White Like Me: Immersive Learning In Community Engagement

Hosted by the Department of Educational Studies Teachers College

33rd Annual Research-to-Practice Conference (R2P)

in Adult and Higher Education

with Ball State University’s 2nd Annual Adult, Higher, & Community Education

Research Conference

September 19 & 20, 2014Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana

Innovations in Scholarship and Practice of Teaching and Learning — PROCEEDINGS

Program At-A-GlanceFriday - September 198:00 AM - 5:00 PM Registration 8:00 AM - 8:30 AM Breakfast - Ballroom

8:30 AM - 11:30 AM PRE-CONFERENCE (Choose one track)

11:30 AM - 1:45 PM Lunch and Panel Discussion - Ballroom

2:00 PM - 2:45 PM Concurrent Sesssion #1

2:45 PM - 3:00 PM Break

3:00 PM - 3:45 PM Concurrent Sesssion #2

4:00 PM - 5:00 PM Posters and Networking Break - Ballroom

5:00 PM - 6:00 PM 12th Annual ACE Retreat/Orientation- Room 310

6:00 PM - 9:00 PM Speed Networking for Research Presentations and Reception - Cardinal Hall AB

Saturday - September 20

8:00 AM - 12:00 PM Registration

7:00 AM - 8:15 AM Steering Committee Meeting - Music Lounge

8:15 AM - 9:00 AM Opening Session - Ballroom

9:00 AM - 9:45 AM Concurrent Session #3

9:45 AM - 10:00 AM Break


10:45 AM - 11:00 AM Break


12:00 PM - 1:00 PM Lunch - Ballroom

1:00 PM - 1:45 PM Concurrent Session #6

1:45 PM - 2:00 PM Break

2:00 PM - 2:45 PM Concurrent Session #7

3:00 PM End of Conference

Conference evaluations for each session can being done electronically this year. After each session, go to https://bsu.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_0k4d8LXnHgDoJDL or scan this code with a QR scan app on your phone or tablet to access the evaluation form. Select the specific presentation and submit your feedback.

Conference Evaluations

2014 MWR2P Conference -1-

Proceedingsof the

33rd National Research-to-Practice (R2P) Conference

in Adult and Higher Educationtogether with

2nd Annual Ball State University Adult, Higher, and Community Education Research Conference

Proceedings Edited byLori Risley, Karen Barnes, Jessie Daws, and Risa Lilly

University of Central Oklahoma Michelle Glowacki-Dudka

Ball State UniversityKaren Hall

Learnovation

Conference Held atBall State University Student Center

September 19-20, 2014

Conference Hosted byDepartment of Educational Studies

Teachers CollegeBall State University

Muncie, Indiana

-2- 2014 MWR2P Conference

R2P Conference Theme

“Innovations in Scholarship and Practice of Teaching and Learning”

R2P Conference Mission Statement* This conference provides a forum for practitioners and researchers to discuss practices, concepts, evaluation, and research studies to improve practice in adult education. Through discussion and collaboration, participants will contribute toward the realization of a more humane and just society through lifelong learning.

*Prepared on behalf of the Midwest Research-to-Practice ConferenceSteering Committee by Boyd Rossing, May 28, 1991.

2014 Conference Statement of PurposeIn an effort to dynamically build a collaborative community among researchers and practitioners, the National R2P Conferences supports new research, explores policy, and showcases industry best practices through interaction with innovative established professionals in the field of adult learning.

History of Research-to-Practice (R2P) ConferenceThe first Midwest Research-to–Practice Conference (MR2P) was held on October 8,1982, at Northern Illinois University in DeKalb, Illinois. It was sponsored by ten Adult Education organizations that represented seven states, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, a research to practice tradition began. In 2013, the conference name was change to Research-to-Practice (R2P) in Adult and Higher Education to include a national and international community of faculty, researchers, students, and practitioners.

Contents

Welcome ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

Mission Statement* ........................................................................................................................................... 2

Contents ............................................................................................................................................................. 3

Welcome ............................................................................................................................................................ 7

Dean’s Welcome .............................................................................................................................................. 8

Department of Educational Studies Welcome ........................................................................................... 9

National Steering Committee ..................................................................................................................... 10

Thank You to Volunteers ............................................................................................................................ 10

Co-Chairs’ Welcome .................................................................................................................................... 11

Conference Proceedings: Present and Past ............................................................................................. 12

Conference Agenda ....................................................................................................................................... 14

Conference Poster Abstracts In Alphabetical Order ............................................................................ 25

Campus Internationalization: Faculty Perceptions And Obstacles ..................................................... 25 SAM BANDY .................................................................................................................................................. 25

Strengthening Study Abroad Programming Through Direct Application Of Adult Learning Theory .............................................................................................................................................................. 25

OPAL LEEMAN BARTZIS ............................................................................................................................... 25

Poverty And Higher Educational Learning: A Critical Look At The Effect Of Poverty And Socio-Economic Status On Higher Education Students ................................................................................... 25

ARTHUR C. EVANS III................................................................................................................................... 25

Why Don’t We Finish? ................................................................................................................................. 26 ANDREA GINTER .......................................................................................................................................... 26

Developing Competence In Andragogy- Some Elements And Contexts ......................................... 26 JOHN HENSCHKE ......................................................................................................................................... 26

Applying The History Of Andragogy To Parallel And Opposite Histories: Students Contribute To Course Curriculum To Make New Meaning .................................................................................... 26

SUSAN ISENBERG .......................................................................................................................................... 26

Addressing Student Developmental Needs In Higher Education ....................................................... 27 CATHY MULLETT ......................................................................................................................................... 27

Transformative Learning: A Significant Process Of Change ................................................................. 27 NORMA NERSTROM..................................................................................................................................... 27

2014 MWR2P Conference -3- Conference Papers

College Admission And Diversity Programs In The Wake Of Affirmative Action Bans And Recent Supreme Court Decisions ............................................................................................................. 27

ANTONETTE PAYNE .................................................................................................................................... 27

An Examination Of Theological Students’ Wisdom Community Experience .................................. 28 MICHAEL PORTERFIELD & E. PAULETTE ISAAC-SAVAGE ........................................................................... 28

American And European Study Abroad Programs In Higher Education: An Exploration Of Why Europe Is Leading The Way ........................................................................................................................ 28

CRYSTAL REIMLER ........................................................................................................................................ 28

Twitter Can Support Learning Language: Learning Through The Language And Learning About The Language .................................................................................................................................................. 28

MIRELA ZEMANI ........................................................................................................................................... 28

Conference Papers In Alphabetical Order ............................................................................................... 29

Does Student Debt Impact Student Learning? ........................................................................................ 30 DANIEL H. BOYLAN ..................................................................................................................................... 30

Postmodern Principles In Practice ............................................................................................................. 36 R. JOE BETZ .................................................................................................................................................. 36

White Like Me: Immersive Learning In Community Engagement ....................................................... 42 RUBY CAIN, KERI L. RODGERS, CHERYL SIMPKINS ................................................................................... 42

Collective Knowledge Creation In The Interactive Theatrical Environment ................................... 48 BO CHANG .................................................................................................................................................. 48

Rules Of Engagement: Gay Male Law Enforcement Officers’ Survival Consciousness In A Masculinized Industry .................................................................................................................................... 53

JOSHUA C. COLLINS, ED.D. ....................................................................................................................... 53

The Impetus, Function, And Expression Of Disclosure: Invisible Stigmatized Identity And Implications For Critical Adult Learning ................................................................................................... 59

JOSHUA C. COLLINS, ED.D. AND TONETTE S. ROCCO, PH.D. ............................................................ 59

Learning Readiness And Student Success In Online Learning: A Planned Experiment To Identify Differences Between Students Who Pass And Those Who Fail ........................................................ 65

FRANK L. CONNER ..................................................................................................................................... 65

Veterans In Higher Education: An Ethnographic Study Of Veterans’ Higher Education Experience ....................................................................................................................................................... 71

STEVEN P. DALCHER ED.D. ....................................................................................................................... 71

Innovative Family-Centered Programs For Mothers In Prison ............................................................ 77 KAITLYN M. DAVIS ..................................................................................................................................... 77

Gender Stratification In Higher Education: Research To Practice ..................................................... 80 EMILY AUSTIN DURAN ................................................................................................................................ 80

Transformative Learning Meets State Standards: How Innovative Pedagogy Illuminates The Core Curriculum ........................................................................................................................................... 86

MAX ELSEY .................................................................................................................................................... 86

Conference Papers -4- 2014 MWR2P Conference

Social Media As “Motivational Interference”: A Phenomenological Study Of Student Strategies For Academic Success .................................................................................................................................. 92

ABRAHAM E. FLANIGAN AND WAYNE A. BABCHUK ............................................................................. 92

Adult Literacy For Social Empowerment: Exploring The Motivations, Expectations, And Barriers Of Women In Adult Learning In Adult Literacy Programme In A Northern Nigerian State ....... 98

AYO GARUBA ............................................................................................................................................... 98

A Woman President’s Identity, How Participation In An All-Women Community Of Practice Influences Professional Identity: An Exploratory Qualitative Case Study Results ........................ 107

GEORGINA M. GINN, FREDERICK KAUSER, AND SUNNY L. MUNN ..................................................... 107

Understanding Preskill And Brookfield's (P&B) Model Of Learning As A Way Of Leading With Women Of Achievement Awardees ....................................................................................................... 113

MICHELLE GLOWACKI-DUDKA, PH.D., CRISTINA VETOR-SUITS, LOIS WEISS, AND KATHARINE HERBERT ..................................................................................................................................................... 113

An Oral History Of Women’s Week At Ball State University ......................................................... 119 COURTNEY JARRETT .................................................................................................................................. 119

The Wii As An Educational Tool For Anatomy And Physiology ...................................................... 124 JAMES D. JUSTUS ........................................................................................................................................ 124

Task-Based Language Teaching In The Business Chinese Classroom .............................................. 127 LIU LI ........................................................................................................................................................... 127

Use Of Critical Incident Posts (Cip) In The Graduate-Level Hybrid Classroom: Impact On Communication And The Community Learning Environment .......................................................... 133

KAREN M. MORGAN, ELENA Y. POLUSH, RUBY CAIN, CAROLYN K. SHUE ........................................ 133 Study’s Context ....................................................................................................................................................133

The “Non-Traditional” Dissertation: An Autoethnography Of Three Early Career Scholars .. 139 SUNNY L. MUNN, JOSHUA C. COLLINS, AND TOMIKA W. GREER ...................................................... 139

Becoming One’s Own Gatekeeper: Why Novelists Choose To Self-Publish ................................ 145 JENNIFER MURRAY ...................................................................................................................................... 145

A Qualitative Ethnographic Portrait Of Women’s Studies ................................................................ 151 JULEE ROSSER .............................................................................................................................................. 151

Race, Religion, And Multiracial Congregations In America ................................................................ 157 DAN W. ROYER ........................................................................................................................................ 157

Journey Of Racial Discrimination In Education— Genealogical Analysis ........................................ 163 DAN W. ROYER AND BO CHANG .......................................................................................................... 163

Engaging International Asian Students In Online Collaborative Activities ...................................... 169 ANITA SAMUEL ........................................................................................................................................... 169

The Experience Of Critical Self Reflection By Life Coaches: A Phenomenological Study ......... 175 DR. LYNN SHAW, LCSW, LCAC, CIC® ................................................................................................... 175

What Is The Transformational Learning Experience Of Secondary Teachers Who Have Dealt With Burnout? .............................................................................................................................................. 181

DR. JULIUS R. SIMS I, ED.D. ....................................................................................................................... 181


Women And Gender Studies Through History: Looking Where We Have Been, To Move Further In The Future ................................................................................................................................. 187

RACHAEL D. SMITH .................................................................................................................................. 187

Cutting Edge Technology In The Learning Environment .................................................................... 191 CASHEENA A. STEPHENS, DEBORAH R. BARNETT, XIN CHEN ............................................................ 191

Self-Determination In Transitioning First-Year College Students With And Without Disabilities ......................................................................................................................................................................... 197

LORNA C. TIMMERMAN ............................................................................................................................. 197

Arab Women, Online Learning, And Empowerment: Gender, Education, Culture, Tradition, Religion, And Class ...................................................................................................................................... 203

REY TY, MANAL ALKARZON, & AWNI ALKARZON ............................................................................... 203

Ball State University Graduate-Level Course Via Distance Education: Supervision Of Instruction (Edsu 650) ...................................................................................................................................................... 209

TERRY L. WIEDMER AND CINDY S. CASH ............................................................................................ 209


2014 MWR2P Conference -7- Greetings and Welcome

Welcome!

33rd National Research-to-Practice (R2P) Conference in Adult and Higher Education

together with 2nd Annual Ball State University Adult, Higher, and

Community Education Research Conference

September 19-20, 2014Hosted at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana

Conference HostDepartment of Educational Studies (Jayne Beilke, Chairperson)

Teachers College (John Jacobson, Dean)Ball State University (Paul Ferguson, President)

Please use the social media listed, below, for access to conference proceedings and announcements. Please post your pictures and comments regarding your learning and networking experiences at the conference. Use the conference hashtag - #R2P2014.

Website: http://learnovation.com/R2P-2014/home.html Follow us on Twitter: https://twitter.com/R2PConferenceLike us on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/r2pconference

Using Social Media

2014 R2P PROCEEDINGS ONLINE Access the Complete PROCEEDINGS which includes the program and all the papers from this year’s conference. Scan the QR code to access the PDF file, or download the Proceedings in PDF format from the R2P Conference website at http://learnovation.com/R2P-2014/PDFs/MWR2P-2014-Proceedings.pdf

WIFI AccessNetwork: bsuguest No password is requiredOpen a browser and read the Ball State University Guest Wireless Access Policy page. Click the Accept button at the bottom of the page to connect.

