrichtungen. Bei der Ausbildung dieser Studenten spielt die

wichtige Rolle das Erlernen der Fremdsprachen, in der Regel des

Englischen, Deutschen oder Französischen. Das Wissen, das von den

Studenten beim Erlernen der Fremdsprachen und der Theorien

interkultureller Kommunikation erworben wird, ist ein Schlüssel für die

Entwicklung interkultureller Kompetenz.

Es reicht aber nicht, wenn die Fachkräfte unmittelbar mit den

Partnern anderer Kulturen in den Kontakt treten. Es ist mit Mangel an

praktischer Anwendung des theoretischen Wissens, der Durcharbeitung

bestimmter Fertigkeiten und der Systeme des Verhaltens in verschiedenen

interkulturellen Situationen, sowie der tiefen Analyse von Motiven eigener

und "fremder" kulturelbedingter Verhaltensmanieren verbunden. Gerade

deshalb muss man ins Programm der Ausbildung der Studenten nicht nur

sprachlichen und theoretischen, sondern auch den praktischen Aspekt der

interkulturellen Bildung und Erziehung einschließen. Dies soll

verschiedene Seminare für interkulturelle Kommunikation, interkulturelle

169

Trainings, Rollenspiele, Analysen und Durcharbeitungen der Situationen

des interkulturellen Verkehrs und interkulturelle Teste enthalten.

Das interkulturelle Training ist ein untrennbarer Bestandteil der

interkulturellen Bildung und der Erziehung im Westen während vieler

Jahre. In Russland trifft sich interkulturelles Training als

Ausbildungsmittel in der akademischen Umgebung tatsächlich nicht, es

wird vorzugsweise wie die Form der kommerziellen Bildung verwendet.

So könnte die Einführung des interkulturellen Trainings als Elementen der

interkulturellen Bildung und Erziehung der Studenten den Bildungsprozess

wirksamer machen.

Man versteht unter Begriff „interkulturelles Training“ eine Reihe der

miteinander verbundenen Handlungen, die aufs Verständnis der

Besonderheiten eigener Kultur, die Entwicklung der kulturbedingten

Manieren und Fertigkeiten des Verhaltens, sowie die Bildung der positiven

Beziehung zu den Vertretern anderer Kulturen gerichtet ist [1].

Interkulturelles Training ist etwas Gemeinsame zwischen Spiel,

Simulation und Realität. Das Ziel interkultureller Trainings ist der Erwerb

und die Erweiterung interkultureller Kompetenz, der Fähigkeit, mit den

Vertretern anderer Kulturen erfolgreich und konfliktlos zusammenwirken

zu können.

Interkulturelles Training kann alle Methoden umfassen, die dazu

dienen, den Menschen zum effektiven und konstruktiven Verkehr unter

fremdkulturellen Bedingungen und in kulturellen

Überschneidungssituationen vorzubereiten. Man unterscheidet

kulturallgemeine und kulturspezifische interkulturelle Trainings [3]. Die

ersten zielen darauf ab, allgemein für interkulturelle Situationen zu

sensibilisieren. Kulturspezifische Trainings dienen für Sensibilisierung der

konkreten Kulturen.

In den kulturallgemeinen Trainings geht es nicht um eine konkrete

Kultur, sondern sie fördern dem grundlegenden Verständnis des

Phänomens „Kultur“ und erklären die Kulturbedingtheit der menschlichen

Aktionen, die zu den kulturellen Unterschieden führen. Man erklärt die

Bedeutung und Wirkung der Hauptereignisse interkultureller

Kommunikation, so wie zum Beispiel Ethnozentrismus oder das Entstehen

von Stereotypen und Vorurteilen. Dabei benutzt man verschiedene

Übungen, die beispielsweise eigene Vorurteilsstrukturen sichtbar machen

oder die kulturell bestimmte Handlungen erklären [2].

Bei den kulturspezifischen Trainings steht eine bestimmte Kultur im

Mittelpunkt. Man gibt Informationen über diese Kultur, zum Beispiel über

170

Politik, Wirtschaft und Geschichte des Landes, wo die Vertreter dieser

Kultur leben. Das Kennenlernen von Kulturstandards des bestimmten

Landes bietet die Möglichkeit, um die Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede

der Zielkultur und der Heimatkultur zu erfahren, und dadurch mögliche

Konfliktsituationen in der interkulturellen Kommunikation zu erkennen

und zu bearbeiten [3].

Man verwendet viele Methoden und Übungen während der

interkulturellen Trainings, aber am häufigsten verwendet man folgende:

- Kultur-Assimilator-Methode

Unter „Assimilatoren“ versteht man verschiedene Situationen, die

eine für den Teinehmern des Trainings oft überraschende oder

unverständliche Reaktion der Vertreter einer fremden Kultur beschreiben.

Zu diesen Situationen werden Erklärungs- und Verhaltensmöglichkeiten

gegeben [6].

Der Trainingsteilnehmer soll eine Erklärung für diese Situation unter

gegeben wählen und seine Wahl argumentieren. Danach erhält er eine

Bewertung für seine Wahl und die richtige Erklärung, welche in der

Zielkultur als wahrscheinlich oder angemessen genannt hätte. Der Sinn

besteht darin, zu lernen, wie die Vertreter fremder Kultur diese Situationen

deuten würden. Das Ziel des Kultur-Assimilators ist es, sich Ereignisse so

zu erklären, wie dies die Mehrheit der Angehörigen der Kultur tun würde.

- Interkulturelle Rollenspiele und Simulationen

Unter dem Rollenspiel wird das Spiel verstanden, in dem die

Teilnehmer des Trainings diese oder jene Rollen übernehmen und soziale,

in der Regel Konfliktsituationen, vorspielen. Ein Ziel dieses Spieles ist,

den Spieler zu lehren, die richtigen Handlungen zu unternehmen, sowie

auf die Handlungen anderer Teilnehmer des Trainings zu adäquat zu

reagieren und miteinander in den verschiedenen Situationen

zusammenzuwirken [4].

Interkulturelle Simulation gilt oft als besondere Art des

interkulturellen Rollenspieles. Unter Simulation versteht man ein

möglichst realitätsnahes Nachbilden von Geschehen der Wirklichkeit. Bei

interkultureller Simulation schafft man künstlich in die kritische Situation

der interkulturellen Zusammenwirkung. Dabei wird die vorliegende

Situation mit der weiteren Analyse ihres Ausgangs, der Handlungen der

Teilnehmer, sowie der möglichen Wege ihrer Lösung vorgespielt.

- Fallmethode

Diese Methode des interkulturellen Trainings verlangt einige

Trainigsunterlagen, die allen Teilnehmern des Trainings zur Verfügung

171

stehen sollen. Die Methode beruht zumeist auf tatsächlichen Erfahrungen

der Personen, die in den betreffenden interkulturellen Situationen tätig

waren. Zu den Grundformen dieser Methode gehören Varianten wie zum

Beispiel „Analyse kritischer Ereignisse“ oder „Einzelfall-Analyse“. Zu den

Unterlagen gehört die Beschreibung von Situationen und Kontexten, zum

Beispiel Zeit, Ort, soziale Rolle, Beziehungen und Interessen. Das dient

zur Rekonstruktion der Ereignisse und deren Analyse [5].

Interkulturelles Training ist also das perfekte Mittel interkultureller

Bildung und Erziehung, das im Bildungsprozess der Studenten verwendet

werden kann. Die Methode interkulturelles Trainings lässt die

Entwicklung interkultureller Kompetenz, sowie verbessert sprachliche und

kommunikative Fähigkeiten, die für effektive interkulturelle

Kommunikation nötig sind.


1. Лейбман И.Я., Корнилова М.В. Межкультурный тренинг:

общая характеристика и примеры упражнений / И.Я. Лейбман, М.В.

Корнилова // Технологии психологического сопровождения

интеграции мигрантов в образовательной среде: учебно-методическое

пособие. – М.: МГППУ, 2013. – С. 84-132.

2. Bolten J. Interkultureller Trainingsbedarf aus der Perspektive

der Problemerfahrungen entsandter Führungskräfte / J. Bolten. – in:

K.Götz, Interkulturelles Lernen. Interkulturelles Training. – 6.Auflage. –

Mering 2006, p.57-76.

3. Dadder R. Interkulturelle Orientierung. Analyse ausgewählter

interkultureller Trainingsprogramme / R. Dadder. – Saarbrücken:

Breitenbach publishers, 1987. – 121 p.

4. Kanis S. Module für interkulturelle Trainings / S. Kanis. –

Brandenburg: RAA Brandenburg, 2010. – 20 p.

5. Klaus B. Interkulturelle Kompetenz als Anforderung im

sozialpädagogischemBereich und Ziel von Au-und Fortbildung / B. Klaus.

– Diplomica Verlag GmbH, 2002. – 146 p.

6. Dallmeier C. Grundlagen und effektive Gestaltung der

Interkulturellen Kommunikation in Nonprofit-Organisation. URL:

https://www.tirol.gv.at/fileadmin/themen/gesellschaftsoziales/integration/d

ownloads/LeitbildneuStand_Jaenner_2009/themenuebergreifend/Dallmeier

-Ik_Komm_in_Nonprofit-Org_09-03.pdf (дата обращения: 27.01.2016)

172

В.А. Возчикова

Сиднейский Университет

г. Сидней, Австралия

Уважение – главный принцип межкультурной коммуникации

В статье автор делится личным опытом построения успешной

карьеры в мультикультурной среде, акцентируя внимание на

потенциальных возможностях представителя любой культуры

добиться успеха в интернациональной компании при условии

соблюдения основного принципа общения – уважения к другим

культурам.

Respect as the main principle of intercultural communication

The world we live in today is very different from the world people

lived in 50 years ago. It has been evolving year after year through creation

of more opportunities, new technologies and breaking the boundaries.

Today we live in a “global village”, where no nation, group or culture can

remain anonymous (Samovar & Porter, 1991). While our population is

growing, the raise of Social Networks makes us feel like the world is

becoming smaller by day, and our interaction with people from other

cultures becomes more inevitable than ever. While modern technology

made it easy for us to communicate with people anywhere in the world,

this type of interaction can be quiet challenging, if people do not

understand and are not willing to learn how to deal with representatives of

cultures other than their own. It is fairly natural for human beings to have

desire to spend time with beings similar to them. We tend to be within our

comfort zone when we communicate with people, who share same values,

have same traditions and rules. Hence, some people can find it difficult to

get out of their comfort zone in order to simply even have a dialogue with

representative of other culture. Accepting the different cultural views,

working and studying with this acceptance take us to a whole other level

of mastering the art of intercultural communication.

As defined by Singer (1998), culture is: ’a pattern of learned, group-

related perceptions- including both verbal and non-verbal language,

attitudes, values, belief systems, disbelief systems and behaviours that is

accepted and expected by an identity group’.

173

It is important to remember that cultures are not fixed, they are

dynamic, they change, and some do it faster than the others through shared

interactions (Gudykunst, 1983). Based on the above definition and the

view of the modern world, intercultural communication can be defined as

the study of communication between people whose “cultural perceptions

and symbol systems are distinct enough” to alter their communication

(Samovar and Porter, 1997).

As you may have already figured out, speaking an ‘international’

language or any language other than your native is an important enabler to

start building communication, but just fluently speaking a foreign language

cannot guarantee you a successful dialogue with a person from another

culture. It is quiet similar to a child’s communication with adults. An

infant can’t speak to his/her parents, and due to that it often takes parents

some time to understand what their baby is after. Once the child develops

speech ability, it becomes much easier to build a dialogue and mutual

understanding. However, during the early years, when child goes to a

kindergarten, as an example, he or she may struggle to understand why

some kids are doing certain things and are allowed to do them, while he or

she can’t do the same, which is simply a matter of different family

upbringing and different values. In this ‘kindergarten’ situation a child

then decides whether he or she still tries to build a relationship with those

‘others’ or chooses to play only with similar kids not getting out of the

comfort zone.

This simple example and comparison shows that just speaking the

same language is often not enough to build effective communication and

relationships. Intercultural communication is rapidly becoming an essential

part of workplace culture, but moreover it is becoming inevitable for

everyday life in majority of the developed and developing countries. I have

been very fortunate to experience and live by principles of intercultural

communication in high school, university and my current workplace in

two very different developed countries outside of Russia.

For one year I have been studying in South Georgia, United States in

high school, and as part of my exchange program I have been living in an

American host family. While the United States of America are absolutely

considered to be a developed country, a town of 30,000 in South Georgia,

does not particularly meet the expectations of developed culture, if you

like. Given the diversity of population in the United States, I believe there

are still a lot of places there that fail to benefit from and prosper through

the right use of communication and understanding each other’s culture. As

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an example, in my South Georgian High School, we had about 40% of

white Americans, 30% of African Americans and 30% of Hispanics, which

is absolutely nothing new for the US. In saying that, walking down the

streets of the town, you could often see Confederate Flags on the houses

and cars as an eternal reminder of American Civil War and the days of the

‘white supremacy’. You would often hear people discussing the big and

loud Mexican weddings down the road and complaints about loud Hip

Hop music playing in another neighbourhood, without even realizing, that

those things are part of a culture, just a different culture to your own. The

issue here, is that if people grow up thinking that it is acceptable to be

ignorant to the diversity of cultures, they would really struggle in their

future to build a career, as fitting into a workplace diversity is almost an

essential skill for any hopeful employee.

Following the example of not very good intercultural

communication, I have a much better one that I’ve been living and

breathing in the last 8 years of my life, in an extremely diversified country

of Australia. I have already visited quite a few countries in my not very

long life, and I have never experienced anything like Sydney, when it

comes to the mix of the cultures, the mutual respect across all of them, and

the workplace ethics related to intercultural diversity.

I initially came to Sydney to study at the university to get a Bachelor

of Business, majoring in Accounting and Finance. On my first day at the

university, I’ve realised that I probably had more nationalities represented

in one class than I have ever met in my life: Koreans, Vietnamese, Thai,

Chinese, Lebanese, Russians, Ukrainians, Kazakhs, Latvians, Lithuanians,

Israelis, etc. Even the Australians, that I met, were mostly 2nd or 3rd

generations of Italians, Greek, Maltese, Hungarian, Serbian and British, of

course. What I found fascinating at the university were simple things like

studying techniques and approaches, as well as eating habits during lunch

breaks and communication with the lecturers. While we had so many

differences in some of the most basic behaviours, it never bothered me, as

I respected it and I’ve respected the fact that all of us came from other

countries for same reason at that stage: to get a university degree of an

English speaking country that will open up a whole new horizon of

opportunities. Funnily enough, even Australians in 3rd and 4th generations

of foreign background keep very true to their traditions and cultures, even

though a lot of them have never even visited the country of their family’s

origin, but yet you could always pick up whether the person is coming

from Italian background or Serbian background, despite of their looks and

175

purely based on their behaviours and manners. 3 years of studying in the

epicentre of Intercultural Communication was a lesson on its own, and all I

can say is that, those who struggled to fit in with other cultures at

theuniversity were the same people, who ended up struggling to find a

good first job after graduation or stay in a good job. By opening your mind

to the mastery of intercultural communication, I’ve opened up a much

broader range of career opportunities.

Today I work for one of the world’s largest family owned private

companies, that employs associates at 370 sites, including 135 factories, in

68 countries worldwide. I’ve joined this company over 3.5 years ago as a

fresh out of university graduate, and got my first ever full-time job as a

Junior Accountant. Next month I am starting a new role within our

Finance team as Supply Finance Analyst of Pacific Region of our

Business, which will be my 3rd role and 2nd promotion in less than 4 years.

That would not be possible, if it wasn’t for the respect and mutuality that is

built into the core principles of the workplace ethics of this company.

When I just started working there, I only had a working visa, and yet no

one has ever asked me in a negative way about my ‘immigration’ status at

my workplace. It was probably because many people from the Pacific

branch of this business actually don’t have citizenships of Australia,

including our General Manager and our Finance Director. That just shows

that equal opportunities are given to anyone who is a hard worker, brings

value to the business and can efficiently develop and sustain in a

multicultural environment.

One of the key principles of making the intercultural communication

work in the workplace is respect. And I am a strong believer it is a key

principle to build any type of communication and relationship. Without

respect, you will not find the time to listen to opinions different to your

own, you will struggle to accept the different ways of doing work, and you

may even have zero interest in talking about plans for the weekend with

people, who are of different background. Respect almost automatically

opens up your mind to new discoveries and knowledge of something, you

may have never wanted to learn about. Things that I’ve learnt about other

cultures in the last 8 years, not only opened my eyes even wider to the

world but also helped me a lot in building relationships at work and

applying the right behaviours in the various conflicts, and decision-making

situations. Mastering the art of intercultural communication is like

becoming a chameleon, which has an ability to fit in and adapt to different

environments, which is able to solve a conflict based on the

176

peopleinvolved in it, and is able to communicate the same message in

different ways.

What I also noticed in our business is that people in leadership and

director roles are the people, who travelled around the world, who moved

between countries for work and who are able to lead diversified group of

people and deliver a message in a way, that it is accepted by each one of

the employees despite of the country, where the office is and despite of the

employees’ cultural backgrounds.

Intercultural communication is an undeniably important part of

today’s world. You cannot expect to have a good business outside of your

own country, if you can’t get the basics right. It may be often hard, but to

succeed in today’s society at an international level you need to get out of

your cultural comfort zone and open your eyes to the whole bright world

out there.


1. Samovar, L.A., & Porter, R.E. (Eds.).(1991). Communication

between cultures. Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

2. Gudykunst, W.B. (1983). Intercultural Communication theory:

Current perspective. Beverly Hills, Sage.

3. Samovar, L.A., & Porter, R.E. (Eds.).(1997). Intercultural

communication: A reader (eight ed.). Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth Publishing

Company.

И.А. Гальцева, Д.Г. Уткина




Влияние культурных традиций восприятия цветов

на оформление интерьера гостиницы

На сегодняшний день учеными проведено множество

исследований на тему восприятия цветов разными национальностями.

В одних культурах восприятие цвета может существенно разниться

от других, и вызывать как положительные, так и отрицательные

ассоциации и эмоции. В гостиничной сфере современные дизайнеры

177

стараются следовать не только модным тенденциям оформления

интерьера гостиницы и номеров, но и учитывать факторы восприятия

цвета клиентами. Сформировались определенные правила

оформления интерьеров гостиниц, соблюдение которых является

основой успеха и гарантией повышения уровня лояльности среди

клиентов.

The impact of cultural colors perception traditions on the interior

design of the hotel

The receptionareaisknown to be the hallmark of the hotel. First, a

guest sees the interior of the hall when he enters the building and his

opinion often depends on the first impression. The correct color scheme in

the interior design of the hotel is not only the basis for success but also the

guarantee that the guests of the hotel will be comfortable there and also

would choose the hotel again.

For now scientists have done many researches of human color

perception and have come toa conclusion that one color can have different

meanings in different countries. There is a difference of color perception in

different cultures and it is important for designers to keep that in mind

while working with multinational audience [1]. Using the definite color

can be encouraged in one country but as well can be offensive in another.

Many people of different nationalitiescome to the hotel and it is

difficult to guess what associations the interior color scheme will cause.

Therefore, the entire hotel lobbyshould reflect the cultural traditions of the

country in which it is located.

Let us consider the scientific definition of color. Color is a

phenomenon of light (as red, brown, pink, or gray) or visual perception

that enables one to differentiate otherwise identical objects [2]. A person

assigns specific color to the object in the process of visual perception [3].

A color can work upon different emotions and associations, it can attract

and repel, instill a sense of calm and comfort or excite and disturb. It

happens because the impact of color on a person has physiological and

psychological components. These two aspects have a close proximity to

the emotions [4].

It is important for designers to keep in mind the perception of color by

the consumer from a certain cultural environment when they choose

colorsof interior decoration. One-dimensionally interpretation of color

178

associations is not acceptable as the meaning and symbolism of color are

different in various cultures.

Now let us consider differences in understanding and perception of the

same colors in Russian and Chinese cultures.

The most revered colorin China is red. Opposite to many countries

where red is a symbol of dangers and destruction in Chinese culture it is a

positive color. From ancient times to the present days it means prosperity

and happiness. Golden color is a symbol of nobility and wealth and is

closely related to yellow which is an imperial color. White color has the

most different meaning from European understanding. It is a mortuary

color. Black color has many meanings. Ancient Chinese revered it more

than any other color and considered it as ceremonial and severe. However,

in a broad sense, this color symbolizes evil, illness and greed [5].

In Russia red color symbolizes aggression and strife, it encourages

takingaction. Yellow is the color of the sun, but in Russian culture it

sometimes means parting. White color is a symbol of innocence and

tenderness. Russian people believe that white things are the purest and the

best. This color is trustworthy. Finally, in contrast to the Chinese

culturefunereal color is black.

In order to visually analyze the impact of different cultures on the

color scheme of the hotel interior I have decided to give the examples of

two hotels belonging to one famous corporation, which are located in the

capitals of China and Russia: PARK HYATT BEIJING и ARARAT

PARK HYATT MOSCOW.

Hyatt Hotel Corporation is one of the leading international hotel

companies. Hyatt HotelsCorporation is an American international

company and operator of hotels.The Hyatt Corporation was established in

1957. In 2015, “Fortune magazine” listed Hyatt as the 78th-best U.S.

company to work for [6].

Today Global Hyatt Corporation offers services to more than 483

hotels and resorts in 45 countries. The key of principles of the corporation

are individual approach to customer service, management of culturally

significant objects and respect for the environment.

The hotel in Russia is decorated in white, because as it has been

mentioned above, white color is a symbol of cleanliness and comfort.

There are white tablecloths on the tables, white walls, ceilings and white

lightings. The interior of the hotel in Beijing is implemented in red color,

which is an expression of tension and even danger for Russian people, and

it does not causea sense of calm that is important for design of a

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)

179

recreationalplace. Also there are a lot of black elements in the decoration:

walls, ceiling, lamps and wooden decorative panels. China designers use

yellow (Imperial) lighting, pointed at white objects, for example,

tablecloths under the yellow backlight is not white as in Chinese culture it

has a negative meaning.

Despite of the color diversityin the hotels interiors we can observe the

unified designers conception. It is expressed in variety of wooden

decorations and using plants in the interior.

Park Hyatt hotels are excelled by a small number of rooms and

interior design and focus to the national spirit. Therefore,design decision in

the interiors of the hotels so clearly reflects the cultural traditions of color

perceptions.


1. Бондарчук А.И. Семантика цвета в аспекте межкультурных

визуальных коммуникаций / Молодой ученый. 2014 г.

2. Восприятие цвета. URL:

http://www.realcolor.ru/lib/bse_color.htm (дата обращения: 27.12.2015).

3. Культура Китая. Роль цвета в китайской культуре. URL:

http://studychinese.ru/articles/8/196/ (дата обращения: 21.12.2015).

4. Роль цвета в рекламе. URL:

http://otherreferats.allbest.ru/psychology/00018527_0.html (дата

обращения: 28.12.2015).

5. Official site of ARARAT PARK HYATT MOSCOW. URL:

http://moscow.park.hyatt.com/en/hotel/home.html (дата обращения:

18.12.2015).

6. Official site of PARK HYAT BEIJING. URL:

http://beijing.park.hyatt.com/en/hotel/home.html (дата обращения:

18.12.2015).

7. Wikipedia / Hyatt. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyatt


http://www.realcolor.ru/lib/bse_color.htm

180

В.А. Дряпина, Г.Н. Замараева

Владимирский Государственный Университет им. А.Г. и Н.Г.

Столетовых

г. Владимир, Россия

Барьеры в межкультурной коммуникации

В статье рассматриваются коммуникативные барьеры, которые

возникают в результате межкультурной коммуникации и снижают ее

эффективность.

Barriers to intercultural communication

In the modern world there is a tendency of extension and deepening

of international contacts in various spheres of economic, political, social

and cultural life that makes it necessary to address the problems of

intercultural communication.

Infact even speaking the same language people sometimes fail to

understand each other and the reason is often the difference of cultures [1].

Different cultures use different patterns of perception of the social

reality through symbolic systems, and thataffects language structures,

styles of oral and written communication [7].

Language is a mirror of culture. It reflects not only the real world

surrounding the person, but also public consciousness of people, their

mentality and national character, lifestyle, traditions, customs, morals,

values, attitude, vision of the world.

Actually "intercultural communication" includes interaction of

cultures (not just languages) whena sender and a receiver of a message

belong to different cultures, and the parties to the communication are

aware of their cultural differences.

At the same time culture is not just some cultural information

communicated through language. It is an inherent feature of a languageat

all its levels and in all its occurrences [6].

Trying to communicate with representatives of different cultures

often faces difficulties and obstaclesand can result in conflict situations.

Usually such difficulties caused by cultural differences of partners cannot

be neutralized immediately in the communication process. Such

communication difficulties are defined by researchers as "intercultural

barriers" [4].

181

At present, a cultural barrier is meant to include particular elements

of culture that make it difficult and, at the worst, prevent

frominterrelations and social dialogue between people with different

culturalbackgrounds [5].

The most obvious examples of the clash of cultures can be foundin

real communication with foreigners both in their country and in countries

of other communicators. Contacts between representatives of different

cultures can cause many problems due to mismatch of norms, values,

worldviewsof partners, etc. [3].

In the broader sense, the barriers are defined as problems arising in

the process of interaction, preventing from it or reducing its effectiveness.

Currently understanding the problems of intercultural communication

barriers is limited by the attempts to classify communication barriers.

According to one of the points of views, intercultural communication can

have six barriers:

• assumption of similarity (people believe that all people are very

similar);

• language differences (people think that words and phrases have

only the meaning they would like to communicate);

• erroneous interpretation of non-verbal actions;

• the impact of stereotypes and prejudices;

• unconscious desire to evaluate all unfamiliar cultural phenomena;

• anxiety and stress because of the uncertainty of the behavior of

partners in intercultural communication [2].

In practice, cross-cultural barriers at the level of relations arise due

to the lack of mutual understanding, as well as unfriendly behaviour or

failure of trust.

There are four major areas within which intercultural

communication takes place: language (semantic), ethno-cultural,

communicative and psychological. Accordingly, there are four main

groups of barriers of intercultural competence: linguistic, ethno-cultural,

communicative and psychological. Specific features characterize each of

these groups and, thus, there are no common universal ways to overcome

them. Each group requires appropriate ways of overcoming them.

One should bear in mind that intercultural communication involves

parties with different ethics and the dos and don’ts of polite manners

which are largely dependent on their cultures. Consequently, there could

be situations of uncertainty related, for example, to the forms of greetings

and good-byes, apologies and other common forms of behavior in the

182

communication process [8]. For example, the Russians often feel

suspicious of the famous American smile and it is usually seen as

insincere. While for an American, a smile on a person’s faceis a

demonstration of persistence and viability, in Russia smiling to strangers is

considered a deviation from the norm and can be misinterpreted.

The main way to overcome barriers in intercultural communication

is to develop intercultural competence of the partners by improving their

cultural education and awareness. Development of cultural education of an

individual implies a deliberate change of personal attitude, developing

necessary knowledge and skills, contributing to its adequate behavior in

situations of intercultural communication. Intercultural competence is

formed effectively with the help of special programs preparing individuals

for intercultural interaction. These are trainings, lectures and workshops on

the psychology of cross-cultural and ethnic differences allowing to

determine the level and degree of a person’s adaptation to new

sociocultural environment, mapping the features of "their" and "foreign"

culture and thus preparing to encounter an unfamiliar culture and its

media.

Specific types of barriers in intercultural communication are

psychological barriers that are a psychological reaction to certain

manifestations of other cultures. Interaction with other cultures is

accompanied by great psychological stress, anxiety and fear.

The problem of interaction and mutual understanding of cultures is

especially important for modern Russia as it has complex processes of

modernization of society and deep transformation of the Russian culture.

Intercultural development often results in crises and destructive

phenomena dealt with by various sciences: philosophy, cultural and social

anthropology, cultural studies, etc.

At the same time, scientific and technical progress as wellas

people’s efforts opens new opportunities, types and forms of

communication, mutual understanding, and dialogue of cultures, tolerance

and respect forother culturesbeing the main condition of its effectiveness.

All this taken together caused particularly close attention to the

issues of intercultural communication. Thus, the issue of language and

culture relationship isa complex and multidimensional.

Practice of intercultural communication shows that effective

overcoming of communicative barriers can be achieved by adequate

selection of appropriate tactics of interaction. Choosing communication

tactics involves conscious or intuitive ways of attracting attention of a

183

partner, andcoming into contact with him or her. First of all, one should

choose the best form of communication as the beginning of the

communication process can determine the entire outcome.

Improving intercultural literacy has a significant impact on the

worldview and values of a person, development of his or her personal

qualities, the ways of solving their life's problems, on self-concept. Thus,

cultural literacy becomes an indicator of personal competence of an

individual, which is evident in his or her ability to communicate with

foreign partners and to use his or her knowledge in particular situations of

communicationeffectively, in readiness to move quickly from generalities

to consciously reasoned actions.


1. Верещагин Е.М., Костомаров В.Г. Язык и культура /М.,

Индрик, 2005.

2. Воробьева В.Л. Основы социально-бытовых знаний / Учеб.

Пособиедля учащихся групп коррекционно-развивающего обучения в

системе начального профессионального образования /М.: Колледж

сферы услуг, 2005.

3. Грушевицкая Т.Г., Попков В.Д., Садохин А.П. Основы

межкультурной коммуникации. / М., Учебник для вузов, 2003.

4. Саблина С.Г. Барьеры коммуникации в межкультурной

среде. URL: http://www.russcomm.ru/rca_biblio/s/sablina.shtml (дата


5. Садохин А.П. Межкультурные барьеры и пути их

преодоления в процессе коммуникации /Обсерватория культуры-

№ 2. - с.26 - 32, 2008.

6. Тер-Минасова С.Г. Язык и межкультурная коммуникация

/М., 2000.

7. Ting-Toomey S. Communicating Across Cultures. The

Guilford Press. 1999.

8. Межкультурная компетентность: сущность и механизмы

формирования. URL: http://dislib.ru/kulturologiya/17314-5-

mezhkulturnaya-kompetentnost-suschnost-mehanizmi-formirovaniya.php


http://www.russcomm.ru/rca_biblio/s/sablina.shtml

http://dislib.ru/kulturologiya/17314-5-mezhkulturnaya-kompetentnost-suschnost-mehanizmi-formirovaniya.php

http://dislib.ru/kulturologiya/17314-5-mezhkulturnaya-kompetentnost-suschnost-mehanizmi-formirovaniya.php

184

И.Н. Кугушева, Е.А. Бакина




Межкультурная коммуникация в современном обществе

Не секрет, что с каждым днем возрастает значение

межкультурной коммуникации как эффективного средства

достижения высокого уровня сотрудничества между различными

народами и культурами. Безусловно, в современное время особенно

необходимо владеть навыками межкультурной коммуникации.

Увеличение значимости коммуникативных процессов в

обществе и культуре является основной причиной предпринимаемых

попыток понять и осмыслить проблемы межкультурной

коммуникации и ее роль в глобализирующемся мире.

Современные страны активно взаимодействуют друг с другом

в процессе обмена культурными традициями и ценностями. Важную

роль для эффективности этого процесса играет «межкультурная

компетентность». В первую очередь, это знание языка другого

коммуникативного сообщества. Умение говорить на иностранном

языке играет значительную роль в преодолении культурного барьера.

Успешное взаимодействие с представителями других культур

предполагает знание не только иностранного языка, но и ценностей,

норм, стандартов поведения иного коммуникативного сообщества.

В последнее время все более острой становится проблема

сосуществования в поликультурном пространстве, толерантного

отношения к другим культурам, преодоления нацизма, расизма и

шовинизма.

Современному человеку важно не просто знать принципы

межкультурной коммуникации, но применять их и совершенствовать

на практике.

Межкультурная коммуникация является огромной

гуманистической ценностью, так как потребность одного человека в

приобщении к культуре другого человека иной формации

способствует его духовному совершенствованию, воспитанию

интеллигентности, обретению толерантности, повышению общего

уровня образованности и культуры.

185

Intercultural Communication in modern society

Nowadays the developing globalization process erases the political,

ideological and cultural boundaries between countries and continents,

nations and ethnic groups. Modern means of transportation and

communication, the global information Internet network have brought

people together; have made the world so close that the interaction of

countries, peoples and cultures has becomeinevitable and permanent.

It's not a secret that the importance of cross-cultural communication

as an effective means of achieving a high level of cooperation between

different peoples and cultures increases with each passing day. It is

necessary to possess the skills of intercultural communication first of all to

those people whose professional activity is connected with the interaction

between cultures, and is carried out by means of communication. These

include socio-political, translation activities, administration, education,

social work, counseling, journalism, etc.

The cross-cultural communication is a connection and

communication between representatives of different cultures that involves

both direct contact between people and their communities, and mediated

forms of communication. It takes place between partners who belong to

different cultures, realize and accept the fact of the cultural differences of

each other.

The concept of "Intercultural Communication" (and "Intercultural

Interaction") was introduced into scientific circulation by Treyger G. and

E. Hall in their work called "Culture and Communication. Model

Analysis" (1954). The scientists have determined it as an ideal objective to

which every man should aspire in their desire as good as possible and

more efficiently adapt to the surrounding world.

The increasing importance of communication processes in society

and culture is the main cause of efforts to understand and comprehend the

problems of intercultural communication and its role in modern globalized

world. Indeed, nowadays it takes place the propagation of the same art,

lingual, computer and other cultural patterns all over the world. Besides,

there is an openness to inter-state borders and a growing socio-cultural

communication.

Modern countries actively interact with each other in the exchange of

cultural traditions and values. One of the striking examples of cultural

interaction is a festival of Russian culture and art, called Feel Russia,

which took place in March 2015 in Milan.The main objective of the

186

project was to acquaint the Italian public with the major achievements and

innovations in the sphere of Russian culture and art. The music and

singing groups from all over Russia performed for the inhabitants of

Italy.There were the pavilion with an interactive exhibition of Russian

artists of XIX-XX centuries and an exposition of dolls and dishes of

Russian cuisine - pancakes and pies. During the 2015 Russian Cultural

Days were also held in France, Germany, China, Vietnam and

Argentina.In April 2015 the Days of Hungarian culture took place in

Russia. The action lasted for several months and was in many Russian

cities, the largest of which are Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod,

Yekaterinburg, and Kazan. It is just a small part of what is being done in

many countries for the expansion and maintenance of cross-cultural

interaction with each other. It allows creating, saving and storing values,

norms, knowledge, supporting the mutual enrichment of cultures.

Intercultural communication at all levels, as other form of

communication, has its own purpose, the implementation of which

determines the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of communication. Here

an important role is played by the concept of "intercultural competence",

which, as a rule, is associated with the concept of communicative

competence. One of the aspects of intercultural competence requires

language knowledge of another communicative community. The language

does not exist outside of culture. It is one of the most important

components of culture, a form of thinking, expression of specifically

human activity, which is the real being of language. Language accumulates

unique experience of cultures. Language and culture are inseparable. If the

language is a culture, the culture is the language. The statementof G. S.

Minasova is true. She said: "Language is a treasure, a pantry, a bank of a

culture. It stores cultural values – in lexis, grammar, idioms, proverbs,

sayings, folklore, fiction and scientific literature, in forms of written and

oral speech".

It should be noted that the problem of cultural barriers is especially

acute in the process of verbal communication. Implementation of language

in communication usually leads to a mutual agreement between

communicators about the interpretation of language meanings. Certainly,

in recent years the knowledge of foreign language plays a significant role

in people's life, contributing to the process of cross-cultural

communication. For example, English is a language of global

communication that brings together millions of people around the world. It

is the primary language, not only in the US, UK, Ireland, Canada,

187

Australia and New Zealand, but it is also the main official language of

many countries in Africa and the Caribbean, on the islands of the Indian,

Pacific and Atlantic oceans, the second official language of India. English

is widely spread in business circles of the world, so it received the status of

an international language in over 60 countries. English is the language of

diplomacy, trade, business. Many prestigious universities of the world are

English-speaking. This language is demanded in sport. About 90% of

Internet resources are in English.

Knowledge of a foreign language is useful not only for the people

employed in the business sector. The ability to speak languages of other

countries is also a significant advantage in everyday life. People who

speak foreign languages have the opportunityto freely communicate with

other people around the world.

It should be noted that the successful cooperation with the

representatives of other cultures requires the knowledge not only of a

foreign language, but also the values, norms, standards of behavior of

another communicative community.

In recent years, the problem of coexistence in a multicultural space, a

tolerant attitude towards other cultures, overcoming Nazism, racism and

chauvinism becomes more acute. Unfortunately, every day we hear more

and more about the next inter-cultural conflict. Such conflicts are an

integral feature of international relations throughout their history.

Participation in cultural conflicts and their initiation are a dangerous way

for word stability to expand and secure geopolitical influence. The

phenomenon of cross-cultural conflicts has a direct impact on the system

of international relations and global politics at all levels. Bothlarge-scale

armed and ethnic, religious, social conflicts occur. The development of

science and technology, as well as the development of the system of

international relations, led to the emergence of new ways of participation

in inter-cultural conflicts and gave them new features.

It is important for modern people not just to know the principles of

intercultural communication, but to apply it and improve in practice. It is

necessary to develop quick thinking and aptitude to express ideas in

different ways. The ability to be an intermediary between the people, to

present interlocutors to each other, to say the right word in the right

situation is an invaluable skill for intercultural communication.

To sum up, it should be noted that cross-cultural communication has

gained immense importance in the globalization process of the modern

world. Intercultural communication is a huge humanistic value as the need

188

in acculturation of one person to a person of another formation contributes

to spiritual development, education of intelligence, acquiring tolerance,

increase the general level of education and culture.


1. Английский язык – международный язык. URL:

http://www.studymos.ru/angl-yazik.html (дата обращения: 20.12.2015).

2. Белоусова М.М. Роль межкультурной коммуникации в

процессах глобализации современного мира. URL:

http://conf.englishforsciences.sfedu.ru/%D0%BC-%D0%BC-

%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE%D

0%B2%D0%B0/ (дата обращения 29.12.2015).

3. В Милане «почувствовали Россию». URL:

http://www.rg.ru/2015/03/23/milan-site.html (дата обращения:

25.12.2015).

4. Грушевицкая Т.Г., Попков В.Д., Садохин А.П. Основы

межкультурной коммуникации: Учебник для вузов / Под редакцией

Садохина А.П. / М.: ЮНИТИ-ДАНА, 2002.

5. Садохин А.П. Межкультурная коммуникация: Учебное

пособие. / М.: Альфа-М; ИНФРА-М, 2004.

6. Казанчева А.Ф. Актуальность проблем межкультурной

коммуникации в современном поликультурном пространстве. URL:

http://pglu.ru/upload/iblock/061/uch_2012_vi_00006.pdf (дата


7. Красикова Е.Н. Глобализация английского языка в

мультикультурной среде. URL:

http://www.ncfu.ru/uploads/doc/krasikova_konfmt.pdf (дата обращения

29.12.2015)

8. Межкультурная коммуникация. URL:

http://www.grandars.ru/college/sociologiya/mezhkulturnaya-

kommunikaciya.html (дата обращения: 20.12.2015).

http://www.studymos.ru/angl-yazik.html

http://conf.englishforsciences.sfedu.ru/%D0%BC-%D0%BC-%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0/



http://www.rg.ru/2015/03/23/milan-site.html

http://pglu.ru/upload/iblock/061/uch_2012_vi_00006.pdf

http://www.ncfu.ru/uploads/doc/krasikova_konfmt.pdf

http://www.grandars.ru/college/sociologiya/mezhkulturnaya-kommunikaciya.html

http://www.grandars.ru/college/sociologiya/mezhkulturnaya-kommunikaciya.html

189

М.Д. Кукушкина, Т.Н. Крепкая

Санкт-Петербургский Политехнический Университет имени Петра

Великого

г. Санкт-Петербург, Россия

Проблемы адаптации иностранных студентов

к обучению в Санкт-Петербурге

Объектом исследования является процесс адаптации

иностранных студентов к жизни и обучению в другой стране на

примере студентов курса «История и архитектура Санкт-Петербурга»

в Санкт-Петербургском Политехническом Университете имени Петра

Великого. В статье рассмотрены этапы процесса адаптации

иностранного студента к жизни в другой стране, при помощи опроса

выявлены основные проблемы и предложены возможные решения.

