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Why are mythological scenes so common in Roman domestic wall

painting?

“Whosoever scorns painting is unjust to the truth – for poets and painters make equal contribution to

our knowledge of the deeds and the looks of heroes”1

The recurrence of mythological scenes in Roman domestic wall painting is evident from the sheer

volume of wall paintings across the empire with Graeco-Roman mythology as the subject, in particular

the region of Campania boasting over 50 individual mythological themed wall paintings alone. Primary

literary sources by the likes of Pliny the Elder, Petronius and Philostratus the Elder denote the function

of both painting and mythological scenes as shown by the above quotation from Philostratus the

Elder’s Imagines. In relation, the term paideia represents an education amongst the elite consisting of

a knowledge and awareness of thought, history and culture whilst the act of ekphrasis was a display

of rhetorical accomplishment and discussion; both these terms are linked to social and class

awareness. The more aptly one could apply his paideia to a discussion amongst his peers in an

ekphrastic manner, the better educated and therefore more elite he would appear. The notion that

the painter is equal to the poet from Philostratus is fundamental to the argument I will posing in this

essay; the ideas of paideia and ekphrasis are directly linked to the reason as why Romans chose to

display scenes of a mythological nature in their homes.

Romans aspired to be associated with those of elite social classes, such as Sulla whose own association

with Venus is evident from his agnomen ‘Epaphroditus’ meaning favoured by Venus. In Pompeii a

“political” cult of Venus was imposed by Sulla that can be later connected to the refined depictions of

the most erotic episodes from Graeco-Roman myth,2 such as at the House of Mars and Venus where

the painting in figure 1 shows Mars unwrapping Venus’ dress whilst cupids play with Mars’ armour.

1 Phil. Imag. 1.0 2 De Carolis (2001:34)

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The adoption of the cult was a way for Pompeiians to associate themselves with the elite social class

who were the educated men of society and therefore to simultaneously show that they too were

educated. According to Pliny the Elder paintings were first held in high esteem in Rome when Caesar

adorned the Temple of Venus Genetrix with paintings of Ajax and Medea and he comments that

people would have rather taken them to their country homes.3 This passage from Pliny implies that

Caesar was an influencing factor in the beginnings of domestic wall paintings in Rome and ultimately

people wanted to associate themselves with Caesar and the public grandeur of the elite. By putting

wall paintings in their homes after this, people were in a way bringing the temple to the home and

elevating the status of the home to some degree. This association however, was not complete without

the aspect of education or paideia and so, with paideia a homeowner could go from an association to

assimilation with the elite status.

The way in which a Roman could display their education is related to the function of the home or

domus, the space where a family presented itself to the outside world and held public functions such

as the cena (dinner) and morning salutation; both of which were fundamental to the patron-client

network that formed the basis of Roman business.4 We can see evidence for the cena in Petronius’

Satyrica when the character Encolpius is invited to a dinner at Trimalchio’s home and from Encolpius’

description it is apparent to the reader that Encolpius had never been to Trimalchio’s home before

therefore indicating their relationship isn’t based upon friendship.5 The structure of the home was

orchestrated with view in mind which had implications for the “public” areas of the house and their

purposes such as the triclinium where the cena was held.6 There are various examples of mythological

scenes found in Pompeiian tricliniums such as the scene of Apollo and Daphne in the House of

Lucretius shown in figure 2 and Death of Pentheus in the House of the Vettii, see figure 3. Another

area of the house deemed public was the atrium and at Trimalchio’s cena Encolpius describes

3 Plin. Nat. 35.9 4 Hales (2009:165) 5 Petr. Satr.29 6 Elsner. (2007:28)

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paintings involving Minerva and Mercury and of the Iliad and Odyssey as part of his first impression of

the domus.7 Paintings of mythological scenes that were displayed in these public areas were all about

displaying wealth, status and most importantly education or paideia to a guest and these examples

are situated where the guest’s first impression of a home and its owner would lie. In their placement,

the paintings define the social rituals that occurred in specific parts of the house and what happened

during them;8 the cena in particular.

The cena was the main meal of the day and one of the focal points of Roman social life. Adapted in a

way to resemble the Greek symposium, guest and host would recline on couches and eat, drink and

entertain each other. Entertaining guests however was not necessarily about socialising with friends,

it was instead a way to network with potential political or business alliances by demonstrating wealth

and status.9 Ekphrasis was a part of this entertainment; this rhetorical skill consisting of a sometimes

extravagant explanation of an image allowed guests and host alike to display their paideia and

imagination in interpretation. An indication of ekphrasis is the use of thematic images which would

provoke trains of thought that corresponded with the rhetorical skills used in ekphrasis.10 The

paintings that contributed to their home’s name, the House of the Tragic Poet, are considered to be a

thematic series in often overlapping themes. Mythological scenes from this domus in Pompeii include:

Achilles and Briseis, Zeus and Hera, Helen and Paris, Amphitrite and Poseidon and Achilles and