Greetings and Welcome -8- 2014 MWR2P Conference

September 19, 2014 Greetings Conference Participants: We welcome you to Ball State University, home of the higher educational institution that has provided educator instruction, preparation, and professional development since its inception in 1918 with the support of community and business. Our distinctive legacy of innovation and enterprise, with our collaborative partnerships has brought national recognition in immersive learning, technology utilization and access, educational research and educator preparation. Our graduate programs in adult and community education emerged in the 1950’s and have remained vibrant, ever since. We take pride in the hosting of the 33rd National Research to Practice (R2P) Conference in Adult and Higher Education Conference in collaboration with 2nd Annual Ball State University Adult, Higher, and Community Education. Seven years ago Ball State University hosted the 26th Annual Midwest Research-To-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community, and Extension Education at the Alumni Center and we are pleased to host the conference again this year. The conference theme of “Innovations in Scholarship and Practice of Teaching and Learning” aligns with our everyday practice of informing public policy makers, collaborating with educators and community to promote academic excellence for every student, and supporting and recognizing premier scholarship and practice of our faculty, students, and alumni. Teachers College’s online programs and courses are ranked among the best in the nation. We provide numerous areas of specialization from administration and superintendency, to clinical mental health counseling, to adult education, public service, and higher education student affairs administration. We were one of the first universities in the nation to pilot a very successful Woodrow Wilson Fellows program, which prepares scientists, mathematicians, and engineers to serve in high-need classrooms. Again, welcome to Ball State University. The Dean’s Office of Teachers College is pleased to host the Friday evening Speed Networking for Research Presentations and Reception. May you have an enlightened and informative two days of sharing research, best practices, and collegiality! Sincerely,

John Jacobson, Ed.D. Professor and Dean, Teachers College Ball State University


Dear Participants, Welcome to Muncie, Ball State University, and the 33rd National Research to Practice (R2P) Conference in collaboration with the 2nd Annual Ball State University Adult, Higher, and Community Education Conference. Ball State most recently hosted the 26th Research-to-Practice Conference in 2007. In many ways, Muncie is an ideal setting for such a conference. It is known as “the most studied American city” due to the sociological studies conducted by Robert and Helen Lynd, which used the pseudonym “Middletown” for Muncie. Long known for manufacturing, Muncie faced the need to reinvent itself when it became part of the Rust Belt during the late 1990s. Forced to diversify and adapt, education became a key element. The Department of Educational Studies, home to the Adult, Higher, and Community Education Program, is one of the largest and most diverse on campus. It features two doctoral programs; five masters degrees; several certificates; and the undergraduate sequence in educator preparation. Over the years, faculty have been recognized for outstanding teaching, research, and service as well as immersive projects and community engagement. One of few such programs in the nation, the Adult and Community Education program grew out of collaborations with the Mott Foundation and the United States military. The Mott Foundation, based in Flint, Michigan, was the brainchild of automotive manufacturer Charles Stewart Mott who wanted to improve the quality of life of Flint. It is most appropriate that the Ball State program seeks to improve neighborhoods, communities, and individuals in a town formerly known for automotive assembly. Currently, the program has affiliated with the Kellogg Foundation to eradicate racism. Additionally, the Ball State Bracken Library recently established an Adult and Community archive for use by students and researchers. A copy of the proceedings of this conference will be placed there. I hope you enjoy your stay on the campus and come away refreshed and renewed, buoyed by the shared information, quiet conversations, and new collaborations formed through this wonderful conference. Sincerely, Jayne R. Beilke, Professor and Chair, Department of Educational Studies

The Department of Educational Studies is a learning community engaged in the

preparation of educators, the discovery of knowledge, and the promotion of social justice.


A Big Thank You...Many thanks to all the great people who helped make this R2P Conference a success!

2014 Conference Planning Committee

Co-ChairsRuby Cain, Michelle Glowacki-Dudka

Proposal ReviewJim Berger

Speed Networking for Researchers Proposal Review Bo Chang

Conference WebsiteAnna Graf Williams, Karen Hall (Learnovation)

RegistrationEnda Carey, Denise Harris, Ruby Cain

Pre-Conference SessionsRuby Cain, Michelle Glowacki-Dudka, Bruce Sowers, Richard Edwards, Laura Black, Mindy Blech, Giselle Brown, Susan Frantz, Kristy Garcia, Stacey Hancock-Dollahan, David Kendrick, Emilee Mabrey, Barbara Mebane, Rebecca Miller, Kathryn Mitchell, Stephanie Moran, Dan Muldrow, Cathy Mullet, Ben Ng-Gomez, Whitney Rump, Jillian Scholten, Akilah Seabrook, Amber Watkins

LodgingRuby Cain, Berta Morgan

Proceedings EditorsLori Risley, Karen Barnes, Jessie Daws, Risa Lilly, Michelle Glowacki-Dudka, Karen Hall

Graduate Student Research Paper Awards Committee Lori Risley, Kristi Frush

Speed Networking for Researchers Presentations and ReceptionBo Chang, Richard Edwards, Sherry Bryant, Cathy Mullett, Edric Mitchell, Amanda Greene

MarketingAnna Graf Williams, Karen Hall, Robin Phelps, Tim Keating, Art Hill, Ruby Cain

TechnologyRichard Edwards, Bruce Sowers, Sarah Aldridge, Gary Moore, Ruby Cain, Lori Siefker

EvaluationsBruce Sowers, Bo Chang, Ruby Cain

Logistics and Event VolunteersSarah Aldridge, Cindy Cash, Brenden Henderson, Ryan Hornbaker, Dan Jones, Cathy Mullett, Linda Putman, Cheryl Simpkins, Bruce Sowers, Kwesi Tandoh, Angela Yount, Charles Scofield, William Kimes

National Steering CommitteeKristi Archuleta Frush University of Central OklahomaJim Berger Western Kentucky UniversityJoe Bryant Lindenwood UniversityRuby Cain Ball State UniversityBo Chang Ball State UniversitySimone Conceicao University of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeJohn M. Dirkx Michigan State UniversityTrenton Ferro Retired, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Michelle Glowacki-Dudka Ball State UniversityJohn Henschke Lindenwood UniversityMichael Hepner St. Louis Community CollegeKarin Hickenbotham University of Central OklahomaPaulette Isaac-Savage University of Missouri – St. LouisSusan Isenberg Lindenwood UniversityAndrea Ledbetter Lindenwood UniversityRoxanne Miller University of Missouri – St. LouisTammy T. Moore Lindenwood UniversityKathy Petroff Lindenwood UniversityLori Risley University of Central Oklahoma


33rd National Research to Practice (R2P) Conference in Adult and Higher Education Conference in collaboration with

2nd Annual Ball State University Adult, Higher, and Community Education

Theme: “Scholarship and Practice of Teaching and Learning”

September 19-20, 2014 Ball State University

Welcome from Co-Chairs, Local Host Planning Committee Dear Colleagues: Welcome to this year’s conference, to Ball State University, and to Muncie, Indiana! Assembled, this weekend, are faculty, researchers, students, and practitioners in the fields of adult, community, and higher education. We have come together to share, learn, and network, as a part of the ever-growing R2P learning community. This year’s theme is “Scholarship and Practice of Teaching and Learning.” This conference was planned around our collaboratively developed statement of purpose: “to dynamically build a collaborative community among researchers and practitioners, the National R2P Conferences supports new research, explores policy, and showcases industry best practices through interaction with innovative established professionals in the field of adult learning.” You will have many opportunities to actively participate in workshops, one-on-one consultations, mentoring, and networking to learn, share, and support. We have continued the R2P conference’s legacy in these areas and added opportunities for innovative experiences. The list of contributors is long and included in the program. We are grateful for each and every one who played a part in the success: participants, presenters, planners, partners, and sponsors. In learning, teaching, researching, and practice:

Dr. Ruby Cain, Co-Chair Assistant Professor of Adult & Community Education Director/Academic Advisor, M.A. Degree Programs in Adult & Community Education Program and in Executive Development for Public Service Program Director, It Is Well With My Soul Department of Educational Studies Ball State University - TC 845 (765) 285-9126 [email protected]

Dr. Michelle Glowacki-Dudka, Co-Chair Associate Professor of Adult, Higher, and Community Education Department of Educational Studies Ball State University - TC 809 (765) 285-5348 [email protected]


Previous Research-to-Practice Conference Meetings and Proceedings

No Host(s) Location Dates Editor ED Number1 Northern Illinois

UniversityDeKalb, IL Oct. 8-9, 1982 K. Czisny ED226116

2 Northern Illinois University

DeKalb, IL Nov. 4-5, 1983 ED262214


DeKalb, IL Sept. 27-28, 1984 ED262215

4 University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI Oct. 10-11, 1985 L. S. Berlin ED2611725 Ball State University Muncie, IN Oct. 3-4, 1986 G. S. Wood, Jr., & D.

WoodED274774

6 Michigan State University

East Lansing, MI Oct. 8-9, 1987 S. J. Levine ED295046

7 University of Wisconsin-Madison

Madison, WI Oct. 21-22, 1988 C. C. Coggins ED321029

8 University of Missouri—St. Louis

St. Louis, MO Oct. 12-13, 1989 ED330781


De Kalb, IL Oct. 18-19, 1990 ED326663

10 University of Minnesota St. Paul, MN Oct. 3-4, 1991 L. R. Sandmann & C. Bruning

ED378307

11 Kansas State University Manhattan, KS Oct. 8-9, 1992 ED36153212 The Ohio State

University & Indiana University of PA

Columbus, OH Oct. 13-15, 1993 K. Freer, & G. Dean ED362663

13 University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

Milwaukee, WI Oct. 13-15, 1994 L. Martin ED378359

14 National Louis University & Northern Illinois University

Wheaton, IL Oct. 12-14, 1995 R. A. Orem & C. Mealman

ED446213

15 University of Nebraska Lincoln, NE Oct. 17 19, 1996 J. M. Dirkx ED47739116 Michigan State

UniversityEast Lansing, MI Oct. 15-17, 1997 S. J. Levine ED412370

17 Ball State University Muncie, IN Oct. 8-10, 1998 G. S. Wood, & M. M. Webber

ED424419


St. Louis, MO Sept. 22-24, 1999 A. Austin, G. E. Hynes, & R. T. Miller

ED447269

19 University of Wisconsin—Madison

Madison, WI Sept. 27-29, 2000 M. Glowacki-Dudka ED445203


No Host(s) Location Dates Editor ED Number20 Eastern Illinois

UniversityCharleston, IL Sept. 26-28, 2001 W. C. Hine ED457336


DeKalb, IL Oct. 9-11, 2002 R. A. Orem ED471123

22 The Ohio State University, Cleveland State University, & Indiana University of PA

Columbus, OH (Proceedings printed at IUP)

Oct. 8-10, 2003 T. R. Ferro & G. J. Dean

23 Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis

Indianapolis, IN Oct. 6-8, 2004 M. Glowacki-Dudka

24 University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee

Milwaukee, WI Sept. 28-30, 2005 S. Conceição


St. Louis, MO Oct. 4-6, 2006 E. P. Isaac

26 Ball State University Muncie, IN Sept. 25-27, 2007 R. C. Young27 Western Kentucky

UniversityBowling Green, KY

Oct. 2-4, 2008 M. L. Rowland

28 Northeastern Illinois University

Chicago, IL Oct. 21-23, 2009 D. Truty,T. R. Ferro &J. Truty

29 Michigan State University

East Lansing, MI September 26-28, 2010

M. Glowacki-Dudka

30 Lindenwood University St. Charles, MO September 21-23, 2011

M. Glowacki-Dudka

31 University of Central Oklahoma

Edmond, OK September 27-29, 2012

M. Glowacki-Dudka

32 Lindenwood University St. Charles, MO Sept 20-21, 201 K. Frush & L. Risley

Past Proceedings are available at https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/handle/1805/85

Revised 2014/09/7

Conference Agenda -14- 2014 MWR2P Conference

Agenda - Friday, September 19

8:00 AM - 5:00 PM Registration - Ballroom8:00 AM - 8:30 AM Breakfast - Ballroom

Breakfast will be provided for all attendees: pre-conference and full conference. Pre-Conference ends at noon.

PRE-CONFERENCE (Choose one track)

Track 1- iLearn Pre-conference - Cardinal Hall C8:30- 10 AM Ball State University Graduate-Level Course via Distance

Education: Supervision of Instruction (EDSU 650) Terry Wiedmer and Cindy Cash, Ball State University, Muncie, IN

10:00 - 10:15 AM Break10:15-11: 30 AM Going the Distance with Your Eyes on the “PRIZE”

Kwesi Tandoh, Angelia Yount, and Dan Jones (Ball State Univer-sity, Muncie, IN)

Track 2 - Graduate Student Success Pre-conference - Forum Room

8:30- 9 AM Intros, Laughing Yoga Lynn Shaw, University of Indianapolis

9—10:15 AM Demystifying the Literature Review Process Susan Imel

10:15-10:25 AM Break10:25 - 11:30 AM Panel for Planning for Your Adult Education Career

Panel Members: Carlotta Cooprider, T3 Link Leadership Coach at Teach Plus, Mellisa Leaming, Chief Operating Officer, Eastern WorkOne/Alliance for Strategic Growth, Inc, Regina Marsh, Executive Director of Forest Manor Multi Service Center. Krystal Levi, Work One, Vice President of Operations

Kelly Griese, Secretary of State’s office

2014 MWR2P Conference -15- Conference Agenda

11:30 AM - 1:45 PM Lunch and Panel Discussion- BallroomAdult and Higher Education Policy, Future Trends, Benefits, Challenges, Recommendations, and Call to Action

Panelists: Elisabeth Gee (aka Betty Hayes), Arizona State University Lisa Merriweather, University of North Carolina - Charlotte Jim Flowers, Ball State University

2:00 PM - 2:45 PM Concurrent Session #1 Track

Cardinal Hall C 1 Brookfield’s Critical Incident Questionnaires (C.I.Q.): Purpose, Pedagogy, Possibility, and Practice

Darolyn Jones /Michelle Glowacki-Dudka, Ball State University

Best Practice

Forum Room 2 A Journey of Racial Discrimination in Adult Education—A Genealogical Analysis

Daniel Royer/Bo Chang, Ball State University

Trends & Issues in Adult, Higher Education

Pineshelf Room 3 Who is an Adult Educator: Nigerian Practitioners on Professionalism in Adult and Continuing Education

Ayo Garuba


Mtg Room 307 4 Policy Position Paper of Gender Stratification in Higher Education

Emily Austin Duran

Roundtable

Mtg Room 308 5 Through the Learners Lens: Using trust in the learning environment as a transformative tool

Crystal Reimler/ Andrea Ginter/ Risa Lilly/ Lori Risley

Roundtable

2:45PM - 3:00 PM Break

Beginning of Full Conference

Agenda - Friday, September 19Agenda - Friday, September 19

Conference evaluations for each session can being done electronically this year. After each session, go to https://bsu.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_0k4d8LXnHgDoJDL or scan this code with a QR scan app on your phone or tablet to access the evaluation form. Select the specific presentation and submit your feedback.