Problems of international students' adaptation

to education in Saint Petersburg

Every year more and more international students come to study in

Peter the Great Polytechnic University and that makes it very important for

teachers to help foreign students adjust to education and life in Russia.

This purpose requires studying the process of cultural adaptation and the

main problems connected to it.

The psychological and sociocultural components of adaptation have

been investigated within the framework of acculturation theory [2]. In the

context of immigration, acculturation has been conceptualised as a

combination of cultural changes resulting from the contact of immigrants

with the host population [1]. The categorical model of acculturation is

based on two dimensions: one refers to the extent to which the culture of

origin is being maintained or preferred, and the other refers to the extent to

which the new host culture is adopted. On the basis of the interaction

between these two dimensions, four different acculturation strategies can

be employed: separation, assimilation, integration and marginalisation.

Nowadays, the notion of «adaptation» is very often confused with

sociocultural competence formation. Sociocultural competence is that

aspect of communicative ability which involves those specific features of a

society and its culture which are manifest in the communicative behaviour

of the members of this society. These features may be classified as

190

‘universal experiences’, ‘social rituals’ and ‘social conventions’. We

believe, adaptation process is much more complicated and requires more

practical approach, than forming a sufficient knowledge base. That is why

helping international students to adjust to life and education in a foreign

country is something that has to be done not only before their travel, but

mostly when they already are in Russia.

Most intercultural communication specialists outline 4 basic stages of

foreigners' adjustment to another country.

1. The «Honeymoon» stage is charecterised as initial euphoria,

excitement with new sounds, sights, smells. At this stage students can

show superficial involvement in the host culture, lots of interest in

learning, they are very motivated and cooperative.

2. “Culture Shock” is the stage when come irritation and even

hostility. The novelty of the new culture has worn off, and students now

focus primarily on the differences between the new culture and their home

culture. Being constantly concerned with and stressed by cultural

differences causes the feeling of helplessness and frustration.

3. Gradual Adjustment, Humor, and Perspective comes when

students become more familiar with the new culture and its “logic” and

values. They feel more comfortable and less isolated, and even begin to

prefer some aspects of the new culture to their home culture.

4. “Feeling at Home” is what is called «adaptation» and

«biculturalism». The “new” culture is no longer new; instead, the

“foreign” country you live in now feels like another home [2, 3].

The survey run among international students of Peter the Great

polytechnic University showed, that, having spent 6 months in Saint

Petersburg, 48% of the students never got to experience stages 3 and 4.

That means, that having spent quite a long period of time in Russia, they

Figure 1. Results of the survey among international students.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4The percentage of students who have experienced this stage of adjustment

191

«got stuck» either at the «Honeymoon» stage, or the « Culture Shock» and

never managed to cope with it (see Figure 1).

As a matter of fact, most of international students are sure they are

not going to have any problems adjusting. This belief comes from the fact

that most of them are familiar with the Russian language and their level is

sufficient to make a small-talk. Surprisingly, many of the international

students, who join our “History and architecture of Saint Petersburg”

course, show great knowledge of Russian literature and history, but not

Russian realities. We have to admit, that given the current political

situation, the information about Russia learned from foreign mass media

can not always be objective and more often tends to create very hostile and

unfriendly image of our country.

In order to find out the level of readiness of foreign students to live in

Saint Petersburg 50 students from different countries were given a

specially developed cultural quiz, which consisted of 50 questions and

included questions about: Russian history and culture, everyday life in

Saint Petersburg, Russian language and slang, Russian and Soviet Union

realities. The quiz for foreign students contained questions like: "You are

lost in the city and want to ask the way. Who is more likely to speak good

English: a teenager, a middle age man, an elderly lady?"

Another example of questions from the quiz is: "You are in the

subway in a very crowded train. You are standing close to the doors and

somebody from behind touches your shoulder and asks something in

Russian. What do you think it is?"

The average result of foreign students was 23 right answers out of

50, which is not enough for effective intercultural competence formation

and successful adaptation to a new country.

Such results brought us to the conclusion that the level of foreign

student's intercultural competence has to be improved and an international

discussion club is an effective tool to do it. Intercultural competence

means not only the knowledge about other countries' culture and traditions,

but also the ability to perform effective intercultural communication with

foreigners.

With the help of the surveys made we can outline the main

adaptation problems students are facing in Saint Petersburg:

1. Language barrier

2. Lack of information about other cultures

3. Communication problems

4. Homesickness (cultural) and boredom.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homesickness

192

We believe that the most efficient way to solve these problems is to

create an international discussion club for foreign and Russian students.

The main aims of the club would be: 1. providing Russian students with

English practice and foreign students – with Russian practice; 2.increasing

the level of students' knowledge in history and architecture of Saint

Petersburg; 3.stimulating students’ Intercultural competence formation and

international cooperation skills.

The foundation of such club could be beneficial for both Russian

students and international students and help the former to learn more about

other cultures and the latter to adjust easier to life in a foreign country and

find new friends.


1. Berry J.W. “Acculturation and health: Theory and research” in

S.S. Kazarian and D.R. Evans (eds.) Cultural Clinical Psychology: Theory,

Research and Practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998.

2. Berry, J.W. “A psychology of immigration” Journal of Social

Issues, 57:615—631, 2001.

3. Ward C. and A.-M. Masgoret “Responses to immigrants

seeking employment: A case of discrimination?” Annual Conference of

the New Zealand Psychological Society, Wellington, New Zealand, 2004.

Д.И. Курманова, А.И. Конторских




Контент-анализ семантического поля «образование»

в русской и английской культурах

(на примере текстовых источников из НКРЯ и COCA)

Статья посвящена проблеме восприятия понятия «высшее

образования» в русской и американской культуре. Для Уральского

Федерального Университета, стремящегося к активному

межкультурному взаимодействию и привлечению как можно

большего количества иностранных студентов, это особенно

актуально, поскольку качественное обучение иностранных студентов

193

возможно только при эффективной коммуникации между российским

преподавателем и иностранным студентом. Для проведения

исследования мы воспользуемся методом контент-анализа.

Content analysis of the semantic field «education» in Russian and

American cultures (based on texts from the Russian National Corpus

and Corpus of Contemporary American English)

Despite various research activities aimed at solving particular

problems of English lexis in the sphere of higher education, one problem is

still pressing these days. This is a problem of creating new approaches that

will help describe this lexical layer of contemporary English in a more

detailed way and also help to define its national and cultural identity as it

is so important in effective intercultural communication. By new

approaches we mean studying of pedagogical lexis in the sphere of higher

education by means of linguistic fields. This method presupposes a link

between language elements and objective reality. It also helps determine

its realization conditions, as well as give a more detailed description of

certain lexical layers (particularly lexis in the sphere of higher education).

This is of special importance for Ural Federal University as it strives for

active intercultural cooperation and attracting as many foreign students as

possible. This is obvious it is only possible within effective

communication between a Russian educator and a foreign student.

Therefore, the aim of our paper is, by means of content analysis, to

define how different cultures perceive the notion of «higher education».

Different texts from the Russian National Corpus and Corpus of

Contemporary American English arethe source materialfor the analysis.

In contemporary English lexis in the sphere of higher education

encompasses quite a considerable layer of language units. It mirrors in this

or that way cognitive activity, empirical and rational pedagogical

experience of former generations that was registered in the language

system.

Apart from that we should note that in the USA higher education is

considered to be something that will guarantee you a bright and well

provided future. Any person who wants to get a well-paid job and be

successful in the society is required to have higher education.

In pilot studies, higher education opportunities for students with ID

have been shown to correlate with improved employment outcomes and

increased participation in communities.

194

In American society people with higher education always feel

priority to those who finished school.

The benefits of higher education for individuals and society …

Thus, people with higher education performed better on the

SRTSTAT.

People with higher education are often more conscious and active

when it comes to health. For example, a call for vaccinating from swine flu

was ignored mostly by uneducated part of American society.

Intention to be vaccinated against H1N1 (Table 3) was associated

with older age, higher income, higher education, membership in a high-

priority group.

Also it’s not a secret that the sacred certificate of higher education

will cost you a lot, so not all American people can afford this luxury. The

government tries to find different ways to cope with this problem and it

pays great attention to this question. Particularly the President’s concern

on this matter was shown in one of his public speeches.

Higher education can't be a luxury it's an economic imperative that

every family in America should be able to afford.

As for Russia we can say that people here have more opportunities to

continue studying at university as the government often allocates money to

promising students. That is why a lot of pupils try to show their desire to

enter the university.

Бум высшего образования, о котором говорят и пишут в послед

ние годы специалисты, судя по результатам нашего исследования,

докатился и до малых российских городов. Почти три четверти

опрошенных намерены получить высшее образование, а, к примеру, в

Вязниках, их доля превышает 80%.

Their desire is often the result of adults’ advice, i.e. their parents and

close relatives suggesting entering university.

Мои отец и дядя, правда, всегда говорили, чтообязательно надо

учиться, иметь высшее образование.

Getting higher education implies not only the certificate itself but

also emergence of self-esteem whilenurturing cultural values and a

different view-point.

Верка говорила, что у неё высшее образование и самолюбие неп

озволяет ей убираться за богатыми.

We should point out that quantitatively Corpus of Contemporary

American English have more results compared to the Russian National

Corpus: COCA – 7756 results, RNC – 634 results. Perhaps it is due to the

195

fact that the problem of costly higher education in America attracts more

public attention. At the same time in Russia higher education is somehow

taken for granted. Students enter the university and it is considered to be

normal, it is not such a big deal that is why it is not discussed in public so

much.

Thus after having made content analysis of texts from Russian and

American sources we can say that for American people higher education is

a sign of prestige and is a guarantee of bright future, respectful and high

position in society. As for the Russian society, higher education is one of

the necessary steps that every person should take. It’s not always a

guarantee of employment but it is a sign of inner cultural values. In other

words, in the USA higher education displays material side of meaning

whereasinRussiait displays a spiritual one.


1. Дмитриева Н.А. Лексико-семантическое поле «Культура» в

языковой картине мира: диссертация канд. филол. наук. Донецк,

1995.

2. Klaus Krippendorff Content analysis. An introduction to its

methodology. The Annenberg School for Communication, University of

Pennsylvania, 2013.

3. Официальный сайт Национального корпуса русского языка.

URL: http://www.ruscorpora.ru/ (дата обращения: 11.12.2015).

4. Официальный сайт Corpus of contemporary American English.

URL: http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/ (дата обращения: 11.12.2015).

Н.Н. Мирошникова, Н.В. Белина

Санкт-Петербургский Политехнический Университет Петра Великого

г. Санкт-Петербург, Россия

Особенности обучения

иноязычной межкультурной коммуникации

студентов в неязыковом вузе

Интеграция России в мировое культурно-экономическое

пространство предопределила необходимость владения иностранным

196

языком как одним из условий востребованности квалифицированного

специалиста на современном рынке труда.

В целях достижения высокого уровня обученности будущего

специалиста-выпускника неязыкового вуза, возникает необходимость

в разработке модернизированной модели обучения, применимой в

условиях обучения иностранным языкам.

Иноязычная межкультурная коммуникация активно развивается

при увеличении международных контактов между российскими и

зарубежными вузами, создавая основу для организации проектной

деятельности студентов.

Specific traits of foreign language intercultural communication

of students at non-linguistic university

The present Russian high school system state has been prompted by

positive changes caused by thoroughgoing innovations in the life of the

society. Open state boarders, European and worldwide globalization,

modern technologies development, providing access to all kinds of

information have brought significant changes not only in the life of

Russian citizens but in high school as well. It has greatly influenced

factors concerned with foreign language speaking as one of the main

qualifications required for a young specialist in order to get a good job in

modern labor market.

Today’s targets are influenced by the modern life conditions, that are

reflected in the appearance of new views on the nature of foreign

languages and consequently on the teaching methods.

An essential problem of the lingual and intercultural development of

a personality as a result is that traditional approaches and teaching

methods do not fully take into account the particularity of the studied

language from the point of view of its lingual and speech norms. The

correct vocabulary and grammar do not always guarantee mutual

comprehension in real communication.

In order to achieve a high level of education of a future graduate of a

non-linguistic university, it is necessary to develop a completely new

modern model of teaching, which can be successfully applied during the

process of teaching foreign languages.

To reach this purpose it becomes topical to popularize scientific

knowledge as its spreading is of great importance for the concept review

197

not only of the scientific and educational philosophy but intercultural

aspect as well.

The division of the cultural and mass concepts, which has been

treated separately until now, occurs exactly in the present stage of the high

school development (not only linguistic one).

Mass culture is the product of natural development of the culture as

the unity of subcultures, in terms of industrialization and informatization

of the society. According to Vernadsky, any transformation of cultures is

not “the termination of the culture”, but “expansion of its geographical

area”. [1]

This point of view involves a completely new approach to the

process of teaching the intercultural communication by means of wide use

of modern mass-communicational processes and genres (movies, radio,

television, video, audio, electronics, computers, and etc.). Thus, there

appears a new understanding of all cultural phenomena that help to enrich

personal experience of a student and contributes to the sample of a

cultured and moral person in a modern society.

Foreign intercultural communication is being developed actively

enough due to considerable increase of international contacts between

Russian and foreign universities. All that creates the basis for the

organization of practical activities projects of students, contributes to the

development of speaking and intercultural skills. By international

educational linguistic activity we understand step-by-step mutual training

and educational, research and creative activity of students from different

countries, implemented in the language studied full-time and on-line by

means of modern Internet technologies, having the same problem,

objective, tasks, methods, activity modes, focused on getting a mutual

result. [2]

Taking part in the international educational linguistic projects,

students of non-linguistic universities can raise their awareness not only

about their native country, but also about the one of the studied language,

and develop intercultural and speaking skills.

Some researchers determine a range of ways of forming the

intercultural communicative competence in the process of studying foreign

languages.

These ways are the following:

1) Intercultural trend. It is expressed in enriching of the native

culture by means of acceptance of a foreign one (new knowledge about a

foreign culture helps deeper understanding of a native one).

198

2) Behavioral trend. It is expressed in the ability to non-conflict

communication with representatives of foreign cultures showing tolerance

based on capabilities to co-operate with representatives of foreign cultures

taking into account their values, rules, ideas.

3) Cultural trend. It is expressed in using linguistic means according

to cultural norms of the studied language; in the ability to exchange ideas,

to listen actively, to sum up, to pay attention to the speaker, to ask

questions in order to understand the speech. [3, 26]

Consequently, formation of the communicative competence

reflecting the reality of foreign communication of a person occurs during

the simultaneous formation of linguistic, speaking and cultural

competences, which respectively appear in the educational

communicational environment.


1. Вернадский В.И. О науке. Дубна, 1997.

2. Максаев А.А. Использование международных

образовательных языковых проектов для развития социокультурных

и речевых умений учащихся: Вопросы методики преподавания в вузе

/ СПб, изд-во Политехнического университета, 2014.

3. Плужник И.Л. Формирование межкультурной

коммуникативной компетенции студентов гуманитарного профиля в

процессе профессиональной подготовки: автореф. дис. д-ра пед. наук

/ Тюмень, 2003.

Ю.В. Пихтовникова, Е.М. Божко




Учет различий культур при ведении бизнеса

В статье рассматриваются три наиболее важных аспекта этикета

при ведении бизнеса: стереотипы, традиции гостеприимства и

невербальное общение. Описываются случаи непонимания сторон в

данных аспектах в силу культурных различий.

199

On taking account of cultural differences in doing business

Cross-cultural communication has become strategically important to

companies due to the growth of global business, technology and the

Internet. Understanding the nuances of cross-cultural communication is

important for any company that has a diverse workforce or plans on

conducting global business. This type of communication involves an

understanding of how people from different cultures speak, communicate

and perceive the world around them. Cross-cultural communication within

a company deals with understanding different business customs, beliefs

and communication strategies. Language differences, high-context vs. low-

context cultures(high-context refers to societies or groups where people

have close connections over a long period of time; low-context refers to

societies where people tend to have many connections but of shorter

duration or for some specific reason[5]), nonverbal differences and power

distance are major factors that can affect cross-cultural

communication.Complex product specifications and production schedules

must be mutually understood, and intricate deals between trading partners

must be negotiated. So, if we learn distinctive features of other cultures,

we can reach an agreement.

First of all, we will examine some stereotypes across cultures in

detail. For example, different cultures have varying expectations about

personal space and physical contact. Many Europeans and South

Americans customarily kiss a business associate on both cheeks in greeting

instead of shaking hands. While Americans are most comfortable at arms-

length from business associates, Vietnamese or Spanish people have no

problem standing shoulder-to-shoulder with their peers or placing

themselves 12 or fewer inches away from the person they are speakingto.

In Russia, according to the University of California, female colleagues

often walk arm in arm, while the same behavior in other cultures may

signify something more personal.

Western and Eastern people have different meanings in the same

words. The word "yes," for example, usually means agreement in Western

cultures. In Eastern and high-context cultures however, the word "yes,"

more often than not means that the party understands the message, not

necessarily that they agree with it. A handshake in France is as ironclad as

an American contract. A period of silence during negotiations with an

Eastern business associate may signify displeasure with your proposal.

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We will consider a few examples. There was a situation when people

from Mexico and Japan could not understand each other working together

in the office as a team because their traditions and lifestyle made some

problems for their understanding. For example, a person from Mexico

expected a Japanese person to look at him while they spoke to each other.

In Mexican culture eye contact is an important part of communication;

otherwise they think they might not be listened to, while in Japan direct

eye contact might well be perceived as an insult.

A stereotype is a belief based on one’s own cultural values and

prejudices that all people from a culture behave in a certain way. This does

not mean that every person who lives in a particular culture will do

business in a way that fits this generalization. There is, however, a

standard way of doing thingsin every culture. Such cultural generalizations

describe those standards and the values guiding those standards. For

example, a woman from a culture that values hard work looks at a people

from a fictional land where people work at their jobs about five hours a

day. So, the woman says, “People from this country are lazy.” This is a

stereotype because she states that every person there is the same, and it is

based more on the woman’s own values than on any thoughtful

observation of values or lifestyle. A generalization is based on observation,

not prejudice. It explains the standard practices of a culture but does not

determine how every person in that culture behaves.

We would also like to mention different patterns of hospitality across

cultures. For instance, if you are invited to dinner, in many Asian countries

and Central America it is well-mannered to leave right after it; the ones

who do not leave may indicate they have not eaten enough [1]. In the

Indian Sub-Continent, European and North American countries this is

considered to be rude, indicating that the guest only wanted to eat but

didnot enjoy the hosts’company. In Africa, saying to a female friend one

has not seen for a while that she has put on weight means she is physically

healthier than before or had a nice holiday, whereas this would be

considered as an insult in Europe, North America and Australia [3].

Greeting is a part of socializing. We will take an office party

example. An American manager was transferred to France. When he began

working there, he wanted to get to know his employees and show them

that he was friendly and interested in building good work relationships. He

decided to throw a home-party for the whole office in a less formal

environment. The party, however, was not a success. The employees were

very uncomfortable as guests as they felt they didn’t know their new boss

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well enough to be in his home and thought he was showing off his money

by inviting them to his elegant apartment. They also were not comfortable

with one another because they were not used to socializing together. The

fact is that in France there is some emphasis on class differences. People

usually do not socialize across social and economic classes. The boss

represents authority, and should not be too casual or social with his

employees. In France, home is a private place where only close friends or

family are invited. Business colleagues usually socialize in restaurants or

other public places. It is in the U.S where it is common to invite business

colleagues or other acquaintances home for a dinner party or a cocktail

party. Thus, home is a place of hospitality and entertainment there. In the

U.S., there is not a big difference between how people socialize with

colleagues and with friends. The party is a popular way of entertaining.

Instead of a formal dinner at a table, Americans often entertain with an

informal buffet or just cocktails and a snack. In addition to parties,

common social activities include playing sports, going out for drinks after

work, and doing to sports together.

Another way to express hospitality is giving and accepting gifts. In

this case there are many stumbling blocks, so we should take into account

the difference from West and South, as this Saudi-German encounter

illustrates. A Saudi businessman invited his German colleague to dine at

his house. The German businessman came and offered his gift of a bottle

of Scotch whiskey and a box of butter cookies to his host. They then sat

down in the living room area. A Saudi businessman offered a German a

cup of coffee, which he quickly accepted. As they drank coffee a German

complimented his host on an art book on the living room table. The Saudi

businessman responded by offering him the book. The German was very

embarrassed, and said he couldn’t accept it. The host was deeply offended

by his guest’s behavior.

Why the misunderstanding in the Saudi-German encounter appeared?

Three actions of the guest were insulting. First of all, the guest had brought

a bottle of Scotch and cookies. The Saudi Arabian people are usually

devout Muslims, which means they must not drink alcohol. Also, in

Persian Gulf states, bringing a gift of food and drink implies the host is not

generous enough to offer his own food and drink. Secondly, in Saudi

Arabia it is customary to refuse an offer a few times before accepting not

to seem greedy. Lastly, by refusing a gift of the book, a German

businessman was refusing an offer of friendship.

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Finally, nonverbal ways of communication include eye contact,

gestures, silence in conversations, and touching. Like verbal

communication, nonverbal communication varies from culture to culture.

One study of Brazilians, Japanese, and Americans in business meetings

found great variation in the amount of eye contact, touching, and silence.

As different countries have different ways to convey or share their

message, for instance in Germany people tend to speak loudly when

sharing ideas, whereas in Japan people speak softly, it is very important to

be aware of your body language when interacting with people whether

they are your business partners or an interviewer [4].

Gestures and eye contact are two areas of nonverbal communication

that are utilized differently across cultures. For example, American

workers tend to wave their hand and use a finger to point when giving

nonverbal direction. Extreme gesturing is considered rude in some

culturessuch as Japan. While pointing may be considered appropriate in

some contexts in the United States, that gesture is considered rude in

Japan. Instead, the Japanese might gesture with an open hand, with their

palm facing up, toward the person.

A problem with non verbal communication isillustrated in the

following example. A U.S. airplane manufacturer and a Japanese airline

company were negotiating the price of some airplanes. The American

negotiating team suggested a price, but the Japanese kept silent all the

time, which made the Americans lower the price. In the end, the Japanese

team came away from the negotiation with a price lower than they ever

expected. The matter is that in America as well as in Arabic countries

people are rarely silent in conversation. Silence is considered to be a

negative response to an offer. In Japan pauses can give a contradictory

sense to the spoken words by the meaning of pauses. Enduring silence is

perceived as comfortable in Japan, while in Europe and North America it

may cause embarrassment.

To sum up, if you are aware of cultural differences, your negotiations

will be more productive and your partner will respect your competence. In

the business world, communication is imperative for the successful

execution of daily operations. Understanding cultural differences and

overcoming language barriers are some of the considerations people

should have doing business with people of various cultures. Often business

deals are lost because the parties involved did not take the time to learn

about each other's cultures prior to interacting. Each culture has its own

formalities with their own special meanings. They are another means of

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communication among the people sharing that culture, another form of

adhesive that binds them together as a community.


1. Jeanette S. Martin, Lillian H. Chaney. Global Business

Etiquette, A Guide to International Communication and Customs second

edition, 2012.

2. John Hooker.Cultural Differences in Business Communication

Tepper School of Business Carnegie Mellon University December 2008.

3. Laura Monahon English, Sarah Lynn. Business Across

Cultures: Effective Communication Strategic 1995.

4. CICB: Typical examples of cultural differences URL:

http://www.cicb.net/it/home/esempi (датаобращения 16.01.2016).

5. Communicatig across cultures. URL: http://www.culture-at-

work.com/highlow.html (дата обращения 19.01.2016).

6. Cultural differences in business. URL:

http://businessculture.org/business-culture/cultural-differences-in-

business/ (дата обращения 18.01.2016).

7. Cross-cultural communication: definition, strategies&examples.

URL: http://study.com/academy/lesson/cross-cultural-communication-

definition-strategies-examples.html (дата обращения 21.01.2016).

Чень Чунься

Харьковский национальный університет имени В.Н. Каразина

г. Харьков, Украина

Личностный компонент в структуре лингвосоциокультурной

компетентности

китайских студентов-русистов

Статья посвящена проблемам формирования личностного

компонента лингвосоциокультурной компетентности китайских

студентов-русистов. Намечены стратегическое и национально-

ориентированное направления личностно-ориентированной

методики. Важным аспектом формирования лингвосоциокультурной

компетентности является межкультурная чувствительность.

http://www.cicb.net/it/home/esempi

http://www.culture-at-work.com/highlow.html

http://www.culture-at-work.com/highlow.html

http://businessculture.org/business-culture/cultural-differences-in-business/%20(дата

http://businessculture.org/business-culture/cultural-differences-in-business/%20(дата

http://study.com/academy/lesson/cross-cultural-communication-definition-strategies-examples.html

http://study.com/academy/lesson/cross-cultural-communication-definition-strategies-examples.html

204

Намечены пути сопоставительного анализа родной и иностранной

языковых систем и культур студентов.

Personal Component in Structure

of Linguosociocultural Competence of ChineseRussianPhilology

Students

Процесс формирования лингвосоциокультурной

компетентности (далее ЛСКК) связан с развитием личности

иностранного студента. Это обусловлено несколькими факторами.

Во-первых, изучение иностранного языка в единстве с

культурой способствует появлению нового качественного

образования личности – «третьей культуры», что является средством

достижения понимания при межкультурном контакте [7]. В процессе

коммуникативного взаимодействия у субъектов формируется новая

система ценностей, которая составляет основу индивидуальности.

Во-вторых, взаимодействие при межкультурном контакте происходит

на личностном уровне и предполагает толерантное отношение к

фактам и представителям другой культуры, без чего сам контакт

невозможен.

Направленность языковой подготовки на развитие личности

иностранных студентов реализовалась в личностно-ориентированном

подходе к обучению иностранным языкам (М.В. Давер, О. Каган и

др.). Данная концепция ставит в центр обучения личность учащегося

– его цели, мотивы, психологические и когнитивные особенности;

получение знаний рассматривается как ступенька личностного

развития индивида. Такой подход соотносится с концепцией

межкультурного образования, которое выделяет индивидуальность

другого в контакте с незнакомым, «чужим» и направлено на обмен

личным опытом, благодаря чему достигается понимание [7, 10].

В личностно-ориентированной методикеформирования ЛСКК

наметилось два направления:

1) стратегическое, которое заключается в развитии

«специфических учебных и коммуникативных умений учащихся по

применению альтернативных программ деятельности, а также

универсальных стратегий познавательной деятельности и

специфических для лингводидактики, рассматриваемых в плане

повышения автономности усвоения и развития языковой личности»

[4, 131];

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2) национально-ориентированное, состоящее в развитии

коммуникативно-речевых умений изучающих русский язык с учётом

специфики их родного языка, что достигается путём получения таких

данных в результате сопоставительного анализа контактирующих

языковых систем и культур [3].

Стратегическое направление имеет деятельностную основу, а

национально-ориентированное – лингвистическую. Рассмотрим

реализацию отмеченных направлений в обучении иностранных

студентов-русистов общению в социокультурной сфере с целью

описанияличностного компонента ЛСКК.

В процессе межкультурной коммуникации происходят

ценностные изменения в структуре личности, осуществляется отбор,

оценивание, интериоризация явлений контактной культуры.

Обязательным условием интериоризации ценностей при изучении

иностранного языка является диалектическое единство когнитивного,

эмоционально-волевого, деятельностного, социального,

индивидуального в языковой личности изучающего язык.

Для осуществления целесообразного отбора будущие

преподаватели РКИ должны развивать в себе такое

профессиональное качество как межкультурная чувствительность [2].

Различают шесть ступеней такой чувствительности: отрицание,

защита, минимализация, приятие, адаптация, интеграция.

Преподаватель РКИ в силу своей профессиональной устремлённости

не может находиться на ступенях отрицания, защиты,

минимализации. Он должен демонстрировать межкультурную

толерантность, доброжелательность, уважение к культуре студентов,

что соответствует ступени приятия. Чтобы донести до учащихся

ценности культуры изучаемого языка, преподавателю необходимо

понимать особенности языковой и культурной личности студента,

оценивать не только языковую правильность построения им устного

или письменного текста, но и правильно интерпретировать

социокультурные составляющие, присутствующие в

коммуникативной деятельности инофона. Соответственно,

необходимо знакомство с его языковой картиной мира.

Думается, что данные действия можно отнести к ступени

адаптации, которая в процессе межкультурной коммуникации будет

обоюдной, иначе не избежать коммуникативных неудач и даже

конфликтов. Высшая ступень межкультурной чувствительности –

интеграция –обучение адекватной оценке особенностей и

206

аксиологических акцентов изучаемой культуры с учётом уже

сформированного у студента мировоззрения.

Личностно-ориентированный подход базируется на пристальном

внимании к исследованию личностных характеристик студентов, их

целей и потребностей, когнитивных стилей, стратегий и мотиваций в

процессе изучения языка». Такой подход подразумевает учёт

национально- и культурно-специфических стилей учебной

деятельности и коммуникативных стратегий, которые оказывают

влияние на индивидуально-психологические и мотивационные

особенности языковой личности [4, 129].

Китайским студентам – будущим преподавателям РКИ – важно

обладать таким качеством, как межкультурная чувствительность, что

будет формировать личностный компонент ЛСКК.

При изучении второго языка языковые знаки выступают

эквивалентами уже обозначенных в родном языке предметов,

отношений, явлений, что не всегда совпадает с реальным положением

вещей. Неполная эквивалентность затрудняет овладение

иностранным языком в единстве с иноязычной культурой и

порождает явление интерференции. «Сопоставление фактов родного

и изучаемого языков происходит в сознании учащихся даже в том

случае, если оно не организуется преподавателем на занятиях.

Осуществляемое стихийно, такое сопоставление часто приводит к

неточным или ложным аналогиям, следствием которых являются

типичные ошибки. Отсюда вытекает необходимость в

целенаправленном управлении сопоставления систем родного и

изучаемого языков» [3, 47].

Сопоставительный анализ способствует положительному

переносу и противодействует отрицательному влиянию родного

языка иностранных студентов. При отборе учебного материала и его

введении учитываются трудности понимания и усвоения,

обусловленные влиянием родного языка и родной культуры

иностранных студентов. Это помогает преподавателю заранее

определить, какие затруднения вызовет у учащихся тот или иной

языковой материал и строить работу так, чтобы предупредить

возникновение ошибок.

На индивидуальное речевое поведение могут оказывать

воздействие не только этноязыковая самоидентификация изучающего

иностранный язык, но и социокультурные установки и приоритеты,

которые проявляются на всех языковых уровнях [6].

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Учёт национально-языковой специфики восприятия и усвоения

лингвокультурных единиц русской языковой системы позволит

производить отбор языкового материала в соответствии со

сходствами и различиями в родном для учащихся и русском языке.

В исследованиях последних лет (Балыхина Т.М., Чжао Юйцзян)

проведен сопоставительный анализ русского и китайского языков с

выделением интегральных (общих) и дифференциальных (различных)

компонентов и признаков на глубинном (семантическом) и

поверхностном (вербальном) уровнях. Такой анализ показал общие и

различные черты в культурных смыслах, проявляющихся на разных

уровнях языковой системы. Сравнение не только звукового,

словесного и грамматического строя русского и китайского языков, а

и контактирующих культур позволит определить группы трудностей

с целью предупреждения языковой и культурной интерференции.


1. Балыхина Т.М. От методики к этнометодике. Обучение

китайцев русскому языку: Проблемы и пути их преодоления /

Т.М. Балыхина, Юцзян Чжао. – М.: РУДН, 2010. – 344 с.

2. Брагина Н.Г. Межкультурное общение: путь к пониманию

другого / Н.Г. Брагина // Сознание. Коммуникация. Интернет / Науч.

ред. Л. Шипелевич. – Ин-т русистики. Варшавский ун-т. – Варшава,

2008. – С. 100 – 108.

3. Вагнер В.Н.Специфика учебника русского языка,

ориентированного на учащихся определённой национальности /

В.Н. Вагнер // Рус.яз. за рубежом. – 1980. – № 6. – С.46–49.

4. Давер М.В. Компоненты личностно-ориентированной

технологии обучения / М.В. Давер // Преподавание русского языка

иностранным студентам: теория и практика, традиции и инновации:

монография [под ред. Н.И. Ушаковой]. – Х.: ХНУ имени

В.Н. Каразина, 2014. – С. 128 – 147.

5. Каган О. Теория и практика написания личностно-

ориентированного учебника русского языка как иностранного:

автореф. дис. на соискание науч. степени канд. пед. наук: спец.

13.00.02 «Теория и методика обучения и воспитания (русский язык

как иностранный)» / О. Каган. – М., 1997. – 25 с.

208

6. Красных В.В.Основныепостулаты и некоторые базовые

понятия лингвокультурологии / В.В. Красных. // Русский язык за

рубежом. – № 4. – 2011. – С. 60–66.

7. Методика межкультурного образования средствами

русского языка как иностранного / А.Л. Бердичевский,

И.А. Гиниатуллин, И.П. Лысакова, Е.И. Пассов / Под. ред. проф.

А.Л. Бердическвкого. – М.: Русский язык. Курсы, 2011. – 184 с.

IV. PR и реклама

В.Р. Аминова, Е.А. Орлова, И.И. Мамаева




Титаник как инструмент пропаганды в управлении миром

Титаник – британский трансатлантический пароход. На момент

ввода в эксплуатацию Титаник являлся самым большим судном в

мире. Рекламная кампания, сопровождавшая подготовку Титаника к

первому плаванию, была крупнейшей PR- акцией начала ХХ века.

Главная идея этой кампании – лайнер абсолютно непотопляем. Но

миф был развеян в первом же плавании. Существует множество

версий, почему затонул Титаник. Однако анализ всей совокупности

факторов, приведших к гибели лайнера, приводит к выводу, что это

была спланированная акция. Кому и для чего это понадобилось –

версия изложена в данной статье.

Titanic as a propaganda tool in managing the world

Everyone is aware of the terrible disaster of a luxurious liner Titanic

in the Atlantic Ocean which was put on knees by the iceberg.

Although we all heard about the tragedy of Titanic there are many

tiny surprising facts about the great ship which we are not familiar with.

Only extraordinary people knew that the collapse of the Titanic was

planned and the deaths of hundreds of women and children were the next

element in a chain of a cynical political game. In fact, this catastrophe is

209

not as obvious as it may seem at the first sight. The Titanic shipwreck is

assumed to be a powerful PR-action that we could ever imagine.

Titanic was a British liner. It was the largest ship of all ships at that

moment. At the beginning of the XX century there were two competing

companies that made vessels: Cunard Line and White Star Line. The chief

executive of White Star Line decided to create two huge liners that would

allow winning competition between companies. These ships had to contain

a big number of passengers aboard, have a fast speed and an excellent

level of service. So in 1911 there was built the first large liner – Olympic.

After that in 1912 Titanic – the twin of Olympic went in its first trip from

England to New York. Titanic had been visited by many specialists before

its first voyage and all of them had said that ship had all necessary

equipment and Titanic couldn’t go under the water. Indeed, the ship had

the most modern technology at that moment. However, Titanic took the

lives of 1,513 people [5].

Only 710 were rescued [3]. The mystery of a disaster hasn’t been

revealed yet. But there are several reasons why Titanic crashed. The first

and the official reason nowadays is the black iceberg that due to its color

couldn’t be seen in the dark night. Another reason is a coincidence of the

moon’s position. On that day the moon was too close to the Earth and

therefore the tides were very strong and exactly they changed the

movement of icebergs. In addition to this, the person who was looking out

didn’t have binoculars. That is why he couldn’t notice an iceberg. One

more version is a fault of the steersman. He misunderstood a captain’s

command and likely turned a rudder in the wrong way. Perhaps there was

a fire on a board of the ship. Besides, there exists a strange opinion about

this accident. It is considered that actually another ship had sunk. The

question is that on 20thSeptember 1911 Olympic crashed into an English

liner and the owners of Olympic expected to get the insurance-cover [2].

But the liner didn’t suffer too much, so the company was refused in it.

Moreover, the captain of the ship wanted to obtain a special prize the

"Blue Ribbon Atlantic" which is awarded for the fastest crossing of the

Atlantic Ocean. Exactly because of this he intentionally took a risk. And as

we know the speed of the ship was about 22 knots that is much faster that

is allowed [1].

There were many rich persons on the passenger deck. Not everyone

could pay for the ticket to the Titanic in the first class. It cost 3300 dollars

then and it would be 60000 dollars now [2]. Passengers from the third

class paid for the ticket 35 dollars then and 650 dollars they should have to

210

pay now. Because of low cost passengers from the third class had no

opportunity to use stairs where there were millionaires. So they could not

go up to the deck where there were lifeboats. The crew of the ship made

the command: save rich passengers first. There were 1500 people on the

lower deck who were locked [2]. People saw that water came into the

cabins but they could not do anything. Many people from the second and

the third class jumped overboard in life jackets but they did not understand

that there was no chance to survive in the icy water.

Advertising campaign that had to promote Titanic was the largest

PR-action at the beginning of the XX century. Many articles in newspapers

were written by special order of Titanic owners. There were positive

comments about Titanic liner. Specialists said that Titanic was the best

liner because of its size, modern equipment and luxury. In the middle of

90-s Russian scientists had dived to the Titanic and took samples of the

metal [3]. Later experts of the American Institute analyzed that metal. The

results were unpredictable. The quality of the Titanic's metal was worse

than the quality of usual metal. Because of that, Titanic’s metal had turned

into a brittle material in the icy water and Titanic has sunk after crash with

the iceberg. Specialists thought that the owners of WhiteStar Line wanted

to save money that explained why they used bad quality metal. But it was

not only the main aim that they wanted to reach…Brittle metal, cold water

of the Atlantic Ocean and dangerous route – it was easy to organize a

large-scale tragedy. Rich persons and owners of White Star Line were

saved by ship Carpathia. Others had to sink.

This disaster was supposed to be horrendous for the whole world,

because it was a carefully thought action of propaganda to intimidate

ordinary people and to stop a progress and thereby to make wealthy people

rule the world [4]. Billionaires rule the world; they want to achieve an

unlimited power. The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station, the

dissolution of the Soviet Union, the attack on the Twin Towers of the

World Trade Center are all links of one chain. The catastrophe of Titanic

isn’t the first planned disaster. But why did the government decide to flood

the Titanic? The answer should be sought in the events of the early

twentieth century. In these years, there began a tremendous growth of

industry: the gasoline engine, the incredible aviation development,

industrialization, use of electricity in all sectors and so on. The world's

financial leaders understood that scientific and technological progress may

soon explode the orderliness on the Earth. If the rapid growth of the

industry started, the countries which in their conception of the world were

211

given the secondary role would develop. And then the control of the

processes in the world would be lost.

The catastrophe of Titanic was used as propaganda by Nazis who

made a film about a Nazi Titanic [4]. The producer of this film was a

German minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels. He expected from a

spectacular film which was full of special effects an inculcation of the

antipathy to the main enemy of Germany – Great Britain. To archive a

desired goal the minister of propaganda had to change real facts of the sea

disaster. According to his version, the reason of the Titanic's tragedy

consists in corruption and avidity of ruling financial elite of Great Britain.

Titanic sank more than 80 years ago on the night of 14th / 15th April

1912. Titanic was the largest and the most luxurious ship of the XX

century. There were 1,500 passengers and crew members who died.

Nowadays there are many people who are interested in the Titanic disaster.

There are many controversial aspects about Titanic. For example, about

the number of passengers, about the number of passengers who died and

who could survive, about people who were in lifeboats. Titanic was made

by talented engineers with using modern and quality materials. However,

Titanic sank after crashing with the iceberg. Some people think that

Titanic was a big PR-project which allowed to earn much money to its

owners in people's deaths but it is a very strange and secret story. It is

considered that one day we will know all about Titanic and all people who

took part in this disaster would be punished.


1. Официальный сайт интернет-портала Liveinternet. URL:

http://www.liveinternet.ru/ (дата обращения: 10.01.14).

2. Официальный сайт Корабельного портала URL:

http://korabley.net/ (дата обращения: 17.01.2014).