Agamemnon; there is also an almost completely destroyed image of what is considered to Aphrodite

and an unknown lover. All of the paintings are situated in the atrium (refer to figure 4) and the

deliberate decision in order to display all the images together indicates some commonality, whether

thematic or visual, between all six as well as the knowledge that they would form a guest’s first

impression of the home. The images demonstrate various themes but identifying linear connections

between all six images does and will always remain difficult with regards to the state of the Aphrodite

7 Petr. Satr. 29 8 Trimble (2002:228) 9 Ellis (1991:119) 10 Bergmann (1994:246)

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panel. For example all the characters do feature in The Iliad but to varying degrees (Amphitrite can

hardly be considered a key player) and all of the paintings portray couples linked by sexual passion

except for Achilles and Agamemnon. Despite this however, loose connections can be made as Achilles

and Agamemnon’s argument, which is the subject of The Iliad, is over who gets to claim Briseis as

trophy and concubine. Without the identity of Aphrodite’s partner no solid conclusion can be made

concerning linear themes and his identity could make or break the plausibility of a theme; and it is

also reasonable to assume that the anomalies for proposed themes are deliberate in order to

stimulate the imagination to an individual interpretation and therefore ekphrasis. Those that were

educated would have been well versed in knowledge of The Iliad and the background of each

character. Therefore in addition to an individualistic interpretation the mythological images here,

combined with the social aspect of the cena, presented a prime opportunity for the host to display

ones paideia.

Social gatherings provided the platform for the ekphrasis of domestic wall painting but thematic

images were not the only paintings that could stimulate a discussion; mythological tales associated

with moral dilemmas, often seen in the work of Ovid, were also common in the domus. The House of

Ariadne in Pompeii features a wall painting of the sleeping Ariadne on the island of Naxos being

abandoned by Theseus after she had helped him in slaying the Minotaur, see figure 5. One of the most

popular mythological scenes in Campania, the use of Ariadne is a reflection of the literary culture of

perspective started by the likes of Ovid and Catullus.11 In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Ovid refers to

Theseus as “The cruel prince who abandoned her”12, a suggestion of the debate that could be sparked

when discussing Theseus’ actions depicted within the painting. Philostratus the Elder’s Imagines also

provides detailed accounts of how to effectively and publicly demonstrate paideia through the

ekphrasis of various mythological themes and characters in paintings including Ariadne. In his passage

on Ariadne, Philostratus comments “That Theseus treated Ariadne unjustly – though some say not with

11 Elsner (2007:29) 12 Ovid Met. VIII 178

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unjust intent – but under the compulsion of Dionysus”13 and this balanced statement is an indication

of the debates that paintings involving the subject of Ariadne’s abandonment would have stimulated

in social settings. Another subject of domestic wall painting with connections to Ovid’s

Metamorphoses and the moral dilemmas posed is the tale of Diana (Artemis) and Actaeon in which

the hunter, Actaeon, during a hunt in the woods accidentally stumbled across a naked bathing Diana

who in her embarrassment turned him into a deer resulting in Actaeon being killed by his own friends

and hounds.14 Examples of portrayals of this myth can be found in the Houses of Loreius Tiburtius,

Sallust and Menander; (see figures 6, 7 and 8 respectively). In the House of Loreius Tiburtius the

portraits of Diana and Actaeon are displayed on either side of an entranceway and the myth is easily

identifiable from the combination of deer antlers that appear to be forming on Actaeon’s head and

the naked female deity. With similar depictions from the House of Sallust and Menander, it is fair to

assume that this particular scene was reasonably popular. The reason for the tale’s popularity could

lie within its moral implications which would have stimulated debate in a similar way to the wall

paintings of Ariadne as the justice behind Actaeon’s punishment was regularly used by orators to form

debate in order to show off their rhetorical skills.15 Evidence of this ongoing argument can be found

in Ovid’s passage on Diana and Actaeon where he comments, “Some believed Diana’s violence unjust;

some praised it”16 and “Both sides found reason for their point of view”17 The debate inspired by

mythological scenes associated with moral would have formed a fundamental part of the ekphrasis

displayed by individuals at the cena, it was one thing to interpret the mythology presented on the

walls of ones domus but another to use that interpretation as a way to encourage others to participate

and argue their point of views. Having variations of mythology as narrated by the likes of Ovid would

also demonstrate the homeowner’s appreciation and awareness of literature and thus the more

13 Philo. Imag. 1.15 14 Ovid Met. III 15 Bergmann (1999:88) 16 Ovid Met. III 262-3 17 Ovis Met. III 265

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eloquently put one’s point of view regarding the moralistic aspects was, the higher a level of paideia

could be shown and therefore with education as proof the individuals social status would be elevated.