Conference Evaluations



Cardinal Hall C 1 White Like Me: Immersive Learning in Community Engagement

Ruby Cain/Keri Rodgers/Cheryl Simpkins

Best Practice

Forum Room 2 Understanding Preskill and Brookfield’s (P&B) Model of Learning as a Way of Leading with Women of Achievement Awardees

Michelle Glowacki-Dudka/ Cristina Vetor-Suits/ Katherine Herbert/ Lois Weiss/ Todd Anderson/ Rebecca Miller/ Melanie Tuner/ Julia Dotson

Report on Research

Pineshelf Room 3 Cutting Edge Technology in the Learning EnvironmentCasheena Stephens/ Deborah Barnett/ Xin Chen

Technology for Teaching & Learning

Mtg Room 307 4 Rules of Engagement: Gay Law Enforcement Officers’ Development of Survival Consciousness at Work

Joshua C. Collins

Report on Research

Mtg Room 308 5 Consilience: Toward a More Integrated Approach to Scholarship in Adult Education

Elizabeth A. Roumell/ Jeral Kirwan

Roundtable

4:00 PM - 5:00 PM Posters and Networking Break - BallroomSee List of Posters and Presenters on page 9

5:00 PM - 6:00 PM 12th Annual ACE Retreat/Orientation- Room 310 Graduate Retreat and Orientation for BSU M.A. Adult & Community Education and Executive Development for Public Service degree students

6:00 PM - 9:00 PM Speed Networking for Research Presentations and Reception - Cardinal Hall ABSee List of Presenters on page 9


Come join us for a working reception 6 PM- 9 PM Give your feedback on research in progress and enjoy the food and people!- Cash bar

There’s a different conference evaluation for the Speed Networking Session. Go to https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/8B75MBQ or scan this code with a QR scan app on your phone or tablet to access the evaluation form.

Speed Networking Evaluations



Poster Sessions

1. Poverty and Higher Educational Learning: A Critical Look at the Effect of Poverty and Socio-Economic Status on Higher Education Students College Completion and Success

Arthur C. Evans III

2. Transformative Learning: A Significant Process of Change Norma Nerstrom

3. Addressing Student Developmental Needs in Higher Education Cathy Mullett

4. Why Don’t We Finish? Andrea Ginter

5. American and European Study Abroad Programs in Higher Education: An Exploration of Why Europe is Leading the Way

Crystal D. Reimler

6. Mentoring the New Generation of Successful Instructors in Higher Education

Robin Blom

7. Twitter Can Support Learning Language. Learning Through the Language and Learning About the Language

Mirela Zemani

8. Developing Competence in Andragogy: Some Elements and Contexts John A. Henschke

9. An Examination of Theological Students’ Wisdom Community Experience

Michael Porterfield & E. Paulette Isaac-Savage

10. Campus Internationalization: Faculty Perceptions and Obstacles Sam Bandy

11. Applying the History of Andragogy to Parallel and Opposite Histories: Students Contribute to Course Curriculum to Make New Meaning

Susan Isenberg

12. Re- imagining Teacher Education Curriculum in Botswana: The Case of Primary Mathematics School Teachers in Botswana

Thenjiwe E. Major

13. College Admission and Diversity Programs in the Wake of Affirmative Action Bans and recent Supreme Court decisions

Antonette Payne

Speed Networking for Research Presentations

1. Using Postmodern Principles in Practice R. Joe Betz2. Postmodern Assumptions in Program Design: The Accelerated Program

for AllR. Joe Betz

3. Literature review- Brain and Learning William C. Cathcart4. Games and Embodied Learning James David Justus5. Journey of Adult Career Paths: Negotiation between the Dream and the

RealityCathy Mullett

6. Criteria for Excellence in Two-Year Community Colleges William C. Cathcart


Agenda - Saturday, September 20

8:00 AM - 12:00 PM Registration - Ballroom

7:00 AM - 8:15 AM Steering Committee Meeting - Music Lounge

8:15 AM - 9:00 AM Opening Session - Ballroom

Taking Education to Go: Skill-Focused Learning Anna Graf Williams

9:00 AM - 9:45 AM Concurrent Session #3 Track

Cardinal Hall C 1 The Impetus, Function, and Expression of Disclosure: Invisible Stigmatized Identity and Implications for Critical Adult Learning

Joshua Collins/ Tonette Rocco


Forum Room 2 Collective Knowledge Creation in the Interactive Theatrical Environment

Bo Chang


Pineshelf Room 3 Becoming One’s Own Gatekeeper: Why Novelists Choose to Self-Publish

Jennifer Murray

Report on Research

Cardinal Hall A 4 The Intersection of Meditation, Learning, and Technology in Classroom and Distance Settings

Kristi Frush / Kalpana Gupta

Roundtable

Cardinal Hall B 5 An Oral History of Women’s Week at Ball State University Courtney Jarrett

Roundtable

9:45 AM - 10:00 AM Break


Cardinal Hall C 1 Arab Women, Online Learning, and Empowerment: Gender, Education, Culture, Tradition, Religion, Politics, and Class

Rey Ty, Manal Alkarzon, and Awni Alkarzon

Report on Research

Forum Room 2 Signature Wounds: PTSD and TBI in the Classroom Steven Dalcher

Report on Research

Pineshelf Room 3 Learning Readiness and Student Success in Online Learning F. Conner

Report on Research



10:00 AM - 10:45 AM Concurrent Session #4 (Continued) Track

Cardinal Hall A 4 Adult Literacy for Social Empowerment: Exploring the Motivations, Expectations, and Barrier of Women in Adult Literacy Programmes in Northern Nigeria

Ayo Garuba

Report on Research

Cardinal Hall B 5 A Qualitative Ethnographic Portrait of Women’s Studies Julee Rosser

Report on Research

10:45 AM - 11:00 AM Break


Cardinal Hall C 1 The “Non-Traditional” Dissertation: An Autoethnography of Three Early Scholars

Sunny Munn/ Joshua Collins/ Tomika Greer

Method & Issues in Research

Forum Room 2 Task-Based Language Teaching in the Business Chinese Classroom

Liu Li

Best Practices

Pineshelf Room 3 Transformative Learning Meets State Standards: How Innovative Pedagogy Illuminates the Core Curriculum

Max Elsey

Practitioner Concerns

Cardinal Hall A 4 Women and Gender Studies Through History: Looking Where We Have Been, To Move Further in the Future

Rachel Smith

Best Practices

Cardinal Hall B 5 Engaging International Asian Students in Online Collaborative Activities

Anita Samuel


11:45AM - 1:00 PM Lunch - Location: Ballroom




Cardinal Hall C 1 Race, Religion and Multiracial Congregations in America Daniel Royer


Forum Room 2 Hats off to Mobile Learning: Using Top Hat to Keep in Touch No Matter the Distance!

Ryan Hornbaker and Cindy Cash

Technology for Teaching & Learning

Pineshelf Room 3 Use of Critical Incident Posts (CIP) in the Graduate-Level Hybrid Classroom: Impact on Communication and the Community Learning Environment

Karen Morgan/ Elena Polush /Ruby Cain/ Carolyn Shue

Report on Research

Cardinal Hall A 4 Innovative Family-Centered Programs for Mothers in Prison Kaitlyn Davis


Cardinal Hall B 5 Self-Determination in Transitioning First-Year College Students with and without Disabilities

Lorna Timmerman

Report on Research

1:45 PM - 2:00 PM Break


Cardinal Hall C 1 A Woman President’s Identity, How Participation in an All-Women Community of Practice Influences Professional Identity: An Exploratory Qualitative Case Study Results

Gina Ginn/ Frederick Kauser/ Sunny Munn

Report on Research

Forum Room 2 The Experience of Critical Self-Reflection by Life Coaches: A Phenomenological Study

Lynn Shaw

Report on Research

Pineshelf Room 3 What is the Transformational Learning Experiences of Secondary Teachers who have Dealt with Burnout

Julius R.Sims

Report on Research

Cardinal Hall A 4 Social Media as "Motivational Interference": A Phenomenological Study of Student Strategies for Academic Success

Abraham Flanigan/ Wayne Babchuk

Report on Research

Cardinal Hall B 5 Does Student Debt Impact Student Learning?Dan Boylan

3:00 PM End of Conference

2014 MWR2P Conference -21- Brief Abstracts

Brief AbstractsTrying to decide which sessions to attend? Here is a list of brief abstracts to give you a sample of the research topics being presented. The abstracts are organized by the last name of the lead author. You can download and view the complete abstracts and papers online in the PROCEEDINGS.

Scan the QR code with a QR scan app to access the PDF file, or download the Proceedings in PDF format from the R2P Conference Website at http://learnovation.com/R2P-2014/PDFs/MWR2P-2014-Proceedings.pdf

Conference Roundtable and Preconference AbstractsGender Stratification in Higher Education: Research to PracticeEmily Austin DuranThis research study focused on the question: What factors have contributed to the gender divide in higher education? Our roundtable discussion will focus on the question: What needs to be considered to aid higher education institutions to incorporate inclusive curriculum and policies? Research is presented on the historical research that has contributed to gender stratification by the college level. Women’s milieus are relatively ignored in areas such as theory, curriculum, and language. Exclusion occurs in the classroom, major selection, and in policy. Structuring a new framework that incorporates inclusive theory and institutional reform may provide transformation towards a gender supportive environment.

The Intersection of Meditation, Learning, and Technology in Classroom and Distance SettingsKristi Frush & Kalpana GuptaThis roundtable session is focused on the intersection between meditation and learning that can be enhanced through technology in classroom and distance settings. A discussion about the benefits and limitations of combining meditation and technology will be encouraged and the various resources will be shared.

Demystifying the Literature Review Process Susan Imel, Ohio State University, RetiredA literature review may be part of a research study or a stand alone effort. The purpose of this session is to demystify the process of developing and writing a literature review. Some terms used to describe literature reviews will be defined, followed by a discussion of strategies for thinking about how to construct a review and locating literature to include in the review. Some tips for engaging in scholarly analysis of the literature and for writing will also be included. Examples of published reviews will be used to illustrate points in the presentation.

Going the Distance with Your Eyes on the “PRIZE”Dr. Kwesi Tandoh, Angelia Yount, and Dan Jones, Ball State UniversityAn increase in the number of online courses being delivered in higher education has led to increasing pressure to ensure consistency and quality as well as increase engagement and retention. It is not enough to develop an online course, and expect it to be effective. The course needs to promote rigor, engagement, accepted norms, institutional, and academic standards for success. In response to best practices online, our institute has defined quality strategies to utilize as the basic foundation for designing and developing courses online. As instructional designers and educators at Ball State University, it is imperative for us to combine instructional best practices with the school’s strategies, techniques, issues, courseware, and to discuss solutions and present lessons learned in this process for future course improvement. These solutions are designed to help achieve the “PRIZE” of an effective course that helps students achieve intended outcomes.

Brief Abstracts -22- 2014 MWR2P Conference

Conference Roundtable and Preconference Abstracts

Going the Distance with Your Eyes on the “PRIZE”Dr. Kwesi Tandoh, Angelia Yount, and Dan Jones, Ball State UniversityAn increase in the number of online courses being delivered in higher education has led to increasing pressure to ensure consistency and quality as well as increase engagement and retention. It is not enough to develop an online course, and expect it to be effective. The course needs to promote rigor, engagement, accepted norms, institutional, and academic standards for success. In response to best practices online, our institute has defined quality strategies to utilize as the basic foundation for designing and developing courses online. As instructional designers and educators at Ball State University, it is imperative for us to combine instructional best practices with the school’s strategies, techniques, issues, courseware, and to discuss solutions and present lessons learned in this process for future course improvement. These solutions are designed to help achieve the “PRIZE” of an effective course that helps students achieve intended outcomes.

Taking Education to Go: Skill-Focused LearningAnna Graf Williams, Ph.D., President, Learnovation, LLCWe’re all looking for ways to make money, save money, and increase and retain students. Today it’s all about promoting the skills needed to do the job to a new breed of student. As dual-credit courses bring in the high school population, we’re also seeing an increase in their parents becoming students. More employees are taking advantage of tuition reimbursement to gain skills that lead directly to promotion on the job. Shifting to a skills-focused learning environment lets people pick and choose the individual courses that provide the skills necessary to do a targeted job, whether that is an entry level position in a career field, or a certification that allows someone to increase their salary and position for advancement. The reality is that students are looking to local colleges as a quick way to gain skills that will lead to employment and advancement.By redefining curriculum within our programs, we can work towards degree level work as well as skill-focused coursework that can be completed in only one or two classes. As students begin to identify their coursework by the transferable skills they gain from each, they shift their thinking about education and its impact on their daily lives.

2014 MWR2P Conference -23- Brief Abstracts

CONTACT US: Online and Distance Education1-800-872-0369

The information presented here, correct at the time of publication, is subject to change. Ball State University practices equal opportunity in education and employment and is strongly and actively committed to diversity within its community.

What are your options when it comes to academically rich online programs?Ball State University offers transformative, high-quality, online degrees and certificates that are respected in the workplace.

Our online undergraduate and graduate programs hold seven top 20 rankings by U.S. News & World Report, including programs in business, nursing, and education. In 2014, Ball State was named the nation’s Strategic Innovator in Online Education by UPCEA, an association of leaders in online education. We are among only a few institutions recognized by the Quality Matters Academic Advisory Council for promoting learner engagement and providing students with what they need to be successful learners.

Plus, our programs are competitively priced, and you get all the personal attention that people have come to expect from Ball State.

BACHELOR’S DEGREE COMPLETION PROGRAMS• BusinessAdministration• EarlyChildhoodEducation(birthtoage5,nonlicensure)• GeneralStudies• Nursing(RNtoBS)

MASTER’S DEGREES• AdultandCommunityEducation• AppliedBehaviorAnalysis• BusinessAdministration,MBA(allonline,maincampus,or

blendofboth)• BusinessandMarketingEducation• CareerandTechnicalEducation• CoachingEducation(PhysicalEducation)• CurriculumandEducationalTechnology• EducationalAdministrationandSupervision• EducationalPsychology(allonline,maincampus,orblendofboth)• ElementaryEducation• ExecutiveDevelopmentforPublicService(someon-sitecourses

available,butnotrequired)• InteriorDesignOption• Journalism• MathematicsEducation(blendofonline,on-siteclasses)• Nursing• PublicRelations(allonline,maincampus,orblendofboth)• SecondaryEducation• SpecialEducation• TechnologyEducation

DOCTORAL AND SPECIALIST DEGREES• DoctorateofNursingPractice(DNP)• EdD in Education in Adult, Higher, and Community Education

(some on-site courses required)• EdD in School Educational Administration and Supervision (some

on-site courses required)• EdS in School Superintendency

UNDERGRADUATE CERTIFICATES • ApartmentManagement• Corrections• EmergingMediaJournalism

GRADUATE CERTIFICATES • AppliedBehaviorAnalysis• Autism• BusinessEssentialsforProfessionals• CharterSchoolLeadership• CommunityCollegeLeadership• ComputerEducationforTeachers• EarlyChildhoodProgramAdministration• ElementaryEducation:LiteracyInstruction• EnhancedTeachingPracticeforElementaryTeachers• GiftedandTalented(HighAbilities)Education• HealthEconomics,Policy,andAdministration• HumanDevelopmentandLearning• IdentityandLeadershipDevelopmentforCounselors• InformationandCommunicationSciences• InformationSystemsSecurityManagement• Journalism:EmergingMediaandVisualReporting• Journalism:LiteraryJournalism• MathematicsEducation,K-8• MiddleLevelEducation• Neuropsychology• PublicHealthEducation• PublicRelations:CorporateCommunications• PublicRelations:EducationCommunications• RealEstateDevelopment• SalesManagement• SpecialEducation:ResponsetoIntervention

LICENSES • BusinessandInformationTechnology(CTE)• DirectorofExceptionalNeedsLicense• GiftedandTalentedLicense• MarketingLicenseAddition• Principal’sLicense• Superintendent’sLicense

BALL STATE+ONLINE

[email protected]/online

-24- 2014 MWR2P Conference

Register at: www.diversitysyposium.org/pre-conference.html

6th Annual Diversity Research Symposium From Research To Action

Keynote Speaker: John Quiñones Register at: www.diversitysymposium.org

African Diaspora Pre-Conference Multicultural Education Then, Now, and Tomorrow...