3. Официальный сайт Российского агентства международной

информации «РИА Новости» URL: http://ria.ru/ (дата обращения

21.01.2014).

4. Уолтер Лорд. Последняя ночь «Титаника». (Хроника

гибели) Л.: Час Пик, 1991. – 336 с.

5. The official website of the sinking of Titanic. URL:

http://www.titanicuniverse.com/ (дата обращения 21.01.2014).

http://www.liveinternet.ru/

http://korabley.net/

http://ria.ru/

http://www.titanicuniverse.com/

212

Д.В. Глотова, А.А. Лаврова




Партизанский маркетинг

Ни для кого не секрет, что мировая экономика переживает не

самые легкие времена. Сегодня компании не могут себе позволить

тратить миллионы на рекламу и продвижение своих товаров. В этом

случае, для привлечения бесценного внимания потребителя, на

помощь приходит так называемый «партизанский» маркетинг.

Guerrilla marketing

Guerrilla marketing (GM) is a special kind of marketing technique

which is getting more and more popular. If you are still not aware of what

guerrilla marketing is, this article will try to explain it. To be precise and to

sound less complicated, guerrilla marketing is basically an advertising

tactic which provides you with marketing plans on low-cost and helps you

in getting maximum results. This may include all BTL (Below The Line)

advertising activities as well as branding with marketing collateral like

brochures, flyers, stickers, etc.

Gone are the days when you had to spend a fortune in order to get

your brand noticed to consumers. GM can be considered an

unconventional marketing technique which will help your product in

getting noticed. This kind of marketing is the best if you want to surprise

your target audience and make an unforgettable impression on them. If you

have a small business, GM is probably the best form of marketing for you.

The techniques used in this kind of marketing are different from the

techniques used in traditional marketing. The main factors that

differentiate both kinds of marketing are as follows:

Traditional advertising costs you a fortune whereas, guerrilla

marketing uses the tricks which cost less and are more effective.

Sometimes the tricks and techniques are not only inexpensive, they are

free as well.

Traditional marketing is usually predictable and sometimes

boring because the tricks used are already known to the public. Tricks and

213

techniques used in guerrilla marketing are shocking, in good ways though.

They can attract attention instantly.

So the main goal of guerrilla marketing is to allow smaller

companies to compete with the biggest ones. It is considered to be one of

the cost effective elements of marketing strategy. It allows reducing costs,

promoting products through the implementation of creative marketing

methods. If you do not have enough money to campaign throughout the

city, you can paint a few vehicles in corporate colors, place them in

slogans, and get almost the same effect as direct advertising.

Guerrilla marketing uses only original ways of selling goods, while

the main resources are time, energy and creativity, and the result is the

profit. Examples of the usage of such marketing by international

corporations are presented. Today in a highly competitive environment

guerrilla marketing techniques are used by large companies such as IBM,

Microsoft, Volvo,Mercedes, Adobe, American Express, Procter& Gamble,

Nissan. For example, “Procter & Gamble” spends up to 35% of its

advertising budget on guerilla marketing.

10 rules of guerrilla marketing:

1. Know your market. You should know who your customers are,

how they think and where they go. It is important to understand where you

are selling – industry, company size, function of labor, equipment used,

etc. Once you have decided on the customer, focus marketing efforts on

winning potential customers directly or through a related network of

contacts.

2. Be the best in the lists of local and existing customers. Before

you stray so far to implement your own marketing program, you should

make sure that you communicate regularly with your local potential

customers. People, who have already used their interest to your products,

are the main source of information about your business.

3. Communicate with the press. You should work with editors;

send out informative news about new products of your company or deals at

least once a month. But you should send and share really worthwhile news

because journalists hate irrelevant or already used material.

4. Educate the market. You should place articles in specialized

magazines. Start with stories about the cases of clients that have

successfully used new methods in their activities, using your products or

services. You might publish scientific articles and brochures to educate

customers about your business activities and any innovations that you have

time to create and implement.

214

5. Make e-marketing work for you. One of the most effective

marketing tools is email. It is published monthly and can be quite effective

if it is tailored to customer interests. It is not effective just to sell your

goods. You should educate consumers, direct potential customers to your

website for more information and use Internet statistics to measure the

effectiveness of each release.

6. Make a website. You should make sure that your website does

not look as if it was made in a nearby computer club by a group of

students. Everything must be done tastefully.

7. Be on Internet search engines. Banners and text ads in the top

page of the search engine significantly increase the traffic of the website.

You should pay your attention to Google, AltaVista, Yahoo. You should

optimize your website in search engines.

8. Postcards as a supplement to an existing marketing program. A

card is a safer way of direct-mail. Sending postcards with the indication of

special promotions or contests will entice consumers and make them visit

your website or call you for more information regarding your services.

You should engage professional designers who are ready to implement

original ideas in your cards.

9. Speak and take part in presentations at meetings and

conferences.

10. Communicate with people. The best way to get to the customer

is to do it through other people or organizations that work with them on a

regular basis.

Examples of successful GM application:

1) Recently Google and KitKat branded up together and used an

experiential guerilla campaign to celebrate the launch of #AndroidKitKat,

giving people the chance to be able to win a Nexus 7 Tablet the KITKAT

way, by having a break. How did this work? The people that walked by a

billboard could sit down on a billboard chair and “Have A Seat”. If people

were able to actually sit there for the set amount of time that they were

asked, then they could win the Nexus 7 tablet. This also gets people that

walk by it in the street to stop, watch and talk about what they saw and

experienced.

2) The second example shows how to make a massive marketing

impact with stickers. Advertising gurus of Saatchi & Saatchi attached

removable stickers saying “Carlsberg don’t do litter. But if they did it

would probably be the best litter in the world” to £5000 worth of £10 and

215

£20 notes. They then proceeded to drop them in various places round

London.The campaign created massive media and public interest.

Before you indulge yourself into guerrilla marketing and its

techniques, make sure you know if it is the right thing for you or not. The

kind of success guerrilla marketing has gained in past few years; the future

for this kind of marketing seems bright. People are now focusing more on

innovative ideas and that is what guerrilla marketing is all about.

Obviously, some people are not very happy about the guerrilla marketing

as they think it spreads negativity because some concepts include personal

attacks as well. Now big and small businesses are adapting guerrilla

marketing techniques. In fact, these techniques can not only help you in

business but also in real life. The strategies might be risky but at the end,

they are worth it.


1. Guerrilla Marketing in International Corporation. Horbal N.I.,

Hrushchak B.T., Dutko Z.M. Abstract. URL:

http://science.lp.edu.ua/smeu/smeu-vol-797-no-2014-3/guerrilla-

marketing-international-corporations (дата обращения: 14.11.2015).

2. Guerrilla Marketing in the Jungle of Competitors.

URL:http://www.dzinepress.com/2012/05/guerrilla-marketing-in-the-

jungle-of-competitors/ (дата обращения: 14.11.2015).

3. Guerrilla Marketing Campaigns – excite consumers, create content

and generate social media attention. URL:

http://www.4eon.net/experiential-marketing/guerilla-marketing/ (дата

обращения: 14.11.2015).

4. Starting a business. How to Pull Off a Guerrilla Marketing

Campaign. URL: http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/206202 (дата

обращения: 14.11.2015).

5. Surprisingly different. Top Ten guerrilla Marketing Campaigns.

URL: http://www.hotcow.co.uk/Buzz-Blog/top-ten-guerrilla-marketing-

campaigns.htm#sthash.zdNOF7Wf.dpuf (дата обращения: 14.11.2015).

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А.Р. Клюева, А.А. Лаврова




Аромамаркетинг

Наши воспоминания очень часто имеют аромат. Даже если мы

его не помним, это не значит, что его не было, что он не повлиял на

наше восприятие и общее впечатление. Ароматизация воздуха - что

это такое? Как и любой другой вид маркетинга, ароматизация воздуха

способствует продажам ваших товаров или услуг. Развитие

ароматехнологии в сфере воздействия на клиентов вполне логично.

Ведь обоняние - это такое же чувство, как зрение или слух. А реклама

уже десятки лет использует аудио и визуальные образы для того,

чтобы вызывать у целевой аудитории нужные чувства и эмоции.

Scent-marketing

There are certain scents (warm cookies, fresh-cut grass, and salty air)

that evoke powerful memories and can alternately make someone feel cozy

and content, energized or just plain happy. It was only a matter of time

until someone bottled that up and sought to connect scents with sales.

Smells are more quickly and strongly associated with memories than

visual or auditory cues, because smell is the only sense directly connected

to the brain's limbic system, which houses emotions and memories,

according to scent experts.

A study carried out in 2013 by the Global Journal of Commerce and

Management Perspective said that ambient scent has the strongest impact

when it comes to enhancing consumer behavior in terms of emotion,

evaluation, willingness to return to a store and purchase intention.

This is not just marketing conjecture, since there is science behind

this. Pamela Dalton, an olfactory scientist and member of the Monell

Chemical Senses Center, says that people sense smell first and send that

information to the very primitive brain centers of emotion and memory.

This works well for marketers since they are always trying to connect

emotionally with customers. According to Dalton, smell is developed

before birth, so babies have been found to prefer fragrances that their

mothers wore late in the pregnancy. She says businesses that expose

http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2014-04-20/business/ct-scent-branding-0420-biz-20140420_1_signature-scent-benetton-scent-branding

217

pregnant women to their scent "are already grooming their customers

before they are born."

Jennifer Dublino, vice president of development at ScentWorld

Events, the industry's trade group, says the scent-marketing

industry grossed $200 million last year and is rising at 10 percent annually.

The right scent has been shown to make people more comfortable (at

hotels), shorten the time they think they are waiting (at banks) or improve

their sense of performance (at the gym).

Types of scent marketing.

Scent marketing has different uses for different businesses, and so

can be effectively divided into four distinct types. There is the Aroma

Billboard Smell which the customers are consciously aware of, such as the

trademark smell of freshly brewed coffee at Starbucks. A Thematic

Smell complements the décor or purpose of the place, such as vanilla or

lavender smells at a beauty spa or a resort. Ambient Smells are more subtle

and create an atmosphere, used to cover unpleasant odours or to “fill a

void”. Lastly, a Signature Smell is exclusive to a big brand name and is

used to create a brand image; customers associate this smell with their

favourite brand and what it represents, such as the smells of cardamom and

ivory used by the high-end shoe brand Jimmy Choo to emanate wealth and

luxury.

The benefits of using scent in marketing.

Scents can help boost sales. A study done by Nike discovered that

they could increase the intent to purchase by 80% through the introduction

of scent into their stores. Another survey at a petrol station with a mini-

mart reported that the aroma of coffee helped boost sales of the beverage

by a whopping 300%.

Scents make customers linger. Scents can also help customers linger

in a store and look around more. Eric Spangenberg, the dean of the

College of Business at Washington State University, was the first to look

for scientific evidence of this in 1996 through a lab study in Pullman. He

found subjects were more likely to look around and browse through

products in the rooms that were scented, and reported more positive

opinions and a tendency to wait longer in lines in the fake store than its

unscented counterpart.

Scents help create brand image. Scents are helpful in making people

remember you, or to create associations in their minds. This is why it can

be useful in creating an all rounded brand image, such as the above Jimmy

Choo example. Many hotels also use scents to make people associate them



218

with good memories, such as the Westin Hotels’ use of a blend of green

tea, geranium and black cedar diffused into their lobbies, according to the

New York Times’ Key Magazine. The scent you use will obviously go

with the image you want for your brand, whether it is luxury, comfort,

quaint and old-fashioned or modern and contemporary.

Scents create a perception of quality. In general scents can also help

create a perception of quality. Customers tend to perceive a scented

product or space as being of better quality and will be willing to pay more

when shopping in a scented store, as discovered by a study done by the

Smell & Taste Research Foundation. Many of the subjects in the study

reported that they were willing to pay 10$ more for Nike sneakers placed

in scented rooms, than those placed in an unscented one. Top 10 Scents (compiled by Scent Marketing

Institute/SCENTtrends)

1. Feel safe, secure and nostalgic: Talcum powder

2. Be more alert: peppermint, citrus

3. Relax: Lavender, vanilla, chamomile

4. Perceive a room as smaller: barbecue smoke

5. Perceive a room as bigger: apple, cucumber

6. Buyexpensivefurniture: leather, cedar

7. Buy a home: freshly baked goods

8. Browse longer and spend more: tailored floral/citrus scents

9. Develop road rage: unpleasant smells (rotting rubbish, air

pollution)

10. Become sexually aroused: for men: pumpkin pie/lavender; for

women: the sweat of nursing mothers.

The downside to using scents for marketing

But even when a scent company can determine a business's scent

needs, marketing through smell is still a game of chance. Scents can be

highly subjective. Because smell's ability to trigger moods is based on

memory, a scent's power will differ from person to person. Some smell

inclinations are cultural (like the American penchant for vanilla) while

others are personal.

Businesses must also deal with the subjective nature of smells,

according to Spangenberg. This makes using smells highly risky and

complex, especially when cultural appropriateness and gender come into

play. Plus, scent works great when it is congruent with the business it is

promoting, but if not done right, it can actually hurt the business more than

when no scent is used. In 2001, iSmell created a USB device that emitted

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISmell

219

smells for a particular website or product when it was shown on the screen.

It failed miserably. For the 10 percent of the adult population who are

asthmatic or the 30 to 35 percent who suffer from allergies, a particular

scent could trigger throat closure, burning eyes or headaches, according to

Dr. Karin Pacheco, associate professor of occupational and environmental

medicine at National Jewish Health.

With all this information in mind, businesses are able to make use of

scents to sell their products more effectively. The key, however, is to keep

it natural, simple and diffuse, as overpowering and complex smells can be

distracting and actually have negative effects. Also scent you use should

take into account your product and the gender, age, geography and culture

of the target market.


1. Scents and sensitivity. The Economist. December 6, 2007.

URL:http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=1025

0329 (дата обращения: 15.12.2015).

2. Vlahos, James. Scent and Sensibility.The New York Times.

September 9, 2007. URL:

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/realestate/keymagazine/909SCENT-

txt.html?pagewanted=1&n=Top/News/U.S./U.S.%20States,%20Territories

%20and%20Possessions/Nevada&_r=1 (датаобращения: 15.12.2015).

3. Does what you smell determine what you buy? URL:

http://money.howstuffworks.com/scent-marketing.htm (дата обращения:

15.12.2015).

4. How and why businesses make use of Scent Marketing to boost

sales. URL:

https://website-designs.com/online-marketing/scent-marketing (дата

обращения: 15.12.2015).

5. Is Scent Branding the Next Hot Marketing Trend? URL:

https://www.americanexpress.com/us/small-

business/openforum/articles/is-scent-branding-the-next-hot-marketing-

trend/ (дата обращения: 15.12.2015).

6. Scent Marketing – Deepening Customer Connections. URL:

http://www.scentmarketing.org/trends/ (дата обращения: 15.12.2015).



http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10250329%20(дата

http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10250329%20(дата

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/realestate/keymagazine/909SCENT-txt.html?pagewanted=1&n=Top/News/U.S./U.S.%20States,%20Territories%20and%20Possessions/Nevada&_r=1%20(дата



220

М.В. Малыгина, Е.А. Снигирева



Реклама СМИ: критерии эффективности

В статье исследуются критерии эффективности рекламы СМИ

на примерах рекламных текстов из газеты «Презентация» г. Кирова.

Выдвигается гипотеза о низкой эффективности жанра «житейская

история», которая проверяется экспериментом опроса мнений.

The Advertising of Mass Media: the Criteria of Its Effectiveness

Today we can state, that the success of any product or service

provided by the company depends largely on its advertising campaign,

which should show the advantages, the novelty and distinctive features of

the advertised goods and services.

Advertising text has long been a subject of research for linguists,

psychologists, designers, marketers [Williams R. (2008); Papanek

V.(2004); Golombeski K., Hagen R.(2013); Laptev(2011); Pirogova Y.

K.(2000); Fred I. Khan (2007); Shepilova G.G.(2010); Harrower

T.(1999)]. The criteria of effectiveness of advertising are of special

interest. In the monography of Pirogova Y. K. there are the following

characteristics of success of an advertising text:

1) the lure of a message (originality, clear indication of

capabilities of a firm);

2) recognizability (rapid perception and correlation with the

firm);

3) memorability (repetition of information within a text,

unusual advertising images or phrases);

4) agitation power (credibility, relevance for the subject of the

target audience, etc.) [1].

According to the position of the design approach the advertising

message should also have:

1) free space / ”air” around the article;

2) witty and original language (the author emphasizes that this

criterion can be more important than design);

3) clarity;

4) brevity;

221

5) attractive colour combinations [2].

There are several forms and genres of advertising in print media:

1) modular advertising (the genre is advertising collage);

2) content advertising (the genres are ads and photoads);

3) text advertising (the advertising genres are life history,

experience, expert advice. And the journalistic genres used for advertising

purposes are: notes, reports, reporting, writing, question-answer, interview,

correspondence, review, critique, sketch, and article) [3].

From our point of view, the most interesting genre is textual

advertising, because if a potential buyer looks through a magazine or a

newspaper with the purpose to obtain information about the latest news

and offers, he evaluates and skips the modular and content advertising

quickly. The text may be perceived as a source of additional information,

which encourages using a product or a service and the text advertising is

considered to be a source of additional knowledge about the types of

goods, the peculiarities of using them, etc. In this case, the message

recipient may be interested in the article even if he isn’t interested in the

product itself, but the leading motive is the desire to be informed.

Thus, the purpose of this article is to check the known criteria for

the success of text ads depending on their content and design and the

identification of new criteria. For this purpose, an experiment has been

carried out. We have chosen a promotional offer, where the main

component was the text, and identified the reasons why it is attractive or

unattractive to respondents.

11 respondents were shown 9 different promotional articles

published by the companies of the city Kirov. The respondents were to

determine the success of the proposed advertising messages and to argue

their position by filling in the table about each of the proposed 9 articles.

No. advertising

articles Like (+) Don't like (-)

Don't know what to

say (+/-)

Table 1 – Questionnaire submitted to the respondents for analyzing advertising articles

Having analyzed the received data we found out that the most

attractive of subjects was a sample of a promotional offer under No. 7. All

respondents unanimously gave it their preferencebecause the collages were

bright, colorful, original, it was not overloaded with information and at the

same time it was clear and understandable.

222

In the second place there was the advertising article number 4. It

has gained 10 points. The arguments for were: a bright and colorful design,

clarity and brevity. In addition, it was stated that this advertising reaches

the broad target audience and it suits best for the whole family.

Also more than half positive votes were given to the advertisement

No. 6 and No. 9 because of their clarity, catching images and the ability to

provoke interest. But the respondents noted such drawbacks as bad colour

combination, narrow target audience, as well as the lack of information

about the cost of services.

All other advertising collages have been recognized ineffective for

different reasons, they seemed unclear, disjointed, and uninteresting to the

respondents. Bad visual design, boring headings, and poorly chosen

adjectives and metaphors in some of the ads provoked negative

associations.

The most unfortunate article was sample No. 1, which, in the

opinion of 10 out of 11 respondents, was recognized as the standard,

uninformative, unattractive and even suspiciousto some extent.

Thus, summing up the study, we can make a conclusion that all the

established criteria of effectiveness are valid today and indeed determine

the success of the advertising message. The audience preference is given to

attractive force and promotional offers. However, as it was mentioned in

the article of Pirogova Y. K., if there are at least some of the selected

criteria, advertising can draw the attention of potential buyers to the

advertised product and motivate them to make the purchase.


1. Пирогова Ю.К. Рекламный текст: семиотика и лингвистика

(под ред. Пироговой Ю.К., Паршина П.Б.). – М.: Изд. Дом

Гребенникова, 2000.

2. Вильямс Р. Дизайн для НЕдизайнеров. – Пер. с англ. –

СПб: Символ-Плюс, 2008 – 192 с., ил.

3. Щепилова Г. Г. Реклама в СМИ: принципы классификации

// Медиаскоп. Электронный журнал. – 2010. – Вып. 4. – 1,2 п.л.

223

А.В. Парыгин, М.К. Куклина




Рентабельность спортсмена-ветерана в качестве экономического

объекта

Перед завершением профессиональной карьеры спортсмен стоит

перед выбором дальнейшего профессионального самоопределения. В

работе приводятся пути дальнейшей самореализацией спортсмена

перед завершением карьеры.

Rentabilität der Alterssportler als ein Wirtschaftsobjekt

Vor der Vollendung der professionellen Karriere soll jeder Sportler

seine weitere professionelle Selbstbestimmung finden. Es gibt

verschiedene Varianten: als Trainer oder Sportfunktionär zu arbeiten, es

kann sowie eine Tätigkeit im Bereich der Entwicklung des Sports sein

(Sportberichterstattung in Medien, Staatsdienst im Sport); als auch eine

Tätigkeit, die mit Sport nicht verbunden ist. Während der Karriere tritt der

Sportler nicht nur als eine Arbeitskraft vor, die Geld für seine Arbeit

bekommt, sondern auch als eine Möglichkeit des Einkommens für den

Besitzer des Sportklubs. Das ist möglich mittels des Verkaufes des

Sportlers, und zwar: Verkauf der Sachen, die mit dem Namen des

Sportlers verbunden sind, Teilnahme des Sportlers an verschiedenen

Veranstaltungen, was den Verkauf aller Eintrittskarten versichert. In

unserer Arbeit versuchen wir, den Sportler als ein Wirtschaftsprodukt nach

der Vollendung seiner sportlichen Karriere zu betrachten, und die

Rentabilität solcher Nutzung zu analysieren.

Die erste Möglichkeit mit Hilfe des Renommees des Sportlers Geld

zu gewinnen ist die Organisation der Sportveranstaltungen – der Sport der

Alterssportler. Der Forscher Gulgenow Z.B. unterstreicht im Sport der

Alterssportler zwei Aspekte - Alter und das Vorhandensein bestimmter

Verdienste. [1] Dem Alter nach unterscheidet der Forscher zwei Gruppen:

das zweite reife Alter (35-60 Jahre) und ältere Sportler (60-74 Jahre). Für

die Beschreibung der Organisation der Sportveranstaltungen verwenden

wir die erste Kategorie, weil in diesem Alter eine annehmbare physische

Form noch aktuell ist, die die zukünftige Veranstaltung zu einem

224

qualitätsmäßigen Produkt macht. Im zweiten Aspekt ist es wichtig, dass

der Alterssportler einen großen Erfolg als Sportler oder Trainer erreicht

haben muss, so Gulgenow Z.B. Es ist selbstverständlich, dass die

Nachfrage von den hochwertigen Dienstleistungen in der Vergangenheit

bestimmt ist.

Zur Organisation der Sportveranstaltungen können die Durchführung

der Spiele und der Turniere für Alterssportler, die Fortsetzung der Karriere

in den Wettbewerben des niedrigeren Niveaus gehören. Ein Beispiel dafür

ist die "Legends Cup" - ein internationales Fußballturnier für Alterssportler

(über 35), das in Moskau seit 2009 stattfindet. Die Rechte auf die Sendung

des Turniers gehören dem Fernsehkanal "Rossia-2", man verkauft Tickets,

an der Organisation des Turniers beteiligen sich aktiv Sponsoren und

profitieren davon.

Das markanteste Beispiel der Fortsetzung der Karriere in den

Meisterschaften des niedrigeren Niveaus ist der Übergang von David

Beckham im Jahr 2008 in die amerikanische Liga MLS. Die

amerikanischen Massenmedien haben eine präzedenzlose Werbekampagne

durchgeführt, die auf die Promotion der Handelsmarke des Fußballspielers

und Popularisierung des Fußballs im Allgemeinen gerichtet war. Der

Übergang von Beckham hat einen beispiellosen Anstieg des Interesses an

Fußball seitens heimischen Fans provoziert, und als Folge – Vergrößerung

der Zahl der verkauften Eintrittskarten in der Saison 2008. Bei Beckham

war der neue Rekord der Zahl der Besucher der Meisterschaft – 66237

Menschen erzielt. [2]

Die zweite Möglichkeit der Nutzung des Alterssportlers als ein

Wirtschaftsprodukt ist seine Teilnahme an den Sportveranstaltungen, deren

Grundlage nicht die Bestimmung des stärksten Sportlers, sondern die

Bildung einer populären Show ist. Zu dieser Sphäre kann die

Durchführung der Abschiedsvorstellung des Sportlers gehören; Bildung

der sportlichen Show im Fernsehen.

Die Abschiedsvorstellung gibt dem Sportler eine Möglichkeit seine

Karriere vor den Fans offiziell zu beenden. Meistens trägt diese Aktion

einen unterhaltenden Charakter, das Ziel ist die Anerkennung der

vergangenen Verdienste des Sportlers. Geldmittel vom Verkauf der

Eintrittskarten bekommt entweder der Sportler oder sie werden für

wohltätige Zwecke benutzt. Davon können auch Fernsehkanäle oder

Sponsoren profitieren.

Als Beispiel für die Bildung der populären Show kann "Eiszeit" auf

dem Ersten Fernsehkanal gelten. Die Konzeption des Programms besteht

225

in den paarigen Wettbewerben im Eiskunstlauf, an denen die Sterne des

Showbusiness zusammen mit den professionellen Eiskunstläufern

teilnehmen. Obwohl in der Show die konkurrierenden Elemente anwesend

sind, ist das Hauptziel nicht die Erkennung des stärksten Paares, sondern

die Bildung des unterhaltenden Produktes. Der Gewinner wird nicht mit

Hilfe der Juryentscheidung, sondern mit Hilfe der SMS-Abstimmung

ermittelt. Die Popularität dieser Show bleibt konstant hoch.

Noch eine Möglichkeit der Nutzung des Alterssportlers als ein

Wirtschaftsprodukt ist seine Teilnahme an der Werbung. Wir denken, dass

das Sinnvollste ist, wenn der Sportler Gegenstände des Luxus wirbt. Die

jungen Fans, für die der Sportler während seiner professionellen Karriere

eine Leitfigur war, konnten während dieser Zeit wohlhabende Menschen

werden und geworbene Waren kaufen. Leider ist im russischen Marketing

diese Praxis nicht so gut verbreitet wegen der unzureichenden PR der

einheimischen Sportler.

Also, in diesem Artikel betrachteten wir Möglichkeiten,

Alterssportler als ein Wirtschaftsobjekt zu verwenden. Dazu gehören:

Fortsetzung der sportlichen Karriere, Teilnahme an sportlichen

unterhaltenden Shows, Werbetätigkeit. Es ist zu bemerken, dass in

unserem Land nur die Teilnahme des Sportlers an sportlichen

unterhaltenden Shows rentabel ist. Es ist mit der unzureichenden PR der

russischen Sportler verbunden. Die Arbeit an der Popularisierung eines

Alterssportlers soll im Laufe seiner ganzen professionellen Karriere

geführt werden. So, hat sowie der Sportler eine Möglichkeit als ein

wirtschaftliches Subjekt und Objekt erfolgreich zu bleiben, als auch

Sponsoren und Fernsehkanäle bekommen eine Möglichkeit sogar nach

dem Abschluss des Sportlers seiner professionellen Karriere Profit zu

machen.


1. Гулгенов Ц. Б. Социальные, медико-биологические и

психолого-педагогические аспекты проблемы спорта ветеранов/Ц. Б.

Гулгенов, С. В. Калмыков, А. С. Сагалеев / Вестник Бурятского

государственного университета,2009, - № 13. - С.19-22.

2. Бекхэм установил рекорд посещаемости в MLS. URL:

http://www.segodnya.ua/newsarchive/bekkhem-uctanovil-rekord-

poceshchaemocti-v-mls.html (дата обращения 08.03.14).

226

В.А. Пастухова, И.И. Мамаева




Реклама в социальной сети «Инстаграм»

На сегодняшний день в связи с огромной конкуренцией на

рынке рекламы рекламодатели ищут все новые и новые эффективные

способы размещения своих рекламных сообщений. Социальная сеть

«Инстаграм» – платформа с более чем 400 миллионами

пользователей по всему миру, постепенно вытесняющая

телевизионную и печатную рекламу, стала одной из самых

популярных и результативных площадок для размещения рекламных

сообщений.

Advertising on Instagram

Nowadays advertising is one of the most active and large-scale

growing areas in the modern world. Advertising is paid, non-personal,

public communication about causes, goods and services, ideas,

organizations, people, and places, through means such as direct mail,

telephone, print, radio, television, and internet [3]. An integral part of

marketing, advertisements are public notices designed to inform and

motivate. Their objective is to change the thinking pattern (or buying

behavior) of the recipient, so that he or she is persuaded to take the action

desired by the advertiser [3].

Competition in the advertising market is really high nowadays [1].

Advertisers are looking for new ways to attract potential consumers of

their goods and services and they are ready to pay big money for this.

According to recent data the $600 billion advertising industry, which is

growing at 5% rate annually, is undergoing a rapid transition. While TV

ads continue to rule the roost with over 40% share, digital ads that include

online desktop and mobile ads have taken the center stage and are growing

at a rapid pace. According to eMarketer, Mobile advertising is the key

driver of growth around the world and advertisers will spend $64.25

billion worldwide on mobile advertising in 2015, an increase of nearly

60% over 2014 [4].

227

This is not surprising since new technologies, Internet and, of course,

social media have almost completely absorbed our society. Modern people

can not imagine their lives without their Smartphones and everyday

Internet activities. And social networks play one of the most important

roles for them [7]. “Nowadays, social media is the easiest place to go to

find something”, said David Nail, an American musician.

And, of course, one of the most popular and often used worldwide

social media is Instagram. Instagram is an online mobile photo-sharing,

video-sharing, and social networking service that enables its users to take

pictures and videos, and share them on a variety of social networking

platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and Flickr. Originally, a

distinctive feature was that it confined photos to a square shape, similar to

Kodak Instamatic and Polaroid images, in contrast to the 4:3 aspect ratio

typically used by mobile device cameras. It was created by Kevin Systrom

and Mike Krieger, and launched in October 2010 as a free mobile app. The

service rapidly gained popularity, with over 100 million active users as of

April 2012 and over 300 million as of December 2014 [8].

Users can upload photographs and short videos; follow other users'

feeds and geotag images with longitude and latitude coordinates, or the

name of a location. Every year, Instagram releases Top 10 Instagram

geotagged locations in the world, in pictures [5]. Users can connect their

Instagram account to other social networking sites, enabling them to share

uploaded photos to those sites. As of June 2013, users can connect their

Instagram accounts to Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and Flickr. In 2012,

Instagram created web profiles which allow users to use their Instagram

account like a social media site. This gave users a web profile featuring a

selection of recently shared photographs, biographical information, and

other personal details. The web feed is a simpler version of the phone app,

mimicking the look and feel users are already accustomed to [8].

In December 2013, Instagram added a feature named Instagram

Direct that allows users to send photos only to a specific user or group of

users, rather than having it viewable by everybody. In August 2015,

Instagram allowed users to start using non square images as a part of the

feature set. On October 29, 2015, Instagram announced that it would allow

advertisers to buy carousel ads to expose company brands to more people

[8].

Nowadays with a community of more than 400 million people,

Instagram is one of the world's largest mobile ads platforms. Businesses

228

can share their stories with a highly engaged audience in a creative, high-

quality environment and drive action with their advertisements [5].

Instagram advertisements are now available globally for all

businesses - big and small. Instagram's enhanced ad formats, targeting and

buying options help advertisers drive the results they care about – from

raising awareness to increasing website sales and mobile app downloads.

Instagram ads can now be purchased and managed through

Facebook's self-serve interfaces – Ads Manager and Power Editor [2]. There are several ways to create the advertisement on Instagram

[2]:

1. Photo аds.

With photo ads, businesses can tell their story through beautiful

imagery.

2. Video ads.

Video ads offer the same visually immersive quality as photo ads –

with the power of sight, sound and motion. Now people can share videos

up to 30 seconds long and in landscape format.

3. Carousel аds.

Carousel ads bring an additional layer of depth to photo ads. People

can swipe to see additional images and a call to action button takes them to

a website to learn more.

Instagram advertising solutions support the following functions:

1. Clicks to website.

An advertiser can send people to important sections of their website.

2. Website сonversions.

An advertiser can get people to take specific actions on their website.

3. Mobile аpp installs.

An advertiser can get people to install their mobile app (a mobile

application, most commonly referred to as an app, is a type of application

software designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone or

tablet computer; apps are generally small, individual software units with

limited function [6].)

4. Video views.

An advertiser can tell a story using video.

5. Reach of a specific target audience and ads message frequency.

An advertiser can achieve predictable reach of their target audience

and greater control over advertising message frequency, posting on their

Instagram account.

6. Page post engagement.

https://www.facebook.com/ads/manage

https://www.facebook.com/ads/manage/powereditor

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An advertiser can get a lot of people to engage with their

advertisement. People start following an advertiser account after seeing an

interesting and attractive advertising message. It helps to increase the

number of potential customers.

7. And finally, mass awareness.

An advertiser can drive mass awareness to a broad audience with

guaranteed impressions and placement in the top advertisement position of

Instagram's feed.

It is possible that very soon Internet advertising and especially

advertising on social media (including Instagram advertising) will

completely displace other types of advertising.


1. Advertising Industry in the Digital AgeSuzanne M. Kirchhoff

November 9, 2009.

2. Advertising on Instagram URL:

http://www.socialmediaexaminer.com/how-to-advertise-on-instagram-a-

complete-instagram-ads-guide/ (дата обращения: 22.01.2015).

3. Businessdictionary.com URL:

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/advertisement-ad.html (дата

обращения: 22.01.2016).

4. eMarketer, Advertisers Will Spend Nearly $600 Billion

Worldwide in 2015 URL: http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Advertisers-

Will-Spend-Nearly-600-Billion-Worldwide-2015/1011691 (дата

обращения: 22.01.2016).

5. Instagram. URL: https://www.instagram.com/ (дата

обращения: 22.01.2015).

6. Techopedia, Mobile Application (Mobile App) URL

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2953/mobile-application-mobile-

app (дата обращения: 22.01.2015).

7. Voices of Youth, The Effect of Social Media on Today's World

URL: http://www.voicesofyouth.org/posts/the-effect-of-social-media-on-

todays-world (дата обращения: 22.01.2016).

8. Wikipedia, Instagram URL:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram (дата обращения: 22.01.2015).

http://www.socialmediaexaminer.com/how-to-advertise-on-instagram-a-complete-instagram-ads-guide/

http://www.socialmediaexaminer.com/how-to-advertise-on-instagram-a-complete-instagram-ads-guide/

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/advertisement-ad.html

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Advertisers-Will-Spend-Nearly-600-Billion-Worldwide-2015/1011691

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Advertisers-Will-Spend-Nearly-600-Billion-Worldwide-2015/1011691

https://www.instagram.com/

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2953/mobile-application-mobile-app

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2953/mobile-application-mobile-app

http://www.voicesofyouth.org/posts/the-effect-of-social-media-on-todays-world

http://www.voicesofyouth.org/posts/the-effect-of-social-media-on-todays-world

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram

230

А.С. Рослякова, К.Е. Сивкова, И.И. Мамаева




Имидж Екатеринбурга: от старых сценариев к новому

Правильный имидж играет важную роль в развитии любого

города: помогает привлекать инвестиции, развивать туризм и

поднимать статус города. Для Екатеринбурга как одного из самых

крупных городов России имидж тоже является неотъемлемым

элементом позиционированияне только в России, но и за ее

пределами. На протяжении своей истории Екатеринбург имел

несколько имиджей, которые на сегодняшний день уже не так

актуальны, поэтому городу необходимо подобрать новый имидж.

The image of Yekaterinburg: from the old scenarios to the new

one

Creating a positive image for a city is essential. A good image is able

to attract investments and make the city attractive for tourists, in addition,

create a decent representation within other cities in the country. First of all,

it is necessary to consider the definition of an image.

The image is created under the expectations of the target audience; it

is valued, emotionally charged representation, in which internal and

external characteristics of the object are combinedin the complex

interaction [1].

And the image of the city is formed in the public minds as an

emotionally charged representation of the city, that has a number of

characteristics of the city's originality, competitive advantages, strengths

and weaknesses, challenges, opportunities and prospects for its

development [1]. Several images were also developed for Yekaterinburg, which had

considerable success and brought some results [2]. However, today they

have some drawbacks. The next three images are the most popular.

“The third capital”

Almost every city-millionaire dreams of becoming Russia's third

capital. Yekaterinburg is not an exception. The main aim of this is to

become closer to Moscow, its power and economy; attract big investments

231

to the city. On the one hand, Yekaterinburg has real reasons to pretendto

this role: it is a big and dynamic city with large population. Moreover, the

first Russian President was from Yekaterinburg, so the city is associated

with the capital subconsciously. However, Yekaterinburg has many

competitors that are in a more favorable geographic location to the current

capital (for example, Nizhny Novgorod or Kazan). Indeed, the government

of Yekaterinburg should understand that “the third capital” position is a

kind of a dream, so that it is just wasting time trying to achieve it. It is a

fact that Moscow and St. Petersburg will never lose their position in

power, economy and industry. Moreover, usage of this image gives the

impression that without the status of the capital city Yekaterinburg does

not mean anything for our country.

"On the border between Europe and Asia"

Yekaterinburg is located on the border between the two parts of the

world. Therefore, the image "on the border between Europe and Asia" is

still relevant – it has sufficient significance and is able to attract partners

from the west and from the east.

However, if we strictly consider the geographical position of

Yekaterinburg, the city is located in Asia, and the border between the parts

of the world lies 17 km from the capital of the Sverdlovsk region.

Moreover, this border is still disputed – modern Europe-Asia Obelisk was

built in 2004 25-30 km east of the former border [3]. Furthermore, this image needs to be maintained. We have to admit

that today Yekaterinburg builds relationships predominantly with Asia, for

example, in 2009 the city became the center of two international events –

summits of the The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and The BRIC

(Brazil, Russia, India, China); in 2015 China was the partner country that

helped to hold industrial exhibition INNOPROM, and in 2016 India is also

going to be our partner. In education there is the same trend– the number

of Asian students and students from the neighboring countries is much

higher than the number of European students. Thus, the image is

maintained only in one aspect.

"Bastion of the state"

While St. Petersburg was built on the swamps and was the nose of

the ship that was called "Russian Empire", Yekaterinburg was planned by

Peter I as a ship's hold, which is a bearing, reliable town that had to

provide the capital with all the necessary natural resources [2]. When the

Bolsheviks came to power and Moscow became the country's capital,

Yekaterinburg was still "a reliable rear". It confirmed this title during the

232

World War II: lots of enterprises from all over the central part of the

country were evacuated there.

This image is maintained even today, because industry in

Yekaterinburg is still successfully developing, especially mechanical

engineering. But this image has obvious disadvantages. Firstly, the

development of industry and production is associated with a poor

environment and pollution of the city, which clearly does not have a

positive impact on the opinion about Yekaterinburg. Secondly, we are

gradually moving from an industrial to a postindustrial society, where such

status of Yekaterinburg could lose its former importance. Therefore, the

city should think about a new image.

The new image

Today Yekaterinburg is one of the biggest financial and business

centres of Russia. There are many offices of multinational corporations,

representative offices of foreign companies, and a large number of federal

and regional financial organizations. Moreover, Yekaterinburg is the

fourth city in our country in volume of investments attracted to the

economy of the city. A trade sector plays also a big role in the economic

development, so Yekaterinburg has its own hypermarkets and

supermarkets, which successfully compete with well-known retail chains

[4]. Construction is one of the fastest growing industries in the city. That

is why Yekaterinburg is the leader in the high-rise construction.

Tourism also occupies a key place in the city's economy, especially

business tourism.

Yekaterinburg is considered to be one of the cultural centres of

Russia. There are many museums, libraries, theatres, cinemas and parks.

Every year Yekaterinburg becomes the venue for various festivals and

competitions. Government pays great attention to the development of art

and education in the city, and these efforts are paying off.

All these facts prove that Yekaterinburg may become a spiritual and

economic center of our country. These spheres could be basic for a new

image of our city.

The femininity of Yekaterinburg, which is caused by the name that

was gifted by Catherine I, is associated with reliability and, most

importantly, the wealth of the earth. Yekaterinburg has vertical historical

development: using all the hidden treasures and wealth of the earth, it is

being built up [2]. This can become the hallmark of the image of our city.