The Roman house was considered to be an extension of one’s self, a way to convey piety to deities

and used to demonstrate a social or genealogical status which could be achieved by appropriating

figures of myth into representations of themselves as a way to express paideia.18 In Book 29 of

Petronius’ Satyricon a painting in Trimalchio’s atrium is described; the painting consists of, amongst

other things, Trimalchio holding Mercury’s staff whilst being led into Rome by Minerva. Both Minerva

and Mercury are associated with trade and commerce in Roman religion and Trimalchio had

consciously adapted these known associations to represent himself through, this not only assures his

identity and achievements to his guests but also demonstrates his knowledge of the gods. Of course

this example is a hyperbole of everyday Romans and in the same manner everything else about

Trimalchio is grossly ostentatious and exaggerated but it is however, representative of the way gods

could be used to contribute to the glorification of the homeowner.19 As opposed to superimposing

deities into self-portraits, self-representation in the domus can also be identified through the

composition of display and in this aspect, the House of Terentius Neo is the best example of conscious

composition. The portrait of Terentius Neo and his wife holding a scroll and writing tablet as show of

literary ability (see figure 9) was found alongside a wall painting of Amor (Cupid) and Psyche. The story

of these characters is best found in Apuleius’ Metamorphoses but was a known Greek myth telling of

two lovers who eventually were able to be together forever after Psyche being granted immortality

by Juno. The choice of composition here can be interpreted in various different ways; the couple may

have wanted to display their love and commitment to each other as never ending in the same way

Amor and Psyche’s love was; or an alternate view, which could be seen as simultaneous to the first, is

the idea that the couple were communicating their intellectual and poetic knowledge which is fortified

18 Bergmann (1994:225) 19 Ellis (1991:127)

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by the appearance of writing apparatus in their own portraits.20 Regardless, knowledge of the story

and myth would have been fundamental to this particular choice of décor in its context here and both

interpretations indicate a conscious decision to situate both paintings in such close proximity to one

another.

The reason mythological scenes were so common in Roman domestic wall painting was to do with the

fact everyday people wanted to be associated with the elites of society and fundamental to achieving

this was proving they too were intellectual and aware of literature through education and paideia. In

order to demonstrate paideia scenes of mythological and literary value were placed strategically

within the home in order to ensure they were part of a guest’s first impression of them. Social

functions such as the cena are also directly linked to the positioning of paintings and the mythological

content of these images would stimulate discussion and debate in the manner of ekphrasis which in

this context was about demonstrating status and paideia to potential political or business alliances.

Even paintings that wouldn’t necessarily be linked to the cena, such as the paintings from the House

of Terentius Neo, demonstrate an ability to link the idea of portraying oneself with myth and displaying

paideia. The commonality of recurring mythological scenes such as Ariadne on Nexos or Diana and

Actaeon also indicates the popularity of scenes which would have consciously sparked debate over

morality. In all examples of mythological scenes it is clear that every single one was chosen out of the

knowledge of pre-existing ideas or associations that could be used either to talk about with one’s

peers or represent oneself.

Word count including all footnotes and image captions: 2569

20 Clarke (2003:266)

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Figure 1. Mars and Venus from the

House of Mars and Venus Figure 2. Apollo and Daphne from the

House of Lucretius

Figure 3. Death of Pentheus from the

House of the Vettii

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Figure 4. Diagram of the display composition of wall paintings in the Atrium of the House of the Tragic

Poet

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Figure 5. Theseus abandoning Ariadne from the House of

Ariadne

Figure 6. Diana and Actaeon from the House of Loreius Tiburtius

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Figure 7. Reconstruction of Diana and Actaeon from the

House of Sallust

Figure 8. Diana and Actaeon from the House of Menander

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Figure 9. Terentius Neo and his wife from the

House of Terentius Neo

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List of Illustrations Fig. 1. Mars and Venus from the House of Mars and Venus at http://www.art-and-

archaeology.com/roman/pom29.html

Fig. 2. De Carolis, E. (2001) Apollo and Daphne from the House of Lucretius in Gods and Heroes in

Pompeii, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider

Fig. 3. De Carolis, E. (2001) Death of Pentheus from the House of the Vettii in Gods and Heroes in

Pompeii, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider

Fig. 4. Bergmann, B. (1994) Diagram of the display composition of wall paintings in the Atrium of the

House of the Tragic Poet in The Roman House as Memory Theatre: The House of the Tragic Poet in

Pompeii in The Art Bulletin Vol. 76 No. 2 pp.252-256

Fig. 5. Theseus abandoning Ariadne from the House of Ariadne at

https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/pompeii/regio-vii/reg-vii-ins-4/house-of-the-coloured-

capitals

Fig. 6. De Carolis, E. (2001) Diana and Actaeon from the House of Loreius Tiburtius in Gods and

Heroes in Pompeii, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider

Fig. 7. Reconstruction of Diana and Actaeon from the House of Sallust at

http://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/r6/6%2002%2004%20p5.htm

Fig. 8. Diana and Actaeon from the House of Menander at http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/F6.2.html

Fig. 9. Terentius Neo and his wife from the House of Terentius Neo at

http://www.britishmuseumshoponline.org/pompeii-art/fresco-portrait-of-the-baker-terentius-neo-

and-his-wife/invt/brimus455

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in The Art Bulletin Vol. 76, No. 2, pp. 252-256

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