Honoring Dr. Charles Payne’s Theory and Practice of

Multicultural Education

Saturday, October 24 8:00 am – 12:00 pm

Ball State University, Muncie IN

Conference Poster Abstracts in Alphabetical Order

Campus Internationalization: Faculty perceptions and obstacles

Sam Bandy

A review of the literature on campus internationalization at higher education institutions in the United States. The negative aspects of faculty internationalization assumptions are brought to light and are further explored. This poster session proposes ways which institutions can overcome negative faculty assumptions and include faculty in the internationalization process.

Strengthening Study Abroad Programming through Direct Application of Adult Learning Theory

Opal Leeman Bartzis

This poster session explores the potential benefits of connecting adult learning theory to college study abroad program development. For the purpose of improving program structure, the major tenants of andragogy were retroactively applied to two study abroad programs that have struggled with enrollment. The results are examined here.

Poverty and Higher Educational Learning: A critical look at the effect of poverty and socio-economic status on higher education students

Arthur C. Evans III

Socio-economic factors influence how current and future students rationalize the benefits of higher education. In examining some of the definitions of poverty in relation to higher education, student success in these environments yields interesting explanations into how post-secondary education is perceived by those considered living in poverty.

Why Don’t We Finish?

Andrea Ginter

This poster presentation will concentrate on the top three challenges to adults finishing degree programs, including solutions to meet these challenges. The presenter is a non-traditional adult


student offering insight and common variants to this growing concern. This poster presentation will better enable facilitator of adults to meet the needs of this growing demographic.

Developing Competence in Andragogy- Some Elements and Contexts

John Henschke

Developing competence in andragogy: Initiating and maintaining a reciprocal relationship among elements of trust, empathy, sensitivity in the active engagement / exchange / interaction between learners and facilitators of learning; and, designing/conducting the learning experience to fit within various contexts – small, large, communities, educational, religious, corporate, government, voluntary, international, online or face-to-face.

Applying the History of Andragogy to Parallel and Opposite Histories: Students Contribute to Course Curriculum to Make New Meaning

Susan Isenberg

A phenomenology research design was used to explore meaning-making related to students’ lived experience in a 16-week doctoral course, History and Philosophy of Andragogy, where they contributed to the curriculum by applying the history of andragogy to the history of something relevant or interesting to them.


Addressing Student Developmental Needs in Higher Education

Cathy Mullett

Developmental education is one tool that can ensure academic success. This poster project addresses vital tenets of education, not only in college, but also in community education courses. Adults need to see the relevance of what they learn. Included in the presentation are reminders of educational practices that may have been put aside or forgotten by educators, serving as an overview of strategies and methods for creating meaningful instructional experiences. This presentation is a visual depiction of what developmental education components look like, that are logical, but are not always or regularly employed.

Transformative Learning: A significant process of change

Norma Nerstrom

The goal of transformative learning is autonomous thinking. Based on the study, Truths about Transformative Learning: The Narrative Inquiry of Adult Educators’ Experiences in Graduate Education, this poster session documents and validates the far-reaching effects of transformative learning on adult educators whose transformations were initiated in graduate adult education programs.

College Admission and Diversity Programs in the Wake of Affirmative Action Bans and Recent Supreme Court Decisions

Antonette Payne

The Supreme Court has put pressure on affirmative action policies in college admissions and allowed states to ban such policies altogether through voter referendums. The poster outlines major decisions about affirmative action in higher education and outlines and suggest alternative policies that may reduce the loss of minority applicants.


An Examination of Theological Students’ Wisdom community experience

Michael Porterfield & E. Paulette Isaac-Savage

While initially reluctant to provide online learning opportunities, more graduate theological institutions are realizing the benefit of online courses and programs, such as the establishment of online wisdom communities. In this poster presentation, we examine how students experience wisdom community in a hybrid, theological doctoral degree in preaching.

American and European Study Abroad Programs in Higher Education: An exploration of why Europe is leading the way

Crystal Reimler

This study explores the differences between study abroad programs in American and European higher education systems. The research investigates challenges that European study abroad programs have encountered and overcome leading to a higher instance of diversity of ideas in leadership. Additionally, this poster session proposes ways in which to introduce a similar American study abroad program.

Twitter Can Support Learning Language: Learning through the language and learning about the language

Mirela Zemani

This poster describes how twitter can support the language learning through Sociocultural Functional Linguistics (SFL) approach. The focus of this methodology is to construct the academic language for the social net, where the learners can gain their knowledge and skills via the digital literacy. Language is the key of enhancing the knowledge, and I argue how academic language needs to be learnt through decontextualization and contextualization, furthermore to show that the role of the education to build the bridge of employing the digital literacy outside of classroom into those in the classroom, and vice a versa. I want to focus on web 2.0 technology, specifically twitter, to be part of my teaching context, where the learners will perpetuate to use this technology for their academic purposes in the future. The new digital literacy is associated with the creation of the new mindset of this web 2.0, where the learners and teachers cooperate together into the sociocultural activities. I assume that SFL approach is a significant tool in learning a language, learning through the language and learn about the language.


Conference Papers in Alphabetical Order


Does Student Debt Impact Student Learning?

Daniel H. Boylan

This study examined how the debt students incur during college impacts the students’ focus on their education. The study looks at financial education and the level of debt (both student loans and credit card debt) incurred by students and the impact of that debt on student attitudes especially towards education. 896 students enrolled in a traditional Midwestern university were surveyed on a wide variety of topics in personal finance. It was found that students come to school with a focus on education but as their debt in both student loans and consumer debt increases the focus changes where money and work become a higher concern than school. Most students come to school with no student loans and no credit cards but by the time they leave on average they will have about $33,000 in student loans and over $5,000 in credit card debt (on approximately 4 credit cards). The impact of consumer debt was especially strong given that once credit card debt was incurred payments could not be delayed until graduation but needed paid back monthly. This consumer debt forced students to seek immediate solutions that enabled the repayment (or at least the minimum) such as seeking employment.

Introduction

National wealth and well-being have been concerns for researchers, policy makers and

citizens. This concern has prompted numerous articles, studies and predictors of well-being (Fischer & Boer). This study investigates the role of both student loan debt and credit card debt on students and how are they perceived by students. Perceptions are analyzed by items such as gender, education of parents, and residential status for the purpose of identifying how money management techniques may be used to address issues.

Theory Development

A long held belief is that wealth can be built by becoming educated, but is the process of becoming educated (via debt) inhibiting an individual’s ability to prosper? It has been proven that higher levels of education, in general, lead to higher salaries (The College Board). This fact is not refuted, but the concern being studied is can the manner in which one pays for education impact a student in a negative way. Can significant debt reduce a student’s college experience? Just going to school for the sake of following a social norm, without truly building the person within, could have potential long term negative effects.

When considering the portion of the cost of attending a university, this student identifies student debt as an item that is uncontrollable due to its timing and size. Consumer debt on the other hand largely consists of credit card debt and it is identified here as controllable by the student do to the nature of the card and the types of purchases made on it.

The Hypotheses developed for this study include: 1. Students are not reasonably educated on personal finance. 2. College debt or student loans does not have an impact on learning. 3. Consumer debt or credit card debt does not have an impact on learning. 4. Students do not change their behavior based on debt.


As student debt increases, students tend to have more tolerant attitudes towards that debt (Davies & Lea). This tolerance can create a situation where, as more debt is taken on, there is growing acceptance of debt (Norvilitis & MacLean).

Literary Review

Having the ability to make educated judgments and effective decisions is how financial literacy enables individuals (NSLP, 2010). Having ability to make informed financial decisions helps people live within their means and reduces the likelihood that they will face financial troubles by encouraging decisions on needs rather than wants (Chinenm & Endo). Academic success many times is determined by a student’s ability to exercise financial management (Cummins, et al). Alternatively, a concern is the effects of high levels of debt (Cohen). Personal Finance Education

Many students often begin their college career with little knowledge of personal finance (Lusardi et al.). The optimal time for students to be educated on personal finance is while in college as debt education works best for people that are new to debt, especially students in college (Gartner & Schiltz). Student Debt

Student debt is a topic of current interest. For this study is was defined as both students loans and consumer debt (such as credit cards).

Student Loans. Student loans are an important tool in the attainment of an education but the attitudes learned will have a significant long-term impact for those individuals. (Roberts & Jones). Over time the method by which a student’s education is funded has changed. Part of this change is a shift in philosophy that student debt is desirable as it commits students to make an investment in their future (Christie & Munro, 2001).

Consumer Debt. College students are vulnerable to creditors. The reasons for this vulnerability include inexperience and lack of income (Gartner & Schultz, 2005). Credit cards are an important part of the college experience. The average credit card debt for college students has become about 40% of their income (Norvilitis et al., 2006).

The amount of consumer debt being accumulated is coming to be understood as a social problem (Cohen). Understanding the effects of consumer or credit card debt is important for many reasons. Students are relying on credit at an increasing rate. This popularity is so high that eighty-four percent of students had credit cards and only 2 percent of college students have no credit history – most of this history included consumer debt. A majority of students surveyed by Sallie Mae will pay some portion of their education expenses with consumer debt as they do not have enough savings or financial aid needed (Sallie Mae).

Research Design, Method, and Data

A total of 896 undergraduate students attending a one credit hour personal finance course required for all majors who attend a large public university completed the survey. The sample was limited to this single site, however, it provided a large sample base of diverse, middle class, largely American students. The study was specifically designed for the spring semester in order to obtain a more balanced population as there are more freshman who cannot register for fall semesters due to classes being full. In addition, by the spring semester, freshman have been


immersed in the collegiate atmosphere for nearly a year giving a more “university attitude” rather than attitudes pulled in from high school.

Preliminary Findings and Future Research

Research on college student’s attitudes about finance and spending habits is important. Education When asked what students observe of their peers struggling on personal financial topics many items of concern were identified. The most significant was the observation of other students struggling on controlling spending at 74% of students. This was followed by: managing student loan debt (48%), saving for live events (35%), and managing credit card debt (25%).

When asked the questions “do you consider yourself responsible with money?” a significant difference was found between current grade range and a student’s feeling of responsibility with money (χ2=15.337, df = 3, p = .002). Those with better grades perceived themselves as being more responsible with money with 87% of those “A” students saying “yes”. At each lower grade level, a lower percent of students responded “yes” to the point of the “C and lower” students responding “no” in the majority (67%). Student Debt

Student Loans. One questions asked “how confident are you that your future earnings will allow you to repay current student loan debts within 15 years?” The popular press has questioned if earning a degree is worth the cost and debt (Christie & Munro, 2003). When considering what students feel about their debt and their ability to repay debt this study found 89% of students feel at least somewhat confident they will be able to pay off their student loans within 15 years. This compares to 11% that are not very confident that they can pay off their loans in 15 years. This signals an optimism that post-secondary schooling is still within a reasonable cost and is not unnecessarily burdensome.

Since there are only two groups, the above is actually a “t-test,” which is a subset of the ANOVA (t2 = F). You did find that males and females differ on their confidence in repayment (t = 2.44, df = 892, p = .015). Females are .12 less confident on the four-point confidence scale. This one is a one way ANOVA since more than two groups. You have a difference among the groups (F(2,890) = 4.396, p = .013). Post hoc tests showed that students who live with their parents are more confident in repaying debts than those living off-campus or in campus housing.

On a question asking “which of the following best describes your view of money?” students appear to have a pretty sensible viewpoint of the purpose of money. Only 10% and 8% possessed overly strong viewpoint of “an important way to assess success or the overly negative view of “the root of all evil,” respectively. A healthy majority felt it was either “a tool to be used” (48%) or “a necessity” (32%). Only 2% saw money as irrelevant to decision making.

Further on this question, there were some differences by gender (χ2 = 14.57, df = 4, p = .006). When considering money, female had significantly higher rates describing money as a necessity compared to males (35% versus 27%). This view was reaffirmed as more males answered, “irrelevant to most decisions “compared to females (3% versus 1%). This shows female having a stronger awareness as to the day-to-day usage while male saw money as less as day-to-day and money as a means to value someone’s success. More males, however, answered that money was “an important way to access success” than females (14% versus 8%).

Views of money was also analyzed by grade point average. When analyzed an obvious difference attitude with regard to money was identified. “A” students, 58% saw it as a tool to be


used while the combined “non-A” students were at 40%, so making a point about that would be legit. However, only 10% of “non-A” students went with the root of all evil, which is higher than the 6% of “A” students. It is interesting that these same “non-A” students saw money “as an important way to access success” while the “A” students did not see money as a way to access success. The reason for this is “A” students felt achievements were a way to measure a person rather than money being the measure. Another interesting note is that while 28% of “A” students thought it was a necessity, 36% of “non-A” students also marked this. This reflects that “A” students see money as a tool primarily (58%), while “non-A” students were more split between tool (40%) and necessity (36%).

Viewpoints on money had some differences based on where raised. For the Urban, Suburban, and Rural groups, a general impression is that “a tool to be used” is more of a suburban (47%) and rural (54%) feeling than urban (39%). The urban students tended to see it as a measure of success (18%) more so than suburban (9%) or rural (7%) students.

Consumer Debt. On a question asking: “I think my debt level is.” The perception of debt and how much debt others have is very subjective. The survey results did find, however that there was a difference in perception of debt (F(6,885) = 141.43, p < .001). When considering this survey 28% of students had no debt. Having no debt is very easily quantified. Where the survey becomes interesting is the level of students that felt their debt situation was “lower than average” (30%) or “average” (36%) included 66% of respondents. When coupling these students with the “no debt” students a full 94% of students do not felt they have “higher than average” debt. Obviously, it is not possible for 94% of the population to feel they are average or better.

On this same debt level question the one-way ANOVA analysis reflects significant difference between the groups (F(6, 885) = 141.427, p < .001). The post hoc test showed that students see themselves as having significantly different debt levels at each level of $10,000 incremental increase up to $30,000 (there was an anomaly with $20,000 - $30,000 compared to those with $50,000 - $60,000 but otherwise all were significant). The $30,000 - $50,000 range, however, saw themselves significantly different than those with less debt but not those with greater debt, which seems to mark that up to $30,000 students are not concerned but at levels higher than $30,000 students become concerned and make adjustments in priorities from school to money. Those with $50,000 - $60,000 in debt only see a significant difference with those with less than $20,000 in debt. Those with $60,000 and higher in projected debt see a significant difference with those who have less than $30,000 in debt.