233

Nevertheless, the underground world is not only a variety of natural

resources, but also tragic or just negative events of Yekaterinburg – the

shooting of the royal family, terrible legends about underground passages

under the Rastorguevs' homestead, the long-lasting construction of our

underground and so on. Yekaterinburg has to get out of the "dungeon" to

spiritual, high things and build the spiritual "temple" on a solid material

basis.

The new image of the city – "Yekaterinburg is the city, striving up."

The first aspect of the image is spiritual and cultural development of

the city. The main tourist attraction would be Cathedral-on-the Blood as a

symbol of escaping from material things (the place of crime underground)

to spiritual ones (the place of penance above ground). It is necessary to

change the perception of Yekaterinburg among the Russians and foreign

guests: get away from the image of the city, where the royal family was

killed.

The next important step is the development of culture in the city. The

first step is organizing seasonal events dedicated to specific areas of

culture. For example, "Film Spring in Yekaterinburg”, “Theatrical autumn

in Yekaterinburg," etc.

The second step is conducting student film and music festivals,

different kinds of forums; the main aim of which is to attract students from

other cities.

The third step is converting TV tower to an observation deck

Museum. It is necessary to reconstruct the monuments and cultural

institutions. This aspect would be aimed at the formation of

Yekaterinburg's internal image, which is its perception inside the country.

Not only spiritual development is important for Yekaterinburg but

also material one to attract investments. Therefore, the second aspect of

the image is economic development. The main sightseeing of the city in

this case would be a skyscraper "Vysotsky" as a symbol of prosperity and

success.

For the formation of this aspect "Vysotsky" should be placed on

business souvenirs: calendars, diaries, pens, etc. It is also important for the

city to hold as many significant sports and industrial events to raise interest

to Yekaterinburg as possible and make it more attractive for investments.

In addition, it is possible to support the new image by constructing new

high-rise buildings as the skyscraper "Vysotsky" and the business quarter

"Yekaterinburg-City".

234

The third aspect of the image is resulting from natural position of the

city, which is situated not far from the mountains. The main symbol of

Yekaterinburg would be the Ural Mountains. This image is aimed at

tourists, so we also should use the image of the Ural Mountains on

souvenirs. In addition, it is also necessary to develop Yekaterinburg as ski

resorts; there is a suitable location and resources for it.


1. Гавра Д.П. Имидж территориальных субъектов в современном

информационном пространстве: учеб. пособие / Д.П. Гавра, Ю.В.

Таранова. — СПб.: С.-Петерб. гос. ун-т, Высш. шк. журн. и мас.

коммуникаций, 2013. — 155 с.

2. Профессиональный журнал о рекламе и PR "Эффективные

коммуникации". Екатеринбург: имидж города и опыт культурно-

символического позиционирования. URL: http://eff-

com.ru/archive/issue5/image/Ekaterinburg-image-goroda-i-ikulturno-

istoricheskoe-pozicionirovanie.html (дата обращения: 22.11.2015)

3. Граница между Европой и Азией в районе Екатеринбурга.

URL: http://www.1723.ru/read/books/europe-2.htm (дата обращения:

22.11.2015)

4. Википедия. Экономика Екатеринбурга. URL:

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Экономика_Екатеринбурга (дата

обращения: 22.11.2015)

О.В. Слинкина, Д.А. Шипина




Воздействие рекламы на молодежь

Реклама – направление в маркетинговых коммуникациях,

использующееся с целью привлечения внимания к объекту

рекламирования или поддержания интереса к нему. В настоящее

время это очень распространено, поэтому рекламу можно встретить

повсюду: в транспорте, на улице, в интернете. В статье поднимается

такой актуальный вопрос, как влияние рекламы на молодых людей.

http://eff-com.ru/archive/issue5/image/Ekaterinburg-image-goroda-i-ikulturno-istoricheskoe-pozicionirovanie.html



https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Экономика_Екатеринбурга

235

Молодежь довольно часто покупает ту или иную вещь благодаря

эффективной рекламе. Также в статье представлено несколько

разновидностей рекламы и приведены результаты исследования,

которое включает в себя опрос 50 человек в возрасте от 18-22 лет.

The impact of advertising on young people

Advertising is a special kind of communication that has

accompanied the mankind throughout the history of its development.

For a long time advertising meant everything related to distributing

information about goods and services using all existing means of

communication. Gradually, the development of advertising has led to the

development of such communication areas as: Public relations; Direct

marketing; Sales promotion; Exhibition activities; Sponsorship; Branding,

and others.

The diversity of advertising forms presented on the modern market

provides the basis for the classification of advertising.

There are different types of advertising:

- Media advertising: television, radio, press, Internet, outdoor/

indoor/ transit advertisings.

- Non-media advertising: direct, printed, point-of-sale advertising,

souvenirs, promotional activities.

Some of the most popular advertisements focus on youth. A survey

conducted among 50 people aged 18-22 has shown what kind of

advertisement affects young people. They were asked several questions,

and the results were the following:

Sex

Male – 21 / 42% Female – 29 / 58%

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What kind of advertising does affect your choice?

Internet – 24 / 48%

Television – 16 / 32%

Outdoor advertising – 6 / 12%

Print advertising (newspaper, magazines) – 3 / 6%

Radio – 1 / 2%

What kind of advertising does not influence your choice?

Print advertising – 17 / 34%

Radio – 11 / 22%


No answer – 8 / 16%

Outdoor – 4 / 8%

Internet – 2 /4%

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What kind of advertising do you ignore?

Radio – 16 / 32%




Outdoor – 5 / 10%

Where do you learn about new products?



Outdoor – 12 /24%


Radio – 6 / 12%

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Is life without advertising possible?

Yes – 17/34%

No - 33 /66%

Would you like to live without advertising?

Yes – 17/34%

No - 33 /66%

Modern society is used to advertising, especially on the Internet and

television. As the results of the survey show, people usually do not take

into account printed and outdoor advertising, and rarely listen to it on the

radio. Young people live in a daily stream of advertising and prefer to

continue this kind of life. Basic information and advertising comes from

the Internet, especially from social networks such as Twitter or Instagram.

Advertisers take into consideration young people's interests. They are

occupying the Internet presenting their products with different

advertisements; therefore, they have a great influence on young people.


1. Информационный портал «Индустрия рекламы». URL:

http://adindustry.ru/ (дата обращения 30.01.2016).

2. Advertising. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising


http://adindustry.ru/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising

239

А.Б. Хачатрян, А.А. Лаврова




Продакт плейсмент как глобальная стратегия продвижения

товаров и услуг

Одним из наиболее эффективных методов рекламы является

скрытая реклама, воспринимаемая нами на подсознании и

выступающая как альтернатива прямой рекламе, которую

потребитель стал недолюбливать в силу ее агрессивности и

навязчивости. Подобные «ненавязчивые» упоминания называют

продакт-плэйсментом (product placement).

Product placement as a global strategy ofgoods and services

promotion

World economy globalization process step by step tightens

conditions of competitive scramble and, consequently, actualizes problem

of the most effective product promotion. Nowadays, there are alot of ways

to advertise any kind of goods or services, but an average customer has

become so experienced that using the biggest part of them is not only

pointless, but even has an opposite effect on customer's behavior. Instead

of being inspired to buy or use a product, customers are irritated by

importunate advertising and are reluctant to become that company's client.

Therefore, product placement role, as the newest sophisticated way to

advertise, increases steadily.

Traditionally, the concept of product placement (PP) has been treated

as an advertising technique used by companies to promote their products

subtly through a non-traditional advertising technique, usually through

appearances in films, television, or other media. However, this approach

does not seem to be fulfilling: for understanding the nature of PP we

should outline some of the keypoints.

First of all, the actual aim of thewhole PP concept is to attract the

customer's attention to particular goods, services or brands, i.e. advertising.

Secondly, the aim of PP is to build a strong connection between a TV

or fictional character and a product for the latter to have something to be

always associated with.

240

Thirdly, PP uses non-advertising sources. Thus, we can speak of a

hidden or even not legitimate commercial.

Fourthly, a legal framework of such a kind of an activity is not

worked out well, which allows to bypass the established rules.

Finally, PP is a major business sector, which accumulates

considerable financial resources, but do not add to tax revenues.

The first case of deliberate use of product placement in movies is the

film "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" (USA, 1982), in which a boy offered an

alien from outer space Reese's Pieces candies. After the release of the

movie the candies sales increased by 65%. However, there is another case

where a non-existent brand Wonka became real after the film was aired.

In 1980s product placement transformed into a full-fledged,

independent industry, and by the early 1990s all the major Western

companies had organized departments specializing in non-traditional

technologies to promote products. Since then, the PP has received

widespread recognition as a global high-performance tool that integrates

interests and efforts of the producers, sellers and representatives of mass

media.

The growing popularity of this technology is primarily due to a

catastrophic decline in the effectiveness of direct advertising. The usual

format leads to dullness of perception, an emotional impact is reduced, and

sometimes it provokes a backlash. In case of PP a consumer hardly notices

that the product is promoted. Compared to the traditional commercial

integrated advertising the message is viewed with much greater conviction

and authenticity. Survey results are significant: 80% of customers are sure

that everything is just so ordinary and there is no promotion, 10%

noticeadvertising and only 1.5% show negative reaction.

According to experts, in 2009 the world spent about $ 6 billion

forproduct placement. In 2010, the total cost reached $ 14 billion if the

European Union will lift existing restrictions.

In the West, product placement has a lot of supporters. For example,

the company Apple, known for its unconventional ways of doing business,

uses a very small amount of direct advertising, relying precisely on

product placement ("some kind of fruit company" in the movie "Forrest

Gump" for example).

In Russia the era of product placement began in late 1990s with the

heyday of commercial cinema and numerous TV series. In 1998 in

thecomedy "Ossobennosti Natcionalnoi Rybalki (Peculiarities of the

National Hunt)" characterswere smoking cigarettes "Petr I (Peter I)",

241

drinking vodka "Urozhai (The Harvest)", ate dumplings "Raviollo" and

used mobile phones of North West GSMon a contractual basis. Nowadays

PP can be noticed almost in each and every TV show or movie.

As a result, product placement in a short time has become a common

worldwide strategy to promote high-performance products and services.

As practice shows, product placement has received the greatest use in

the film industry. Above all, this can be applied to commercial Hollywood

movies, wherethis form of advertising has become the most common.

According to BrandChannel.com the following movies have excelled

with the widest range of PP:

- "Fantastic Four" - 56 promoted brands (Bentley, Corvette, Corn Flakes,

Lay's, Maxell, Nestle, Porsche, Range Rover and others);

- "The Dukes of Hazzard" - 55 promoted brands (Castrol, Coca-Cola, Ford

Mustang, Jeep, Levi's, Lexus, Liberty Safe, Miller, Motorola, Nissan,

Optima, Sharp, Volvo, Yahoo!, Zippo and others);

- "Mr. and Mrs. Smith" - 44 promoted brands (BMW, Hummer, Jack

Daniel's, Johnnie Walker, Martini & Rossi, Mercedes, Nokia, Panasonic,

Tissot, and others.).

Product placement works with several channels of perception:

- Visual - viewers see a product, service, brand (e.g. logo Miller Brewing,

presented in the background of the characters' dance in the movie "Dirty

Dancing");

- Verbal - the actor or voice-over mentioning of a product, service or

company (for example, the heroine of the film "Demolition man" says:

"Only Taco Bell has survived during restaurant's war");

- Psycho-emotional - the use of the product eliminates the problems, brings

joy, success, gives strength and confidence (the hero lights a cigarette

«Marlboro» and wins);

- Kinesthetic - the characters interact with the product or service (the use

of Nokia phones in the movie "The Matrix" and others.).

Product placement is a very serious source of revenues that grow

with the growth of advertising rates. According to the planning group

OMD Media Direction they have increased by 2-3 times in Russia over the

past few years. At the beginning of the 1990s promotion of the brand in

the film could have been done for a nominal fee or agreement with the

operator or director. In 2003 a one-time appearance of the brand Panasonic

in the film "Antikiller - 2" cost $ 15000. By now product placement in

television series costs about $ 100000-700000, speaking of big television

projects on federal channels such as "Fabrika Zvezd (Star Factory, a

242

Russian analogue of American Idol)" – from $ 150000, and in films – from

$ 200000. The cheapest cost is for books and computer games –the

promotion rate is about $ 2000-5000.

As a technology of goods and services promotion product placement

has certain advantages over traditional forms of commercial offers:

- Psycho-emotional (positive outlook, unobtrusiveness, integration into an

interesting plot, imagery, emotive impression);

- Economic (a one-off contribution, the possibility of subsequent

repetitions, high efficiency);

- Organizational and technical (mass coverage, the viewer does not switch

the movie or flip through the pages of the book with the product

placement).

These advantages provide a greater degree of product placement

impact on the accuracy and depth of penetration into the consciousness of

the consumer.

However, the PP in terms of technology has a number of drawbacks:

- Uncertainty as to how, when and where PP carrier will "work";

- Low efficiency in the deployment of new products;

- The time gap between the investment funds, the release of the film (the

book) and the achievement of results;

- The lack of precise criteria and methodology for evaluating the

effectiveness of PP.

As a result, it can be concluded that product placement as the

technology advancement of goods and services is quite productivein the

Russian market. This may explain its ubiquity, however, under the

predominance of quantity over quality PP turns into the personification of

financial power over the freedom of creativity. In a short time this

technique has reached frightening scope and has made a frank fashion

show of brands and trademarks. Solving the problems identified in the

article, the use of this tool of commercial promotion will not only bring

commercial benefits, but also will allow to achieve matching of interests of

all contact groups and audiences.


1. Хохлова Т. П., Назаретян П. В., Product placement как

глобальная стратегия продвижения товаров и услуг: проблемы и пути

их решения. Маркетинг в России и за рубежом, №2, 2011.

243

2. Caples J., Tested Advertising Methods (5th Edition)/ Prentice Hall

Business Classics, 1998.

3. Harret G. Marketing: Connecting with Customers. – 2-nd ed. –

Prentice Hall College Div., 2006.

3. Newman M., Creative Leaps: 10 Lessons in Effective Advertising

Inspired at Saatchi & Saatchi Hardcover, / Wiley, 2003

6. Morgan R.M., HuntS.D. The Commitment-Trust Theory of

Relationship Marketing// Journal of Marketing. – 1994. – № 3.

7. Mowen J.C. Consumer Behavior. – 4-th ed. – Macmillan

Publishing Co., 2006.

V. Современные информационные технологии

Д.А. Бельтикова, С.В. Платонова




Шрифтовая разборчивость

Статья посвящена шрифтовой разборчивости в современной

типографике, как на печатных, так и на электронных носителях.

Также рассмотрены труды ученых из Германии в методике оценки

удобочитаемости шрифтов и немецкий стандарт DIN1450.

Предложены методы улучшения разборчивости шрифта и ее оценки в

газете и журнале, на электронных носителях, а также официальных

документах. Рассмотрено влияние геометрических параметров

шрифта на его удобочитаемость. Произведено сравнение этих

методик, что в дальнейшем должно помочь типографам и дизайнерам

при выборе шрифтовой гарнитуры. Также произведены

исследования, проведенные с помощью айтрекинга, что позволяет

следить за движением газ и скоростью чтения текста.

Lesebarkeit der Texte

In der modernen Welt jeden Tag stößt der Mensch auf die Lektüre

zusammen. Man liest alles und überall. Bei der Lektüre übergeben die

244

Augen des Lesenden, der auf verschiedene Buchstaben schaut,

verschiedene Darstellungen, und das Gehirn vereinigt sie in ein Bild. Je

einfacher die Darstellung von Buchstaben ist, desto schnellerbearbeitet das

Gehirn sie in ein Bild und dem Leser ist esleichter das Material

wahrzunehmen. Die moderne Technologie «eyetracking» lässt bis ins

Einzelne zu, den Einfluss der Schrift auf die Deutlichkeit des Textes zu

studieren.

Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Einschätzung der

Deutlichkeit der elektronischen Texte. Das vorliegende Thema ist noch

nicht ausreichend studiert, da die ersten transportablen elektronischen

Einrichtungen, die Lektüre mit denen jedem möglich wurde, nur in 2007

popularisiert wurden.

Für die Schreibung des vorliegenden Artikels war es dreizehn

Quellen der russischen und deutschen Autoren über die Faktoren

analysiert, die dieLesebarkeit und die Methoden ihrer Einschätzung

beeinflussen. In der modernen Welt ist das vorliegende Thema wie

niemals aktuell, doch fällt in die Epoche des Erscheinens der

elektronischen Einrichtungen bei den Erwachsenen und den Kindern die

Sehkraft immer mehr, in diesem Zusammenhang spielt Lesebarkeit der

Texte die große Rolle. Die Ergebnisse, die im Verlauf der Analyse der

Quellen bekommen sind, sind genügend, verschieden und mehrdeutig. Aus

den analysierten Artikeln im Verlauf der gegebenen Forschung, kann man

die Schlussfolgerung ziehen, dass viele Autoren die unkorrekten

Empfehlungen anbieten, dass die Experimente in den unkontrollierbaren

Bedingungen erzeugt wurden. Die vorliegende Schlussfolgerung lässt zu,

die Analyse der Monografie von D.A. Tarassow "Die Sehkraft und die

Lektüre zu machen». Weiter konkretisieren wir die unkorrekten

Empfehlungen.

1. Der Faktor "Schrift" leistet insgesamt sogenannten

“statistischen Haupteinfluss” auf die Produktivität der Lektüre nicht. Auch

war es im Artikel von Chomul O.G. in den Texten für die elektronischen

Träger im Verlauf der Forschung enthüllt, dass "die Ergebnisse der

Forschungen der Geschwindigkeit der Lektüre vorgeführt haben, dass der

Vorteil der grotesken Schriften über den Schriften mit den Kerben

existiert». Dieses Ergebnis darf man nicht rechtfertigt halten, da selbst

wenn einer der Parameter der Schrift auf die Produktivität der Lektüre

wedelt. Von der Bestätigung ist die Behauptung aus der obenerwähnten

Monografie "ein Einziger Parameter der Schrift, der die Erkennung der

Symbole wesentlich beeinflusst (die Deutlichkeit) und auf die visuelle

245

Teilung der Zeilen wirkt, es ist die Höhe (« die Größe ») der

Großbuchstaben».

2. Im Artikel "Über Lesebarkeit des Textsatzes in der Zeitung und

der Zeitschrift" von S.L. Wassiljewexistiert solche Behauptung auch, wie

"die niedrige Deutlichkeit Akzidenzen der Schriften mit den dekorativen

Unmäßigkeiten verbunden ist, die zum Zerspalten der Aufmerksamkeit des

Lesers führen, fordern die zusätzliche Arbeit der Augen». Der Artikel "Die

Einschätzung Lesebarkeit der Schrift auf dem Material des offiziellen

Dokumentes" behauptet man, dass die Forschung vorgeführt ist, dass am

meisten die Lesebarkeit die Schriften mit den Kerben, solche wie

Literaturnaya, Garamond, Journal sind, Mysl Narrow u.a. besitzen. Jedoch

wird die vorliegende Theorie im Artikel "die Sehkraft und die Lektüre"

nicht bestätigt. Die Gründung gibt ihm die folgende Behauptung "die Form

der Symbole der Schrift, das Vorhandensein oder die Abwesenheit der

Kerben beeinflussen die Geschwindigkeit der Lektüre tatsächlich nicht.

Die Präferenzen dieser oder jener Schriften sind hauptsächlich ein

Ergebnis der vorhergehenden Erfahrung des Lesers, der Gewohnheiten,

der subjektiven Einschätzungen und der primären Erfahrung, die am

Anfang des Leseunterrichts gebildet sind».

3. «Die Analyse der Methoden der Verbesserung der

Wahrnehmung des elektronischen Textes» von Sekow A.N. sagt über den

Einfluss der Breite der Zeile in den Symbolen. Bei den großen

Bedeutungen ist es schwieriger, die Reihenfolge der Zeilen

wiederherzustellen, bei den Kleinen nimmt die Belastung auf den

Sehapparat zu. Die optimale Bedeutung ist 60-70 Symbole auf die Zeile.

Jedoch wird es in der Monografie von D.A. Tarassow bemerkt, dass "sich

die optimale Länge der Zeile von den Besonderheiten der Sehkraft des

Menschen, sowie dem Umfang der Symbole geklärt (die Zahl der

Symbole, die gleichzeitig während der Fixierungen wahrgenommen

werden, ist genauer. Der Mensch liest (erkennt, unterscheidet) nicht nur

die Buchstaben des Wortes, sondern auch die Wortverbindung. Der

Zeilenabstand soll größere mittlereEntfernungen haben, damit die Zeilen

des Textes eine von anderer gut optisch abgetrennt wurden.

In der Arbeit ist die Forschung der Deutlichkeit der elektronischen

Texte mit verschiedenen Parametern des Satzes (die Schrift, derKegel,

derZeilendurchschuss) gemacht. Die Systeme entfernt «eyetracking», die

in der Literatur vorgestellt sind, können auf zwei Gruppen eingestuft sein:

einzellig «eyetracking» und mehrzellig «eyetracking». Mit Hilfe des

vorliegenden Systems waren die Parameter der Lektüre verschiedener 55

246

Texte gemessen. Nach den bekommenen Daten waren die Zeitpläne

aufgebaut, ausgehend von denen, die Zeit der Lektüre jedes Textes, die

mittlere Länge Sakkads, sowie die mittlere Fixierung des Textes, in den

Sekunden bestimmt war. Wir haben vierverschiedene Texte, betrachtet.

Es war entdeckt, dass es besonders schlecht für die Augen die mit

der Schrift Art Script gedruckten Texte (die russische Kursivschrift) sind.

Man braucht, zu bemerken, dass mit der Verkleinerung der Kegel die

Deutlichkeit verschlimmert wurde. Eine für das Auge bequemste Schrift

ist Times New Roman. Die Wahrnehmung der gegebenen Schrift ist a

schnellsten. Wie es oben gesagt wurde, ist das vorliegende Ergebnis eine

Untersuchung, dass sich die vorliegende Schrift in den elektronischen

Texten meistens trifft.


1. Васильев С. Л. Удобочитаемость газеты / С. Л. Васильев. –

2-е изд. – Краснодар: Изд-во КубГУ, 1999. – 72 с.

2. Васильев С. Л. Ориентирование читателя в

информационном пространстве газеты и журнала / С. Л. Васильев. –

Тюмень: Мандрика, 2006. – 112 с.

3. Васильев С. Л. Удобочитаемость газеты и журнала / С. Л.

Васильев. – Воронеж: Кварта, 2010. – 152 с.

4. Современные научные исследования и инновации. 2012. №

5 URL: http://web.snauka.ru/issues/2012/05/13023 (дата обращения:

04.02.2016).

К.Э. Аникин, Д.П. Ефремова




Альтернативные операционные системы

В данной статье рассматриваются альтернативные

операционные системы, история их появления, их особенности и

сферы применения на примерах систем, обладающих наибольшим

потенциалом для развития и внёсших значительный вклад в развитие

информационных технологий.

247

Alternative operating systems

The operating system is the most important part of software. We can't

use personal computer without this integral part of software. Operating

systems or OS are special kind of software which acts as an interface

between hardware such as CPU, memory, peripherals and user

applications like web-browser, text or graphics editor and also manages

resources of computer. Usually operating systems have fundamental low-

level part which is called kernel. To interface with various devices OS

requires specific software named "drivers". As a rule, they are developed

by device manufacturer. The whole complex of operating system and

service programs is often called "distribution".

Currently most computers operate using one of Microsoft Windows

family systems. Successful partnership with IBM company in early years

and focusing on personal computers sector brought wide popularity to

Microsoft and its systems. Nowadays many people associate the term

“computer operating system” with Microsoft Windows. The closest

pursuer of Microsoft Windows is OS X used on Macintosh computers

produced by the Apple Corporation, but due to closed architecture policy it

isn't used anywhere else.

For a long time the development of operating systems was the

prerogative of major corporations, but spreading and availability of

computer technologies led to appearance of many competitors that are

trying to deprive Windows of leadership. Most of them started as

enthusiasts' projects but later some of these systems attracted software

giants and the attention of international corporations.

The most famous family of alternative operating systems is, of

course, Linux-based systems. In 1991 a Finnish student Linus Torvalds,

inspired by MINIX system, started to develop operating system that was

UNIX-like. Despite the fact he didn’t expect he will be supported in his

work, nowadays millions of people worldwide and companies such as

Intel, IBM, Samsung, Google and Oracle, contribute to Linux

development. To make a complete operating system Torvalds needed

various software parts so he decided to use developments of GNU project,

which concentrates on creation of free and open-source system and

software, thereby operating systems based on Linux are often called

GNU/Linux operating systems. As Linux is just a kernel and doesn’t

specifies user applications, there are many versions of operating system

made up of that kernel and a set of software. They are called "linux

248

distribution". Some of them are developed by companies, organizations,

government structures or by enthusiasts. There are usual desktop, server,

multimedia, educational, specialized or hardware specific distributions.

The most widespread system built on Linux kernel is Android - it runs on

most of mobile devices. Also Linux-based systems have significant part in

other sectors. The ten most powerful supercomputers operate using Linux.

More than ninety percent of the top one million web servers work by

means of one of Linux distribution. During last 10 years Linux drastically

advances to desktop segment. Appearance of user-friendly distribution and

interest of corporations significantly contributed to this. One of the factors

assisted to this is interest of Valve corporation and intention of making

game platform based on Linux.

Another popular UNIX-like family of systems is Berkeley Software

Distribution (BSD). Originally, it was started by people of the University

of California, Berkeley in 1977. BSD was hugely inspired by UNIX

operating system and early versions contain its code. Due to mild license

policy Berkeley systems provided basis to many open-source development

projects, e.g. NetBSD, FreeBSD and their parts were used in consumer

operating systems like OSX and Windows NT. Also BSD was widely

adopted by vendors of workstation-class systems in the form of proprietary

Unix variants. Because of its open source nature BSD has innumerable

amount of offsprings. The most popular open-source successor of BSD

systems is FreeBSD, which is widely used on servers and networking

equipment and is the foundation for many other systems. FreeBSD is

aimed to provide good support for commercial off-the-shelf workstations,

servers and high-end embedded systems. Its flexibility made FreeBSD to

be a good base for developers’ own solutions, for example Sony

Playstation 4 uses customized version of FreeBSD distribution. Also, there

are a lot of FreeBSD descendants that are made for various purposes, from

embedded firewall and router solutions to desktop distributions.

Haiku is the project trying to create modern operating system for

personal desktop usage. Haiku OS is vastly inspired by BeOS, operating

system for personal computers developed by Be Inc. and which was

positioned as a multimedia platform. BeOS was designed to use modern

technologies and take advantages of hardware, in late 90's it competed

with Windows. The key features that distinguish Haiku from other

operating systems are specific focus on personal computing and

responsiveness. Filesystem of Haiku is organized like database and that

made information search and sorting easier. It offers to developers rich

249

object-oriented program interface and fully threaded design which is

efficient with use of multi-core CPUs. HaikuOS reimplements BeOS

applications interface so it is fully compatible with applications written for

this system. Also applications for this system were built using many cross-

platform components and technologies, e.g. Qt and Java, and were ported

from other open source systems like FreeBSD or Linux.

KolibriOS is a system for personal computers with x86 architecture

written mostly in low-level assembly programming language. Initially,

KolibriOS was forked from another operating system written in assembler

- MenuetOS, after changing its development direction. Due to using of

low-level assembler language this operating system has extremely small

size and can be stored, in base version, on 3,5" floppy disk. On the other

hand this feature limits portability of operating system. Despite its size,

KolibriOS has full USB and networking stacks and many user applications

like text editors, multimedia players, document viewers. Kolibri is aimed

to be used in embedded systems and for educational purposes. Tasks, such

as hardware testing, supervisory control and data acquisition and various

types of automated control can be implemented by means of KolibriOS.

QNX is a UNIX-like real-time operating system using microkernel

paradigm and working on principle of message-based communication. It

was developed by Gordon Bell and Dan Dodge at the University of

Waterloo in 1980. Foremost QNX is operating system for embedded

systems building. But one of the fundamental features of QNX is

modularity and consequently scalability. Therefore, it can be used with

small controllers, desktop computers and, due to its networking abilities, in

efficient clusters. Usually QNX is used when high reliability of system is

important, e.g. medical equipment, military equipment, industrial

machinery and others. In recent years QNX has started to develop

multimedia direction that led to QNX Car project and BlackBerry

PlayBook tablet.

ReactOS is a free open source operating system based on design

principles of Windows NT architecture. The base of the system was

written completely from scratch and with co-operation with WINE project

which reimplements Windows API for Unix-like systems. The main goal

of the ReactOS project is to provide an operating system which will allow

Windows applications and drivers to run as they would do it on Windows

system. Additionally, the look and feel of the Windows operating system

is used so that people accustomed to the familiar Windows user interface

would find ReactOS straightforward. The ultimate goal of ReactOS is to

250

allow to use it as the main system without any need to change software

used with Microsoft Windows.

To sum up, there are significant number of alternative operating

systems with the potential to change computing landscape in the near

future. Some of these new operating systems are still at the relatively early

stage of development, some of them are applied for particular purposes,

but all of them have contributed heavily to operating systems progress and

introduced technologies that make using of computer more handy and

efficient.


1. Операционная система реального времени QNX /

Хабрахабр. URL: http://habrahabr.ru/post/124656/ (дата обращения:

13.11.2015).

2. Применение KolibriOS. Часть 1 / Хабрахабр. URL:

http://habrahabr.ru/company/kolibrios/blog/256799/ (дата обращения:

13.11.2015).

3. BerkeleySoftwareDistribution – Wikipedia. URL:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution (дата

обращения: 13.11.2015).

4. Linux – Wikipedia. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux


5. React OS Project. URL: http://reactos.org (дата обращения:

13.11.2015).

6. The Dawn of Haiku OS. URL:

http://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/software/the-dawn-of-haiku-os/0 (дата

обращения: 13.11.2015).

7. Top 500 Supercomputing Sites. URL: http://top500.org (дата

обращения: 13.11.2015).

http://habrahabr.ru/post/124656/

http://habrahabr.ru/company/kolibrios/blog/256799/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution%20(дата

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux

http://reactos.org/

http://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/software/the-dawn-of-haiku-os/0

http://top500.org/

251

А.И. Падорова, С.В. Платонова




Операционная система Aндроид. За и против.

У каждой ОС есть свои ощутимые сильные и слабые стороны.

Во многом секрет выбора той или иной платформы определяется

аудиторией. Apple выбирают люди, которым важны в первую очередь

универсальность, многофункциональность и престиж. За

устройствами Андроид охотятся люди, настроенные на простоту в

использовании и работе с данными, а также заинтересованные в

покупке девайса для работы по доступной цене. Так или иначе,

Борьба IOS и Андроид будет продолжаться, до тех пор, пока одна из

компаний не предложит что-то принципиально новое,

перекрывающее все достоинства конкурентов.

Android-Betriebssystem: Vor- und Nachteile

Android ist sowohl ein Betriebssystem als auch eine Software-

Plattform für mobile Geräte wie Smartphones, Mobiltelefone,

Mediaplayer, Netbooks, und Tablet-Computer, die von der Open Handset

Alliance (gegründet von Google) entwickelt wird. Basis ist der Linux-

Kernel. Android hatte als Smartphone-Betriebssystem im zweiten Quartal

2014 einen weltweiten Marktanteil von 84,6 Prozent nach 79,3 Prozent im

zweiten Quartal 2013, 68,1 Prozent im zweiten Quartal 2012, 52,5 Prozent

im dritten Quartal 2011 und 25,5 Prozent im dritten Quartal 2010. Im April

2013 verkündete Eric Schmidt, Executive Chairman von Google, dass pro

Tag eineinhalb Millionen neue Android-Geräte aktiviert werden. Dies ist

knapp dreimal so viel wie noch im Juli 2011. Bis September 2013 wurden

weltweit über eine Milliarde Android-Geräte aktiviert.

Android gilt derzeit als größter Konkurrent der Apple-Plattform iOS.

Das quelloffene Betriebssystem bietet verschiedene Vorteile gegenüber

iOS und wird mittlerweile bei unzähligen Smartphones und Tablet-PCs

eingesetzt.

Android ist eine freie Software und quelloffen. Das bedeutet, dass

der Quelltext der Software öffentlich zugänglich ist und von jedem

Programmierer eingesehen werden kann. Die Weiterentwicklung steht

252

jedem offen. Ein weiterer wesentlicher Vorteil der Android-Plattform ist

die Tatsache, dass der Urheber Google nicht sehr restriktiv damit umgeht:

Unabhängige Entwickler können relativ schnell und einfach Anwendungen

für den plattformeigenen Marktplatz Android Market entwickeln und diese

binnen weniger Tage veröffentlichen. Dagegen muss beim Konkurrenten

Apple ein langwieriger Prozess durchlaufen werden, der bei vielen

Anwendungen in der Ablehnung der Zulassung endet. (Auf Android

umsteigen und dem iPhone den Rücken kehren).

Betrachtet man eines Android-Download-Portal ist zu erkennen, dass

momentan mehr als 340.000 Softwareanwendungen existieren. Monatlich

kommen rund 30.000 neue hinzu. Die dort angebotene Software ist zum

größten Teil kostenlos.

Geräte-Bandbreite schier unendlich

Laut dem bekannte IT-Nachrichtenportal wurden im Sommer 2010 in

den USA erstmals mehr Android-basierte Mobiltelefone als iPhones

verkauft. Dieser Trend hält seither weiter an: Das Android-Betriebssystem

gewinnt immer mehr Marktanteile, was vor allem an dem großen Zuspruch

der Handy-Hersteller liegt. So vergeht kein Monat ohne eine

Neuveröffentlichung mit Googles mobilem Betriebssystem.

Möglicherweise liegt darin auch der Grund, warum die Android-

Software so auf dem Vormarsch ist: Durch die große Zahl an Herstellern,

die ihre Mobiltelefone fit für Android machen, erweitern sich die

Auswahlmöglichkeiten für den Kunden und der Markt bleibt in Bewegung.

Zuletzt wurde Android 3.0, eine spezielle Version für Tablet-PCs,

vorgestellt. Prompt folgte die Industrie dem Ruf des Suchmaschinen-

Giganten aus Kalifornien und kündigte allein für das Jahr 2010 etwa 80

verschiedene Tablet-Modelle auf Basis von Android an.

Die Vorteile

Der auf Google Chrome basierende Webkit-Browser macht das

Surfen ähnlich komfortabel wie das iPhone. Mit dem Webkit lässt sich

schnell zoomen, scrollen oder mehrere Seiten gleichzeitig anzeigen.

Zudem lässt sich Android optimal personalisieren. Es bietet die

Möglichkeit von drei verschiedenen Bildschirmansichten, die durch einen

Fingerstreich auf der Startansicht erreichbar sind. Auf jeder dieser

Startansichten lässt sich das Symbol einer Anwendung oder Fotos

hinzufügen und kann so individuell gestaltet werden.

Starke Bindung an Google

Auch die enge Verknüpfung zu Google-Diensten wie Google mail,

Google Kalender oder eben der Google-Suchmaschine können als Nachteil

253

gesehen werden: Wer alternative Dienste wie Bing! oder Hotmail nutzen

möchte, muss Konfigurationsumwege in Kauf nehmen. Die Virenexperten

sagen, dass durch die ständige Weiterentwicklung der Software alte

Sicherheitslücken bei vielen Usern bestehen bleiben.

Die Android-User bestimmen selbst, wann sie ein Update

herunterladen möchten. Oftmals kommen Updates gar nicht. Die Folge

sind veraltete Sicherheitslücken, die unentdeckt bleiben. So werden immer

wieder Einfallstore für Schadprogramme bekannt, die bei iOS längst

geschlossen wurden.

Die meisten alltäglichen Aufgaben erledigen Anwender auf beiden

Systemen ohne Probleme. Wer bereits über bezahlte Apps verfügt, wird

meist seinem System treu bleiben. Letztlich hängt es deswegen auch von

den persönlichen Ansprüchen und auch vom individuellen

Designgeschmack eines Nutzers ab, ob er sich für ein iOS- oder für ein

Android-Produkt entscheidet.

Also haben beide Betriebssysteme ihre Vorteile und Nachteile. Nur

das Publikum entscheidet, welche Software-Plattform zu wählen.IOS wird

von Menschen ausgewählt, die in erster Linie die Vielseitigkeit, die

Funktionalität und das Prestige wichtig sind.Für Android-Geräte jagen die

Menschen, die die Benutzerfreundlichkeit, die einfachere Datenhandling

und die günstigen Preise hochstellen.Die Kämpfe zwischen IOS und

Android wird fortgesetzt, bis eines der Unternehmen etwas grundlegend

Neues nicht bieten, schließend alle Vorteile der Konkurrenz.


1. Голощапов А. GoogleAndroid: программирование для

мобильных устройств. / СПб.: БХВ-Петербург, 2010. — 448 с.

2. Коматинэни С., Маклин Д., Хэшими С. GoogleAndroid:

программирование для мобильных устройств = ProAndroid 2. — 1-е

изд. — СПб.: Питер, 2011. — 736 с.

3. Сатия Коматинени, Дэйв Маклин. Android 4 для

профессионалов. Создание приложений для планшетных

компьютеров и смартфонов = ProAndroid 4. / М.: Вильямс. — 880 с.

4. Роджерс Р., Ломбардо Д. Android. Разработка приложений.

— М.: ЭКОМ Паблишерз, 2010. — 400 с.

254

И.В. Артемов, Ю.А. Паздникова




Канал на YouTube - хобби или работа?

В работе описано, каким образом возможно использование

канала (аккаунта) на видеохостинге YouTube в качестве инструмента

для получения пассивного дохода. Проведен анализ деятельности,

которой часто сопровождается создание и развитие каналов,

пригодных для получения прибыли.

A channel on YouTube – a hobby or a job?

YouTube is a famous video-sharing website that was founded in

2005 by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley and Jawed Karim. Many people use it

to watch, for example, entertaining and educational videos. But the main

issue is that all site content is generated by YouTube users themselves. If

you want to upload some videos to share it with other users, you have to

create a channel. But you probably don't know what great things can be

achieved with these channels in the right hands.

Some people use channels for showing videos to their friends - you

don't need any special preparations to do that, only YouTube account and

your PC with the Internet connection are required. But it's not the only

application. Your channel can serve as a small business. It will take all

your free time and give you money in return. Just like in real start-ups,

there are some steps that will lead you to success.

Firstly, you have to attract some basic audience. Let's suppose that

you already have some videos on your channel. The simplest methods of

helping other users with finding your video is picking an appropriate video

name and adding some meaningful tags (these are like key words in an

article) to it. But everyone acts like this. There are other methods that have

higher efficiency, but require additional work and resources. For example,

you can order an advertisement from some popular channels' owners: they

will tell their audience about your channel for some payment. Also many

people like to read comments under popular videos, so you can write about

your developing channel there, but be careful: some video owners can ban

you for this kind of promotional activity.

255

When there are more people, who watch your videos, you can begin

setting up your account monetization. To do this, you have to make sure

that your videos do not contain any scenes with violence; your background

music has to be royalty-free (special type of content license) [1]. Also your

video mustn't be a simple compilation of content that is created by others.

The function of monetization can be enabled even for very "young" and

small channels, but next step to the profit is more difficult.

Now you have to choose between official YouTube partner program

(AdSense) and Multi-Channel Networks (MCN). First option is extremely

beneficial but also extremely dangerous (despite it is called "official"). It

grants you 100% profit share (every 1000 views will give you from 70

cents to 3 dollars), but if some forbidden activity is detected on your

channel, all your earnings will disappear. AdSense also has some

additional requirements: you must have enough subscribers, and total

views count on your channel have to be more than a certain number.

MCN partner program is a more secure option. If you choose it, you

shouldn't worry about the safety of your money, but with this kind of

partner you will lose some percentage of your income (from 200 to 400

views from 1000 will "pass" to MCN).

If monetization is enabled, and your partners agree to work with you,

some commercial will finally appear on your channel. On figure 1 you can

see where can the advertisement blocs be located.

fig. 1 - Different advertisement blocks' location options

Your number of views must increase constantly, so you should think

how to keep your audience. Don't forget to remind your viewers, that they

can subscribe to your channel: place an annotation with the subscription

link (see figure 2) on each of your videos or ask viewers orally to

subscribe at the end of the video. All of your subscribers will be notified

when some new video appears, so more people will probably watch it.

There is some popular strategy: don't upload many new videos at once –

better add new content, after the previous one gets enough views.

256

fig. 2 - Inserting clickable subscription link in YouTube Video Editor

Every channel's owner should remember that the longest videos

aren't necessarily the best ones. There aren't so many tough people who

will withstand watching a 3 hours long stream, and you will also spend a

half of the day uploading such video. Big amount of montage and video

editing can also slow you video production business down, because you

will have to render (or "rebuild") the edited video one more time on your

PC.

It is worth mentioning that partner programs aren't the only ways to

get money from your videos. For example, if your viewers like your videos

very much, you can tell them that if they want to support your channel,

then they can donate some money. Then you should write down your

online wallet's identifier in all of your videos' descriptions. Don't forget to

thank your donators in your next videos. Also, when your channel is

popular enough, you can promote other bloggers for some payment, just

like different famous bloggers have already promoted you in the very

beginning of your career.

Obviously, it is recommended not to irritate your loyal viewers.

Rapid change of your videos' topics, long absence of any new content of

your channel or overabundance of advertisement (it's a very frequent

mistake too) can disappoint your audience. Most likely it will lead to lots

of subscription cancellations that will be also accompanied with many

angry comments. Some "devoted" viewers can even think about revenge:

for example, they can try to convince YouTube administration to put a

strike on your channel by complaining on forbidden content in your videos

(even if there is no such content).

Of course, fraud is possible in every kind of business, and YouTube

isn't an exception. There are many "advanced" channel owners who use

special applications and web-services to cheat views or likes count on their

videos. So, it is an ordinary situation, when a video has more likes, than

views, which is kind of illogical. Other "old good" cheating method is

search engine abuse. Many people write their videos' titles with inclusion

257

of top YouTube channels and videos names. So, if someone wants to find

his favorite video by typing it's title into the search field, he will also see

these fraudulent videos in the top search results (especially if the filters

search results by upload date, but not by rating). Entering many video

topic unrelated tags also helps impostors with their videos promotion

(figure 4).

Some people want to monetize their channels despite the fact, that

there are music tracks and video fragments, that are protected by

copyright, inside of their videos. To do that, they try to bypass YouTube's

pattern recognition system. If you slightly squeeze your music track in

audio editor (for example, make it last 3:58 instead of 4 minutes) and

rotate or scale your video a bit in video editor (1 or 2 degrees will be

enough), then these things most likely will not be recognized as already

existing ones (see figure 5).

In conclusion, it is worth mentioning, that even these effective

methods and unfair tricks will not allow you to reach big income instantly.

There are still not many people who can replace ordinary work with video

producing for YouTube.


1. History of You Tube – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. URL:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_YouTube (дата обращения:

11.10.2015).

2. Videomonetizationcriteria – YouTubeHelp. URL:

https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/97527?hl=en (дата

обращения: 10.10.2015).

fig. 4 - Tags (key words) abuse fig. 5 - Audio track stretching in Sony Vegas

https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/97527?hl=en

258

3. You Tube advertising formats – YouTubeHelp. URL:

https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2467968?hl=en (дата

обращения: 10.10.2015).

В.В. Барашева, Ю.С. Пожарицкая




Использование информационных технологий в обучении:

массовые открытые онлайн курсы

Данная статья посвящена рассмотрению новой популярной

тенденции в образовании – массовым открытым онлайн курсам

(МООК). В статье приводятся типы МООК и их основные

характеристики и отличия, рассматриваются преимущества и

возможные недостатки данного вида обучения.

Use of information technologies in education:

Massive Open Online Courses

Information technologies and modern devices are used more and

more often nowadays. Their use concerns different contexts, ranging from

everyday life communication to professional areas, including such fields as

medicine, security protection and education. Moreover, digital resources

and tools have become an integral part of modern educational process;

they bring benefit both to students and teachers. Such technologies are

predominantly embraced by the sphere of higher education and academic

study.

One of possible ways of information technologies application in

learning is distant education. The most recent development of distant

education is represented by MOOCs. MOOCs are classes that are taught

online to large numbers of students, with minimal involvement by

professors. Typically, students watch short video lectures and complete

assignments that are graded either by machines or by other students. That

way a lone professor can support a class with hundreds of thousands of

participants [1].

https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2467968?hl=en

259

As MOOCs have evolved, there appear to be two distinct types,

particularly in terms of their designand philosophical position: those that

emphasize the connectivist philosophy, and those that resemble more

traditional courses. To distinguish the two, Stephen Downes proposed the

terms "cMOOC" and "xMOOC"[3].

xMOOCs have the following common design features:

video lectures: xMOOCs use the standard lecture mode, but

they are delivered online by participants downloading on demand recorded

video lectures. These video lectures are normally available on a weekly

basis over a period of 10-13 weeks. Initially these were often 50 minute

lectures, but as a result of experience some xMOOCs now are using

shorter recordings (sometimes down to 15 minutes in length) and thus

there may be more video segments. Over time, xMOOC courses, as well as

the videos, are becoming shorter in length, some now lasting only five

weeks;

computer-marked assignments: students complete an online test

and receive immediate computerised feedback. These tests are usually

offered throughout the course, and may be used just for participant

feedback. Alternatively the tests may be used for determining the award of

a certificate. Another option is for an end of course grade or certificate

based solely on an end-of-course online test. Most xMOOC assignments

are based on multiple-choice, computer-marked questions, but some

MOOCs have also used text or formula boxes for participants to enter

answers, such as coding in a computer science course, or mathematical

formulae, and in one or two cases, short text answers, but in all cases these

are computer-marked [2];

peer assessment: some xMOOCs have experimented with

assigning students randomly to small groups for peer assessment,

especially for more open-ended or more evaluative assignment questions.

This has often proved problematic though because of wide variations in

expertise between the different members of a group, and because of the

different levels of involvement in the course of different participants;

supporting materials: sometimes copies of slides,

supplementary audio files, urls to other resources, and online articles may

be included for downloading by participants;

a shared comment/discussion space where participants can post

questions, ask for help, or comment on the content of the course;

260

no or very light discussion moderation: the extent to which the

discussion or comments are moderated varies probably more than any

other feature in xMOOCs, but at its most, moderation is directed at all

participants rather than to individuals [2];

badges or certificates: most xMOOCs award some kind of

recognition for successful completion of a course, based on a final

computer-marked assessment.

xMOOCs, therefore, primarily use a teaching model focused on

the transmission of information, with high quality content delivery,

computer-marked assessment (mainly for student feedback purposes), and

automation of all key transactions between participants and the learning

platform. There is almost no direct interaction between an individual

participant and the instructor responsible for the course [2].

cMOOCs have a very different educational philosophy from

xMOOCs. cMOOCs place heavy emphasis on networking and in particular

on strong content contributions from the participants themselves.

Key design practices in cMOOCsinclude:

use of social media: partly because most cMOOCs are not

institutionally based or supported, they do not use a shared platform or

platforms but are more loosely supported by a range of ‘connected’ tools

and media. These may include a simple online registration system, and the

use of web conferencing tools such as Blackboard Collaborate or Adobe

Connect, streamed video or audio files, blogs, wikis, ‘open’ learning

management systems such as Moodle or Canvas, Twitter, LinkedIn or

Facebook, all enabling participants to share their contributions. Indeed, as

new apps and social media tools develop, they are likely to be incorporated

into cMOOCs too;

participant-driven content: in principle, other than a common

topic that may be decided by someone wanting to organise a cMOOC,

content is decided upon and contributed by the participants themselves, in

this sense very much like any other community of practice. In practice,

though, cMOOC organisers (who themselves tend to have some expertise

in the topic of the cMOOC) are likely to invite potential participants who

have expertise or are known already to have a well articulated approach to

a topic to make contributions around, which participants can discuss and

debate. Other participants choose their own ways to contribute or

communicate. The most common one is through blog posts, tweets, or

comments on other participants’ blog posts, although some cMOOCs use

wikis or open source online discussion forums. The key design practice

261

with regard to content is that all participants contribute to and share

content [2];

assessment: there is no formal assessment, although participants

may seek feedback from other, more knowledgeable participants, on an

informal basis. Basically participants decide for themselves whether what

they have learned is appropriate to them or not.

cMOOCs, therefore, primarily use a networked approach to learning

based on autonomous learners connecting with each other across open and

connected social media and sharing knowledge through their own personal

contributions. There is no pre-set curriculum and no formal teacher-student

relationship, either for delivery of content or for learner support.

Participants learn from the contributions of others, from the meta-level

knowledge generated through the community, and from self-reflection on

their own contributions [2].

Even though these two models have many differences, both of them

have also a number of advantages in common. Among the advantages are

free or almost free access to the course, opportunities for participants

which cannot take part in ordinary courses because of some reasons,

relatively self-arranged schedule, a possibility for constant professional

development etc.

Despite striking advantages and benefits of MOOCs, they still have

controversial points. The MOOC Guidesuggests five possible challenges

for MOOCs:

relying on user-generated content can create a chaotic learning

environment;

digital literacy is necessary to make use of the online materials;

the time and effort required from participants may exceed what

students are willing to commit to a free online course;

once the course is released, content will be reshaped and

reinterpreted by the massive student body, making the course trajectory

difficult for instructors to control;

participants must self-regulate and set their own goals [4].

In this paper we have seen that distant learning in general and

MOOCs in particular are a growing trend in modern reality. However, it is

impossible to predict further development of these technologies. MOOCs

give people opportunity to satisfy their need in constant self-education and

personal growth, and provide free access to information, which is highly

important for living in the modern world. But we should take into

262

consideration that the most effective use of MOOCs is to combine them

with the other forms of studying and not to rely on them solely.


1. de Chazal, E., English for Academic Purposes / Oxford


2. Bates, T., Comparing xMOOCs and cMOOCs: philosophy and

practice. URL: http://www.tonybates.ca/2014/10/13/comparing-xmoocs-

and-cmoocs-philosophy-and-practice/ (дата обращения: 20.01.2016).

3. Siemens, George. MOOCs are really a platform. URL:

http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2012/ 07/ 25/moocs-are-really-a-

platform/ (дата обращения: 20.01.2016).

4. MoocGuide. Benefits and Challenges of a MOOC. URL:

http://moocguide.wikispaces.com/2.+

Benefits+and+challenges+of+a+MOOC (дата обращения: 14.01.2016).

5. MOOCs in 2014: Breaking Down the Numbers. URL:

https://www.edsurge.com/news/2014-12-26-moocs-in-2014-breaking-

down-the-numbers (дата обращения: 15.01.2016).

6. The Chronicle of Higher Education: What You Need to Know

about MOOCs. URL: http://chronicle .com/article/What-You-Need-to-

Know-About/133475 (дата обращения: 15.01.2016).

Д.Н. Васькова, Л.В. Ивкина




Нейроэтика, новая прикладная наука

Нейроэтика – молодая перспективная наука, развившаяся из

направления биоэтики. Постоянный прогресс био-медицинских

технологий сформировал обширное поле проблематики в сфере

применения научных достижений по отношению к человеку. В

рамках нейроэтики рассматривается широкий круг вопросов – от

лечения психических заболеваний до усиления когнитивных и

психических способностей человека.

http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2012/%2007/%2025/moocs-are-really-a-platform/

http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2012/%2007/%2025/moocs-are-really-a-platform/

http://moocguide.wikispaces.com/2.+%20Benefits+and+challenges+of+a+MOOC

http://moocguide.wikispaces.com/2.+%20Benefits+and+challenges+of+a+MOOC

https://www.edsurge.com/news/2014-12-26-moocs-in-2014-breaking-down-the-numbers

https://www.edsurge.com/news/2014-12-26-moocs-in-2014-breaking-down-the-numbers

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Neuroéthique, nouvelle science appliquée

Le 21-ième siècle est sans doute le siècle du cerveau. Les récentes

avancées impressionnantes en neurosciences et, surtout, leurs applications

soulèvent bien des questions éthiques fondamentales.

Depuis l’éthique générale classique (philosophie morale) et l’éthique

médicale (serment d’Hippocrate, le code de déontologie médicale) la

bioéthique (éthique du vivant), au 20-ième siècle, devient vite un sujet

d’actualité. Ainsi, dans le domaine de procréation humaine, on discute de

la contraception et l’avortement, le don et l’usage d’éléments et produits

(embryons, gamètes, ovules, sang de cordon), la gestation

(hypothétique) de l’embryon humain par des espèces non humaines, le

clonage humain, le diagnostic prénatal et préimplantatoire, l’eugénisme

(stérilisation des personnes à risque génétique), le statut juridique du

foetus, l’utilisation d’embryons surnuméraires (cellules souches), etc. En

ce qui concerne l’intervention sur le corps humain, on peut citer le

prélèvement (et la vente) d’organes et de tissus, la gestion de banques

d’organes, les prothèses, la neurochirurgie (lobotomie…), l’utilisation des

substances (psychotropes, neuroleptiques)… Pour le génie génétique, on

peut noter les problèmes de brevetage du vivant, la biopiraterie, les

manipulations alimentaires (OGM), l’amélioration psycho-cognitive et

émotionnelle…

Enfin, les questions de la vie et de la mort: acharnement

thérapeutique et euthanasie, soins palliatifs, controle de la senescence…[1]

Les excès de la société industrielle ont conduit, dans la seconde

moitié du 20-ième siècle, à une vision moins anthropocentrique du monde,

prenant en compte les intérêts de l’ensemble du monde vivant (les

animaux, les végétaux, les écosystèmes, etc.). Le champ disciplinaire de la

bioéthique se trouve ainsi très étendu et diversifié.

Mais la situation bioéthique devient encore plus compliquée avec

l’avènement et les progrès rapides des sciences neurologiques, dites

neurosciences, avec leurs technologies (IRMf, neurochimie…). On parle

alors de la neuroéthique considerée comme une branche de la bioéthique

qui étudierait les valeurs morales des technologies neuroscientifiques et

qui discuterait sur le plan moral de la manipulation du cerveau humain, en

vue de le guérir ou de l’améliorer (attention, mémoire, cognition). Le

problème éthique essentiel serait donc: dans quelle mesure peut-on

intervenir? La plupart des chercheurs [2] utilisent le concept de

neuroéthique dans le sens plus large des conséquences sociales des

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découvertes neurologiques (la maladie, la normalité, la mortalité, le mode

de vie…). La question centrale de neuroéthique serait alors celle de la

signification des recherches sur le cerveau pour la compréhension de

l’homme par lui-même, ou encore l’empiètement possible de la technique

sur la nature humaine. L’analyse neuroéthique concernerait les notions

telles que “responsabilité”, “culpabilité”, “personne”, etc. qui sont des

concepts recurrents de la philosophie morale. Cette éthique générale des

neurosciences remonte, au fait, à David Hume (le déterminisme biologique

et le libre arbitre), tandis que l’éthique appliquée des neurosciences venant

du côté des chercheurs en neurosciences explique l’origine du sentiment

moral par une combinaison d’expériences structurées, de propriétés

socialement acceptées et fonctionnelles, etc. Cette approche “appliquée”

de neuroéthique est largement pratiquée dans le domaine des sciences

neurologiques.

L’éthique appliquée des neurosciences questionne les technologies et

projets de recherche concrets, comme, par exemple, l’utilisation de

l’imagerie neurologique. Il existe déjà aux Etats-Unis des firmes

commerciales qui promettent la détection de mensonges basée sur l’IRMf,

est-ce légitime? Un autre exemple: la modification ciblée de l’activité du

cerveau au moyen de substances pharmacologiques (1 à 2 % des enfants

américains scolarisés prennent du méthylphénidate, pour se calmer et

augmenter leurs capacités de concentration). La neuroéthique appliquée

pose la question de la justification morale de ce genre d’intervention qui

est hors du cadre médical et peut être remplacée par une alternative non

invasive (méditation, etc.). De même, le recours aux techniques

biomédicales en vue de “neuro-amélioration” chez les personnes non

malades [3]. Il s’agit de l’emploi de médicaments (anxiolytiques,

antidépresseurs, stimulants cognitifs…) ou de la stimulation cérébrale

transcranienne pour améliorer les performances cognitives de tout un

chacun. Ainsi, le Comité consultatif national (franҫais) d’éthique se dit

préoccupé par le risque d’émergence d’une “classe sociale améliorée

constituée d’une petite minorité d’individus bien informés et disposant de

ressources financières suffisantes pour y acceder”, et appelle à une “veille

éthique” sur le sujet. Sinon il y aura “le risque d'émergence d'une classe

sociale “améliorée” contribuant à aggraver encore l'écart entre les riches et

les pauvres”, ces derniers courant le risque in fine d'être considérés comme

pathologiques ou “diminués”. Ces inégalités pourraient revêtir une

dimension planétaire, entre pays ayant les moyens d'améliorer leurs

populations et les autres, suggère le CCNE. Ainsi on voit que la

http://conjugaison.lemonde.fr/conjugaison/premier-groupe/aggraver/

http://conjugaison.lemonde.fr/conjugaison/troisieme-groupe/rev%C3%AAtir/

265

neuroéthique, une science relativement jeune (le terme lui-même date de

1971), a déjà fait ses preuves. En 2015, à Paris, s’est tenu le 2-ième

Congrès de Neuroéthique, sous l’égide de l’ICM (Institut du Cerveau et de

la Moelle épinière) et de l’INSERM. Dans le cadre de ce congrès le

“Human Brain Project”a té présenté. C’est un projet européen, doté de 1,2

milliards d’euros sur dix ans, qui vise à mieux comprendre le cerveau

humain et ses différentes pathologies, à le simuler et à le cartographier. Un

des axes du projet est de centraliser et de rendre accessible toutes les

données disponibles sur le cerveau humain ainsi que les informations

médicales associées à différentes pathologies, grâce aux technologies de

l’information et de la communication. [4]

En conclusion, citons Christine Mitchell, Professeur à l’Université de

Harvard et investigatrice du “Human Brain Project”: “Nous sommes dans

l’âge des neurosciences et dans les prochaines décades, nous aurons

beaucoup plus d’informations concernant le cerveau que nous n’en avons

jamais eu auparavant. Nous sommes pleins d’espoir concernant les progrès

des neurosciences”.


1. Bioéthique. URL:

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9thique (дата обращения: 16.

02. 2016).

2. Neuroéthique. URL:

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro%C3%A9thique (дата обращения: 20.

02. 2016).

3. Morin H. La «neuro-amélioration», enjeu éthique. URL:

http://www.lemonde.fr/sciences/article/2014/02/17/la-neuro-amelioration-

enjeu-ethique_4368152_1650684.html (дата обращения: 17. 12. 2015).

4. Deuxième Congrès de Neuroéthique. URL: http://icm-

institute.org/fr/actualite/deuxieme-congres-de-neuroethique/ (дата

обращения: 17. 12 2015).

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C3%A9thique

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro%C3%A9thique

http://www.lemonde.fr/sciences/article/2014/02/17/la-neuro-amelioration-enjeu-ethique_4368152_1650684.html

http://www.lemonde.fr/sciences/article/2014/02/17/la-neuro-amelioration-enjeu-ethique_4368152_1650684.html

http://icm-institute.org/fr/actualite/deuxieme-congres-de-neuroethique/

http://icm-institute.org/fr/actualite/deuxieme-congres-de-neuroethique/

266

Д.О. Деденев, Ю.А. Паздникова




Защита от стеганографических атак

Данная статья демонстрирует один из методов реализации

стеганографической системы, а именно, используется метод под

названием «Наименьший значащий бит» (LSB). Реализация этого

метода наглядно демонстрируется недокументированным

применением в ПО, что может являться причиной различного рода

проблем. Результатом работы является демонстрация возможностей

подобного рода ПО, а также приведены советы по уменьшению

рисков возможного нападения.

Protection from steganographic attacks

Steganography is translated from Greek as «hidden, secret writing»,

and its use conceals the fact of information transmission [1].

In recent years, the aim of using this method has changed. Nowadays

not only hidden information can be transmitted, but a set of commands that

can bring harm to the system.

Then, there is an example of one way of secure transmission of a

command and its execution on the machine of the "victim". To implement

this method you will need:

1. The software which records the information into the last bits of

the container.

2. Presence of the program, which will extract the information

from the container, at the "victim`s".

To model this situation, assume the following:

• used operating system - Windows, which supports the NET

Framework 4.5;

• the "victim" has a program on the workplace that retrieves

information from a container;

• the "User Account Control" is disabled, and the work is carried

out by a system user with administrative rights.

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The structure of the steganography

The basic elements of any steganographic system are:

• message - as a transmitted message there will be used a

command, showing the possibilities of the software;

• container – an object used to transmit the message, which is

embedded in a special way;

• steganographic channel - a channel through which the container

filled with the message will be transferred. The Internet will be a

transmitting channel, by means of which the filled container will spread

out.

Implementation of the LSB method

From the title itself, it`s clear that the values of the least significant

bits vary depending on the implementation of the method [2]. As an object

of message transmission there will be an image. The image format must be

the one that does not produce data compression formats such is PNG and

BMP.

One pixel is represented by three numbers (Fig. 1), which

characterize the red, green and blue components of the color, which values

are in the range from 0 to 255. If we change the last bit while representing

these numbers in binary format, this modification will not be noticeable to

the eye. Consequently, the last bit will be changed in further investigation.

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 Fig. 1. Presentation of the pixel

For the representation of the text in a bit sequence ASCII was

selected as a coding table. As a result, the numbers are represented in

decimal form and then, divided into 2, in binary form. After receiving a

sequence of binary messages, the values of the red channel were taken

from the top-left pixel in the image to down column by column, and these

numbers are represented in binary form, which changes the value of the

last bit to the value that the binary sequence of the message had before.

As an implemented command we can take the following: format D: /

fs: ntfs - formats a disk partition or removable USB drive into ntfs format.

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The image of size 64x64 px was taken as the initial container (Fig.

2a). As a result of the substitution (Fig. 2b) (for better visualization the red

channel is shown (Fig. 2c)), and all the rest - reset.

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 2. a) before the command insertion; b) the program work;

c) the field of command substitution after the command insertion

After the image is received the victim browses it with a program in

which it is possible to read out the last bits and receive text information

from them. For example, when you click “Open” (Fig. 3a) and select the

desired image, the code which is responsible for processing and running

the command line of a parameter, stored in the message, starts working

(Fig. 3b).

a)

b)

Fig. 3. a) the launch of the program handler; b) the view of the image

As a result, the next command is executed (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Implementation of the transmitted command

The attacks of this kind are carried out by counterfeit software that is

either a conversion of a licensed software with disabled activation

functions or a key generator received from a pirated site. Also, the fact that

the described features may be seen in the projects with a closed source

pursuing venal aims, cannot be excluded.

And even if the software is licensed, do not forget about the

fundamentals of security policy, with a reasonable adjustment of which it

is possible to avoid fatal consequences for both the computer and the local

network, where it can be located.


1. Fridrich J. Goljan M. Du R. Reliable detection of LSB

steganography in color and grayscale images / М.: Proceedings of the 2001

workshop on Multimedia and security: new challenges. – ACM, 2001.

2. Pierre-Marc B. Advances in malware covert communication

channels, conference BlackHat. URL: https://www.blackhat.com/docs/eu-

15/materials/eu-15-Bureau-Hiding-In-Plain-Sight-Advances-In-Malware-

Covert-Communication-Channels-wp.pdf (дата обращения: 01.12.2015).

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М.В. Зыкина, Д.П. Ефремова




Internet of Everything

Данная статья раскрывает основную идею концепции Cisco

«InternetofEverything» максимально оптимизировать различные

сферы жизни человека. Рассмотрен путь развития автоматизации, и

выделены ключевые столпы любой автоматизированной системы,

способы связи между ними.

Internet of Everything

Today, the Internet has reached incredible development level. The

rate of emergence of differentinnovations and tools for communication

never stops amazing.

The Internet passed four different phases. The first phase is a

network. It started over 20 years ago, when developers have created a

converting of physical access to information in a digital format (e-mail,

browser, search engine). The second phase began at the end of the 1990s.

It is called "the network economy." During this time e-commerce was

born. We began to buy goods in another way, and companies got new

markets. The third phase began in the early 2000s and it is called “the

stage of working together". At this stage social networks, mobile phones,

video and cloud computing became popular. This step completely changed

labor sphere. The current stage is called "the Internet of Everything, or

IoE». This stage brings people, processes, data, and things, converting the

information into actions that create new opportunities, together.

In a short time the Internet has changed the way we live and work,

ways of learning and entertainment. Using new technologies we connect

physical world to the Internet more and more. We gradually move to the

Internet of Everything connecting things which remain unconnected yet.

To increase importance and value of network connection the concept of

IoE is based on four pillars: people, processes, data and things:

- People get access to the Internet via clients and browsers using

devices with the Internet connection to receive any information about any

system they want.

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- Processes link all the pillars of IoE. Only with the use of a correct

process, a user receives right information the best way.

- Data is information created by people and devices. Combined with

analytic data row data gives people and machines practical information to

make better decisions and better results.

- Things are material objects which are connected to the Internet and

among each other. These devices collect data and provide objective

information, thereby support both people and machines. Things are

divided into visible and hidden ones. Visible devices and transmission

medium are physical elements. It is such hardware as a laptop computer,

switch, router, wireless access point, or cables. Also, there are hidden

components such as wireless networks, messages which are sent using

invisible radio frequency radiation.

The interaction between these four pillars allows getting huge

amount of new information. Receiving information quickly and easily

anywhere and anytime is the main purpose of the concept. Within the

framework of the Internet of Everything, there are three main types of

interaction: "people-to-people» (P2P), «machine-to-people» (M2P) and

"machine-to-machine» (M2M). These types are realized in networks,

which are the basis for the Internet. Network is a connection of things from

simple network of local computers to the system that connect millions of

devices. The Internet is the largest network in the world, in fact, the term

"Internet" means "network of networks", the Internet is a set of

connections between a public and private networks.

The way of connecting devices affects the efficiency of each of

them. This should maximize operability or convenience of use. M2M

connections could be realized in two ways: by-wire and wirelessly. In most

cases, the connections between devices via cables take too much money

and effort, so the transmission is carried out via wireless communications.

This branch of the Internet of Everything, which aims to connect all

components of the system, is called the Internet of Things.

IoT helps to realize the full potential of the Internet of Everything.

There are also several integral parts:

- Mobile communication provides access to resources from any

device, anytime, anywhere.

- Cloud computing provides computing services on the network.

- Developing technologies allow storing and processing large amount

of data (big data);

272

- Ipv6 is the expansion of the address space on the 3,4 × 10 ^ 38

addresses, which will allow to accommodate 50 billion devices in 2020.

IoE implies effective remote system management. For example, the

smart house or software that checks traffic on the roads and, if it's

necessary, adjust an alarm clock on 10 minutes earlier to a user come at

work in time. To improve the intellectual systems like these ones

developers have created a new type of device connected to the network.

The most important of these devices are the IP-sensors, IP-controllers, and

remote actuators. IP-sensor is an object that can measure the physical

properties and convert this information into an electrical or optical signal

and send it to controller via a network. For example, the sensors can

measure temperature, weight, motion, pressure, and moisture. Any office

worker can change sensors settings both locally and remotely through IP-

controllers. And the last type of new devices is remote actuator. It’s the

basic engine that can be used to activate and control the system by

instructions that are received via the Internet.

Let's consider the winery, for example. The owner wants to control

the vineyard in order to determine the best time for harvest. In this case,

the IP-sensors could be used to gather information about physical

properties of the vineyard such as weather, soil conditions, levels of

carbon dioxide, etc. This information is sent to IP-controller by 802.15

ZigBee protocol, and then it sends the data to the gateway via a set of

protocols TCP / IP for a network server or service based on cloud

computing. Then, the information is collected to be analyzed and studied,

and then, it is available from your mobile phone or another remote device.

As a result, the owner can check a vineyards status and give instructions in

any country at any time. If the sensors record a low level of moisture, the

actuator switches on an automatic irrigation system and the owner receives

a notification, that his grapes is watered.

Modern life always needs more automation because every day work

processes become more complicated. The Internet of Everything provides

not only optimization and automation of work processes but

prognostication, education, communication with friends, public transport,

cooking and much more. Most people can't already live a day without their

electronic devices and information they used to get. Therefore, the concept

of IoE will develop, new inventions will appear: completely self-contained

stations, technology, which allows working with big data, devices which

control different spheres of human life, etc. We live on the eve a new high-

tech era.

273


1. Курс академии Cisco «IoE-R». URL:

http://www.netacad.com/ (дата обращения: 21.10.2015).

2. Курс академии Cisco «IoE-R». URL:

http://ioeassessment.cisco.com/ (дата обращения 26.10.2015).

С.В. Иванаев, А.В. Тишкина




Свёрточные нейронные сети

В данной статье освещены свёрточные нейронные сети:

определение нейронных сетей, их устройство, определение

свёрточной нейронной сети и её вариант с архитектурой Яна Лекуна.

Также рассматривается вопрос применения свёрточных нейронных

сетей в разных областях.

Convolutional neural networks

Our age is known as the “digital age”. New technologies are being

developed almost every day. There is no field of study in which someone

has not tried to understand the laws of nature or improve something. Of

course, one of the most interesting things to understand and copy is the

human mind. The artificial neural network is a mathematical model of the

human mind. Now, this field is growing fast, and many models and

algorithms have been created. The convolutional neural network is one of

these models.

What is the convolutional neural network? To understand this, you

should know what the artificial neural network (ANN) is.

An artificial neural network is a large collection of very simple,

massively interconnected cells, also known as neurons.

Most ANN-architectures are grouped by the term multi-layer feed-

forward ANNs. This means that data goes in one direction, from input to

output, and neurons are grouped into layers. Then, we must consider their

structure.

http://www.netacad.com/

http://ioeassessment.cisco.com/

274

The first layer is usually the input layer, and the last layer is the

output one. All layers are called hidden layers. Every cell performs a very

simple calculation: it calculates the sum of all of its inputs, multiplied by

their respective weights (the weight is a characteristic of the connection

between two cells), after which a squashing function is applied to the

result. The squashing function is usually called the transfer or activation

function. Often researchers use the function, called a

sigmoid: , or a double

sigmoid .

After that, cells transfer data to the next layer. The output of the

network is the output of the last layer (output layer).

The weights of the connection can be preset by an operator, or

trained by presenting the ANN with the examples of the input (possibly

together with the desired output). There are many training methods; one of

the most popular is the back-propagation method.

This method is based on the following idea: neurons can send error

signals in reverse direction – from output to input. In the event of an error,

we firstly correct weights on the last layer, then, based on these results,

calculate new weights for the previous layer. We will repeat this as long as

the current layer is not the input.

Now, we can move on to convolutional networks. But before that, we

must define what is convolution.

Convolution is a mathematical operator (denoted by “*”) on two

functions, defined as the sum of the products of the function values, with

the one function mirrored in an origin. Given this, we will use the

following interpretation of this definition.

Imagine a square window with mesh, which contains the function

value – filter.

275

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

Example

Onto this window, the image has to be processed. This window then

calculates the sum of the pixel values as well as the respective coefficient.

Now, we can store the result in the middle pixel.

One of the most famous scientists, who works with convolutional

neural networks, is Yann Le Cun (this idea was developed by him). Let’s

view his ANN’s.

The input of a convolutional ANN (CNN) is an image, which is

typically preprocessed. The second layer contains the so-called feature

maps. Each cell in one of these feature maps contains a set of incoming

weights; this set is known as the convolution filter, or template. The

location of the map in the input image corresponds to the location of the

cell in the feature map. This is what is meant by receptive fields: cells

react to the same pattern at different locations in the input image.

The next layer isthe sub-sampling layer. This layer is included

mainly to reduce the number of free parameters (which includes different

connections), and has the same principles as feature maps.

The fourth layer is hidden and fully connected with the previous one.

The output layer is completely connected to the hidden layers, and

forms the results of the work. It consists of 10 cells, and the cell with the

highest activation value is chosen as a result.

Researchers can use ANNs that differs from Le Cun’s slightly, but

the principle will remain the same.

CNNs have some advantages over classic ANNs. Their architecture

has fewer weights than an ANN model. This is because CNN uses one

filter with weights for the whole image, whereas ANN uses weights for

each pixel. This means that CNNs will generalize the results instead of

storing information for each pixel.

The next advantage that CNNs have is better parallelization (i.e.

executing the same command in multiple threads, potentially in different

processor units).

276

The disadvantage of CNNs is in their limited applications in image

recognition due to their architecture. But, in some subjects, as we will see,

CNNs are quite applicable.

Why do we need convolutional neural networks? They are mainly

used in image recognition, and they have one of the best recognition and

image classifying algorithms with an error rate of only 0.23 percent.

The next application is in video analysis. Video analysis is more

complex than image analysis since it has another dimension (time). The

common way to address this is to fuse the features of different

convolutional neural networks. These additional features are responsible

for spatial and temporal streams.

We can also use CNNs in natural language processing, playing Go

and drug discovery (predicting the interaction between molecules and

biological proteins can be used to identify potential treatments that are

more likely to be effective and safe).

Nowadays the image recognition is the topical theme. The

convolutional neural networks are very useful for people because we often

deal with different images. This is actually the main reason why the field is

growing fast today.


1. de Riddler D. Shared weights neural networks in image

analysis. URL: http://prlab.tudelft.nl/content/shared-weights-neural-

networks-image-analysis (дата обращения: 10.11.2015).

2. LeCun Y., Bengio Y. Convolutional networks for images,

speech and time-series. URL:

http://yann.lecun.com/exdb/publis/pdf/lecun-bengio-95a.pdf (дата

обращения: 12.11.2015).

3. LeCun Y., Kavukcuoglu K., Farabet C. Convolutional networks

and applications in vision. URL:

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5537907&url=http

%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%

3D5537907 (дата обращения: 15.11.2015).

http://prlab.tudelft.nl/content/shared-weights-neural-networks-image-analysis

http://prlab.tudelft.nl/content/shared-weights-neural-networks-image-analysis

http://yann.lecun.com/exdb/publis/pdf/lecun-bengio-95a.pdf

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5537907&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D5537907



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Д.Е. Комаров, Ю.А. Паздникова




Применение современных информационных технологий в

медицине

В данной статье рассматриваются наиболее актуальные вопросы

развития информационных технологий в медицине. Описываются

результаты внедрения информационных технологий в медицину,

проводится анализ клинических исследований в этой области,

определяются задачи, стоящие перед здравоохранением.

Application of modern information technologies in medicine

One of the most important elements of socio-economic development

of society is medical care. The aim of healthcare is to maintain and recover

human health. The use of different systems of distance detection and

translation of physiological parameters, real time observation and control

let the medicine make a quality step to the future. Such technologies as the

Internet, telephone connection and videoconferences can be used.

Nowadays medicine is changing and developing very fast.

Now we understand that medical information technologies solve

many tasks. Firstly, they help to conduct early diagnostic and prevention

of diseases. For instance, modern technologies of ultrasound and computed

tomography allow detecting cancer in its early stages. Secondly, medical

information technologies help to monitor physiological parameters such as

blood pressure, heart rate, etc. It is possible with special sensors and a

usual smartphone or other “smart” devices. For example, Apple has

already released iWatch. These watches have a special application that

remembers physiological parameters of their owners. Moreover, there is a

special section in application “In Case of Emergency” where the user can

register personal data about his or her chronic diseases or any drug

intolerance. In the section "Medical ID" all this information is formed in a

single patient card. Thirdly, medical information technologies increase

accessibility of medical help for people who live in remote locations. It

became possible because of telemedicine. Also telemedicine helps in

rehabilitation of patients with psychological disorders, because with its

278

help they don’t feel lonely and helpless. Development of information

technologies allow to create more perfect pacemakers, and equipment for

patients with diseases of musculoskeletal system.

Modern medical information systems should be particularly noted.

They are applied for maintaining computerized clinical history and

classification system of terms, diseases and medicaments. They also allow

creating electronic queues that are much more comfortable for patients.

Modern conception of information systems is a consolidation of electronic

patient records with archives of medical and financial information, data

from medical devices and modern means of information exchange. Thus,

medical information system is a combination of hardware, software and

databases designed for automation of various processes in health care

system.

According to clinical researches in Canada, Italy, Germany and Great

Britain there were identified many advantages of information technologies

in medicine. First of all experts noted reduction in the amount of cases of

hospitalization, growth of the amount of patients using home self-control

up to 90% and decrease of mortality. Investigations show the improvement

of patients` conditions and life quality, raise of efficiency of medical

treatment and patients` awareness of their diseases. According to statistics

the necessity of global implementation of information technologies in

medicine is obvious.

However, low effectiveness of telemonitoring systems was shown in

some researches especially among elderly patients with chronic diseases of

cardiac and respiratory systems. As an example, 205 elderly persons were

divided into two groups for the investigation conducted by Paul Takahashi

and his colleagues from Mayo clinic (Rochester, USA). The first group

was receiving medical care with the use of information technologies and

the second - without it. The frequency of calls to the ambulance and

number of hospitalizations were nearly the same in both groups. The

similar situation was seen in the number of days spent in hospital. It should

be noted that the frequency of hospitalizations and ambulance calls were

changeless in comparison with the period before the inclusion of the

patients receiving medical care with the use of information technologies in

the research. The fact of increasing mortality in this group of people is still

unexplained. Paul Takahashi considers that some unaccounted factors

could have an impact on the results of the investigation, for example

support of relatives.

279

Mark Freiman and Renda Weiner from Boston medical center

conducted 13 researches with the participation of more than 40000

patients. They came to the conclusion that mortality among seriously ill

patients was slightly reduced due to the use of telemonitoring systems.

They also showed the lack of positive influence of the modern monitoring

technology on patients with chronic heart failure. Cardiologist Harlan

Krumholz from YaleUniversity tried to explain these results. He believes

that excessive control can harm patients. He gave an example of the

situation when the doctor overreacts to any minor changes in biometric

parameters of his patient and assigns treatments. Although these changes

would be unnoticed without telemonitoring and the problem would be

solved without medical intervention. Harlan Krumholz considers that

modern telemonitoring systems should be first of all used in scientific

research purposes. Wide use of these information technologies can be

recommended after clarification of all the controversial points and only for

the categories of patients which really need them. We need to research

further to determine the right methods of working with modern

telemonitoring systems. The main idea of Harlan Krumholz can be

formulated in one phrase: computers will not help and will not hurt —

what important is how you use and understand the received information.

Once we can create an effective plan for working with such devices and

there will immediately be changes for the better.

Unresolved problems of implementation of information technologies

in medicine require further researches. For this aim there are many large

investigation and projects in this sphere. In particular, one of the largest

projects for studying prospects in the development of information

technologies in medicine and their efficiency is the project of

Scandinavian countries “Implementing Transnational Telemedicine

Solutions”.

According to the data of numerous researches medical information

technologies are useful tools for improving quality and efficiency of

medical care. But their usage requires additional researches, competent

training of medical stuff, and reorganization of structure in medical sphere.

The implementation of information technologies in medicine without

adequate interpretation of results of their use can’t cause the reduction of

mortality, frequency of hospital admissions and improvement of quality of

life.

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1. Сердюков А.Г., Набережная И.Б., Захаров Д.А.

Социологическое обоснование внедрения телемедицинских

технологий в практику. 2008 г.

2. Takahashi P.Y., Pecina J.L., Upatising B. A randomized

controlled trial of telemonitoring in older adults with multiple health issues

to prevent hospitalizations and emergency department visits. Arch Intern

Med. 2012 г.

3. Кукарцев В. А. Внедрение инновационных технологий в

здравоохранение. Журнал SCI-ARTICLE.RU. URL:

http://sci-article.ru/stat.php?i=1434860836 (дата обращения: 8.10.2015).

4. Наливаева А.В. Информационные технологии в медицине:

доказанные факты и нерешенные проблемы. URL:

http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/informatsionnye-tehnologii-v-meditsine-

dokazannye-fakty-i-nereshennye-problemy (дата обращения:

10.10.2015).