Considering debt levels, using a one-way ANOVA for multiple groups to analyze the level of debt expected at college graduation compared to the highest degree level within a student’s household, a significant difference was found between the groups (F(3, 888) = 38.296, p < .001). Those with a household that had at least a Bachelor degree or higher did not see a significant difference between estimated debt levels. Those with Associate degreed household members only saw a significant difference when compared to those households with a Master degree.

The post hoc test found that those students with an average GPA of “A” has significantly different expectations of debt levels compared to their peers with a grade of “C” or lower. This may reflect that those with better grades understand their projected debt levels upon graduations.

When asked “I accept a certain amount of credit card/loan debt so I can live comfortably,” most students, 31%, responded neutrally (neither agree nor disagree) while “agree” came in a close second at 27%. The good news is that a very small minority (5%) strongly agreed, meaning few students felt certain about taking on debt to support a level of comfortable living.


There were significant differences in the willingness to live comfortably based on the type of community a student grew up in. A significant difference was found between urban and suburban students when considering the comment “I accept a certain amount of credit card / loan debt so I can live comfortably (F(2, 887) = 3.317, p = .037). The post hoc test found that urban students more strongly agreed with the statement (mean of 2.95) vs. suburban students (3.20). Payment Behavior (stress et al.)

When asked whether or not payments were made greater than the minimum amount on credit cards and loan debt, the results were mixed. 56% of students either paid extra amounts “frequently” (27%) or” sometimes” (29%). 44% responded “not at all.”

When considering the comment “make payments greater than the minimum amount due on credit cards and loan debt” (χ2 = 22.602, df = 6, p = .001) analyzed by class standing, students trended from “not at all” as freshman (50.9%) toward “sometimes” and “frequently” as seniors (31.9% and 44.7%, respectively. This trend correlates with the trend of a greater worry about money as students work their way through college.

When considering the comment “make payments greater than the minimum amount due on credit cards and loan debt” analyzed by residential situation (χ2 = 33.538, df = 4, p < .000), students living with parents (commute) tend to be more apt to paying off debt sooner than required (46.9%). Students “living off campus” were split nearly equally across the 3 variables whereas students living “on campus” were more likely to consider “not at all” (50.4%) rather than “frequently” (22.4%).

For aquestion of “which of these do you consdier the most stressful?” a significant difference was found when considering what was most stressful to students across their class standing (χ22= 35.977, df = 12, p = .000). The majority (50% of total) of students found school to be their largest stressor with the level of stress reflectin a declining trend where Freshman have it at 52%, sophomores drop to 49% and junior and seniors drip to 45%.

When looking at the “which of these do you consider most stressful” by residential status (χ2 = 25.279, df = 8, p = .001), school was at or nearly 50% for all three groups. Money was a large second with around 33. Relationships were a higher stressor for those students living on campus (61.3% vs 26 and 12.5% for off campus and with parents, respectively). Work was most stressful for those students living off campus (59%) with the next highest for those living on campus (37%) leaving only 5% for those living with their parents.

When considering stress, students with less college debt significant differences across the stressor variables occurred (χ2 = 61.181, df = 24, p = .000). There was an interesting trend that existed between the level of projected debt and the level of stress between school and money. School was reflected as the most stressful for the majority of students with debt in 3 categories: under $10,000, $20,001 - $230,000, and $50,001 - $60,000. School remained the most significant stress or for those with $10,001 - $20,000 and $30,001 to $40,000. School falls behind money as a stressor with projected debt levels from $40,001 - $60,000 and $60,001 and higher. Money was the next most significant stressor except for that it falls behind relationships and work when projected debt is under $10,000 and for those in the $30,001 - $40,000 category.

Significance was found when looking at stressors across the student base by the highest level of education within their household (χ2 = 23.066, df = 12, p = .027). Those with family members with Bachelor degrees felt the highest levels of stress across all variables with the exception of work for which they came in second behind those coming from families with Masters or higher degrees. Those coming from a family with Masters or higher degrees came in behind those with Bachelors in the remainder of the stress variables.


The question “which of these do you consider most stressful?” also had important responses when analyzed by the highest degree learned in your household. Students from households with the highest degree and as either “high school” or “associate degree” were considerably more concerned with money than with school, while households with the highest degree earned as “bachelors” or “masters” were more concerned with school than work.

Adding to the body of knowledge in understanding how college students view, spend, and react to money can play a role in financial education curriculum and delivery methods for students and could aid student success in higher education and degree completion, quality of life and prosperity.

Conclusions and Implications

When looking at the research conducted this study was able to look at financial education, look into the role of student debt including student loans and consumer loans then take a surveyed group to see how students actually respond to these situations. From the information researched and accumulated it is apparent that students are reasonably educated in finance. This knowledge comes from a variety of sources including: parents, classes, and a willingness to learn (most often when they left the dorms and rented an apartment).

References

Christie, H. & Munro, M. (2003). The logic of loans: Students’ perceptions of the costs and benefits of the student loan. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 24(5), 621-636.

Commercial Law Bulletin (1998). CLAIMS, 13, 6:7. Davies, E. & Lea, S. (1995) Student attitudes to student debt, Journal of Economic Psychology, 16, pp. 663–679. JumpStart Coalition for Personal Financial Literacy. (2014). Making the case for financial literacy - 2014.

www.jumpstart.org. Lusardi, A., Mitchell, O.S., and Curto, V (2010). Financial Literacy among the Young, Journal of Consumer Affairs.

44(2): 358-380. McKenzie, V. M. (2009). The financial literacy: A comparison of graduating seniors' financial literacy and debt

level. Dissertation. University of South Florida. Norvilitis, J., Szablicki, P. & Wilson, S. Factors Influencing levels of credit card debt in college students. Journal of

Applied Social Psychology, 33(5), 935-947. NSLP (2010). Financial Literacy Now: Why College Students Can't Wait, pp. 1-7. Retrieved from www.nslp.

org/pages/pdf/NSLP_WhitePaper_4.8.10.pdf Sallie Mae. (2009). How undergraduate students use credit cards: Sallie Mae’s national study of usage rates and

trends 2009. Wilkes-Barre, PA: Author. The College Board, Advocacy and Policy Center (2010a). Trends in college pricing. Retrieved from

http://trends.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/CP_2010.pdf U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2012). The condition of education:

Postsecondary graduation rates. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/coe_pgr.pdf Daniel H. Boylan, Ball State University, Miller College of Business, Whitinger Business, Building, room 301, Muncie, IN 47306. [email protected] Presented at the Research-to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


http://www.jumpstart.org/

http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/coe_pgr.pdf

mailto:[email protected]

Postmodern Principles in Practice

R. Joe Betz

Best practices within postmodernism might not exist when viewed through a postmodern lens, yet an investigation of postmodern principles allows the discussion of postmodern strategies applied to instruction. This paper highlights a shift from modern to postmodern thought, briefly explains a select number of postmodern principles found in the literature, and evaluates a growing accelerated curriculum model within community colleges through a postmodern lens.

Postmodern principles introduced will include multiplicity, heterogeneity, skepticism,

and the value of a fully formed social identity. This paper describes research that defines and provides examples of these ideas found in Nguyen (2010), Edwards & Usher (1997), and Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S. & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007), among others, and will offer how this researcher currently applies these concepts as an English instructor at Ivy Tech Community College-Bloomington.

Modern to Postmodern Thought

The value shift from modern to postmodern concepts is difficult to place, and this shift is certainly not complete, but through defining Modern and Postmodern beliefs we will see important, theoretical differences. Reviewing research by Nguyen (2010), Bell (1976), and Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner (2007), and a brief philosophical point by Jean Baudrillard interpreted by Felluga (2014), the most noticeable thematic changes from stability to instability and singularity to multiplicity are discovered.

“Modernism is largely about order and rationalism” (Nguyen, 2010, p. 90), valuing stability, reason, and the ability to discover Truths through scientific, testable means. Its peak occurring between 1890 and 1930, industrialization, colonization, and technological progress encouraged the belief that disorder, disruption, and chaos could be eliminated, which was beneficial (Bell, 1976 as cited in Nguyen, 2010, p. 90). In the historical moment of two World Wars, control and order became emancipatory; homogeneity ruled over heterogeneity because a heterogonous culture held the seeds of chaos and confusion. Rules discovered in nature became touchstones for modernist philosophy, allowing the individual stability within fixed points to seek other fixed points.

Postmodernism, in contrast, rejects the belief of fixedness and is therefore a diametrically opposed development in thought to modernist philosophical assumptions. Reality and Truth are not knowable in so much as the self is not knowable, in so much as perspective changes meaning. In postmodern thought, questions become the answers to questions—skepticism reigns (Merriam et al., 2007, pp. 259-260). This logic of multiplicity creates discomfort, and it is this discomfort one should embrace. A heterogonous culture is encouraged because singular, homogenous societies are static—or worse, dogmatic. There is no objective truth: multiple inputs are needed because, in fact, Truths do not exist but are replicas or simulacra, and it is the representation that creates the real (Nguyen, 2010, pp. 90-92; Felluga, 2014). These postmodern


assumptions have led to various critiques, such as “offering few hopeful alternatives and solutions to social problems” (Hill, 2008, p. 86) and espousing generally negative and pessimistic views (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 262), but these are perhaps expected reactions amidst the uncertainty and uncomfortableness postmodern thought erects.

The Postmodern Principle(s)

Without a center, without fixed points, what might be fixed about postmodernism? What principle or principles can we isolate? At the present moment, we can highlight aspects of the “postmodern ethos” according to Nguyen (2010), Edwards & Usher (1997), Williams (2008), and Jacobs & Kritsonis (2007).

Concerning the construction of knowledge, Nguyen (2010) succinctly writes “postmodernism rejects the existence of absolute objective knowledge since what is called knowledge is merely constructed from words and their assigned meanings in a certain culture which views the world in different points of view” (p. 91). Our knowledge is constructed from words whose meaning is dependent within culturally specific contexts and individual use toward collective meaning, and this use, opposed to the modernist view of constructing agreed upon cross-cultural knowledge for purposeful uses, is decentered, “detached from legitimating metanarratives…[and] becomes increasingly based on specific cultural contexts, on localized and particularized knowledges…valuing…a multiplicity of experience” (Edwards & Usher, 1997, p. 159). An opening principle concerning knowledge would be that knowledge, created by culturally specific language, is not fixed, not knowable, but is created within localized forums that rely on the participation of a community.

An extension of this discussion of knowledge creation leads us to the value of collectivity and connectedness over individuality and isolation. Indeed, individuality can be viewed as a creation formed largely by social groups (Nguyen, 2010, p. 91). The value of multiple voices, then, is important and encouraged and becomes more important the more multicultural our society becomes (Williams, 2008, p. 3). Edwards & Usher (1997) highlight the paradox created by a globalized society, however, where when the voices multiply, globalization “induces effects of cultural specificity” and “greater integration…produces homogeneity and heterogeneity simultaneously” (p. 156). Still, this is not so much a criticism of the principle of multiplicity so much as a confirmation of postmodern belief, that multiple truths exist (homogeneity and heterogeneity here) and the definite is impossible to pin. Also, it reveals the principle of elevating suppressed identities for the sake of disseminating knowledge.

If the modern takes comfort in the suppression of minority voices for the sake of the dominant culture, the postmodern takes comfort in the valuing of all voices while questioning the dominant culture’s dominance. If the modern values metanarratives to explain phenomena, the postmodern values little narratives as a way to spread knowledge and question those metanarratives (Nguyen, 2010, p. 92). Therefore, the value of repressed voices is realized in postmodern thought.

Finally, skepticism was found to be a defining principle from the literature used in this paper. “Postmodernists focus on possibilities and do not define things concretely” (Jacobs & Kritsonis, 2007, p. 4), and this engenders a culture of skepticism, especially toward anything labeled “true” in the dominant culture. A dynamism exists within postmodern thought that never ceases to question current patterns, which can be disconcerting to an educator who finds comfort in current trends—nevertheless a push against trends to broader, more skeptical thinking is an


important attribute of postmodern practice, and this is especially true in the field of education (ibid.).

Postmodernism in Adult Education

The modernist view of education maintains that students should be educated for appropriate functioning roles within society, but this idea is refigured in the postmodernist view to the goal of producing a citizen with a “full social identity” (Nguyen, 2010, p. 92). Therefore, the valuing of the self and connectivity with a community of others enters as a key educational goal; the individual is valued for her own sake, not for production.

Knowledge, which postmodernists see as a troubled, constructed commodity used to maintain the status quo of power relations, has no hierarchy. Multiple perspectives, multiple interpretations, are important, but postmodernism goes further in education: the repressed or silenced voices must enter the conversation and the mechanisms within these conversations (ways to enter, what is seen as valuable, etc.) should not exist to perpetuate dominance. I.e., whites, males, and the rich should not benefit from the oppression of silenced minorities (Hicks, 2004, p. 17 as cited in Nguyen, 2010, p. 93). Furthermore, students should be taught multiple ways of knowing, as a direct route to an absolute body of knowledge does not exist (ibid, p. 93).

In contrast to the valuing of scientific, technical achievement in modernism, postmodernism troubles the notion of technical progress by highlighting social and environmental disaster caused by these advances (Nguyen, 2010, p. 93). Ethical considerations are then another emphasis within the educational ethos of postmodern education, providing an additional line of inquiry.

Postmodern Principles in Practice: ASAP

The Associate Accelerated Program (ASAP) is a course of study allowing adult learners to complete an associate’s degree in one year. Built for recently graduated high school students, the program compresses two years of study into five, eight-week semesters. The Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana ASAP program is the focus of this description. Key Features

ASAP aims to move students through freshman and sophomore level courses quickly and efficiently while providing each student financial and emotional support. After five, eight-week semesters, students earn an associate’s degree (in General Studies for this particular program) and immediately enter the workforce or transfer to a four-year institution.

The students must meet the following requirements: 1) Referred/Nominated by High School Guidance Counselor. 2) Minimum 2.5 High School GPA and strong attendance record. 3) No older than 21 years of age. 4) Parent/guardian must agree to provide room and board. 5) Full application must be submitted by X date. 6) Student and parent/guardian must complete a pledge form, and 7) students must also be applicable for Pell and SSACI benefits (“A College Degree,” 2014).

These students progress through a 40-week curriculum over five, eight-week semesters or “learning modules” (“Associate Accelerated Program,” 2014). Each semester, students take four classes that meet, approximately, M-F from 8:30am to 4:30 pm. Students form a supportive learning community that is guided by a faculty mentor, and students are financially supported


through a small stipend of $100 per week ($5200 for the year). This supports the program’s goal to discourage student employment while in the program and instead view ASAP “as a job” (“A College Degree,” 2014).