5. Хассанов И. Медицинские информационные системы и

мобильный телемониторинг пациентов. Материалы конференции

«Информационные технологии в здравоохранении», Казань, 2011 г.

URL: http://www.kirkazan.ru/@files/upload/Khassanov_2011.pdf (дата

обращения: 11.10.2015).

6. American Thoracic Society. Научная газета. Telemonitoring

may not offer improved outcomes for critically ill patients. 2011. URL:

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110516111643.htm (дата

обращения: 10.10.2015).

Д.С. Костерина, Е.А. Снигирева



Технология рабочего места интернет системы QUIK,

предоставляемая банком ВТБ24

Совершение сделок с ценнымибумагами через интернетназывает

ся интернет-трейдингом. QUIK – это программный комплекс для

организации доступа к биржевым и внебиржевым торговым системам

в режиме реального времени. QUIK применяется более чем 250

http://sci-article.ru/stat.php?i=1434860836

http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/informatsionnye-tehnologii-v-meditsine-dokazannye-fakty-i-nereshennye-problemy

http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/informatsionnye-tehnologii-v-meditsine-dokazannye-fakty-i-nereshennye-problemy

http://www.kirkazan.ru/@files/upload/Khassanov_2011.pdf

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110516111643.htm

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82-%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3

281

финансовыми организациями для обслуживания десятков тысяч

клиентов. В статье рассматривается организация рабочего места

интернет системы QUIK, которую предлагает для пользования БАНК

ВТБ24.

The technology of workplace of the Internet system “QUIK” provided

by the bankVTB24

Internet trading is trade of financial instruments by means of a

computer. During this process the broker, the professional participant of

the stock market, provides access for trade to the client, the trader at the

exchange.

The main share of the trade turnover is the share of MICEX

(Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange) and RTS (Russian Trade

System).

Internet brokers offer clients different systems of Internet trading that

make themselves or third-party organizations. Now there are about 20 such

created systems. The examples are: QUIK, NetInvestor, TRANSAQ, "ITS-

Broker" and others.

It is possible to define 2 types of the online trading system [2]:

1. the systems intended for carrying out own operations by an

institutional investor (a bank, an investment company) without the need

for customer service;

2. the broker systems representing the set of the broker’s server and

clients’ workplaces. The broker provides a remote workplace to the

investor (the software and access to the server via which it is possible to

take part in the auctions).

The popular trade platform is considered to be “QUIK”. It is the

platform of the Novosibirsk company "ARQA Technologies" which is

used by 70-80% of private investors [3].

The basic functionality of the “QUIK” system allows: to submit

applications for sale and acquisition of financial instruments; to carry out

transactions; to trace a condition of transactions and demands, a condition

of monetary positions of a trader; to obtain data about bargains which are

made in the trade system; to communicate with each other and to address

to a broker [1].

Access to the auction to exchange and off-exchange platforms is

realized through the “QUIK” system through five types of terminals:

282

1. QUIK workplace. It submits the software which is established on a

user's computer;

2. webQUIK. Itis the terminal which works from an Internet browser

window;

3. webQUIK Mobile. Itis a simpler option of the webQUIK terminal,

which is created for work via mobile devices;

4. iQUIK/iQUIK-HD. Itis a special supplement for iPhone/iPad;

5. QUIK Android. Itis client applications for devices on the Android

platform.

Let us consider the technology of a workplace of “QUIK” Internet

system provided by JSC bank VTB24.

The bank VTB24 exposes the following conditions for using the

system [3]:

free accession;

lack of a month fee.

For installing the system of Internet trading “QUIK” it is necessary:

1. to download a QUIK system distribution kit, to start the adjusting

file and, to install the program following the type;

2. further it is necessary to generate keys according to the instruction

offered by the broker;

3. to send the file of a public key for registration on e-mail of the

bank: [email protected];

4. you will receive the message with the registration confirmation. In

order to activate keys the client has to visit the territorial division of a bank

[4].

Then to start QUIK, to enter the received name and the password into

the corresponding fields of this window. To press the "Input" button. If

everything was made correctly, there will be a message - "Connection is

established".

From the server of the “QUIK” system a huge amount of information

is transferred. Much of this information isn’t necessary to the user. The

“QUIK” terminal allows to limit the volume of the received information

through the menu “Communications / Lists”.

Before making the first transaction, it is necessary to adjust the

interface in which the most significant windows of the program will be

displayed. There windows will simplify decision-making process and

transactions:

The current table of parameters shows, the price of the last

transaction, maximum and minimum prices for trading session. To open

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the current table of parameters it is necessary to select the Current Table

item in the section "Tables";

the window of quotations of the chosen tool displays the

sequence of demands for purchase or for sale on any tool. If you click

twice any tool in the current table of parameters, the window of quotations

or "glass" will be opened;

the table of demands allows to consider and control the

demands sent to the exchange. To create this table, it is necessary to select

the “Demands” item in the section "Trade" of the main menu;

the table of transactions considers the transactions made during

the current trading session. It is possible to create such a table, having

chosen “the Transactions” in the section "Trade" of the main menu;

the schedule of the chosen tool simplifies decision-making due

to the visual representation of changing market prices. For its opening it is

necessary to click a window of quotations and to choose “to Construct a

Schedule” in the opened context menu.

In general client transactions are made through the broker according

to the following scheme:

1. A broker defines the rest of available means of a client at the

exchange within which the user can realize transactions;

2. A broker can provide services of marginal crediting, that is

crediting by means of a broker under a mortgage of a client’s means. In

this case a broker defines a limit of borrowed funds for a client;

3. The purchase or sale of securities is carried out by sending an

assignment to a broker. This assignment is the agreement of a client with

the certain conditions of the transaction. The assignment is accepted by a

server of the system and comes through automatic or manual testing, and

goes to trade system of the exchange;

4. Demands can have the following status: active, executed and

removed;

5. Users can use the stop demand which is accepted by a broker from

a client. These demands are made only at the market price of a certain

level. If the client submits such an application, the means demanded for its

execution are blockedon his account;

6. The general information about the market value of the user’s

securities, about the debt to a broker, the volume of means is provided in

the “Client Portfolio” window;

7. The client of the system of Internet trading “QUIK” can use the

postponed demands by means of the special window "Pocket of

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Transactions". This function allows creating the demand with certain

conditions without sending it to the exchange, and at the right time a user

"gets from a pocket" the prepared demands

Besides VTB24, the service of Internet trading in “QUIK”system is

offered by JSC “Sberbank of Russia”, JSC “Rosselkhozbank”, Bank

“Petrokommerts”, “Communication bank” and other brokers.

Thus, the client “QUIK” terminal represents the powerful instrument

of processing the exchange information. The extensive set of functions

allows performing simple and specialized operations. Due to them the

terminalhas become rather popular among the systems of Internet trading.


1. Сибирская Е. В., Старцева О. А. Электронная коммерция:

учебное пособие / Е. В. Сибирская, О. А. Старцева. – М.: ФОРУМ,

2010. – 288 с.

2. Цхай Т. В. Финансовый рынок – это технологии // ЭКО. –

2013. - №3. – С. 150 – 159.

3. Терминалы пользователя QUIK // QUIK. URL:

http://www.quik.ru/ (дата обращения: 29.10.2014).

4. Торговые системы // ВТБ24. Инвестиционный портал.

URL: http://www.onlinebroker.ru/ (дата обращения: 05.11.2014).

Д.О. Костылева, Е.И. Косарева




Необходимость использования аппаратно-независимого

цветовоспроизведения

Концепция аппаратно–независимого цветовоспроизведения

состоит в обеспечении системы полной цветовой информацией об

изображении, позволяющей, в случае необходимости, описать данные

изображения в показателях, которые не относятся к какому-либо

конкретному устройству. Применение базовой колориметрии

радикально модернизирует устройство открытых систем

визуализации, определяя взаимоотношения между аппаратными

285

координатами (например, RGB или CMYK) и цветовыми стимулами.

Поскольку оригиналы и промежуточные изображения редко

рассматриваются в одинаковых условиях, возникает необходимость

подключения к работе систем отображения моделей цветового

восприятия, чтобы представлять восприятие стимулов изображения

на каждой стадии процесса. Модели цветового восприятия

применяются для прогноза вынужденного повышения физического

контраста отпечатков, что компенсирует изменение в условиях

просмотра, и соответствующего управления системами визуализации.

Necessity of using device-independent color imaging

In the informative and esthetic meanings printing illustration is

turned to psychovisual perception. It is received nowadays by using

intuitive, empirical approaches and value judgment. Imagine: the PC user

took the photo, scanned it, admired it on his screen and, in the end, printed

on the digital printer. But in spite of the relatively high cost of

chromatogenic devices, it is impossible that colors of a final print will be

identical to the original. In this situation we can say that the user received

only trial images which he compares between itself and the original.

The creative component of a color illustration was entirely displaced

from printing house to an author's, editorial and publishing stage. The

printing stage practically lost function of regulation of indicators of quality

of prints, completely addressing it to prepress (reproductive) process.

Therefore, problems of stabilization and normalization of this stage

in relation to some optimal mode for the illustrative press became very

topical. When we allow the device to act in their individual color

dimensions, we implement a process called device-dependent color

imaging. Complexity of work with device dependent data consists that

scanner’s RGB signals is not same that the RGB signals operating the

monitor or the printer. We should lead the principle of the device

independent color imaging to eliminate the unpredictable result of the

work of the open system. The concept consists in providing system full-

color image information which allows describing these images in

indicators which don't belong to any particular devices. Furthermore, in

order to transfer color coordinates (device independent data) to other

structure of open system special mathematical transformations will be

carried out.

286

There are lots of approaches to describe colors using a mathematical

model; each of them is qualified as a color model. You can, for example,

assign a specific level of hue, saturation and brightness to define a color

(HSB color models); value of red, green, and blue (RGB color models);

value of cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY color models); or a value

of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK color models). Within these

general descriptions — HSB, RGB, CMY, CMYK any model can use any

arbitrary number of steps for each parameter. Some schemes, for example,

use 100 steps for each. Others use 256 steps — a convenient number for

the digital world because you can define 256 steps for each color

by assigning 8 bits to each color.

All of these color models are widely used to describe colors, both

by software and by various types of hardware like digital cameras,

scanners, monitors, and printers. Unfortunately, most of them have

historically been device dependent models — meaning that the designation

for a given color applies only to the particular device. And that makes it

hard to move color information between devices without introducing

errors.

Two device dependent models can share the same name, but they

won’t share the same descriptions for each color except by pure

coincidence. For example, some printers use CMYK color models. (Not all

do. A printer can use an RGB color model, and translate the colors to the

right amounts of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink.) Suppose you

define a color in a drawing program as cyan 120, magenta 75, and yellow

130, and then print on three printers, each of which uses a device

dependent version of a CMY or CMYK color model. You will usually find

that the color prints as an obviously different color on each printer. Not

only that, but each of the colors will usually be noticeably different from

the color on your screen.

The application of basic theory of color considerably produces

significant improvement in the construction of open color imaging systems

by defining the relationships between devise coordinates (for example

RGB or CMYK) and the colors detected or produced by the imaging

system. However, this coordination is the only one of color reproduction

factors: if the image is reproduced so that tristimulus values of its elements

are identical to that in the original, this image visually will correspond to

the original only until both are considered in identical conditions for which

these values were calculated. As originals and intermediate images seldom

are considered in identical conditions, there is a need of connection to

287

work of systems of display of models of color perception to represent

perception of stimulus of the image at each stage of process. We can say

that color gamut of devices is various. Let's see: the certain stimulus

reproduced by the LCD-monitor is perceived definitely. However, a

certain printer won't be able to generate the incentive causing the same

feeling. In such cases the model of color perception operates in the

perceptional and justified way the image and as a result yields the best

results.

In other situations color coverage of a reproduction can be limited by

viewing conditions. For example, photographic prints of outdoor scenes

are often viewed under artificial illumination at significantly lower

luminance levels than the original scene. At lower luminance level it is

impossible to produce the range of luminance and chromatic contrast that

is witnessed in the original scene.

Thus it is common for consumer photographic prints to be produced

with increased physical contrast to overcome this change in viewing

conditions. Color appearance models can be used to predict such effects

and guide the design of system to address them. Another advantage of

color appearance models in device-independent color imaging is in the

area of image editing. It is more intuitive for untrained users to manipulate

the colors in the images along perceptual dimensions such as lightness, hue

and chroma, rather than through device coordinates such as CMYK. A

good color appearance model can improve the correlation between tools

intended to manipulate these dimensions and the changes that users

implement on their images.

In 1970 issues in devise-independent color imaging were discussed

by Hunt. His objectives for color reproduction provide a good summary of

the problems encountered in color reproduction and how they can be

addressed using concepts of basic and advanced colorimetry. A slight

rearrangement and simplification of Hunt’s objectives can be used to

define five levels of color reproduction that provide a framework for

modern color imaging systems: color reproduction, pleasing color

reproduction, colorimetric color reproduction, color appearance

reproduction and color preference reproduction.

Note that to achieve each level of reproduction in open systems,

firstly it is necessary to have the lower levels achieved. To sum up, the five

levels involve simply reproducing pleasing colors, equality of tristimulus

values and appearance attributes to “improve” the result. In closed

systems, it is not necessary for technology to progress through each of the

288

five levels. This is because the path of image data is defined and controlled

throughout the whole process. For example, in color photography the film

sensitives, dyes, processing procedures and printing techniques must

accord with each other. Thus it is possible to design a photographic

negative film to produce pleasing or preferred color reproduction without

having the capability for colorimetric or color appearance reproduction

since the processing and printing steps are well defined. A similar system

exists in color television with standard camera sensitivities, signal

processing, and output device setup. In open systems, in intractable

number of combinations of output, processing, display, and output devices

can be constructed and used together. The manufacturer of each subsystem

cannot possibly anticipate all of the possible combinations of devices that

might be used with it. Thus the only feasible solution is to have each

devise in the system develop through the five levels of reproduction can be

handed off from one device to the next in the process known as device-

independent color imaging.


1. FairchildMark D. Color Appearance Models / М.: Second edition,

2004.

2. Daalder, J. The Digital Fine Print Book. / chapter 4 “Color

Management Theory”, 2011.

3. Masato Tsukada, Chisato Funayama, Johji Tajima, NEC

Corp.Automatic color preference correction for color reproduction /San

Jose, CA; 2001; p. 216-223. URL:

http://www.imaging.org/ist/store/physpub.cfm?seriesid=24&pubid=442


4. Stone M. Different Devices Use Different Color Models. URL:

http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/49040-different-devices-use-

different-color-models (дата обращения 17.11.2015).

289

С.А. Кутырева




Радиотерапия в лечении раковых заболеваний

Лучевая терапия (радиотерапия) является общепринятым

безопасным и эффективным методом лечения злокачественных

опухолей.

Уже десятилетия лучевая терапия (ЛТ) широко используется

при большинстве онкологических заболеваний. ЛТ в лечении

онкологических заболеваний в последнее время все больше

конкурирует с хирургическими вмешательствами.

Современная техника позволяет лучу настолько точно

сконцентрироваться в очаге поражения, что нагрузка на окружающие

здоровые ткани минимальна. В связи с этим можно сравнить

рентгеновский луч со скальпелем хирурга.

Radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer

Radio waves. How useful radio waves for the human body?

Many different studies sometimes give opposite results, so there is

still no consensus on this matter.

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light.

Radio waves have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz

Radiotherapy is the treatment of cancer with radiation.

Radiotherapy means the use of radiation, usually X-rays, to treat

illness. X-rays were discovered in 1895 and since then radiation has been

used in medicine for diagnosis and investigation (X-rays) and treatment

(radiotherapy).

Cancer cells grow rapidly, and cause tumors in the body. Radiation

therapy aims at destroying these cells, which prevents their growth and

spread in the body.

For this purpose, various radiation sources, such as, X-Rays, Gamma

Rays, and Particle Beams of electrons, protons, or neutrons, are used to

destroy the cancerous cells within the body. The radiation therapy is used

to treat patients with almost any type of cancer.

290

Sources of radiation therapy.

In 1951 there was created an appliance with 60Co(it is radioactive

isotope of cobalt used as a source of gamma rays in radiotherapy), which

began to be used in the treatment centers.

The construction of these systems continuously improved, and now it

is created a lot of different types of isotopic systems, which to a great

extent can replace the previously used therapeutic equipment.

Advances in the study of nuclear forces helped to create appliance

generating intense beams of mesons; now we get the opportunity to

accelerate particles to energies more than 30,000 MeV. These appliance

are extremely expensive to build and operate; some of them have become

valuable in radiotherapy.

Mechanism of Action

Cancer cells can be distinguished from normal cells in the body, as

they tend to replicate more quickly and take over tissue with healthy cells.

Radiation therapy manipulates this characteristic of cancer cells by

attacking the DNA of cells that are in the process of replicating, rendering

the cells unable to multiply sufficiently and eventually leading to their

death.

Radiation therapy works by damaging the DNA of cancerous cells.

This DNA damage is caused by one of two types of energy, photon or

charged particle. This damage is either direct or indirect ionization of the

atoms which make up the DNA chain. Indirect ionization happens as a

result of the ionization of water, forming free radicals, notably hydroxyl

radicals, which then damage the DNA.

Types of Radiation Therapy

The radiation needed in therapy can be administered in three

different ways.

• External radiation therapy – A linear accelerator is a machine

that is used to focus radiation beams from outside the body directly

towards the area of the tumor.

• Internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy) – A small radioactive

object is placed inside the body inside or next to the tumor and releases

radiation to the area over a set period of time.

• Radiopharmaceuticals – Drugs with radioactive properties are

administered to the patient orally or via another route such as

intravenously or inside a cavity like the vagina or rectum.

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Radiotherapy research.

Making radiotherapy more accurate

In recent years doctors and researchers have developed new ways of

targeting external radiotherapy more accurately. The new techniques give

a higher dose of radiation to the tumour and there is less damage to

surrounding tissue. The newer techniques include

• Intensity modulated radiotherapy

• Image guided radiotherapy

• Volumetric modulated arc radiotherapy (VMAT)

• Stereotactic body ablative radiotherapy (SABR)

Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT)

What IMRT is

Intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) is a type of conformal

radiotherapy. Conformal radiotherapy shapes the radiation beams to

closely fit the area of the cancer.

You can have IMRT on a standard radiotherapy machine, called a

linear accelerator (LINAC). The LINAC has a device called a multileaf

collimator. The multileaf collimator is made up of thin leaves of lead

which can move independently. They can form shapes that fit precisely

around the treatment area. The lead leaves can move while the machine

moves around the patient. This shapes the beam of radiation to the tumour

as the machine rotates.This means that the tumour receives a very high

dose and normal healthy cells nearby receive a much lower dose.

Each radiotherapy beam is divided into many small beamlets, which

can vary their intensity. This allows different doses of radiation to be given

across the tumour.

Which cancers IMRT can treat

Clinical trials have tested IMRT in a number of cancer types,

including breast cancer and head and neck cancer. It is a standard form of

treatment for some cancer types. But research is always going on, looking

into using new treatments for more types of cancer.

Image guided radiotherapy (IGRT)

What image guided radiotherapy is

Image guided radiotherapy (IGRT) is a type of conformal

radiotherapy. Conformal radiotherapy can shape the radiotherapy beams

around the area of the cancer.

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Image guided radiotherapy uses X-rays and scans similar to CT scans

before and during radiotherapy treatment. The X-rays and scans show the

size, shape and position of the cancer as well as the surrounding tissues

and bones.

Benefits and possible drawbacks of IGRT

With image guided radiotherapy, doctors can target the radiotherapy

treatment very accurately. This can mean that the treatment works better in

curing or controlling a cancer. It can also reduce the risk of side effects.

The drawback is that planning the treatment may take longer. Each

radiotherapy session also takes longer.

Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT)

Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is also called stereotactic

ablative radiotherapy (SABR). It is a way of giving radiotherapy to a

tumour from many different directions to target the treatment very

accurately.

What stereotactic radiotherapy is

Stereotactic radiotherapy gives radiotherapy from many different

positions around the body. The beams meet at the tumour. So the tumour

receives a high dose of radiation and the tissues around it only receive a

low dose. This lowers the risk of side effects. Usually you have between 3

to 8 treatments.

Stereotactic radiotherapy may be used to treat brain tumours and is

called cranial stereotactic radiotherapy. We have a page about stereotactic

radiotherapy for brain tumours.

The radiation therapy is used to treat patients with almost any type of

cancer.

Doctors have a lot of experience using radiotherapy in medicine.

About 4 out of 10 people with cancer (40%) have radiotherapy as part of

their treatment. It can be given in various ways, inlcuding

• From outside the body as external radiotherapy, using X-rays

from linear accelerator machines, electrons, and more rarely other particles

such as protons

• From within the body as internal radiotherapy, by drinking a

liquid that is taken up by cancer cells or by putting radioactive material in,

or close to, the tumour

293


1. Professor I.N. Bekman. Lectures NUCLEAR MEDICINE.

Lecture 7. RADIATION THERAPY. URL:

profbeckman.narod.ru/MED7.htm#1.1_Основные_принципы_лучевой_т

ерапии.

2. Jacquelyn W. Zimmerman et al., Targeted treatment of cancer

with radiofrequency electromagnetic fields amplitude-modulated at tumor-

specific frequencies, URL: http://www.cjcsysu.com (дата обращения

20.01.2016)

3. Radiation Therapy. URL: www.news-medical.net/health/What-

is-Radiation-Therapy.aspx (дата обращения 20.01.2016)

4. Electromagnetic energy as a bridge between atomic and cellular

levels in the genetics approach to cancer treatment. URL:

http://www.healinglightseminars.com/bioelectromagnetic-research-

library/cancer-2/ (дата обращения 25.01.2016)

5. Cancer research URL: http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/ (дата

обращения 20.01.2016)

М.О. Ланитина, Е.И. Косарева




Электронно-цифровая подпись

В данной статье раскрывается понятие электронно-цифровой

подписи. В качестве примера описывается RSA схема построения

электронно-цифровой подписи. Приведены причины для применения

электронно-цифровой подписи. Отмечены преимущества электронно-

цифровой подписи над ручной подписью.

Electronic digital signature

Adigitalsignatureofamessageisanumberdependentonsomesecretknow

nonlyto the signer, and, additionally, on the content of the message being

signed. Signatures must be verifiable if a dispute arises as to whether a

party signed a document, an unbiased third party should be able to resolve

http://www.cjcsysu.com/

http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Radiation-Therapy.aspx

http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Radiation-Therapy.aspx

http://www.healinglightseminars.com/bioelectromagnetic-research-library/cancer-2/

http://www.healinglightseminars.com/bioelectromagnetic-research-library/cancer-2/

http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/

294

the matter equitably, without requiring access to the signer’s secret

information (private key). Digital signatures have many applications in

information security, including authentication, data integrity, and non-

repudiation. The concept and utility of a digital signature was recognized

several years before any practical realization was available. The first

method discovered was the RSA signature scheme, which remains today

one of the most practical and versatile techniques available. Subsequent

research has resulted in many alternative digital signature techniques.

Some offer significant advantages in terms of functionality and

implementation.

Classification

Digital signatures with appendix.

– require the original message as input to the verification algorithm;

– use hash functions;

– examples: ElGamal, DSA, DSS, Schnorr.

Digital signatures with message recovery.

– do not require the original message as input to the verification

algorithm;

– the original message is recovered from the signature itself;

– examples: RSA, Rabin, Nyberg-Rueppel.

The RSA signature scheme

A digital signature scheme consists of a signature generation

algorithm and an associated verification algorithm.

RSA involves a public key and a private key. The public key can be

known by everyone and is used for encrypting messages. The keys for the

RSA algorithm are generated the following way:

1) Choose two distinct prime numbers p and q.

2) Compute n = p*q.

3) Compute φ(n) = (p – 1) * (q – 1), where φ is Euler's totient

function (i.e., the number of positive integers less than n and relatively

prime to n).

4) Choose an integer e such that 1 < e < φ(n) and gcd (e, φ(n)) = 1.

5) Determine d as d ≡ e-1 (mod φ(n)) (i.e., d is the modular

multiplicative inverse of e (modulo φ(n)).

If you want to send message M confirmed with a digital signature to

your colleague, you should turnsM into an integer m, such that 0 < m < n.

Then you should create a digital signature s using private key {d, n}

corresponding to s ≡ md (mod n). Next, you send pair {m, s} to colleague.

Your colleaguereceives {m, s}, takes your public key {e, n} and calculates

295

the inverse image of message of the signature m’≡ se (mod n). In the end

your colleague checks the authenticity of the signature (and permanence of

the message), comparing m and m’.

Applications of digital signatures

As organizations move away from paper documents with ink

signatures or authenticity stamps, digital signatures can provide added

assurances of the evidence to provenance, identity, and status of an

electronic document as well as acknowledging informed consent and

approval by a signatory.

Some common reasons for applying a digital signature to

communications:

1) Authentication

Although messages may often include information about the entity

sending a message, that information may not be accurate. Digital

signatures can be used to authenticate the source of messages. When

ownership of a digital signature secret key is bound to a specific user, a

valid signature shows that the message was sent by that user. The

importance of high confidence in sender authenticity is especially obvious

in a financial context. For example, suppose a bank's branch office sends

instructions to the central office requesting a change in the balance of an

account. If the central office is not convinced that such a message is truly

sent from an authorized source, acting on such a request could be a grave

mistake.

2) Integrity

In many scenarios, the sender and receiver of a message may have a

need for confidence that the message has not been altered during

transmission. Although encryption hides the contents of a message, it may

be possible to change an encrypted message without understanding it.

However, if a message is digitally signed, any change in the message after

signature invalidates the signature. Furthermore, there is no efficient way

to modify a message and its signature to produce a new message with a

valid signature, because this is still considered to be computationally

infeasible by most cryptographic hash functions.

3) Non-repudiation

Non-repudiation, or more specifically non-repudiation of origin, is an

important aspect of digital signatures. By this property, an entity that has

signed some information cannot at a later time deny having signed it.

Similarly, access to the public key only does not enable a fraudulent party

to fake a valid signature.

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Digital signature vs. ink on paper signature

An ink signature could be replicated from one document to another

by copying the image manually or digitally, but to have credible signature

copies that can resist some scrutiny is asignificant manual or technical

skill, and to produce ink signature copies that resist professional scrutiny is

very difficult. Digital signatures cryptographically bind an electronic

identity to an electronic document and the digital signature cannot be

copied to another document. Digital signatures can be applied to an entire

document, such that the digital signature on the last page will indicate

tampering if any data on any of the pages have been altered, but this can

also be achieved by signing with ink all pages of the contract.

Figure 1. Handwritten vs. Digital Signatures

On the basis of this material it is shown that the digital signature is

useful and significant today. Digital signatures are a valuable technology

for every major corporation. As digital data are not reliable, there are areas

where they are not used. Most of all, contracts, receipts, approvals and

similar data are almost worthless in a digital form, as they can easily be

altered. Hand-made signatures don’t change this situation, because it is

easy to transfer a signature from one document to another or to modify a

document that is signed. The solution for these issues has been around for

two decades: digital signatures.


1. Alfred J. Menezes, Paul C. van Oorschc, Scott A. Vanstone.

Handbook of Applied Cryptography: CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL,

USA, 1996.

2. Elisa Bertino, Russell Paulet, Xun Yi. Homomorphic

Encryption and Applications: Springer International Publishing,

Switzerland, 2014.

3. Aanchal Chanana, Akash Sharma, Amit Yadav. 2013. Research

on Digital Signature: International Journal of Innovative Research in

297

Engineering and Science. URL:

http://www.vnmpublication.com/IJIRES/2013/10%20October/3.pdf (дата

обращения: 01.11.2015).

А.А. Моисеева, А.В. Тишкина




Облачное хранилище данных

На сегодняшний день информационные технологии быстро

развиваются и широко используются во всех областях нашей жизни.

В том числе и облачные хранилища данных. Данная статья дает

описание строения облачных хранилищ, особенности и цель

пользования такими хранилищами данных.

Cloud Storage

For some computer owners, finding enough storage space to hold all

the data they have acquired is a real challenge. Some people invest in

larger hard drives. Others prefer external storage devices like memory

sticks or compact discs. Desperate computer owners might delete entire

folders containing old files to make space for new information. But some

are choosing to rely on a growing trend instead: cloud storage.

While cloud storage sounds like it has something to do with weather

fronts and storm systems, it really refers to saving data to an off-site

storage system maintained by a third party. Instead of storing information

on your computer's hard drive or another local storage device, you save it

to a remote database. The Internet provides connection between your

computer and the database.

On the surface, cloud storage has several advantages over traditional

data storage. For example, if you store your data on a cloud storage

system, you will be able to access that data from any location that has

Internet access. You would not need to carry around a physical storage

device or use the same computer to save and retrieve your information.

With the right storage system, you could even allow other people to access

the data, turning a personal project into a collaborative effort.

http://www.vnmpublication.com/IJIRES/2013/10%20October/3.pdf

298

For a personal user, the most important advantage of cloud storage is

convenience. With the increased usage of portable devices such as

smartphones and tablets, access to cloud storage can be beneficial. It

eliminates the need to manually transfer files from one device to another.

Another important advantage is the added protection against file

corruption because data is stored on multiple servers around the globe.

One disadvantage though is that your files might be vulnerable to

hacking. This one concern is what makes a number of people mistrustful

of using cloud storage for their more sensitive data. Another disadvantage

is that should the cloud storage provider cease to exist, all your files will

be lost. But the same goes for everything in life, there will always be some

sort of risk. Educating yourself and weighing up the pros and cons should

help you decide whether the use of cloud storage is for you.

The primary purpose of cloud storage is to deliver instant memory

storage to a user on demand in a flexible way. The architecture of cloud

memory is layered: the first layer is known as the front end, it supplies

users with a way to access the cloud, by exporting the API, usually the

SCSI protocol. Then, the middle layer of the cloud is an algorithm, which

handles where to place the information. The final layer is the physical

servers and computers that hold the information.

Cloud computing is an abstraction of the traditional client-server

model. Instead of owning one's own data servers, a user leases whatever

amount of space he/she needs from a provider. This is an improvement

because with the cloud you get exactly the amount of space you need, and

only have to pay for that. This is a big advantage for businesses because

they can pay for five machines during working hours, and drop down to

one during off hours, as opposed to managing their own five servers 100%

of the time. The key difference is that someone else is managing the

storage, and willing to lease whatever you need on demand. In comparison

the traditional client-server model is like buying a property, while cloud is

like renting, sometimes when you are going to be using the resource a lot,

and it is important to protect it is a good idea to buy (like home), in other

cases when you're going to be sharing the resource a lot, and not always

using it, renting is the better option (like office space).

The main factor in cloud performance is the transfer of information

from the service provider to the user. The work for processing and storing

data can be delegated to external hardware usually belonging to the service

provider. Therefore, there is no need for the user to have the processing

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power locally to have good performance. The only thing a user needs to

ensure fast service is reliable and fast network access.

Availability is a key topic for cloud computing because nothing can

beat the availability of good old solid-state local memory storage, it is

100% available excluding hardware malfunctions, the user has 24/7 access

to their data. The cloud must find a way to compete with that around the

clock availability. After a user uploads his/her data onto the cloud, it must

be able to provide that data back to the user at any time or else cloud

storage is unreliable and impractical for many applications. The main

problems cloud services have to face are network outages that might

happen on providers’ side. One solution to network outages is information

dispersal. Information Dispersal or (IDA) is an algorithm created by

Michael Rabin, which splits data into pieces encoding it with Reed-

Soloman correction codes so that it can be pieced back together given a

subset of the original data. The only negative of IDA is the processing

requires a lot of overhead and can be intensive without help from

hardware.

With the popularity of cloud computing growing, so should concern

for its security. Security becomes a much more complex issue when using

the cloud because it is no longer an issue of simply protecting your disk, or

flash memory devices. With the cloud, your information is out in the world

somewhere and susceptible to other kinds of threats, including attackers

trying to steal information, rapidly changing cloud architectures, the

consumerization of storage, and regulatory environments.

As the use of SaaS grows so does the web-based organized crime. No

longer are attackers simply hacking away for personal fame, with such

valuable information being stored in the cloud, there is a growing

population of attackers who are motivated by financial gain. Cyber

criminals usually target the weak in comparison registration system used

by cloud service providers who have limited fraud detection capabilities.

Cloud providers compensate by using strict initial registration

requirements, and follow-up verification. These additional steps when

accessing your data on the cloud can slow the process down, but, for now,

are the best solution to keep your sensitive information safe.

As computer technology becomes more advanced and powerful,

more and more companies are turning to the cloud. Different types of

cloud storage services are offered to the masses such as image only storage

sites as well as file storage sites. Some software companies are also

moving to the cloud, making their programs available via subscription

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preventing access to software pirates and allowing users non-computer

specific access to the program.

Two very popular cloud storage services you might want to check

out for your personal use are Dropbox and Google Drive.

Most cloud storage companies offer free storage services ranging

from 2GB to 16GB. If you need additional storage, space an upgrade to

paid services will be necessary. Depending on which cloud storage

company you choose and the size of the storage space or a storage plan,

the price could range from a few dollars to a few hundred dollars.


1. Словари и энциклопедии Academic. URL: /

http://en.academic.ru/ (дата обращения: 29.11.2015).

2. Kioya, E. TechnicalNotes. URL: / http://ehikioya.com/

(датаобращения: 29.11.2015).

3. Hugue M. Memory Storage Systems. URL:

http://cmsc411.com/ (дата обращения: 27.11.2015).

4. RightScale Docs. URL: http://docs.rightscale.com (дата

обращения: 27.11.2015).

А.Р. Мугинов, Е.Н. Шнайдер




История и алгоритмы распознавания речи

Проблема распознавания речи сегодня является одной из

важных прикладных задач IT индустрии. Данная технология имеет

множество применений, начиная от создания интерфейсов для плохо

видящих и/или испытывающих проблемы управления с помощью рук

и заканчивая повседневными ассистентами в смартфонах и

автомобилях. В этой статье рассказана история этой технологии от

зарождения до повсеместного распространения, а также основные

методы и алгоритмы, используемые при реализации программ

распознавания речи.

http://en.academic.ru/

http://ehikioya.com/

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History and algorithms of speech recognition

Speech recognition (SR) is also known as “automatic speech

recognition” (ASR), “computer speech recognition” (CSR), “speech to

text” (STT).

It is considered that the first important step in speech recognition was

made at Bell Laboratories. Designed in 1952, the “Audrey” system could

recognize digits spoken by a single voice.

Another SR machine, “Shoebox”, was demonstrated in 1962 by IBM

at the World’s Fair andcould understand 16 words spoken in English.

The researches of other laboratories all over the world expanded

abilities of those days’ SR systems, havingbroadened theiralphabet to four

vowels and nine consonants.

In the1970s, SR made a big jump due to interest and funding from

the U. S. Department of Defense. The DoD’s Defense Advanced Research

Program Agency (DARPA) Speech Understanding Research (SUR)

program was one of the largest programs of thiskind in the history of

speech recognitionfrom 1971 to 1976. That program also was responsible

for Carnegie Mellon’s “Harpy” system, which could understand 1011

words (approximately thevocabulary of an average three-year-old child).

The 1980s brought large increase in SR vocabulary. Itwas achieved

by changing method from matching sound patterns to computation of

probability of the fact that unknown sounds are words. Statistical models,

such as hidden Markov model, were becoming popular. But there still was

a problem: all these SR systems took discrete dictation, so you needed to

pause after every word.

In the1990s, the increased computing power of personal computers

allowed SR to come to themasses. The first consumer SR product, Dragon

Dictate, was released in 1990. Thesecond program to mention is Dragon

Naturally Speaking, released in 1997. This program wasremarkable

because of its ability to understand 100 words per minute, but you had to

train the program during 45 minutes. Moreover, these programs were very

expensive.

By 2001 SR systems reached 80 percent accuracy. Until 2008,

technology’s progress seemed to be stalled. Those years’ SR systems had

limited language vocabularies, the data available wasn’t enough.

Later, in 2008, Google paid attention to the research in the field of

SR, making its Voice Search app for the iPhone. Ithas proven that SR is

much better on small devices, such as smartphones. Moreover, the power

302

of Google cloud, billions of search queries, is the great base for SR

application. Speech recognition has gone from utility to entertainment.

SR systems can be classified into some types:

1. Speaker dependent – systems whichuse training (enrollment),

where an individual speaker reads a text or isolated vocabulary into the

system.

2. Speaker independent – systems whichdo not use training.

3. Speaker recognizing (voice recognition or speaker identification)

–identification of a person by voice. It is simpler than identification of

words said by a person.

4. Discrete speech recognition – the user must pause aftereach word

so that the speech recognition system could identify each separate word.

5. Continuous speech recognition – the voice recognition can

understand a normal rate of speaking.

6. Natural language – the speech recognition can not only

understand the voice but also answer questions or other queries asked (via

text or voice synthesis).

There are some algorithms and technologies that are used now:

1. Discriminant Analysis Methods based on Bayesian

discrimination;

2. Dynamic Time Warping based (DTW-based), which has been

displaced by HMM-based approach;

3. Hidden Markov Models (HMM);

4. Neural networks:

4.1 Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN);

4.2 Time Delay Neural Networks (TDNN);

4.3 Deep neural networks (DNN);

4.4 Convolutional neural networks (CNN).

The first family of algorithms often uses linear discriminant analysis

for finding a linear combination of features that characterizes or separates

two or more classes of objects or events. The resulting combination may

be used as a linear classifier or, more commonly, for dimensionality

reduction before later classification.

The second approach has in its core a dynamic time warping

algorithm, an example of dynamic programming. Algorithm warps two

sequences of time to match phonemes spoken in different speed.

The third family – hidden Markov models – isused in SR algorithms

quite often nowadays. HMM is a statistical model which represents a

structure, where states of some components are unknown and we can’t

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understand them. But we have another structure with states, which we see

and can interpret as a result of some unknown states of thefirst structure.

We can develop a chain that showsus that a structure can be in this state. In

application to SR, thesystem can give us a list of words. Their probability

of match with a spoken word is higher than other words’ probability. That

is this type is more flexible than a matching algorithm.

The fourth family consists of neural networks of all kind, used in SR.

In simple words it is a structure of layers, in every layer there are some

neurons with N inputs and one output. Information comes to the first layer,

interpreted by its neurons, and the given result comes to the second layer,

and so on until the last layer returns modified information. There aren’t

any statistical assumptions of these methods. They are good at recognition

of short-time units, such as individual phonemes or words. But these

networks can’t analyze human speech where all components aren’t

separated. It means that these networks can’t execute continuous

recognition tasks. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN’s) and Time Delay

Neural Networks (TDNN’s) are able to do this tasks, but with increased

computational cost. This method is also used as a pre-processor for the

HMM based recognition.

Another neural network, that has started developing recently, is a

deep neural network (DNN). In short, it is a neural network with a large

number of layers.

Convolutional neural networks (CNN) are another approach to build

an SR system. The main idea consists in using mathematical operation

named convolution, which modifies two functions into a third one.

There are some problems in using neural networks, like scaling

up/out and speedup of DNN training and decoding; sequence-

discriminative training of DNNs; feature processing by deep models with

solid understanding of the underlying mechanisms; adaptation of DNNs

and of related deep models; multi-task and transfer learning by DNNs and

related deep models; convolution of neural networks and the process of

their creation to use better the domain knowledge of speech; recurrent

neural network and its rich long short-term memory (LSTM) variants and

other types of deep models including tensor-based models and integrated

deep generative/discriminative models.

Nowadays all major commercial speech recognition systems (e.g.,

Microsoft Cortana, Xbox, Skype Translator, Google Now, Apple Siri,

Baidu and iFlyTek voice search, and a range of Nuance speech products,

etc.) are based on deep learning methods.

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In the 21st century the development of SR systems is linked with

attempts to increase accuracy and to reduce effect of the noise. A new

technology started to develop – Silent speech interfaces, when information

is gained without speech sounds (by movement of tongue, larynx and face

muscles).

This sphere still has many problems to solve, and solving these

problems, we would make another big step in the history of speech

recognition, providing us with a better way to communicate with

computers.