This program is designed for new adult learners entering a transitional phase of their educational career. These students must meet certain educational, age, disciplinary and financial requirements. Jeffrey Jourdan, a faculty mentor and program chair of the ASAP program at the Indianapolis Ivy Tech campus, highlighted a focus on economically disadvantaged students within the program (personal communication, February 15, 2014). An 86% success rate for this program, defined as students earning a degree or still enrolled after 12 months, is five times higher than the average for all Ivy Tech Community College students. In addition, retention rates are 10% higher than average, a major focus of community colleges (“A College Degree,” 2014). Postmodern Implications

The ASAP program disrupts the conventional two-year process for associate degree seekers or those wishing to earn credit for transferrable gateway courses. This compression of time, the value of community building and shared experiences, the uplifting of suppressed voices, and the variety of courses explored within a General Studies curriculum fit well with postmodern ideals in higher education; however, a restriction on age, income thresholds, and the potential for reduced reflective opportunities due to the program’s pace are problematic.

Postmodern strengths. Dominant hierarchies must be challenged and fundamental

assumptions within a field must be questioned (Jacobs & Kristonis, 2007, p. 4), so within higher education the assumption that one should progress through a course of classes over two years rather than one, or three or more, is confronted. The ASAP program believes students can successfully fulfill their educational goals in nearly half the time of the traditional student following the dominant paradigm, and that belief has been validated with an impressive success rate—though pace is viewed in this research as both inhibitor and prohibiter of effectiveness. Within this compressed space, students are presented with a wide variety of courses taken from the General Studies curriculum. These courses include foreign languages, thereby exposing students to new cultures and ways of communication; English, math, history, and science, covering gateway courses; creative opportunities such as music appreciation and creative writing; and technology centered courses exposing students to 21st century computer applications. These course offerings, then, provide a heterogeneity students would not otherwise be exposed to had they followed any other disciplinary track. This “multiplicity of experience,” defined by Edwards & Usher (1997), is valuable for emotional and intellectual growth (p. 159), and the multiple ways of knowing one’s world are revealed. More important than a change of pace and a variety of course offerings, and the true cause of ASAP’s impressive success rate, are student-to-student and student-to-faculty interactions that redefine the set authoritarian relationships toward communal relationships. The students within ASAP represent repressed voices—all socioeconomically and some through race and gender. This repression is removed within a communal context, as ASAP both uplifts the value of the person through direct communication with faculty mentors and reinforces community through student grouping. Students enter ASAP as a cohort, forming bonds as members of this localized community, and are then supported financially through weekly stipends removing at least some financial repression. The removal of barriers and the strength found within the localized


community of ASAP cohorts is unique within higher education and questions effectively, through its impressive success rate, the dominant, individualized paths of traditional adult learners in higher education.

Postmodern weaknesses. Postmodern theory explores the strengths of heterogeneity over homogeneity, yet within ASAP certain barriers to entry limit variety and compromise this program viewed through a postmodern lens. The strongest barriers are age and financial means. If a student is older than 21, he or she cannot enter (though there are exceptions); if a student does not come from a poor family relative to the country’s economy, he or she cannot enter. These restrictions limit group dynamics wherein a variety of experiences are excluded in favor of a mostly homogenous cohort.

In addition to this tilt toward homogeneity in age and socioeconomic status, if the goal is to produce a citizen with a “full social identity,” as described by Nguyen (2010, p. 92), the pace of the program might be too fast for quality reflective practice. Through reflection, we consolidate and reformulate experience to make meaning, even though that meaning does not stay fixed; yet, if a student is constantly pushed from course to course and views ASAP “as a job,” something to be done not something to explore and define for oneself, does the student have the opportunity for this reflective practice? In this regard, ASAP could value the modernist ideal of producing productive, functioning citizens for specific tasks (labor) rather than the postmodernist value of producing a citizen with a fully realized social identity.

Conclusion

The implications of this paper allow for a reevaluation of traditional routes toward educational goals, whether in a single class or through a structured academic program. An understanding of select postmodern values can enhance teaching, encouraging new practice. However, more research of accelerated programs is needed, especially interviews of students before, during, and after their time within these programs; furthermore, more research and expanded definitions of postmodern values would aid future educational application strategies.

References

A College Degree ASAP: The One Year Accelerated Associate Degree (2014). Retrieved from

http://www.ivytech.edu/asap/ Edwards, R., & Usher, R. (1997). University Adult Education in the Postmodern Moment: Trends and Challenges.

Adult Education Quarterly, 47(3-4), 153-68. Felluga, Dino. (2011, January 31). Modules on Baudrillard: On Simulation: Introductory Guide to Critical Theory.

Retrieved from http://www.purdue.edu/guidetotheory/postmodernism/modules/baudrillardsimulation.html Hill, R. J. (2008). Troubling Adult Learning in the Present Time. S. B. Merriam (Ed.). New Directions For Adult

And Continuing Education: Third Update on Adult Learning Theory, (119), 83-92. Jacobs, K., & Kritsonis, W. (2006). National Strategies for Implementing Postmodern Thinking for Improving

Secondary Education in Public Education in the United States of America. Online Submission Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S. & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Nguyen, C. H. (2010). The Changing Postmodern University. International Education Studies, 3 (3). Retrieved

from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ies/article/viewFile/6052/5300 Williams, M. (2008). National Focus on Postmodern in Adult Education. Focus on Colleges, Universities, and

Schools, 2 (1), 1-4.


Joe Betz. Instructor of English. Ivy Tech Community College-Bloomington. [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


White Like Me: Immersive Learning in Community Engagement

Ruby Cain, Keri L. Rodgers, Cheryl Simpkins

This paper describes a best practice transformative learning experience afforded to graduate students in an adult and community education seminar (“Cultural Identities and Community Engagement”). The curriculum was co-constructed from a community program, It Is Well With My Soul (IIWWMS). As a major seminar deliverable, the students selected, developed, executed, and evaluated an immersive learning experience on race, racism, and privilege in America, delivered concurrently in four cities throughout the state. The event was “White Like Me: Race, Racism, and Privilege in America” film viewing and discussion. The content in the immersive learning was a part of the seminar curriculum. The evaluation results indicated participants highly valued event content, discussion activities, and interaction with attendees who were culturally different. The graduate students partnered with IIWWMS team members. The community members ranged in levels of community engagement and mobilization expertise from novice to expert. The graduate students in this seminar successfully committed significant effort to program planning and evaluation, drawing upon skills learned in adult and community education courses and their professional expertise. They were challenged to overcome hegemonic assumptions about learning, such as, culture of individualism, group leadership determination, conflict avoidance, and superiority of academia over community.

Introduction

One Midwestern university views immersive learning as the hallmark of 21st Century education. This university defines immersive learning, on its website, as interdisciplinary teams comprised of students and community or business representatives guided by expert faculty to “create unique, high-impact learning experiences that result in real-world solutions.” Immersive learning is comparable to and inclusive of service, experiential, problem-based, cooperative, collaborative, and reflective learning (Furman & Sibthorp, 2013). At the beginning of the immersive learning experience, the final outcome is not known. The project activities and intended outcome are co-constructed by all of the stakeholders (community program members and students), with faculty guidance and oversight. Consistent with collaborative service learning (Kelly, 2013), immersive learning is the integration of targeted learning objectives in non-academic, real world settings that result in meaning making and new knowledge beyond what the classroom setting could provide.

Racism is topic that is cautiously addressed in the academy. Often it is interpreted as individual acts rather than systems and policies that disadvantage a culture group. The initial reaction to the word is defensive. This lack of understanding limits the in-depth exploration of the social construction of race in the United States and beyond as an integral and necessary part of the higher education discourse. Even less likely to be explored are the residual effects of centuries of discrimination and oppression. Racial healing must begin with a hermeneutic understanding of the historical origins and underpinnings. The quantification of racism and oppression via the lived experiences of the marginalized cultural groups is essential to this process. We all have many cultural identities that serve as a filter on how we perceive and react


to our environment. Cross-cultural communications can result in misunderstandings with our colleagues. In fact, negative attitudes suppress the courageous conversations on racism and oppression due to perceptions of intergroup threat, attack, and disapproval (Goff, Steele, & Davies, 2008; Riek, Mania, Gaertner, McDonald, & Lamoreaux, 2010). Tatum (1992) identifies three sources of resistance to learning about racism: “race as taboo topic; myth of meritocracy; and denial of personal connection to racism.”

For cultures of color there is limited understanding and awareness of internalized racism and oppression. One definition of internalized racism and oppression involves co-opting the values of the majority culture that operate to subjugate others. Racism is a process, condition, and relationship that “violates its victims physically, socially, spiritually, materially, and psychologically (Speight, 2007).” The facets that come under attack are those that define culture. The damage from racism is entrenched in the dismantling of the core of the psyche. This results in constricting and disabling self-development and self-determination (Young, 1990). Jones (2000) states members of the stigmatized races buy into the negative messages about their race and do not value themselves and their racial counterparts. Watts-Jones (2002) describes the complexity of the African American experience with racism, which entails internalizing racism and rejecting racism. Rejecting racism involves embracing self and collective dignity, equality, beauty, and empowerment.

The authors were involved as co-facilitators, prior students and community members for an adult and community education graduate seminar (“Cultural Identities and Community Engagement”). The seminar was co-constructed from a community program, “It Is Well With My Soul.” It was an interactive course to foster student discussion, discover family histories, and promote community involvement. It provided a structured and critical review, reflection, and analysis of individual, collective, and organizational cultural identities, race as a social construction, historical inequalities, the history and impact of structural racism, the implications for race relations, and strategies for promoting inclusion and civic engagement through family and history research, presentations, oral storytelling, and/or the development of traveling exhibits.

Students enrolled in this adult and community education seminar completed an immersive learning project. The objectives of this project were to expose the students to curriculum development, adult learning strategies, program marketing, implementation, and evaluation, review of public policy impact, community mobilization/engagement, etc. Students had the opportunity to interact with community, business, academic, and government entities. The practical application of theories and concepts learned in the course had the potential to inform the students’ professional aspirations and potential career paths.

Project Activity

A mini-grant was secured to implement an immersive learning project in a graduate adult and

community education seminar (“Cultural Identities and Community Engagement”). The parameters of the immersive learning project were working collaboratively with It Is Well With My Soul (community program) team members in four cities throughout the state, produce a tangible product, and focus on student learning outcomes. The students decided to host a community synchronous viewing of the Tim Wise film, White Like Me: Race, Racism, and Privilege in America along with developing discussion and group activities to increase awareness of historical inequalities and mobilize engagement for social action, targeted at multi-cultural


community members. The students created a collaborative plan of action that first outlined their proposed activity and outcome. The activities as set forth in each simultaneous workshop by the students included an opening activity with introductions of each participating community member, group activity to define concepts including racism, viewing White Like Me video(60 minutes), having a guided small group discussion, and then larger whole group discussion following the film. After each workshop, participants completed a survey designed by the students.

There were many outstanding outcomes for the events facilitated by the graduate students. Andragogical strategies employed were problem based and collaborative approaches. Students were required to develop a project with the community members, not for the community. This also involved collaboration from planning to implementation. One author has delivered this course over the span of three years. One author has co-facilitated from two year. One author was a student in the course one year and served as community member for a subsequent year. Major learning objectives that have been achieved, each time the course was offered, were:

1. Define and describe whiteness, power, privilege, structural and internalized racism, cultural identities, social justice, and community mobilization and engagement.

2. Develop and present a collaborative project targeting the issues of cultural identities, historical inequalities, community mobilization, and action planning for a selected organization.

3. Discuss racial, ethnic, and cultural groups’ perspectives, contributions, inclusion, and exclusion in the applicable theoretical models and frameworks.

4. Document critical reflections on learning and application of course content. The immersive learning project was an overwhelming success and presented as a best

practice. Students were required to move beyond their comfort zone and work with community members who had varying experiences, perspectives, and expectations for what the outcomes would be. The immersive learning project was designed to align with the department’s mission to serve as a “learning community engaged in the preparation of educators, the discovery of knowledge, and the promotion of social justice.” Faculty members in this department focus on educational expertise and community engagement. There is a long-standing record of emphasis on preparing students for educating a multicultural learner population.

Findings

Participants at each location completed a brief survey at the end of the workshop. Data

was collected from three locations. The total number of survey respondents was 44. (n = 44) Twenty-four participants completed the survey at the Location 1, 11 at Location 2, and 9 at Location 3. Participants at Location 4 did not complete the survey. The overwhelming majority of respondents at all locations thought that the presentation, film, and question and answer period were the most interesting aspects of the presentation, indicating that the interactive parts of the workshop and the film complimented each other well.

Further questioning was done with members at Location 1 who were students enrolled in Concepts of Secondary Education, a course offered by the Department of Educational Studies and facilitated by one of the authors. These students were primarily undergraduate freshman and sophomore students exploring secondary education as a possible career. The following excerpts were taken from students’ worksheets.


What did you learn? • Watching the movie was interesting because I learned that, while we should empathize with

the situation certain racial groups have (unfortunately) been given, we should more so be aware of the situation we've been given and how that may not be the case for everyone and work to create equality in that way.

• I learned the differences there are in different views of race in different countries. What are two misconceptions you had? What changed and how? • One misconception I had before being in this program is that racism is an individual thing. I

learned in this conference that racism is an institutional thing rather than individual. • I didn’t know that there are lots of laws that went against race. • One misconception I had was the actual privilege. Being a black person, who was “well-

off”, I was oblivious to mostly everything. I thought it was normal for people working in stores to pay close attention to customers, but I found its more so with black people than white people.

• I never realized that not everything is just black and white. Maybe it’s not the case of a race being discriminated against, but the case of one race getting privileges over another.

• My biggest misconception was the view of race in Iceland, and France. In both of those countries it seems that race doesn’t even exist. Through the eyes of people that lived in these countries, we learn that race is something that’s a big problem in America than most other countries.

What are two “take-aways” from the workshop? • ...the idea of being color conscious. Being color conscious means being aware of what

advantages I might (unfairly) be given because of my skin color and working to change that. • I should not be colorblind and ignore that differences exist, because they do. We are all

different (not just in skin color, but in beliefs, values, and morals as well), but different is not bad. In ignoring that there are any differences between people, we are essentially saying that different is bad. We should embrace our differences.

• My biggest takeaway is the fact that there were the varying differences between black people. Because of my background, growing up in an all-white neighborhood, I had a much different experience than other black people who might’ve been in different countries or neighborhoods.

What are two lingering questions you would like to ask? • I would like to read "Black Like Me" and see what it has to say. • What can we do to help end this? I don't think just being aware is enough. • How can you say that we have gotten better with racism when a lot of people are still racist? • My biggest questions that I’d ask to the presenters or participants in my group would be, “If

you grew up with a completely different background, would your views change no matter what race you are?” and “Should White Privilege be introduced into schools, and how would you present it?”

One author commented, “I haven't ever stopped thinking about the … class learning just a tip of the information changed my life and makes me still today move forward to learn different


practices for my community and workplace and in our schools. White Like Me cuts out all propaganda learned in previous educational situations.”