1. Baum, L. E. / Petrie, T. 1966. Statistical Inference for

Probabilistic Functions of Finite State Markov Chains. The Annals of

Mathematica lStatistics. URL:

http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.aoms/1177699147 (дата обращения:

02.12.2015).

2. Design and Implementation of Speech Recognition Systems.

Class 5: Dynamic Time Warping-Recognizing speech. URL:

http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~bhiksha/courses/11-

756.asr/spring2013/lectures/class5.dtw.6feb2013.pdf (дата обращения:

05.12.2015).

3. Mohri, M. 2002. Edit-Distance of Weighted Automata: General

Definitions and Algorithms. International Journal of Foundations of

Computer Science. URL: http://www.cs.nyu.edu/~mohri/pub/edit.pdf


4. Official site of the 40th IEEE International Conference on

Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). 2015. URL:

http://icassp2015.org/program-at-a-glance/ (дата обращения: 05.12.2015).

5. Penola, M. 2011. Speech Recognition Through the Decades: How

We Ended Up With Siri. URL:

http://www.computerworld.com/article/2499980/computer-

hardware/speech-recognition-through-the-decades--how-we-ended-up-

with-siri.html (дата обращения: 25.11.2015).

6. Waibel, A. / Lee, K. 1990. Readings in Speech Recognition.

URL: https://books.google.ru/books?id=iDHgboYRzmgC (дата

обращения: 15.01.2016).

7. Yamaguchi, H. 2015. Decoding Silent Speech in Japanese from

Single Trial EEGS: Preliminary Results. URL:

http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.aoms/1177699147

http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~bhiksha/courses/11-756.asr/spring2013/lectures/class5.dtw.6feb2013.pdf

http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~bhiksha/courses/11-756.asr/spring2013/lectures/class5.dtw.6feb2013.pdf

http://www.cs.nyu.edu/~mohri/pub/edit.pdf

http://icassp2015.org/program-at-a-glance/

http://www.computerworld.com/article/2499980/computer-hardware/speech-recognition-through-the-decades--how-we-ended-up-with-siri.html



https://books.google.ru/books?id=iDHgboYRzmgC

305

http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/decoding-silent-speech-in-

japanese-from-single-trial-eegs-preliminary-results-jcsb-1000202.pdf


С.С. Пьянков, Ж.Д. Танчев




Современные информационные технологии и их применение

В статье представлена роль информационных технологий в

жизни человека. Авторы рассматривают, какое влияние оказывает

информация на человека, как помогают информационные

технологии. Где их использует человек, а также наиболее популярные

технологии.

ModernInformationTechnologiesandTheirApplication

We live in very interesting times – in the times of high technologies

and IT progress. It is no secret that our life has changed. It has become

faster and more technological. At production sites, in some medical fields,

in educational and scientific spheres humans improve their environment by

transferring some of their duties to technological devices.

A computer connected to the World Wide Web is not a dream any

more, it is a workplace and a place where many inhabitants of the planet

Earth spend their leisure time [1].

But why humans try so hard to use new technologies in their work,

education and personal life?

The thing is that an irresistible wish of curiosity lives in all of us.

From early childhood we discover the world through our feelings and

sensations. We examine everything by tasting, we try to take things apart

or break them in order to learn how they are organized. In our opinion,

when a human grows up, this sense increases, not always though, but still

this wish of curiosity lives in each of us.

Surely, each human, in addition to his or her curiosity, understands

that there are many different things in the world which help him or her in

everyday life. However, as a rule, these things were invented not by this

http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/decoding-silent-speech-in-japanese-from-single-trial-eegs-preliminary-results-jcsb-1000202.pdf

http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/decoding-silent-speech-in-japanese-from-single-trial-eegs-preliminary-results-jcsb-1000202.pdf

306

human but by someone else. We do not notice how many different devices,

products of other people's labor we use. But sooner or later the human

faces a question: What will I leave behind? And perhaps the sense of

curiosity will grow into the sense of duty before the humanity and before

him/ or herself, and then he or she will begin to invent and make

experiments, creating different devices, and learn more and more

information.

In addition to the fact that this century is a century of high

technologies, we cannot argue that it is a century of information as well.

Each human has a variety of information sources, which he or she can

access and use. In our opinion, an intelligent person is not a person who

knows more than others, but a person who knows where to get information

and how to use it properly. This does not mean, however, that you should

not learn anything and use only electronic gadgets. It is just necessary to

understand that there are many information sources besides the Internet,

mass media or television, and it is not reasonable to trust only one of them

[2].

Nevertheless, the reality is that many people do not realize the

importance of understanding modern information technologies and fall

into the so-called trap. So, what are these information technologies? And

what good do they do to the human and to the whole world?

One of the most well-known and strong examples of modern

information technologies is the Internet. At the moment, the Internet or the

World Wide Web is one of the most popular sources of information.

We would like to note that it is the most popular, but not always

reliable source of information. In the modern World Wide Web there are a

lot of sources of information which contain video and audio information,

different images, articles and many other things.

Nowadays many people use the Internet to obtain different

information, not only educational, but also entertaining one. Using the

Internet, however, a human becomes addicted to it and begins to use it not

because he or she needs it, but just by habit. Also, many entrepreneurs

have understood that advertising field in the Internet can become a big

push for the promotion of one's business. And now the Internet is a large

information platform for doing business, conducting advertising

campaigns and signing of different documents.

Less frequently do we read now for the good of our souls? Instead,

we absorb information everywhere and easily become deaf while watching

readily available, annoying and aggressive television channels. We choke

307

in the flows of movies, get entangled in the labyrinth of changing images

in the Internet, we go blind in the flickering of ads in newspapers and

radio. Information, data, news… [1].

It should not go unspoken though, that there are many things which

we obtain in the result of using information technologies.

The Internet is a large educational platform as well. Today there are

many educational materials, webinars, articles and instructions in the

Internet. Due to the development of information technologies, one can get

education remotely or even educate oneself on one's own [3].

Among other examples of modern technologies we would like to

highlight television.

At the moment, this source of information has the maximum impact

on people's thoughts and opinions. Due to this source, we can learn about

absolutely everything that is going on in and outside our world. Thanks to

television, we can be warned of emergencies and possible dangers. It is a

huge and well-functioning network. Almost everyone has an opportunity

to watch television and learn the news. Unfortunately, however, regarding

recent events in the world, we have noticed unreliability of the shown

information and misrepresentation of actual facts. More often than not,

different television sources show different images, trying to represent the

situation in the way which will be most easily perceived by the society and

thus showing false instead of actual facts. Television has become a

powerful information weapon which is skillfully used in the modern

world.

In our opinion, the modern world experiences information resistance

which is directed to the human. It is important to realize that any single

opinion cannot be the true one; it should be proved by evidence. And one

should regard a lot of information to make conclusions on this or that

situation.

We suppose that in the modern world a human should possess

information, get a handle on it and have his or her own opinion. Perhaps

then there will be less people who blindly believe in false reality.


1. Бочарников В. Н. Информационные технологии в туризме:

учеб. пособие / В. Н. Бочарников, Е. Г. Лаврушина, Я. Ю. Блиновская.

– 2-е изд.– М.: Флинта, 2013. – 358 с. URL:

308

http://fictionbook.ru/pages/download_prew/?file=8895893 (дата

обращения: 15.01.2016).

2. Дюжева Е. Л. Информационно-коммуникационные

технологии в сфере туризма // Вестн. СГУТиКД. – 2011. – №. 3 (17). –

С. 39-40.

URL: http://www.vestnik.sutr.ru/journals_n/1317916636.pdf. (дата

обращения: 15.01.2016).

3. Путятин А.Б. Применение технологии автоматизации

проектирования и разработки сайтов на основании типовых

компонент и структур в процессе создания интернет-портала по

туризму / А.Б. Путятин, Г.В. Антюфеев, И.В. Прохоров // Науч.

сессия МИФИ-2002. - М., 2012. - Т.2. Технологии разработки

программных систем. Информ. технологии. - С. 115-116. URL:

http://library.mephi.ru/data/scientificsessions/2002/2/62.html (дата

обращения:12.01.2016).

А.С. Родионов, Ю.А. Паздникова




Распознавание диабетической ретинопатии по изображению

сетчатки

В данной статье обосновывается необходимость

автоматизированного подхода к выявлению признаков диабетической

ретинопатии по сетчатке глаза. В статье рассмотрены некоторые из

основных подходов к решению задач выделения особых областей на

изображении. Рассмотрен алгоритм машинного обучения для

решения задачи классификации.

Identification of diabetic retinopathy on images of aretina

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is an ocular manifestation of diabetes, a

systemic disease, which affects up to 80 percent of all patients who have

had diabetes for 10 years or more. Diabetic retinopathy is the leading

cause of blindness in the working-age population of the developed world

(Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).

309

The longer a person has diabetes, the higher his or her chances of

developing diabetic retinopathy. Each year in the United States, diabetic

retinopathy accounts for 12% of all new cases of blindness. It is also the

leading cause of blindness for people aged 20 to 64 years.

Figure 1 - Normal vision

Figure 2 - The same view with DR

Progression to vision impairment can be slowed or averted if DR is

detected in time, however this can be difficult as the disease often shows

few symptoms until it is already too late to provide effective treatment.

Currently, detecting DR is a time-consuming and manual process that

requires a trained clinician to examine and evaluate digital color fundus

photographs of the retina. By the time human readers submit their reviews,

often a day or two later, the delayed results lead to delayed observation,

delayed evaluation, and delayed treatment. Clinicians can identify DR by

the presence of lesions associated with the vascular abnormalities caused

by the disease. While this approach is effective, its resource demands are

high. The expertise and equipment required are often lacking in areas

where the rate of diabetes in local populations is high and DR detection is

most needed. As the number of individuals with diabetes continues to

grow, the infrastructure needed to prevent blindness, caused by DR, with

the use of new efficient technologies.

The need for a comprehensive and automated method of DR

screening is obvious nowadays, and previous efforts have made good

progress using image classification, pattern recognition, and machine

learning.

In machine learning and statistics, classification is a problem of identifying

which sub-categories a new feature belongs to, on the basis of a training

set of data containing the features which sub-category membership is

known. Some clinician has rated the presence of diabetic retinopathy in

each image on a scale of 0 to 4:

0 - No DR (Fig. 3); 1 – Mild; 2 – Moderate; 3 – Severe; 4 - Proliferative

DR (Fig. 4)

310

Figure 3 - No DR

Figure 4 - Proliferative DR

Differences on these pictures are well visible. In the second image

above, the signs which can show the existence or lack of DR are visible.

These signs are local features. Local features – one of the main tools of the

analysis of images. At first the program reveals potentially significant

places in the picture, i.e. estimated objects or their borders. The most

known and reliable algorithms of image identification are Hough

transform and SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features) algorithm.

The Hough transform is a feature extraction technique used in image

analysis, computer vision, and digital image processing. An example of the

Hough circle transform is presented in Fig. 5. The purpose of the technique

is to find imperfect instances of objects within a certain class of shapes by

a voting procedure (Fig. 6).

Figure 5 – the Hough circle transform finds

some circles on a test pattern on the top and

(correctly) doesn't find anything in the lower

photo

Figure 6 - Result of separation of small

circles

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_extraction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_analysis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_analysis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image_processing

311

This voting procedure is carried out in a parameter space, from which

object candidates are obtained as local maxima in a so-called accumulator

space that is explicitly constructed by the algorithm for computing the

Hough transform.

Next algorithm - SURF is one of the most effective and fast modern

algorithms. SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features) is a local feature detector

and descriptor that can be used for tasks such as object recognition or

registration. One big advantage of this algorithm is that, convolution with

box filter can be easily calculated with the help of integral images. And it

can be done in parallel for different scales. Also the SURF rely on

determinant of Hessian matrix for both scale and location. Below image

shows the method finds both dark and light features (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8).

Figure 7 - An example of recognition of points

Figure 8 - Result of recognition an optical

nerve

In addition, SURF is good at handling images with blurring and

rotation, but not good at handling viewpoint change and illumination

change.

So, we have recognized local features in the image. Now we shall

teach the computer to analyze images independently. The algorithm of

tutoring has to construct such model where it will manage to analyse the

new image and to make the decision which of the objects is available in

the image. For the solution of this purpose it is possible to choose

algorithm of classification, efficient in a big class of tasks, –

RandomForest. It uses lot of decision trees to create a classification. The

parameters are number of features and number of trees. Random forests

allow you to compute a heuristic for determining how “important” a

feature is in predicting a target. This heuristic measures the change in

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_space

312

prediction accuracy if you take a given feature and permute it across the

data points in the training set.

The more the accuracy falls when the feature is permuted, the more

“important” we can conclude the feature is.

Thus, inthe report some of basic approaches are studied and tested to

the solution of tasks of separation of special areas on the image: The

Hough transform for recognition of circles and SURF – algorithm. The

character description of images on the main pathological changes of a

retina is created, and on the created signs the algorithm of machine

training for the solution of the task of classification of RandomForest is

tested.


1. Афиногенов Е.И. Метод автоматизированного

формирования цифровой модели рельефа - Россия, МГТУ им. Н.Э.

Баумана, 2013.

2. Р. Гонсалес, Р. Вудс. Цифровая обработка изображений. -

М.: Техносфера 2005.

3. А.Б. Мерков Распознавание образов. Введение в методы

статистического обучения. - М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2011.

4. Identify sings of disbetic retinopathy in eye images. URL:

http://www.kaggle.com/c/diabetic-retinopathy-detection (дата обращения

15.09.2015).

5. URL: http://bigdataexaminer.com/data-science/i-thought-of-

sharing-these-7-machine-learning-concepts-with-you/ (дата обращения

01.11.2015).

А.В. Саган, А.А. Калмыков




Оптическая линейка

Статья посвящена описанию измерительной системы, в основе

работы которой лежат технологии компьютерного зрения.

Рассмотрены строение системы и основные принципы работы.

http://www.kaggle.com/c/diabetic-retinopathy-detection

http://bigdataexaminer.com/data-science/i-thought-of-sharing-these-7-machine-learning-concepts-with-you/

http://bigdataexaminer.com/data-science/i-thought-of-sharing-these-7-machine-learning-concepts-with-you/

313

Optisches Lineal

Einführung

Der Bereich Computer Vision entwickelt sich zur Zeit sehr aktiv. Es

gibt Systeme, die es erlauben, auf dem Bild unterschiedliche Muster,

beispielsweise Menschengesichter oder Textsymbole zu erkennen.

Die Technologien der Objekterkennung auf dem Bild wurden bei der

Entwicklung eines optischen Messgerätes verwendet, das für die Nutzung

im Bereich Metallurgie gedacht ist.

Bestandteile des Systems

Das System besteht aus einem Detektorblock "Optisches Lineal" und

einem geschützten Industrial Tablet Computer. Der Detektorblock

"Optisches Lineal" und dessen Position auf den Rollen während der

Messung sind schematisch auf der Zeichnung 1 dargestellt.

1 - Stange; 2 - Magnet; 3 - Modul Kamerabefestigung; 4 - Kameras; 5

- Modul Diodenbeleuchtung; 6 - Versteifungsrippe; 7 – unbewegliche

Klemmbacke.

Zeichnung 1

Grundprinzipien der Messung.

Da für die Bestimmung der Entfernung zwischen den Rollen das

System des technischen Sehens benutzt wird, sind dafür vor allem einige

vorhandene Daten über die Digitalkamera und das Messlineal nötig, z. B.

die Kamerakonstanten, Matrixparameter (Pixelgröße und Matrixgröße),

Entfernung zwischen den Kameras, einige geometrische Parameter des

Lineals.

314

Für die Bestimmung der Entfernung zwischen den Rollen wurde

folgendes Verfahren entwickelt. Es wurde angenommen, dass die Rollen

eine Zylinderform haben, der ein Kreis zugrunde liegt. Wenn die

Koordinaten der drei auf dem Kreis liegenden Punkte bestimmt werden,

kann man eindeutig den Radius dieses Kreises bestimmen. Um die drei

Punkte auf dem Kreis zu bekommen, wurden drei Kreistangenten gezogen.

(s. Zeichnung 2)

1 - Rolle; 2 - Detektorebene; 3 – Kameras.

Zeichnung 2

Als Kreis wird der Querschnitt der Rolle betrachtet, als

Kreistangenten - die geraden Linien, die das Zentrum des Kamerafokuses

mit der Grenze der Rolle verbinden, und die gerade Linie, die für die

beiden Rollen eine Kreistangente ist. Sehr wichtig ist die genaue

Bestimmung der sichtbaren Rollengrenze für jede Kamera. Unten werden

die Grundschritte der Bildbearbeitung für die Bestimmung der Gleichung

der sichtbaren Rollengrenze angeführt.

• Beim ersten Schritt wird wesentlich der Bildkontrast erhöht [1].

• Beim zweiten Schritt werden alle Konturen auf dem Bild

mithilfe von Algorithmus der Konturenbestimmung Canny bestimmt [2,

3].

• Beim dritten Schritt wird der Hough-Algorithmus benutzt, der

es erlaubt, unter allen Konturen die Objekte bestimmter Form zu finden, in

diesem Fall gerade Linien [4].

So, durch die Kontrasterhöhung, die Konturenmarkierung und die

Anwendung des Hough-Algorithmus, erhalten wir die Möglichkeit, die

genaue Grenze der Rolle zu bestimmen. Das Ergebnis der

Algorithmuswirkung ist auf der Zeichnung 3 dargestellt.

315

Zeichnung 3

Mit den vorhandenen Parametern des optischen Lineals sowie den

Koordinaten der auf der Grenze der Rolle liegenden Punkte, kann man den

Radius der Rollen sowie die Entfernung zwischen ihnen bestimmen.

Fazit Zum Schluss werden die wichtigsten festgestellten Vorteile des Geräts

angeführt. Dies sind folgende: die Möglichkeit, schnell die Entfernung

zwischen den Rollen zu messen, eine automatische Erstellung von

Databanken für die Ermessungen mit der Vermerkung der

Maschinenummer, der Strömung, des Segmentes und Rollenpaare, eine

hohe Genauigkeit, die durch das System des technischen Sehens

gewährleistet wird. Dazu gehören auch die hohe Genauigkeit der Messung,

die Leichtigkeit der Befestigung der Walzen dank den Magneten und der

visuellen Kontrolle, die Einfachheit der Anwendung und die

Automatisierung des Messungsverfahrens dank dem geschützten Industrial

Tablet Computer mit einem Touchpad und einem freundlichen Interface.


1. Баяковский Ю. М. Курс лекций по компьютерной графике.

/ М.: ВМиК МГУ, 2004.

2. Билл Грин. Алгоритм выделения контуров Canny. —

Дрексельская лаборатория автоматизированных систем. URL:

http://masters.donntu.edu.ua/2010/fknt/chudovskaja/library/article4.html


3. Грузман И. С., Киричук В. С., Косых В. П., Перетягин Г. И.

и др. Цифровая обработка изображений в информационных системах:

Учебное пособие / Новосибирск: Изд-во НГТУ, 2000. 168 с.

http://masters.donntu.edu.ua/2010/fknt/chudovskaja/library/article4.html

316

4. Прэтт У. Цифровая обработка изображений. Пер. с англ. /

М.: Мир, 1982. – 312 с.

Д.Г. Серебряков, А.Г. Ковалева




GPS или GLONASS?

Вопросы использования различных навигационных

спутниковых систем являются сегодня важными не только для

правительств различных государств, но и для обычных потребителей.

В данный момент существует несколько навигационных спутниковых

систем. Данное исследование дает представление об основных

характеристиках, достоинствах и недостатках существующих

навигационных систем.

GPS or GLONASS?

Nowadays the problem of choice of a navigation system has become

important not only for governments of different countries, but also for

ordinary people. This article has to answer a question: which navigation

system is more accurate and easier to use.

There are three global navigation systems: Russian GLONASS,

American GPS, and French GALILEO. It is worth noting French system

isn’t a competitor to two other yet, therefore Russian and American

systems are in the focus of the research.

GPS

Global Positioning System was developed by the United States'

Department of Defense. It uses 31 Medium Earth Orbit satellites that

transmit precise microwave signals. This enables GPS receivers to

determine their current location, time and velocity. The GPS satellites are

maintained by the United States Air Force.

GPS is often used by civilians as a navigation system. On the ground,

any GPS receiver contains a computer that "triangulates" its own position

by getting bearings from at least three satellites. The result is provided in

the form of a geographic position - longitude and latitude - to, for most

317

receivers, within the accuracy of 10 to 100 meters. Software applications

can then use those coordinates to provide driving or walking instructions.

There are some technologies, which help GPS to determine the

location of the receiver:

1. A-GPS – a system that is often able to significantly improve the

startup performance;

2. S-GPS – a method to enhance a mobile phone's satellite-based

position reporting ability to a carrier.

All satellite broadcasts are at the same frequencies, encode signals

using unique CDMA so receivers can distinguish individual satellites from

each other.

GLONASS

An acronym for Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema

(Global Navigation Satellite System), GLONASS is a Russian Aerospace

Defense Force-operated satellite-based navigation system that is very

much like GPS. While GPS came first, created by the United States Army

in 1978, GLONASS was invented as an alternative system. GLONASS is

the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space Agency,

consuming a third of its budget in 2010. Nowadays there are a lot of

modifications and new versions of GLONASS:

GLONASS-M – launched in 2003. It addedthe second civil

code. It is important for GIS mapping receivers.

GLONASS-k – started in 2011. It again had 3 more types

named k1, k2 and km for research. It also added the third type of civil

frequency.

RosCosmos plans to launch two more useful modifications:

GLONASS-K2 – will be launched after 2015 (currently in

design phase).

GLONASS-KM – will be launched after 2025 (currently in

research phase).

Another expansion of GLONASS is A-GLONASS. It’s very similar

to GLONASS but it brings more features for smartphones such as turn by

turn navigation, real time traffic data and some other. A-GLOASS uses the

cell towers near your location to lock your location quickly with the help

of your data connection. A-GLONASS also enhances the performance in

chip-sets that come with GLONASS support.

GLONASS first used the FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple

Access Method) channel access method to communicate with satellites,

with 25 channels for 24 satellites. This is a popular protocol used in

318

satellite communications, but has the disadvantage of crosstalk causing

interference and disruption.

Since 2008, GLONASS has used CDMA (Code Division Multiple

Access Technique) in order to allow compatibility with GPS satellites.

Therefore, GLONASS receivers are compatible with both FDMA and

CDMA, despite they are both larger and more expensive.

Specification GLONASS GPS

Owner Russian Federation The USA

Coding FDMA + CDMA CDMA

Number of satellites 24 31

Satellites per orbital

plane

8 and evenly spaced 4 and unevenly spaced

Orbital Height 21150 km 19130 km

Accuracy Position: 5–10 m Position: 3.5-7.8 m

Orbital plane

inclination

64.8 degree 55 degree

Orbital period About 11 hour and 58

minutes

11 hours and 16 minutes

Repeat ground track Every sidereal day Every 8 sidereal day

Clock data Transmitted in terms of

Clock offset, frequency rate

and allow the calculation of

the differences between

individual GPS satellite’s

time GPS-system time

Broadcasted Clock and

frequency offset provides

difference between time

of GLONASS satellite

and GLONASS system

Orbital data Modified keplerian orbital

elements every hour

Satellite position, velocity

and acceleration every

half hour

Frequency Around 1.602 GHz (SP)

Around 1.246 GHz (SP)

1.57542 GHz (L1 signal)

1.2276 GHz (L2 signal)

Status Operational Operational Table 1. Comparison of GLONASS and GPS specifications.

There are some significant differences between GLONASS and GPS.

On the one hand, GLONASS has fewer satellites in its constellation.

GPS has 32 which circle the globe in 6 orbital planes, or paths of orbit.

GLONASS has 24 satellites with 3 orbital planes. This means that more

satellites follow the same orbital path with GLONASS. It might be more

difficult to connect to available satellitesfor the systems usingGLONASS

only. This could potentially lead to reduce positioning accuracy.

319

The biggest difference between GPS and GLONASS is how they

communicate with receivers. GPS satellites use the same radio frequencies

but have different codes for communication. GLONASS satellites have the

same codes but use unique frequencies. This allows satellites to

communicate with one another despite being in the same orbital plane,

whereas this is not a problem for GPS.

There is no clear advantage other than accuracy over GPS.

GLONASS doesn’t have the same strong coverage as GPS has, but when

both are used together it increases accuracy with coverage. And it is more

useful in northern latitudes as Russia started GLONASS originally for

Russia.

The accuracy is an advantage of GLONASS with up-to 2 meter of

accuracy. GPS + GLONASS allow your device to be pin pointed by a

group of 55 satellites all across the globe. So when you are in a place

where GPS signals are stuck like between huge buildings or subways, you

will be tracked by GLONASS satellites accurately.

Using dual GPS/GLONASS receivers and antennas accelerates the

time to the first fixation, and the M2M device may have two satellites at its

disposal for determining location. This is particularly helpful for users who

need reliable location information in challenging environments, such as

urban canyons or environments where foliage, bridges, etc., often block

large portions of the sky.

For optimal accuracy, a device needs to receive signals from more

than one satellite, which underscores the advantages of dual-system

receivers. Receivers must have an unobstructed line of sight to four or

more satellites.

Obviously, mobile applications like auto location contend with

varying blocked parts of the sky, change performance along a route. Dual-

system receivers and antennas deliver a clear advantage for high-precision

positioning in such applications. In fact, Taoglas’ real-world driving tests

reveal quicker time for the first fixations, with accuracy improving from

meters to one meter.

In October of 2012 researchers at Taoglas conducted a series of tests

with various single- (GPS only) and dual-system (GPS + GLONASS)

antennas while driving two routes in San Diego, California.

Zero test, that was called “Unobstructed-Sky Test”, showed that in

open ground environments, with few or no trees, no buildings, and nothing

to block the sky, all global satellite systems worked well all day long,

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every day. The only difference was only in the speed of the time for the

first fixation.

There is no doubt, that the test in the unobstructed environment isn’t

realistic. Therefore, next tests were in San Diego.

The first test involved a passive antenna, which is the least-expensive

variety. A GPS-only antenna and a dual GPS/GLONASS antenna also

were tested. Results were uncertain – coverage changed when driving

underneath buildings or even when turning a corner and it showed, that

both GPS and GLONASS antennas are effective. However, positioning is

less accurate overall than with other antenna types.

In the second test, the dual-system antenna offered better accuracy.

However, the results were much less dramatic, because active antennas

delivered more accuracy overall than their passive counterparts, with the

highest accuracy coming from dual-system antennas.

The last test was considered with external antenna and the

expectations were higher than what actually occurred. Since this was an

active antenna, the results should have been similar to those with the other

active antennas. The researchers ultimately deduced that the cable loss

contributed to less performance.

Therefore, these tests showed that the dual-system antenna really

performed the best results in that difficult downtown environment.

Finally, it’s important to underline that after the comparison of GPS

and GLONASS it isn’t difficult to conclude that GLONASS is the most

accurate navigation system in northern latitudes andRussia. But the tests

described above have shownthat the best accuracy is achieved only when

GPS and GLONASS are used simultaneously.

Today there is no navigation system that can determinate your

position without inaccuracy, therefore one can say that GPS is like love,

you can never be sure where it will take you.


1. Denton Tom “How GPS Works”. 2009. URL:

http://www.maptoaster.com/maptoaster-topo-nz/articles/how-gps-

works/how-gps-works.html (дата обращения 03.12. 2015)

2. Hofmann-Wellenhof Bernard, Lichtenegger Herbert, Wasle Elmar,

2008. Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and

More. URL:

https://books.google.ru/books?id=Np7y43HU_m8C&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&

http://www.automotive-technology.co.uk/?author=1

http://www.maptoaster.com/maptoaster-topo-nz/articles/how-gps-works/how-gps-works.html

http://www.maptoaster.com/maptoaster-topo-nz/articles/how-gps-works/how-gps-works.html

https://books.google.ru/books?id=Np7y43HU_m8C&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=Global+Navigation+Satellite+Systems:+GPS,+GLONASS,+Galileo+and+More&source=bl&ots=FerHd4SSd5&sig=9bjAbyKFqyjN7YeuXjN9pECSFKY&hl=ru&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjv8vCLktLJAhXBD3IKHfT4BCAQ6AEIWzAJ#v=onepage&q=Global%20Navigation%20Satellite%20Systems%3A%20GPS%2C%20GLONASS%2C%20Galileo%20and%20More&f=false

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dq=Global+Navigation+Satellite+Systems:+GPS,+GLONASS,+Galileo+a

nd+More&source=bl&ots=FerHd4SSd5&sig=9bjAbyKFqyjN7YeuXjN9p

ECSFKY&hl=ru&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjv8vCLktLJAhXBD3IKHfT4BC

AQ6AEIWzAJ#v=onepage&q=Global%20Navigation%20Satellite%20Sy

stems%3A%20GPS%2C%20GLONASS%2C%20Galileo%20and%20Mor

e&f=false (дата обращения 03.12. 2015).

3. Kaplan Elliott D., Christopher Hegarty. 2006. Understanding GPS:

Principles and Applications, Second Edition.

4. O'Shea Dermot. 2013. Real-World Drive Tests Declare A Verdict

On GPS/GLONASS. URL: http://electronicdesign.com/test-amp-

measurement/real-world-drive-tests-declare-verdict-gpsglonass (дата

обращения 03.12. 2015).

А.В. Стрижигаускайте, Е.И. Косарева



г. Екатеринбург, России

3Д печать в медицине

Статья посвящена актуальности внедрения такой

технологической новинки как 3D печать в важнейшую сферу нашей

жизни - медицину. В ней обобщается практический опыт применения

такого вида печати для восстановления функций человеческого

организма и разобраны примеры успешного проведения операций

соответствующего рода. Значительное внимание уделяется

возможностям, которые открывает 3Dпечать перед медициной,

хирургами и пациентами. В конце статьи предполагается возможное

будущее 3D печати в медицине, акцентируется внимание на

необходимости этого, нужных мерах по всеобщему внедрению и

финансированию.

3D Printing in medicine

“3D printing is revolutionizing every aspect of the medical industry. It

saves time, it saves more lives and it improves the efficiency of the surgery

as well”

Dr Muhanad Hatamleh







http://electronicdesign.com/test-amp-measurement/real-world-drive-tests-declare-verdict-gpsglonass

http://electronicdesign.com/test-amp-measurement/real-world-drive-tests-declare-verdict-gpsglonass

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Nowadays it’s obvious that 3D printing is actually a misnomer. It's

actually 2D printing over and over again, and it in fact uses the

technologies associated with 2D printing. Think about inkjet printing

where you lay down ink on a page to make letters, and then do that over

and over again to build up a three-dimensional object. In microelectronics,

they use something called lithography to do the same sort of thing, to make

the transistors and integrated circuits and build up a structure several

times. These are all 2D printing technologies. So, today it is actually a

reality that you can download anything from the web with its data, correct

and specify it as you want, according to your preferences and you will see

that the information sent to the desktop machine will be fabricated on the

special spot not as a picture, but as a real product. We can actually print or

build very rapidly a physical object and the reason we can do this is an

emerging technology called additive manufacturing or 3D printing.

The technology of 3D-printer is more than 30 years old now and it is

quite amazing to think that only nowadays it is started to be filtered into

the public arena. Also known as rapid prototyping or additive

manufacturing, it used to be the manufacturing industry's best kept secret

but now the technology is being used to transform many industries,

including medicine. Over the past year, hospitals around the world have

begun talking about their burgeoning use of 3D printing in health care,

from 3D printing an entire skull, to rehearsing incredibly complex

surgeries and creating implants for reconstructive surgery. Only imagine

the quantity of the opportunities 3D-printing gives: tissues with blood

vessels, heart valve, ear cartilage and cranium replacement – this list still

hasn’t found its end. Let’s go to real examples.

In 2011, Professor of Washington State University Susmita Bose,

modified a ProMetal 3D printer to bind chemicals to a ceramic powder,

creating intricate scaffolds that promote the growth of bone in any shape.

Prof. Bose’s goal is to, one day, be able to implant the bone scaffold with

bone growth factors in such a way that the implant is dissolved by natural

bone material in even load-bearing bone structures.

At Cornell University Jonathan Butcher has printed a heart valve that

will soon be tested in sheep. With a dual-syringe machine, he was able to

print a combination of alginate, smooth muscle cells and valve interstitial

cells, to control the valve’s stiffness.

Cornell’s Lawrence Bonassar used 3D photos of human ears to create

ear molds. These molds were then filled with a gel containing bovine

cartilage cells suspended in collagen, which held the shape of the ear while

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cells grew their extracellular matrix. Bonassar and his team have since

gone on to 3D print intervertebral discs to treat major spinal complications,

while researchers at Princeton have 3D printed their own collagen ear, this

time, with built-in electronic components for superhuman hearing.

If speaking about saving the people’s lives, let’s talk about the

episode that happened in February of 2012 and reported by The New

Yorker newspaper. The medical team at the University of Michigan’s C. S.

Mott Children’s Hospital in Ann Arbor carried out an unusual operation on

a three-month-old boy. The baby had been born with a rare condition

called tracheobronchomalacia: the tissue of one portion of his airway was

so weak that it persistently collapsed. This made breathing very difficult,

and it regularly blocked vital blood vessels nearby, including the aorta,

triggering cardiac and pulmonary arrest. The infant was placed on a

ventilator, while the medical team set about figuring out what to do. The

area of weak tissue would somehow need to be repaired or replaced—a

major and dangerous operation in so small a patient. The team consulted

with the baby’s doctors at Akron Children’s Hospital, in Ohio, and they

soon agreed that they had just the right tool for this delicate, lifesaving

task: a 3-D printer.

The researchers took a scan of the baby’s chest, which they

converted into a highly detailed three-dimensional virtual map of his

altered airways. From this model, they designed and printed a splint—a

small tube, made of the same biocompatible material that goes into

sutures—that would fit snugly over the weakened section of airway and

hold it open. It was strong but flexible, and would expand as the boy grew.

The splint would last for three years or so, long enough for the boy’s cells

to grow over it, and then would dissolve harmlessly. Three weeks after the

splint was implanted, the baby was disconnected from the ventilator and

sent home. In May of 2013, in The New England Journal of Medicine, the

researchers reported that the boy was thriving and that “no unforeseen

problems related to the splint have arisen.”

Joseph DeSimone, the chief executive of the 3D printing company

Carbon3D and a professor of chemistry at the University of North Carolina

at Chapel Hill 3D appeared at TEDx conference in March 2015: “Think

about if you need a stent in an emergency situation, instead of the doctor

pulling off a stent out of the shelf that was just standard sizes, having a

stent that's designed for you, for your own anatomy with your own

tributaries, printed in an emergency situation in real time out of the

properties such that the stent could go away after 18 months: really-game

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changing. Or digital dentistry, and making these kinds of structures even

while you're in the dentist chair.” So, he suggested in his TED talk it might

be possible to 3D-print a tooth in less than 10 minutes. He refers to this

innovation as “point-of-sale manufacturing” for dentists. The bigger

context is that 3D printers are leading to what can only be called a

“replacement parts for humans” model. Just as cars have parts that need to

be replaced after a certain number of miles, humans also have parts that

need to be replaced after a certain number of years. That’s especially true

as people live longer than ever before. Think of 3D-printed teeth as just

small replacement parts that can be customized for your mouth.

We see that even such an innovative thing as 3 dimensional printing

gets more improvements and transformations throughout past years. It

becomes wide spread and will have an opportunity to help more and more

people in need of emergent surgery. As the technology improves, it’s

possible to see 10 times, even 100 times, improvements in speed. What

once took hours or more, can now be accomplished within the space of a

few minutes. That increase of speed, coupled with the promise of being

able to make perfectly fitted teeth that have been customized for each

person’s mouth, makes it almost a certainty that you might one day see a

3D printer next to all the other tools and instruments in your dentist’s

office. Gartner analyst Pete Basiliere says the most exciting use of 3D

printing is to make medical devices. "By 2018, we expect that there will be

2.3 million 3D printer units sold," he told IBTimes UK.” Surgeons are

implanting 3-D-printed stents, prosthetics, and replacement segments of

human skull. The exponents of 3-D printing contend that the technology is

making manufacturing more democratic; the things we are choosing to

print are becoming ever more personal and intimate. This appears to be

even more true in medicine: increasingly, what we are printing is

ourselves.


1. Официальный сайт газеты Newyorker. URL:

http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/print-thyself (дата


2. Поисковый ресурс WebInvestigatorKК. URL:

https://wikkorg.wordpress.com/2014/11/21/how-3-d-printing-is

revolutionizing-medicine (дата обращения 13.12.2015).

https://wikkorg.wordpress.com/2014/11/21/how-3-d-printing-is%20revolutionizing-medicine

https://wikkorg.wordpress.com/2014/11/21/how-3-d-printing-is%20revolutionizing-medicine

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3. Интернет-издание Internetmedicine.com URL:

http://internetmedicine.com/2014/11/23/print-thyself-how-3-d-printing-is-

revolutionizing-medicine (дата обращения 11.12.2015).

4. Официальный сайт газеты International Business Times.

URL: http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/3d-printing-medicine-how-technology-

increasingly-being-used-save-lives-1502609 (дата обращения

13.12.2015)

5. Интернет-издание HIGHSNOBIETY. URL:

http://www.highsnobiety.com/2015/06/18/3d-printing-next-vital-tool-

solving-crimes/ (дата обращения 13.12.2015).

6. Газета YAHOO! News. URL: https://uk.news.yahoo.com/3d-

printing-medicine-technology-increasingly-being-used-save-

143520985.html (дата обращения 13.12.2015).

7. 3D печать. URL: http://emergent3d.com/blog.html (дата


8. Официальный сайт конференции3DMedicinePrinting. URL:

http://www.3dmpconference.com/research/3d-printing-in-medicine-how-

the-technology-is-increasingly-being-used-to-save-lives-video/ (дата


9. Интернет-издание Medical practice insider. URL:

http://www.medicalpracticeinsider.com/news/3d-printing-tackles-

healthcare (дата обращения 10.12.2015).

Е.А. Табатчикова, Д.Г. Уткина




Технология GPRS

GPRS является самой широко используемой технологией среди

поставщиков услуг. GPRS - это своеобразная производная от GSM к

мобильным сетям третьего поколения 3G. GPRS-это скоростная

передача данных посредством сетей GSM. Данная технология

предоставляет пользователям возможность делать телефонные звонки

и отсылать данные одновременно. Самым заманчивым аспектом

технологии GPRSдляпоставщиков услуг, кроме понижения стоимости

эксплуатации, является простота управления при ее использовании,

http://www.medicalpracticeinsider.com/news/3d-printing-tackles-healthcare

http://www.medicalpracticeinsider.com/news/3d-printing-tackles-healthcare

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биллинговые возможности, которые стали доступны вслед за

переходом от коммутируемой к пакетной передаче данных.

GPRS technology

The abbreviation GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service

which is a network packet data. This network can transmit data at much

higher speed than usual GSM network. GSM (the group name Groupe

Special Mobile, later renamed the Global System for Mobile

Communications) is a global standard for digital mobile communications

with channel separation in time and frequency. GSM mobile phone, in

fact, is a fusion of computer and radio. At the same time eight phones can

operate at one frequency. GPRS is a packet data transmission system

working the same way with the Internet. The entire data stream sender is

divided into separate packets and then delivered to the recipient, where

packets come together, and it is not necessary that all packets will go one

route.

The main stages of integrating GPRS

1999-2000. Network operators signed contracts to test and

launch GPRS.

Summer 2000. It became possible to test services GPRS for the

first time.

At the beginning of 2001 GPRS terminals became available in

commercial quantities.

2001-2002. A typical speed was 56 kilobits per second.

At the beginning of 2002 a typical speed increased by 112

kilobits per second.

2002. GPRS was supported by new models of mobile phones

and became a common widely used thing. (similar to SMS status in 1999)

The Structure of GPRS.

GPRS core system consists of two main blocks such as SGSN

(Serving GPRS Support Node) and GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support

Node).

SGSN is the brain of the system. SGSN controls the delivery of data

packets to users. SGSN is responsible for delivering data packets from and

to mobile stations within their geographical service area. Its tasks include

packet routing and transfer, mobility management (attach/detach and

location management), logical link management, and authentication and

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charging functions. The location register of the SGSN stores location

information and user profiles of all GPRS users registered with it.

The destination of GGSN can be determined from its name. It is a

gateway between the network and external information highways for

example the Internet, corporate intranet networks, other GPRS systems,

and so on. The main task of GGSN is routing data flowing to and from the

caller through the SGSN.

Another part of the system is PCU which is Packet Control Unit.

PCU makes GSM stations to send and receive packets with GPRS

communications.PCU is joined to the base station controller which isBSC

and is responsible for sending data traffic directly from the BSC to the

SGSN.

The other components of the GPRS are the following:

BTS is a base station which receives a radio signal from the

mobile station depending on what is transmitted, such as voice or data,

transfers the traffic to a switching center (mobile switching center, MSC),

which is a standard network element of GSM or to a node SGSN which is

responsible for handling incoming and outgoing GPRS data.

MobileSwitchingCenter is a complete exchange with switching

and signaling capabilities. MSC is capable of routing calls from the BTS

and BSC to mobile users in the same network (through BSC and BTS) or

to users in the PSTN, PLMN and ISDN (through GMSC) or to answering

machines integrated within the MSC.

Home Location Register (HLR) is a database for location

management. It stores the identity and user data of all subscribers

belonging to the mobile operator for both local and aboard users.

Visitor Location Register (VLR) is a database which stores

information about each mobile station in the moment, in the area of the

SGSN.

Packet Data provides two modes of "connections":

PTP (Point-To-Point);

PTM (Point-To-Multipoint).

PTM mode is divided into two classes:

PTM-M (PTM-Multicast). Its function is to transfer necessary

information to all users in a specific geographical area.

PTM-G (PTM-Group Call). Its function is to send data to a

specific group of users.

GPRS’s working principle.

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GPRS uses radio band width of 200 kHz, and it is divided into eight

channels. The total capacity of the channel is 271 kilobits per second.

Internet connection is provided continuously. Data is transmitted only

when it is necessary.

When a user makes a call, the device connects the station GSM

which connects to the SGSN station. For the user, the connection is

obtained by "seamless" there is no procedure "to establish a call." If lots of

GPRS users connect to a GSM cell at the same time it won’t be able to

provide this volume of voice traffic so the station will use the radio

resources of free neighboring GSM cells.

So, what are the advantages and the main purpose of GPRS?

The main purpose of GPRS is to provide an effective, cheap, packet-

oriented access to the Internet on the principle of "from the sender to the

recipient." GPRS allows subscribers to use radio channels together.

GPRS gives users mobile Internet access with fast data transfer rates,

fast connection and an opportunity to pay only for the number of sent or

received data. It provides secure mobile access to corporate networks,

remote databases, mails and information servers of the companies. It

allows the device to remain connected without taking a separate channel so

it has a secure access to the Internet. This service is highly-required on the

market because this function protects you while you use payment and bank

systems in the Internet.

GPRS has several advantages such as a high data transfer rate which

is up to 171.2 kilobits per second. The other advantage is a quick call

tuning. The last one is a connection to the Internet and corporate networks.

How can GPRS help you in an everyday life?

It provides emergency services. If some emergency situations occur,

it can determine the exact location of the catastrophe. GPRS allows you to

have wireless access to the help information, so you can find easily the

nearest bank, train station and other places. The system can also help you

to find a lost child or even a stolen car showing the location in case if there

is a device connected to GPRS system.

So, to make a conclusion, GPRS technology is easy and accessible. It

can transmit videos, images, texts, sounds to another user. Due to

permanent connection there are no delays in time and information can be

delivered to the recipient in real time. GPRS supports encryption of a user

data transmission through a wireless interface with a mobile terminal to

SGSN. GPRS is an important new service for mobile devices, not just

giving the ability to transmit data, and improving the efficiency, capacity

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and functionality, compared with those used still non-voice mobile

services.


1. Geoff Sanders, Lionel Thorens, Manfred Reisky: GPRS Networks

by G. Sanders, 2004.

2. Jyrki T. J. Penttinen: The Telecommunications

Handbook: Engineering Guidelines for Fixed, Mobile and Satellite

Systems, 2015.

3. Peter McGuiggan: GPRS in Practice: A Companion to the

Specifications, 2004.

В.Е. Харисов, А.Г. Ковалёва




Онлайн-курсы в образовании

Быстрое развитие информационных технологий и Интернета

влечет за собой всё больше и больше возможностей для обучения.

Одной из таких возможностей является массовые открытые онлайн

курсы. Данная статья дает описание открытых обучающих

электронных платформ и их использования в обучении.

Online-courses in education

Massive open online course (MOOC) is a course aimed to a

large audience in the Internet. Usually it includes some traditional

materials as video lectures and problem sets or case studies and

instruments that provide communication between instructors and students.

A lot of universities in the world including Russia already have their

own platforms to host online courses. Examples of such platforms are edX

(includes courses at MIT, Harvard University and others) or Coursera

(Stanford and Princeton University, and others). Education on these sites is

free and available to a variety of languages, including Russian.

Most online courses duplicate courses that exists in particular

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university. Typically, these courses are open to enroll at the same time

when these courses are studied at the university. But some courses are

designed to improve student’s skills in the fields which are not necessarily

associated with a particular specialization. These courses are totally

independent, and some of these courses are open to enroll all the time. For

example, “Learning how to learn” hosted on Coursera website aims to give

students the opportunity to improve their learning and planning skills.

How this form of education is realized in practice?

In the beginning one or more instructors record video lectures and

create assignments which check student’s knowledge.

When this part of the job is finished, the course is uploaded into the

open access to allow students to enroll and pass it. Many educational

platforms such as Сoursera or edX can also issue certificate of successful

completion of the course.

How instructors check assignments in these courses? Typically,

assignments and tests are checked automatically, but it can be verified by

other students in peer-review mode. To get a mark for these assignments

you need to check a few works of other students.

In addition, the online course may be held concurrently with the main

program of the university. In this way, lectures are replaced by videos. In

this form of organization of the program, students watch lectures of the

course, and in the classroom instructor can discuss with them more

complex issues related to the course or focus on the practical component of

education.

Some advantages of the MOOCs should be mentioned.

This approach takes much load off from teachers, because most of

ordinary or basic courses do not change from year to year.

Students can watch the lectures being at home. If they enrolled into

the online course with the regular university classes, students have a

brilliant opportunity to explore the area of a subject more deeply. It would

be easier for instructor to work with the audience which is already

prepared for the work.

Students may study any time they want and gain knowledge from

qualified teachers from all over the world without leaving home.

Unlike the traditional model of learning online courses provide great

engagement and retention of attention and more carefully and detailed

control the progress ineducation.

The nature of these courses improves feedback between teachers and

students. The vast majority of platforms include mechanism of

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communication with instructor of the course.

In addition, this approach makes education mass and affordable,

because it’s usually free, and anyone who has the Internet connection can

enroll into this course and learn something new.

Universities which create these courses receive additional benefits

from this approach. Massive online courses let you “feel the taste" of

learning in particular universities of the world, which is one of the most

effective methods gain fame and popularity for universities. Moreover, this

form of competition between universities is better for students as they gain

access to a variety of expertise from different universities.

Unfortunately, with all its advantages online form of education has a

number of disadvantages.

Not all areas of knowledge can be learned only by studying online

courses. For example, in areas such as medicine you need a lot of practice

and deep knowledge in different complex and peculiar areas. The doctor

who has been trained only by this method is not a true professional.

The downside of a variety of available courses is the lack of a

systematic approach to education. At the moment, only universities

provide an opportunity to obtain more complete and comprehensive

training in various specialties. In some case it’s better to combine

traditional form of education with online courses.

Summarizing, we can say that online courses with all their

disadvantages still can’t substitute the traditional form of education. This

form of learning requires more self-discipline, it’s more difficult to choose

right aims in education and they don’t provide complete knowledge in

some fields of different sciences. But in the same time it provides a good

opportunity for good start in some field of knowledge. Although with

formal university education this kind of courses can help one to experience

other ways of getting some new information or approach to solve

problems.


1. Knox Jeremy, Bayne Sian, MacLeod Hamish, Ross Jen, Sinclair

Christine MOOC pedagogy: the challenges of developing for Coursera.

2012. URL: https://altc.alt.ac.uk/blog/2012/08/mooc-pedagogy-the-

challenges-of-developing-for-coursera/ (дата обращения 30. 11. 2015)

2. McAuley A., Stewart B., Siemens G., Cormier D. The MOOC

Model for Digital Practice. 2010. URL:

https://altc.alt.ac.uk/blog/2012/08/mooc-pedagogy-the-challenges-of-developing-for-coursera/

https://altc.alt.ac.uk/blog/2012/08/mooc-pedagogy-the-challenges-of-developing-for-coursera/

332

http://davecormier.com/edblog/wp-content/uploads/MOOC_Final.pdf

(дата обращения 29. 11. 2015)

3. Shea Michael MOOC: A university qualification in 24 hours?

2015. URL: http://www.theskinny.co.uk/tech/features/moocs (дата

обращения 04. 12. 2016).

А.С. Щапов, Д.И. Курманова




NFC технология в платежных системах на мобильных

устройствах

Мы все чаще слышим о технологии «коммуникация ближнего

поля». И она все больше находит свое применение, так как она дает

возможность обмена данными между устройствами, расстояние

между которыми около десяти сантиметров. Сегодня эта технология

нацелена прежде всего на использование в цифровых мобильных

устройствах. В этой статье раскрыты основные характеристики

технологии «коммуникация ближнего поля» и ее применение в

платежных системах с помощью мобильных устройств, а также

возможное дальнейшее развитие этой технологии в будущем.

NFC technology in payment technologies on mobile devices

Near Field Communication is hot. In today’s increasingly connected

world, this simple, intuitive technology lets you interact securely with the

world around you with a simple touch. Fast, seamless, and easy to use,

NFC is now available in hundreds of millions of smartphones, tablets, and

other consumer electronics, with new devices arriving almost daily.

NFC offers the ultimate in security and convenience, and makes new

interactions possible. It transforms the already dynamic mobile user

experience in a way that enables the "Internet of Things". Now "smart

posters", location based check-in signs, a friend's tablet, a ticketing or

payment terminal can all interact with your mobile device, securely and

seamlessly.

http://davecormier.com/edblog/wp-content/uploads/MOOC_Final.pdf

http://www.theskinny.co.uk/tech/features/moocs

333

From the simple exchange of business cards to sophisticated

personalized transactions, loyalty programs, and even devices that can

commission and configure themselves, NFC opens up a whole new world

of possibilities [4]. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi seem similar to near field

communication on the surface. All three allow wireless communication

and data exchange between digital devices like smartphones. Yet near field

communication utilizes electromagnetic radio fields while technologies

such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi focus on radio transmissions instead.

Near field communication, or NFC for short, is an offshoot of radio-

frequency identification (RFID) with the exception that NFC is designed

for use by devices within close proximity to each other. Three forms of

NFC technology exist: Type A, Type B, and FeliCa. All are similar but

communicate in slightly different ways. FeliCa is commonly found in

Japan.

Devices using NFC may be active or passive. A passive device, such

as an NFC tag, contains information that other devices can read but does

not read any information itself. Think of a passive device as a sign on a

wall. Others can read the information, but the sign itself does nothing

except transmit the info to authorized devices.

Active devices can read information and send it. An active NFC

device, like a smartphone, would not only be able to collect information

from NFC tags, but it would also be able to exchange information with

other compatible phones or devices and could even alter the information

on the NFC tag if authorized to make such changes.

To ensure security, NFC often establishes a secure channel and uses

encryption when sending sensitive information such as credit card

numbers. Users can further protect their private data by keeping anti-virus

software on their smartphones and adding a password to the phone so a

thief cannot use it in the event that the smartphone is lost or stolen. For

more information on the specifications and different forms of NFC

technology, view the rest of our technology pages [3].

One day, we'll all be paying for things with our phones, and NFC is

the ticket to that future. In light of the many recent credit card data

breaches, now is an especially good time to present a solution that finally

shields our wallets from theft and fraud.

Many retailers already have NFC-based contactless pay terminals in

place, making the transition to mobile payments easy. Phones compatible

with Google Wallet can currently use these terminals, as can Apple's

iPhone 6 and 6 Plus.

334

The biggest concern around NFC payments is security, but the

mobile payment structure is so complex, any hacking or intercepting

would be very difficult. To understand why, here's how it works.

After launching the payment application on your phone, the phone is

tapped on the credit card terminal and a connection is made using NFC. At

this point, you may be asked to scan your finger or enter a passcode to

approve the transaction. The transaction is then validated with a separate

chip called the secure element (SE), which relays that authorization back

to the NFC modem. From there, the payment finishes processing the same

way it would in a traditional credit card swipe transaction [2].

At now, Google Wallet and Apple Pay are two of the most important

wireless payments solutions for the future.

Apple Pay is Apple's belated entry to the mobile payment market.

Now it's up and running, you'll be able to make payments in shops by

holding your iPhone or Apple Watch next to the provided payment point,

using your fingerprint to authenticate. That means no more plastic cards or

PIN numbers.

It also works online with apps, so for example, you'll be able to order

and pay for a cab through Uber with a virtual button press and Touch ID

fingerprint authentication.

All you'll need to do to make payments with your Apple device will

be to hold your iPhone or Apple Watch up to a compatible payment point

and authenticate, and the appropriate payment will be taken from your

account.

“Contactless payments are already widely embraced by millions of

Visa cardholders across the country every day, so adding the simplicity

and convenience of Apple Pay will catapult mobile payments into the

mainstream," said Jeremy Nicholds, Executive Director of Mobile at Visa

Europe. "If people leave the house with one item, it’s their mobile phone –

we’ve worked alongside Apple and the various banks involved to give

customers a really seamless and exciting new payment experience through

Apple Pay, so they have new ways to use their favourite Visa cards on the

go and when shopping in the apps they love.”

In the US Apple has formed partnerships with dozens of retailers

covering some 220,000 stores to accept Apple Pay payments. These

include McDonalds, Disney, Staples, Nike, Whole Foods, Toys R Us, and

Subway, with plenty more to come.

As for the payment system itself, Apple has gained support from the

three major payment cards - Visa, MasterCard, and American Express. It

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has also reached agreements with half a dozen banks, including Citi,

Chase, and Capital One, with another five announced as coming soon [6].

Launched in September 2011, Google Wallet is a free digital wallet

app provided by Google. Google Wallet is available for Android phones

and iPhones, and it allows customers to make in-store payments via a

linked credit or debit card or by using their preloaded Wallet Balances.

Google Wallet users can also store loyalty programs in their phones, use a

Google Wallet Card to pay at MasterCard locations, send money to each

other via the app or a Gmail account, and pay online with their Wallet

Balances. Google Wallet uses NFC technology to enable customers with

compatible hardware to “tap and pay” at the point of sale.

Before March 2015, Google Wallet was incompatible with T-Mobile,

Verizon, and AT&T phones due to the competing Softcard app offered by

those wireless carriers. Now that Softcard has been retired, Google Wallet

will come preinstalled on all Android phones and be compatible with all

carriers. This arrangement may change with the upcoming launch of

Samsung Pay, a mobile wallet app from smartphone manufacturer

Samsung [1].

Whichever device you have, it's likely that a local supermarket, train

station, taxi or coffee shop supports contactless payments via your phone's

NFC chip. Go try it out! Simply hold it close to a contactless payment

terminal and instantly, like swiping a credit card, the payment will

complete.

Looking toward the future, it's possible that NFC chips could be used

to replace every card in your wallet. That means the unique info on your

frequent shopper loyalty cards, library card, business cards and the like

could be contained and transmitted simply via NFC [5].


1. Card Payment Options. URL:

https://www.cardpaymentoptions.com/mobile-wallets/google-wallet/ (дата


2. CNET. URL: http://www.cnet.com/how-to/how-nfc-works-and-

mobile-payments/ (дата обращения 05.11.2015)

3. Near Field Communication. URL:

http://www.nearfieldcommunication.org/how-it-works.html/ (дата


https://www.cardpaymentoptions.com/mobile-wallets/google-wallet/

http://www.cnet.com/how-to/how-nfc-works-and-mobile-payments/

http://www.cnet.com/how-to/how-nfc-works-and-mobile-payments/

http://www.nearfieldcommunication.org/how-it-works.html/

336

4. NXP Semiconductors N.V. URL:

http://www.nxp.com/techzones/nfc-zone/overview.html/ (дата обращения

21.10.2015).

5. Techradar. The home of technology: URL:

http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/what-is-nfc-

and-why-is-it-in-your-phone-948410/ (дата обращения 09.08.2015).

6. Trusted Reviews. URL:

http://www.trustedreviews.com/opinions/what-is-apple-pay/ (дата


VI. Здоровьесберегающие технологии

А.А. Ахметов, Е.М. Божко




Здоровьесберегающие технологии в мобильных приложениях

Данная статья рассказывает о том, как можно использовать

мобильные телефоны с пользой для собственного здоровья – о

приложениях для сотовых, которые позволяют это осуществить.

Health-saving technologiesinmobileapplications

There came times when it is easy to take care of one’s health due to

mobile technologies. Moreover, the market of computer programmes and

applications allowingto monitorone’s health and well-being is growing.

M-Health is an abbreviation for mobile health, a term used for the

practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices, such

as mobile phones, tablet computers and PDAs. The m-Health field has

emerged as a sub-segment of eHealth, the use of information and

communication technology (ICT), such as computers, mobile phones,

communication satellites, patient monitors, etc., for health services and

information. M-Health applications include the use of mobile devices in

collecting community and clinical health data, delivery of healthcare

information to practitioners, researchers, and patients, real-time monitoring

http://www.nxp.com/techzones/nfc-zone/overview.html/

http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/what-is-nfc-and-why-is-it-in-your-phone-948410/%20(дата

http://www.techradar.com/news/phone-and-communications/what-is-nfc-and-why-is-it-in-your-phone-948410/%20(дата

http://www.trustedreviews.com/opinions/what-is-apple-pay/%20(дата

337

of patient vital signs, and direct provision of care (via mobile

telemedicine) [1].

While m-Health certainly has application for industrialized nations,

the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for

developing countries, stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone

penetration in low-income nations. The field, then, largely emerges as a

means of providing greater access to larger segments of population in

developing countries, as well as of improving the capacity of health

systems in such countries to provide better quality of healthcare. Within

the m-Health space, projects operate with a variety of objectives, including

increased access to healthcare and health-related information (particularly

for hard-to-reach layers of population); improved ability to diagnose and

track diseases; timelier, more actionable public health information; and

expanded access to ongoing medical education and training for health

workers.

M-Health is one aspect of eHealth that is pushing the limits of how to

acquire, transport, store, process, and secure raw and processed data to

deliver meaningful results. M-Health offers the ability of remote

individuals to participate in the health care value matrix, which may not

have been possible in the past. Participation does not imply just

consumption of health care services. In many cases, remote users are

valuable contributors to the process of gathering data regarding disease

and public health concerns such as outdoor pollution, drugs and violence.

Here are just a few examples of m-Health applications.

S Health “Achieve more for your health. It will track your workouts, daily

intake, and weight levels. Get the current status of your surroundings for

your activities with the Samsung Galaxy S4’s Comfort Level. It shows

your comfort level based on temperature and humidity. Monitor your

progress with both Health Board and various charts” – says Samsung.

Samsung's feature-packed Galaxy S 4 smartphone may actually be

good for your health. The flagship phone has a built-in pedometer and an

app called S Health. The phone has built-in sensors designed to measure

the temperature and humidity of your location, which is then sent to the S

Health app. The combination of sensors built within the device

systematically and automatically monitors your health, tracks your

surroundings, and thusmay be of great help in improving the quality of

life. The S Health app will also work with third party devices such as

glucose meters and blood pressure monitors. In addition, Samsung

338

mentioned the S Band bracelet, which appears to work much like a Nike

Fuelband or Jawbone Up, but you can use it when you do not want to carry

your phone with you. You then synchronise your data back to the phone

after you finishedyour run. There is also a body scale and a heart rate

monitor which will send data to the phone via Bluetooth [2].

Nike FuelBand SE

If Apple is building an iWatch, it is probably keeping a close eye on

Nike's FuelBand at the moment. With the first FuelBand, Nike

successfully built a life gamifier. It was a piece of fitness gadget that you

would wear like any other watch or wristband, not just something to put on

for a jog like you would do with the TomTom Runner GPS Watch. In

other words, it killed wearable gadgets. The Nike FuelBand SE is the

second iteration of the FuelBand, but while the Fitbit Force and others are

edging into smartwatch territory, Nike has instead decided to keep its

focus on fitness and plugging the gaps found in the original.

Pros and Cons of the Nike FuelBand SE

Pros Cons

Stylish as ever

Sessions is a great feature

Excellent social functions

Still no Android applications

Accuracy is still a bit

questionable

Setting up the FuelBand SE is rathersimple. You'll just need to create

a Nike account, enter some details about yourself including your height

and weight, charge the band up, and then you are away. The SE then uses

its accelerometer to measure your activity throughout the day and converts

it into fuel. When you first set up your FuelBand you will be asked to enter

a daily fuel point target. This can be changed at any time but 3000 seems a

good average for the moderately active wearer.

Pressing the FuelBand's button once will make the display show you

how many Fuel points you have earned as well as a percentage of your

daily goal illustrated in lights that move from red to green. You can also

view Steps and Calories if you have enabled them. But if you think you

can cheat the SE by shaking your wrist around for some easy points, you

are mistaken. With the SE, Nike has improved the algorithm so as to

ensure the band is much more accurate – and aware when you are trying to

fool it.

The latter fact brings us to Sessions, the headline act of the Nike

FuelBand SE. This is what really differentiates the new model from the

339

old, and is a brilliant addition if you make full use of it. While the first

iteration of the FuelBand just accumulated all of your movements

throughout the day and displayed their number at the end of it, Sessions

allows you to tell the SE everything you are doing so it can reward you

proportionately for each activity. A perfect example of this is yoga -

something that does not demand much movement but is a strenuous

exercise nonetheless. But it certainly doesn't stop at yoga. The

FuelBandrecognises plenty of activities –from jogging to juggling,

paintballing to ping pong, there is a lot that Nike has already got covered

[4].

The Nike FuelBand SE reckons it is an Olympic leap beyond the

original, but if you fail tomake full use of Sessions on a day to day basis,

its strides forward are not massive. Nonetheless, it is still a stylish piece of

technology, and you will start to enjoy your life a little more when wearing

it. However, for anyone who owns last year's iteration, it is tough to

recommend paying out for the Second Edition, especially now that Nike

has made its improved algorithms available to the original device.

RunKeeper

Runkeeper is a GPS fitness-tracking application for iOS and Android

with over 40 million users. It was first launched in 2008 by CEO Jason

Jacobs with the help of "moonlighting engineers".

RunKeeperapp allows users to track fitness activities (such as

walking, running and cycling) using GPS and to see detailed statistics

around their pace, distance, and time. RunKeeperapp tracks statistics,

progress, and applies coaching, which allows the user to advance in their

progress through their headphones with built-in audio cues; listen and

control music while working out; measure their heart rate and take pictures

to share and save while engaged in an activity. This application tracks

performance over time, allowing users to view a detailed history of

activities; get notifications for new personal "bests" and milestones;

measure progress against current goals; follow detailed plans and turn any

activity into a route to do again later using built-in GPS. RunKeeperapp

allows users to share their personal content with friends through posting

activities, achievements and plans to Facebook and Twitter, and allows

supporters watch live maps of workouts and races as users run. RunKeeper

app integrates with the built-in music function of the phone and social

networks like Facebook, Twitter and Foursquare. This application also has

an online social network of users that share progress, goals, training

340

programs and mapped routes. The application has released an open API for

outside developers to plug into RunKeeper users’ feeds [3].

Pros and Cons of RunKeeper

Pros Cons

Tracks time, distance and

calories

Views workouts on map

Is very easy to use

Better functions require

registration

Calorie count cannot be very

accurate [5].

So, as we can see, our mobile devices can well be used not just for

communication, but also for taking care of our health, which is certainly a

useful feature. The market of health-saving mobile apps continues growing

and more and more sophisticated apps appear on it.


1. Germanakos P., Mourlas C., & Samaras G. A Mobile Agent

Approach for Ubiquitous and Personalized eHealth Information Systems //

Proceedings of the Workshop on 'Personalization for e-Health' of the 10th

International Conference on User Modeling (UM'05). Edinburgh, July 29,

2005, pp. 67–70.

2. Smith, Andrea. Samsung Galaxy S 4 Is Your Personal Fitness

Tracker // Mashable Information Magazine. - March 15, 2013.

3. Malinowski, Erik. How RunKeeper Could Become the

Facebook of Fitness. URL:

http://www.wired.com/playbook/2011/06/runkeeper-facebook-of-

fitness/wired.com (дата обращения: 13.01.2016).

4. Nike Fuel Band SE review. URL:

http://www.techradar.com/reviews/gadgets/nike-fuelband-se-

1195227/review/2 (дата обращения: 10.01.2016).

5. Run Keeper 4.3.4 – Aworkoutmonitorthat’snotjustforrunners.

URL: http://m.en.softonic.com/app/runkeeper/android (дата обращения:

13.01.2016).

http://www.media.uoa.gr/~pgerman/publications/published_papers/A_Mobile_Agent_Approach_for_Ubiquitous_and_Personalized_eHealth_Information_Systems.pdf

http://www.media.uoa.gr/~pgerman/publications/published_papers/A_Mobile_Agent_Approach_for_Ubiquitous_and_Personalized_eHealth_Information_Systems.pdf

http://www.wired.com/playbook/2011/06/runkeeper-facebook-of-fitness/wired.com

http://www.wired.com/playbook/2011/06/runkeeper-facebook-of-fitness/wired.com

http://www.techradar.com/reviews/gadgets/nike-fuelband-se-1195227/review/2

http://www.techradar.com/reviews/gadgets/nike-fuelband-se-1195227/review/2

http://m.en.softonic.com/app/runkeeper/android%20(дата

341

А.А. Юрташкина, Д.А. Шипина




Лечение и профилактика остеохондроза у студенток

специальной медицинской группы

Остеохондроз – распространенное заболевание в настоящее

время и встречается не только у людей пожилого возраста, но и у

молодых людей. В статье представлены специальные упражнения для

укрепления спины, и на примере группы студенток специальной

медицинской группы проведен анализ динамики показателей

состояния здоровья в результате применения лечебной гимнастики.

Treatment and prevention of degenerative disc disease

ofremedial gymnastics group students

Nowadays sport gets into everyone's life. Enormous number of

articles was written and will be written about healthy nutrition and sports.

Everyone chooses their own kind of sports. Some people prefer dancing,

others likeskiing, running, skating, etc. Sport gives not only the feeling of

confidence, but, most importantly, health as well.

The Constitution of the World Health Organization says that health is

"a state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being and

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Today few people can be

proud of their health.

One of the most common diseases in Russia is osteochondrosis.

Osteochondrosis (from the Greek. Ostéon – “bone” and chóndros –

“cartilage”) means dystrophic process (the situation when the process of

organ nutrition does not function properly) in bones (osteo) and cartilages

(chondro).

The causes of osteochondrosisare as follows:

1) Heredity, the genetic predisposition to the disease;

2) Overweight (one of the main reasons);

3) Improper diet, fast food;

4) Sedentary lifestyle.

Currently modern medicine offers several ways of osteochondrosis

treatment:

342

1. Pharmaceutical treatment (the most common way);

2. Manual therapy;

3. Remedial gymnastics that includeslowly performed exercises to

strengthen back muscles.

Only pharmaceutical treatment is not always effective due to the fact

that the medicaments affect the liver and stomach. It is much more

effective to combine all the above-listed methods of treatment and pay

special attention to physiotherapy.

Physiotherapy is a set of physical exercises. It has three parts. The

first part is preparation: it consists of five exercises that are aimed at

warming up. The second part contains basic exercises for strengthening the

back muscles. The final part includes relaxation exercises.

A group of ten people with the osteochondrosis diagnosis was chosen

to test the effectiveness of these exercises. In December 2014 they had to

pass the following sport standards:

1) sit-ups;

2) standing long jump;

3) bench dips.

Exercises were chosen according to the features of the disease. They

were practiced at physical training lessons, one hour two times a week.

The group recommendations included information on what to avoid during

the observation period.The following things were not recommended to do:

1. Lifting and carrying weights;

2. Doing movements that cause crepitus in joints and different parts of

the spine;

3. Sleeping on a high pillow (back muscles strain involuntarily, pain

increases, and the curved back may cause spinal deformity);

4. Overeating;

5. Sleeping on a soft mattress or sofa;

6. Wearinghigh heels (the lack of full support on both feet affects the

natural curves of the spine).

The testing group passed the same sport standards both in 2014 and

2015. The diagram below presents the results.

343

Picture 1. Performance indicators for 2014-2015 sport standards

The diagram shows that the number of sit-ups increased from an

average of 29 to 37 times. The standing long jump average figures grew

from 140 to 160 cm. The results of bench dips improved as well: from 8 to

11 times.

Therefore, on the basis of the data, we conclude that one can observe

positive dynamics of indicators. Moreover, the most important result of the

experiment was improvingof the group health state and increasing of the

remission period length.


1. Корхин М. А. Лечебная физкультура в домашних условиях

/ Корхин М. А., И.М. Рябинович. Л: Лениздат,1990. с. 144.

2. Как быстро и эффективно вылечить остеохондроз /Л. В.

Николайчук и др. Ростов н/Д: Финекс, 2001. с. 320.

344

Оглавление

Л.И. Корнеева. Основные методологические аспекты обучения

иностранному языку в сфере профессиональной

коммуникации………..…………………………………………………...3

В. Блессинг, Г. Ользовски. Проблемно-ориентированное обучение в

Университете прикладных наук Форарльберга…...................................7

I. АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ……….....12

Е.Я. Дмитриева, Л.В. Ивкина. Эссилор: инновационный

менеджмент……………………………………………………………...12

Н.С. Драничникова, Е.А. Снигирева. Краудфандинг – новый метод

финансирования бизнес-проектов………..……………………………15

А.В. Исаков, Д.А. Кузнецова. Зависимость федерального бюджета РФ

от нефтегазового экспорта..…………………………………………….19

А.П. Караева, Е.С. Долгополова. Падение цен на нефть: последствия

для экономики России……………………………………………….....23

Н.В. Кирилловских, Д.А. Кузнецова. Санкции после Крыма: кто

пострадает больше?..................................................................................26

Е.С. Косова, С.А. Учурова. Проблема миграции

высококвалифицированных трудовых ресурсов……………………...31

А.В. Кочкина, А.А. Лаврова. Проблемы активизации и продвижения

инновационных стартапов в России…..……………………………….34

А.А. Крещик, Г.Н. Замараева. Конверсия военного производства в

России……………………………………………………………………39

А.Ю. Крысанова, Л.А. Бартель. Рынок банковских пластиковых карт

России………………………………………………………………...….43

А.С. Лукичева, Е.С. Долгополова. Влияние санкций на российскую

экономику…………………………………………………………..……48

А.Ю. Серебрякова, Л.А. Бартель. Функционирование национальной

системы платежных карт России………………………………………51

Е.К. Фитина, Г.И. Драчева. Социальное жилье в городе

Екатеринбурге: динамика развития в 2005-2015 гг………………..…55

Ч.А. Чамбый-оол, Л.В. Ивкина. Аудит: состояние, стандарты,

задачи…………………………………………………………………….59

345

II. ЛИНГВИСТИКА……………..………………………………….62

Л.И. Корнеева, М. Жунюй. The history of the teaching Chinese as a

foreign language Methodology in China…………………………………62

М.Б. Абдиев. О некоторых особенностях кулинарной лексики

узбекского языка...……………………………………...………………68

Х.Х Бердиев. Метафорические термины в лексике

юртовозведения…………………………….…………………………...73

Т.О. Боронникова, Э.В. Лелека. Семантика русского и английского

числа существительных. Сходства и различия………...…………..…77

А.Р. Бостекова. Интернациональная лексика или заимствованные

слова……………………………………………………………………...82

П.С. Васильев, Т.Н. Николаева. Средства выражения скандальной

сенсации в медийном тексте…………………………………………...87

А.В. Васильева, С.А. Учурова. Нарратив как особая разновидность

текста………………………………………………………………...…..91

А.А. Володенко, А.И. Конторских. Актуальность использования

образов животных в качестве персонажей современной детской

английской сказки (на примере произведений Дж.

Дональдсон)……………………………………………………………..95

А.А. Георгиева, Л.Ю. Дондик. Метафорическая репрезентация

терактов в СМИ Франции….…………………………………………...99

И.В. Голубкова. Немецкоязычный дискурс справочников по подаче

заявления: специфический текстотип как транслятор актуального

знания……….……………………………………………………….....103

К.Е. Есенова. Особенности англо-русских научно-технических

переводов...…………………………………………………………….109

А.Д.Ильина, Д.А. Кузнецова. Эсперанто – ключ к единству?...........112

А.А. Корюкова, Ю.Р. Даминова. Английская лексика в произведениях

о Гарри Поттере………………………………………………………..116

А.Ю. Кошелева, Э.В. Лелека. Ошибки в текстах современных песен

на английском языке……………...………………………………...…121

Н.А. Куракина. Вербализация региональной идентичности в

комплиментах представителями английской и американской

национальных идентичностей………………………...………………124

Логинова Е.В., Кадыкеева В.К., Ольшванг О.Ю. Перевод названий

кинофильмов: анализ переводческих подходов и решений……...…129

А.Ю. Малкершина, Т.В. Сластникова. Звукоподражания и их

деривационные возможности………..………………………………..133

346

Ю.В. Пономарчук, Э.В. Лелека. Роль древнеанглийских слов в

литературе……………………………………………………………...138

А.П. Функ, Е.М. Божко, Е.В. Григорьева. Условия формирования

билингвальной языковой личности…………………………………..140

Н.П. Постникова, Ю.С. Пожарицкая. Внедрение программ

автоматизированного перевода в процесс обучения

переводчиков…………………………………………………………..145

Р.М. Фархуллина, Ю.С. Пожарицкая. Развитие навыков критического

мышления в обучении чтению научных текстов……………………149

Г.А. Федорова. Древняя якутская письменность………...………….154

А.А. Шевченко, Ю.С. Пожарицкая. Роль ошибок и обратной связи

при усвоении второго языка………………………………….……….156

Е.Н. Шнайдер, А.И. Конторских. Языковые средства выражения

иронии в художественном фильме……………………………...……161

III. МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНАЯ КОММУНИКАЦИЯ…..…...…….166

Р. Хенфлинг. Языковая политика как проблемное поле миграции и

интеграции в Германии и кризис беженцев в 2016 г. …………...….166

А.А. Белозерова, Л.И. Корнеева. Метод тренинга как средство

межкультурного образования…………………...……………………168

В.А. Возчикова. Уважение – главный принцип межкультурной

коммуникации..………………………………………………………...172

И.А. Гальцева, Д.Г. Уткина. Влияние культурных традиций

восприятия цветов на оформление интерьера гостиницы…………..176

В.А. Дряпина, Г.Н. Замараева. Барьеры в межкультурной

коммуникации………………………………………………….………180

И.Н. Кугушева, Е.А. Бакина. Межкультурная коммуникация в

современном обществе………………………………...………….…..184

М.Д. Кукушкина, Т.Н. Крепкая. Проблемы адаптации иностранных

студентов к обучению в Санкт-Петербурге……………………….…189

Д.И. Курманова, А.И. Конторских. Контент-анализ семантического

поля «образование» в русской и английской культурах (на примере

текстовых источников из НКРЯ и COCA)………………………..….192

Н.Н. Мирошникова, Н.В. Белина. Особенности обучения иноязычной

межкультурной коммуникации студентов в неязыковом вузе……..195

Ю.В. Пихтовникова, Е.М. Божко. Учет различий культур при ведении

бизнеса………………………………………………………………….198

347

Чень Чунься. Личностный компонент в структуре

лингвосоциокультурной компетентности китайских студентов-

русистов…………………………………………………………..…….203

IV. PR И РЕКЛАМА……………………..…………………………208

В.Р. Аминова, Е.А. Орлова, И.И. Мамаева. Титаник как инструмент

пропаганды в управлении миром……………………………………..208

Д.В. Глотова, А.А. Лаврова. Партизанский маркетинг……...……...212

А.Р. Клюева, А.А. Лаврова. Аромамаркетинг…………………...…..216

М.В. Малыгина, Е.А. Снигирева. Реклама СМИ: критерии

эффективности…………………....……………………………………220

А.В. Парыгин, М.К. Куклина. Рентабельность спортсмена-ветерана в

качестве экономического объекта.…………………………………...223

В.А. Пастухова, И.И. Мамаева. Реклама в социальной сети

«Инстаграм»…………………....………………………………………226

А.С. Рослякова, К.Е. Сивкова, И.И. Мамаева. Имидж Екатеринбурга:

от старых сценариев к новому………………. ……………………....230

О.В. Слинкина, Д.А. Шипина. Воздействие рекламы на

молодежь……………………………………………………………….234

А.Б. Хачатрян, А.А. Лаврова. Продакт плейсмент как глобальная

стратегия продвижения товаров и услуг………………...………...…239

V. СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ИНФОРМАЦИОННЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ.243

Д.А. Бельтикова, С.В. Платонова. Шрифтовая разборчивость……..243

К.Э Аникин, Д.П. Ефремова. Альтернативные операционные

системы…………………………………………………………………246

А.И. Падорова, С.В. Платонова. Операционная система Андроид. За и

против…………………………..………………………………………251

И.В. Артемов, Ю.А. Паздникова. Канал на YouTube - хобби или

работа?.....................................................................................................254

В.В. Барашева, Ю.С. Пожарицкая. Использование информационных

технологий в обучении: массовые открытые онлайн курсы………..258

Д.Н. Васькова, Л.В. Ивкина. Нейротика, новая прикладная

наука……………………………………………………………………262

Д.О. Деденев, Ю.А. Паздникова. Защита от стеганографических

атак……………………………………………………………………...266

М.В. Зыкина, Д.П. Ефремова. Internet of Everything……………...…270

С.В. Иванаев, А.В. Тишкина. Свёрточные нейронные сети…..……273

348

Д.Е. Комаров, Ю.А. Паздникова. Применение современных

информационных технологий в медицине………………...………...277

Д.С. Костерина, Е.А. Снигирева. Технология рабочего места интернет

системы QUIK, предоставляемая банком ВТБ24………………...….280

Д.О. Костылева, Е.И. Косарева. Необходимость использования

аппаратно-независимого цветовоспроизведения……………………284

С.А. Кутырева. Радиотерапия в лечении раковых заболеваний..…..289

М.О. Ланитина, Е.И. Косарева. Электронно-цифровая подпись...…293

А.А. Моисеева, А.В. Тишкина. Облачное хранилище данных……..297

А.Р. Мугинов, Е.Н. Шнайдер. История и алгоритмы распознавания

речи…………………………………………………………………..…300

С.С. Пьянков, Ж.Д. Танчев. Современные информационные

технологии и их применение….………………………………………305

А.С. Родионов, Ю.А. Паздникова. Распознавание диабетической

ретинопатии по изображению сетчатки…..………………………….308

А.В. Саган, А.А. Калмыков. Оптическая линейка……………...…...312

Д.Г. Серебряков, А.Г. Ковалева. GPS или GLONASS……...……….316

А.В. Стрижигаускайте, Е.И. Косарева. 3Д печать в медицине…......321

Е.А. Табатчикова, Д.Г. Уткина. Технология GPRS…………...……..325

В.Е. Харисов, А.Г. Ковалёва. Онлайн-курсы в образовании…..……329

А.С. Щапов, Д.И. Курманова. NFC технология в платежных системах

на мобильных устройствах……………………………………………332

VI. ЗДОРОВЬЕСБЕРЕГАЮЩИЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ..................…336

А.А. Ахметов, Е.М. Божко. Здоровьесберегающие технологии в

мобильных приложениях...……………………………………………336

А.А. Юрташкина, Д.А. Шипина. Лечение и профилактика

остеохондроза у студенток специальной медицинской группы……341

Научное издание

ЯЗЫК В СФЕРЕ

ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЙ

КОММУНИКАЦИИ

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