During the graduate seminar session following the workshop, a debriefing session was held. Many students expressed that they were conflicted about the results. Due to an unusually severe winter with snow storms, IIWWMS team members who had planned to come to the first one or two sessions of the seminar were unable to do so. Travel time one way ranged from 90 minutes to three hours. The graduate students did not engage all IIWWMS team members who volunteered to assist with planning. There was concern that because they were receiving a grade, they needed to lead and control the project. The graduate students preferred face to face meetings for planning, resulting in teleconferencing for community members in other locations. There was more comfort in interacting with community members whom they had seen than those on the teleconference. Although the students understood the project was collaboration with the community, hegemonic assumptions about classroom activity and grading impacted their perceptions on the role of the community members. There was the underlying assumption that academia trumps community and leadership and control of the project should be in the academy. One student summed it up: “immersive learning is inductive, most of us are used to deductive learning.”

They expected higher community attendance at Location 3, including more European American attendees. One student commented that the professor told us the hardest part would be marketing the event. The controversial topic selected added to the complexity of marketing and targeting an audience that would attend. For the four locations the total number of registrants was 198 for the event and the majority of them attended. The graduate students did not articulate their views of feeling conflicted until the debriefing session. This is consistent with the hegemonic assumption of conflict avoidance with authority figures in the academy (Brockman, Nunez, & Basu, 2010).

One student engaged and held a planning meeting with community members, at location 2, whom he had never met. They divided up the tasks and worked as a cohesive team. On the day of the event the community members brought additional volunteers to assist with the event. He was pleasantly surprised with the level of expertise and enthusiasm of the community members and his concerns were dissolved. He felt their assistance was valuable and contributed to the success of the event.A debriefing session was held with the graduate students and community members via teleconference. The community members expressed their appreciation of the event, video, and discussion activities. This assisted the graduate students in viewing the overall outcome in a more positive light. The students realized that community engagement is not as simple as they expected prior to designing and implementing the event.


Conclusion

The immersive learning project was an overwhelming success for the graduate students, faculty, IIWWMS team members, and the community members that participated in the event at all four locations. The outcome exceeded the expectations of the authors in terms of community collaboration, participant attendance, partnerships created and sustained after the event, post event evaluations and testimonials, and continued delivery of the video viewing and discussion after the class ended. Students planned, designed and implemented an event on a provocative topic from start to finish. They learned the challenges and rewards of partnering with individuals and communities, reinforcing the ideas posited in the immersive learning concept. Hands-on learning engaged students in a way not possible in traditional learning environments as reflected by student conversations.

Recommendations for future immersive learning events include utilization of the model developed here with more emphasis and reflection on community member interaction and intermediate milestones in each session. This will enable the students to reflect on and address hegemonic assumptions about learning, throughout the project. The authors plan to continue incorporating immersive learning projects in future offerings of this seminar, as well as, other courses taught.

References

Brockman, J., Nunez, A., & Basu, A. (2010). Effectiveness of a conflict resolution training program in changing graduate students style of managing conflict with their faculty advisors. Innovative Higher Education, 35(4), 277-293. doi: 10.1007/s10755-010-9142-z

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Tatum, B. D. (1992). Talking about race, learning about racism: The application of Racial Identity Development Theory in the classroom. Harvard Educational Review, 62(1), 1-24.

Watts-Jones, D. (2002). Healing internalized racism: The role of a within-group sanctuary among people of African descent. Family Process, 41(4), 591.

Young, I. M. (1990). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Ruby Cain, Ed.D. Assistant Professor of Adult & Community Education & Director, Ball State University Keri L. Rodgers, M.A. Doctoral Teaching Fellow, Department of Educational Studies, Ball State University Cheryl Simpkins, Graduate Student, Department of Educational Studies, Ball State University Presented at the Research-to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


Collective Knowledge Creation in the Interactive Theatrical Environment

Bo Chang

Theatre uses drama and conflict to stimulate the audience’s emotions; emotions can trigger people to act towards a desired learning result. Creating a theatrical learning environment enables learners to actively participate in knowledge creation in an entertaining environment. In this proposal, I will review the literature about the interactive theatrical environment and knowledge creation. Then I will use a conference section as a case to discuss how to create an interactive theatrical environment to promote collective knowledge creation among learners and the audience.

Key words: Theatre, learning environment, interactive space, knowledge creation

Introduction

Emotions increase people’s memories (Hill, 2001). Theater plays an important role in

shaping values and ethics by creating conflict and stimulating the audience’s emotions (Lin, 2011, p. 54). The aesthetic, playful, and entertaining aspect of the theater stimulates people’s senses and connects to people’s emotions. Creating a theatrical learning environment enables learners to actively participate in knowledge creation with the audience in an entertaining environment. In this paper, I will discuss the values of the theatrical environment in knowledge creation and how to create an interactive theatrical environment to promote collective knowledge creation among learners and the audience. This kind of interactive environment is different from the traditional learning environment, since it is dramatic and aims to provoke the audience’s emotions, and get them connected in a comfortable and pleasant way. This interactive environment also breaks the traditional linear way of learning and engages the audience in the process of knowledge creation.

Interactive Theatrical Environment and Impermanent Knowledge Creation

Theater “brings in the elements of performance, visual representation, and a witnessing

audience” (Coffey, 2004, p. 263). It stimulates emotions through developing character or conflict and elicits an emotional response from the audience (Lin, 2011). Aesthetic transcendence in the context of theater leads to a superior knowledge and helps leaners produce knowledge in a given historicity (Rasmussen, & Gürgens, 2006). The theatrical environment creates a “living” context which allows the audience to see and feel the scenes in front of them.

Learners learn by bodily interacting with the theatrical environment. Their experience of participating in theater is beyond everyday life (Rasmussen, & Gürgens, 2006). This embodiment experience triggers emotions, which helps learners to retrieve the conceptual knowledge which is associated with emotions. Niedenthal, Barsalou, Ric, and Krauth-Gruber (2005) explained that:

When a person’s body enters into a particular [emotional] state, this constitutes a retrieval cue of conceptual knowledge. . .the emotion concept that best fits all current retrieval and contextual cues becomes active and dominates the retrieval


competition… As an embodied state triggers an emotion concept and as the emotion becomes active, it biases other cognitive operations toward states consistent with the emotion. (p. 40)

The theatrical environment highlights the knowledge you want to deliver, and uses media such as music and costume to trigger your emotions towards an aimed state.

Meaning-making through art and theater provides a superior way of knowing which is different from our everyday life. The physical environment such as sound quality, light and visual quality, air quality and technology in the learning environment affects adults’ learning (MacKeracher, 2004). “The more senses you stimulate, the more likely you are to engage your audience; science teachers use this same philosophy when designing lessons with visual, auditory, and/or tactile elements” (Liem, 2005, p. 2075).

Intermediality, the interconnectedness of different media of communication, is a technological intervention in a theatrical environment which utilizes “new, mostly digital technologies of projection, recording, playback and immersion” (Heuvel, 2013, p. 366-367) in performance. For example, in dance, intermediality indicates that “Patterns, behaviors, and moments of tension…conduct the dancer’s movements through a great variety of sensual, visual, and spoken information throughout the performance” (Huschka, 2010, p. 62). The costumes, lighting, and sound in a theatrical environment can bring the sensational impact (for example, Winston, 1999), stimulate the connections of the learners’ brains and emotions, and enable learners to actively interact with the audience in an entertaining environment (for example, Coffey, 2004; Rasmussen, & Gürgens, 2006).

Interaction among actors and audience is also an important part of theater and can create instant and unlimited knowledge. In traditional theater, the audience has less communication with the actors since the audience is in the back of a room and separated from the actors. However, there are many tools which can help theater practitioners to break the wall and build connections between audience and actors and engage the audience in the performance (Lin, 2011). This kind of interaction among actors and audience was applied in different practical fields. For example, in the field of film, Bonnstetter (2012) agreed with the interactions between the audience and the medium of film by stating that the audience’s interactions with the films produce new texts; the audience can input new text “that is instant, immersing, and immensely pleasurable” (Bonnstetter, 2012, p. 96). The types of interaction between the audience and media/learners produce the openness to multiple meanings and audience interpretation and show the audience that meaning is not permanent (Bonnstetter, 2012; Campos & Shepherd-Barr, 2006).

In interacting with the audience, actors use stories or cases to connect to the audience’s experience and to help the audience easily understand the meaning that they are performing. “Presenting reasoning as scenarios provides a means for practitioners to assimilate the reasoning above abstract rules and has the potential to connect with human understanding at the story level” (Stranieri & Yearwood, 2008, p. 265).

Theatre uses dramatic scenes and sharply opposed language styles (for example, Schechner, 1994) to arouse the audience’s excitement. In a theatrical environment, actors include the elements of drama in their cases or stories in order to provoke conflict or to stimulate the audience's interest and connect to the experience of the audience (Herreid, 1998). A good case/story is uncertain, rich, and ambiguous and leaves enough room for different opinions, as Herreid (1998) stated. “No two discussions will ever be the same in a great case” (p. 165).


Application of the Concept of Theater in Practice

To understand how to apply the concept of theater in practice, I shall use an educational

conference as a case to illustrate how the perspectives of theater in terms of scenery design and open interaction can be implemented in a conference presentation. Specifically, I will use the session of the Speed Presentation in the 2014 Research to Practice conference as a case to demonstrate how the theatrical context can be designed for the purpose of stimulating the sharing of ideas. Six topics will be presented in the Speed Presentation. The presenter of each topic will briefly introduce the topic for three to five minutes, and then interact with the audience to brainstorm the ideas of the topics and to solicit ideas from the audience. Therefore, the interactions between the audience and the presenters are highly emphasized. The rationale of the design is to make the space and environment flexible, stimulating, entertaining and informal so that people will feel comfortable jumping into conversations, breaking the boundaries between presenters and the audience, and contributing to the topic freely.

In this paper, I will specifically focus on several aspects of the theatre to create an entertaining, fun and interactive space. These aspects include: using lighting, music, sound, colors, etc. to create an entertaining environment; using a promenade theatre design to create a fun and interactive space for presenters and audience, and creating open questions to solicit stories and input from the audience. The aim of this theatrical environment is to stimulate the audiences’ emotions and promote their active involvement in the presentations. Entertaining Environment

The conference room for the Speed Presentation will be equipped with music, sound, lights and decorations to bring the impact of the senses to the audience (for example, Winston, 1999). Specifically, the room will be decorated with colored crepe paper, bunting and balloons to accentuate the cheerful and entertaining environment. The various colors used in the rooms should be consistent with the overall color scheme. Energetic music will be played at the beginning of the presentations to create an inviting atmosphere. During the presentations, thematic music will be played to stimulate people’s emotional reactions and connections to the topics. Rewarding sounds such as applause will be played to encourage the audience’s active involvement. Appetizers will be served. The lights will be spotlighted on the different parts of the rooms, such as on the presenters, on several clusters of the audience, and on the appetizers, to emphasize the different focal points of the actions (Types, n.d.). Interactive Space

The space in the theatrical environment can be broken into many spaces and it can be fluid and changeable. “Spaces ought to be open enough so that in most of them people can stand, sit, lean, or lie down as the mood directs” (Schechner, 1994, p. 30). In this theatrical design, the audience should feel relaxed and free to move from one place to another, while the presenters can walk among the audience to interact with the audience. Promenade theatre will be the type of theatre, which can support such flexible and interactive functions. Promenade theatre has no fixed seating (see the example of a promenade theatre: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 38xO05NEWXo&app=desktop), and it allows the standing audience in the conference room to move from one space to another and to intermingle with the other people and the presenters in the room (Types, n. d.). Low seats such as benches will be


arranged in the shape of a walkway or promenade so that the audience can sit in an informal way, or they can stand and move around with the appetizers and drinks in their hands. It is like a cocktail party, but with a more dramatic and stimulating atmosphere. This space enables the audience to physically change their location, join other groups and easily jump into the conversations with the other people in the room. Open Questions

Since the purpose of the speed presentations is to solicit the audience’s ideas, the language styles should be sharp to provoke conflicted ideas and create a dramatic and exciting atmosphere (for example, Schechner, 1994). The questions should be open and ambiguous (Herreid, 1998), so that there is enough room for various ideas to occur. Specifically, the presenters will briefly introduce their topic, tell the audience what the significant parts of their projects are and what their puzzles are. The presenters don’t need to address every detail of their study, but to highlight the dramatic aspects of their topics, such as the significant, exciting and difficult parts of their study so that the audience can immediately capture the key points of the topics within minutes. After the introduction, each presenter will ask the audience three questions to interact with the audience. The following are examples of three questions they might ask. 1. What are your first reactions to this study? Why? (To seek the emotional and instinctual

reactions of the audience to the topics). 2. What are your experiences in the areas of this topic? (To connect the audience’s experience

and stories to the topic and to provoke the audience’s personal interest). 3. If you were the author, how would you do this project? (To solicit the audience’s different

ways of constructing knowledge out of the same topic, which is an indirect way of providing feedback to the presenters).

Those audience members who do not wish to talk publicly can also have the option of

posting their feedback to Twitter. The posts on Twitter will be displayed on the wall in the conference room. Audience members from outside of the conference room can also post their feedback to Twitter. This aims to extend the traditional fixed boundaries of the audience and the presenters.

Conclusion

The literature review shows that the interactive theatrical environment is beneficial for stimulating collective knowledge creation. Based on the literature review, I used a conference section as a case to illustrate how to create a theatrical environment to promote collective knowledge creation among presenters and the audience. Specifically, I discussed three aspects of the theatre which can be used in designing an interactive and energetic conference room: An entertaining environment which can be created through lights, music, sound, and colors; an interactive space which can be created by designing the conference room as a “promenade theatre,” thus allowing the audience and presenters to intermingle freely; and open questions which can solicit the audience’s inputs and connect the topics to the audience’s personal interests.


References

Bonnstetter, B. E. (2012). The legacy of mystery science theater 3000 : Text, textual production, paracinema, and media literacy. Journal of Popular Film & Television, 40(2), 94-104. doi: 10.1080/01956051.2011.636395

Campos, L., & Shepherd-Barr, K. (2006). Science and theatre in open dialogue: Biblioetica, Le Cas de Sophie K. and the postdramatic science play. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 31(3), 245-253. doi: 10.1179/030801806X113720

Coffey, D. (2004). 'As in a theatre': scientific spectacle in Bacon's New Atlantis. Science as Culture, 13(2), 259-290. Herreid, C.F. (1998). What makes a good case? Some basic rules of good storytelling help teachers generate student

excitement in the classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 27(3), 163–165. Heuvel, M. V. (2013). ‘The acceptable face of the unintelligible’: Intermediality and the science play.

Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 38(4), 365-379. doi: 10.1179/0308018813Z.00000000065 Hill, L. H. (2001). The brain and consciousness: Sources of information for understanding adult learning. In S.

Merriam (Ed.). The new update on adult learning theory (pp. 73-82). New Directions for Adult and Community Education, No. 89. San Francisco: Joss-Bass.

Huschka, S. (2010). Media-bodies: Choreography as intermedial thinking through in the work of William Forsythe. Dance Research Journal, 42(1), 61-72.

Liem, A. (2005). Promoting science literature by engaging the public. PLoS Bio 3(12), e427, 2075-2076. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030427.g001

Lin, K. (2011). Diagonally toward the sublime: Science in the theater. World Literature Today, 85(1), 51-55. MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Niedenthal, P. M., Barsalou, L.W., Ric, F., & Krauth-Gruber, S. (2005). Embodiment in the acquisition and use of

emotion knowledge. In L. F. Barrett, P. M. Niedenthal, & P. Winkielman (Eds.), Emotion and consciousness (pp. 21-50). New York: Guilford.

Rasmussen, B., & Gürgens, R. (2006). Art as part of everyday life: Understanding applied theatre practices through the aesthetics of John Dewey and Hans Georg Gadamer. Theatre Research International, 31(3), 235-244. doi: 10.1017/S0307883306002203

Schechner, R. (1994). The environmental theatre. New York: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books. Stranieri, A., &Yearwood, J. (2008).Enhancing learning outcomes with an interactive knowledge-based learning

environment providing narrative feedback. Interactive Learning Environments, 16(3), 265–281. Types and forms of theatres. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.theatreprojects.com/files/pdf/Resources_IdeasInfo_typesandformsoftheatre.pdf Winston, J. (1999). Theorising drama as moral education. Journal of Moral Education, 28(4), 459–471. Bo Chang, PhD, Assistant Professor of Adult and Community Education Teachers College, Room TC 814 2000 University Ave, Muncie, IN 47306-0610 [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



Rules of Engagement: Gay Male Law Enforcement Officers’ Survival Consciousness in a Masculinized Industry

Joshua C. Collins, Ed.D.

Across a variety of work settings, gay men face challenges associated with disclosure, or the process of coming out as gay, staying in the closet, and/or dealing or not dealing with ongoing communication about being gay. However, those challenges may be magnified in masculinized industries such as law enforcement (LE). The purpose of this phenomenological study was to critically explore what gay law enforcement officers said about their experiences working in a masculinized industry. Findings indicated five “rules of engagement” which gay men used as they navigated industry culture and norms and developed a survival consciousness that allowed them to make sense of and rationalize their experiences and (non) disclosure choices.

Introduction

Burke (1992) described law enforcement as being characterized by conservatism,

machoism, sense of mission, pragmatism, prejudice, stereotyping, and suspiciousness. He argued gay men are often less accepted, perceived as less capable and less masculine, and typecast into certain roles in LE. Studies have explored role deviance (Burke 1994a), discrimination (Burke 1994b; Jones and Williams 2013), occupational integration (Belkin and McNichol 2002; Hassell and Brandl 2009), career choice and development (Charles and Arndt 2013), barriers to and opportunities for careers in LE (Colvin 2009), the context of LE as an industry (Miller, Forest, and Jurik 2003), gender norms (Myers, Forest, and Miller 2004), and identity disclosure and management (Rumens and Broomfield 2012) for lesbian and gay officers. Findings indicate lesbians and gay men who work as LEOs exercise discretion in disclosure (Charles and Arndt 2013; Miller et al. 2003; Rumens and Broomfield 2012) and that while much of the prejudice against them is experienced under the radar or in homophobic microaggressions such as crude sexual humor (Belkin and McNichol 2002; Charles and Arndt 2013), these officers encounter stressors (Burke 1994a; Hassell and Brandl 2009), risks (Myers et al. 2004), and career development barriers (Colvin 2009) that differ from that of most heterosexual officers. In combination with both expectations for masculinity and the false stereotype of gay men’s divergence from those expectations, these factors may create an environment in which gay men feel stifled or less accepted than heterosexual counterparts. The remainder of this paper unfolds in three sections: a description of the purpose and research design, a presentation of findings, and some brief conclusions.

Purpose and Research Design

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to critically explore what gay law

enforcement officers said about their experiences working in a masculinized industry. Research took place in the state of Florida. This study was guided by the following research question: What do gay male law enforcement officers say about working within the masculinized industry


of law enforcement and being gay? This research used a phenomenological (Moustakas 1994) method to explore the shared perceptions of participants. Twelve participants (Table 1) each engaged in one interview last about an hour. Data were analyzed using Creswell’s (2007) adapted version of Moustakas’ (1994) Modification of the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen Method of Analysis of Phenomenological Data. In the individual phase of analysis, the interview transcripts were read twice. On second reading, meaningful verbatim quotes were marked for review. Marked quotes were then coded inductively (Boyatzis 1997; Moustakas 1994) as textural descriptions of participants’ experiences. In the composite phase, all textural descriptions were clustered into clearly defined themes of participants’ shared experiences. In the clustering process, codes revealed other participants also talked about their experiences in terms of rules for both closeted and out gay officers. These rules are described in the sections that follow and are articulated using representative quotes from categories (Sandelowski 1994).

Table 1. Summary of Participants.

Pseudonym Age Race/ Ethnicity

Rank/Years of Service Disclosure Category

Jordan Late 20s

Hispanic/Latino

Former, Officer/Deputy 3 years

In an Open Closet

Alan Early 30s

White Current, Officer/Deputy 8 years

In an Open Closet

Liam Early 30s

White Current, Detective/Inspector 11 years

Out of the Closet

Adam Early 30s

White Current, Detective/Inspector 12 years

Out of the Closet

Cam Early 30s

White Former, Officer/Deputy 6 years

Out of the Closet

Marc Late 30s

White Current, Sergeant 13 years

In the Closet

Shawn Early 40s

Black Current, Sergeant 18 years

In an Open Closet

Matt Mid 40s

White Current, Officer/Deputy 10 years

In the Closet

Burke Late 40s

White Current, Sergeant 27 years

Out of the Closet

Rocco Early 50s

White Current, Sergeant Former, Officer/Deputy 15 years

In an Open Closet

Carter Early 50s

White Current, Lieutenant 30 years

Out of the Closet

Damon Early 50s

White Current, Instructor/Trainer 28 years

Out of the Closet


Five “Rules of Engagement” for Gay Male Law Enforcement Officers

Rules of engagement refer to the unspoken-but-understood guidelines the gay LEOs in this study have used to make meaning of their experiences in law enforcement. The participants each talked about their LE careers in terms of such “rules of engagement,” but the phrase itself came from Carter, the officer with the most years of LE experience: “I know what the rules of engagement are … I will not tolerate being prejudiced against … but I'm not waving the flag.” Like Carter, the rules of engagement were a state of mind present in the perceptions of all the officers interviewed. Collectively, participants seemed to believe LE is a manageable career path for gay men…if they are familiar with and abide by the rules. Rule #1: “[Law enforcement] Work is a Straight Man’s Job” (Marc).

The participants stated communication among individuals and groups in LE is evaluated differently across sexualities in men. Participants perceived one reason such widely accepted different standards exist for gay and straight male officers’ communication is that the culture of LE remains dominated by an old-fashioned version of masculinity. Often, this works to privilege straight men because masculinity is seen as incongruent with the dated stereotype of the effeminate gay man. Officers iterated such sentiments as: “[Law enforcement] work is a straight man’s job” (Marc). “You still have the good ole boys club” (Rocco). “As officers, it’s kind of that male role. You are expected to take charge of situations. It’s the whole idea of having to potentially fight with somebody … It’s that macho, adrenaline-driven, we drive fast, we carry guns mentality” (Matt). Participants reflected that the masculine culture of LE operates to the benefit of heterosexual male officers and directs gay officers to speak, act, and think with caution. Gay officers cannot talk about the same things as straight officers without risk of being seen as outliers to the system. Rule #2: “If You Don’t Have It, You Better Get It, And If You Don’t Get It, You Don’t Survive” (Carter).

Participants discussed law enforcement as a “sink or swim” (Carter) environment. Both Damon and Burke warned gay officers against trying to hide their sexual orientation from others at work. Damon even reflected about the process of being interviewed for the study, “I’m used to being cross-examined … You are going to have to ask the right questions.” Burke asserted, “Law enforcement … its main function is about being an honest person … Being a police officer should be all about being honest” (Burke). The participants made points like these to reinforce that in LE, there is no faking it—you either learn how to thrive in your career, or you do not. Adam suggested watching gay officers not make it in LE can take a toll on those gay men who remain in the industry:

I think when you see these bad stories, it will prevent somebody who really wants to do that career from moving forward. Or somebody who was already in that career, it will prevent them from coming out. I think that back then [when I wasn’t out], if I saw other gay men that were successful and out and happy, I would probably have come out a lot earlier. Adam’s reflection on his experience underscores the unique stress involved with being a gay male working in a LE career.


Rule #3: Being an Out or Closeted Gay Law Enforcement Officer Requires you to be Able to Handle the “Ongoing Stress” (Damon) not only of Being an Officer but also of Being Gay.

While being a LEO can be stressful regardless of sexual orientation, participants indicated they consider their experiences distinctive from straight counterparts because of the “ongoing stress” (Damon) related not only to the role of officer but also to being gay. Shawn talked about an instance where he, as a supervisor, shut down the use of the homophobic Spanish word for “faggot,” maricon. He said he was comfortable speaking up because of his higher-ranking position within the department, but also said earlier in his career he would not have been as comfortable and the language would have bothered him more. As an officer, Cam sometimes felt isolated, and that isolation contributed to his feeling more stressed and at times unsafe:

I was always assigned when I was on midnight to what was called [Region 4], which was way out … The only way to get to that [region] is to go through another jurisdiction … I felt like I was put out there to fend for myself, that way no one else would ever have to worry about the gay officer coming to back them up on a call because he was way out in [Region 4]. Cam perceived feeling isolated and stressed influenced the way he thought about his place in LE. But regardless of the stress that may be related to balancing roles as both a gay man and a LEO, the men in this study emphasized doing the job well to earn the respect of colleagues. Rule #4: “Establish Yourself as Professional” (Matt).

Participants stated the most crucial aspect of being accepted as a gay man in law enforcement is to “establish yourself as professional” (Matt). Professionalism carried different meanings for each participant, but at the crux of the meaning for all was the notion that gay male officers have the unique responsibility of “proving you can do the job, proving you’re capable, but not ever lying to anyone” (Liam). Adam’s definition of professionalism paralleled the masculine culture of LE already discussed: I could teach somebody how to write a report and how to fight and how to shoot a gun, but I can’t teach somebody how to be a man … We teach command presence … You have to prove yourself—that you are not going to rat people out and that you are going to fight or protect your partner. No matter what you are—White, Black, gay, straight—everyone has to prove themselves. I think if you are feminine as a man, you would probably have a harder time. At the end of the day, if you did your job well and weren’t afraid to jump into a fight, I think you earn peoples’ respect. (Adam) Those officers who may not be able to mask their sexual orientation, or do not want to, might have a harder time establishing a reputation as a competent officer. However, for the most part the participants indicated LE is changing and that it is easier and easier for gay men to have flourishing careers as officers. Rule #5: “All We See Is Blue” (Shawn).

Despite the various challenges (and successes) participants discussed, the fifth rule represents a consistent tone throughout the interviews: though there are times when gay officers perceive their experience to be different than that of straight officers, at the end of the day, everyone is most concerned with doing the job at hand. As Shawn stated: One thing about law enforcement that I truly believe is we are working a scene, and all we see is blue. All our brothers and sisters at that point in time, with the job that has to be done, we are all


the same. When everything is down and quiet, I can say there is probably something different. But when shit hits the fan, we are all brothers backing each other up. Those “down and quiet” times when “there is probably something different” (Shawn), however, may be seen as an indication that LE remains reticent to fully accept gay men in their roles as officers.

Conclusion

For participants in this study, knowing the rules of engagement in LE, and how to follow those rules, assisted them in framing their careers and experiences more positively and in being LE professionals. Being a gay LEO in the masculinized industry of law enforcement means developing what I describe as a survival consciousness at work. Survival consciousness is what enabled participants to understand LE enough to begin navigating its culture, along the way rationalizing and managing their personal disclosure choices and experiences, both positive and negative. In the process of continuing to address the unique nature of gay LEOs’ experiences in their careers, critical thinking and creative practices must be undertaken by stakeholders at many levels: researchers, officers, department leaders, command staff, and even government/state officials. One way of creating change might be to advocate a “policing with consent” (Douglas 2004) mentality, wherein LE work is explicitly designed to: (1) “surface and challenge the perception of all those working in [the] public service domain,” (2) “facilitate a shift in perception to enable difference not only to be recognized but celebrated,” (3) “do the right thing morally and ethically,” and (4) “focus on the needs of the customer in the community” (p. 201). As a fundamental understanding of policing with consent, LE professionals understand that the people lend to them any power exercised in their role. Thus, individuals working in LE may begin to understand the work truly as a service, in which no willing servant should be excluded or marginalized. National, state, and local law enforcement policy makers should consider revisiting the aspects of their policies that leave open the possibility for blatant discrimination that is technically legal. If a chief of police or another high-ranking LE official has a sudden religious awakening, as was the case in Cam’s situation, gay LEOs should know they will be protected from discrimination or harassment based on the capricious beliefs of command staff and colleagues. Even if laws like the proposed Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA), which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation among other identities, are passed, in most cases it will still be up to individual departments and agencies to develop and put into place more equitable standards. The context of LE must continue to be shaped so that individuals and groups may not choose to subvert the law through loopholes or technicalities that make discrimination easier. In conclusion, this research illustrates the multifaceted and nuanced experience of being a gay male law enforcement officer. The five “rules of engagement” uncovered provide a context for understanding how gay LEOs can simultaneously comprehend and embody rules that set them apart from straight officers, while also feeling like they are a valued part of the LE community.

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& inclusion in the workplace. Equal Opportunities International, 25(6), 465-470. Joshua C. Collins, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Adult and Lifelong Learning, University of Arkansas, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



The Impetus, Function, and Expression of Disclosure: Invisible Stigmatized Identity and Implications for Critical Adult Learning

Joshua C. Collins, Ed.D. and Tonette S. Rocco, Ph.D.

Disclosure, the revealing of guarded personal information to another individual or group of people, is a process that many people experience in their lives, either as the discloser or the recipient of the information. For people with invisible stigmatized identities, or those identities that set them apart but are not necessarily immediately visible or discernable, disclosure is a crucial aspect of the experience of developing relationships, acquiring accommodations, building trust, and becoming/being the authentic self with others. Such identities include people with disabilities, sexual minorities such as gay men and lesbians, previously incarcerated people, and more. Thus, understanding the process of disclosure for these people is an important part of understanding how they learn and how their lived experiences can influence the learning process for others. This paper explores the impetus, function, and expression of disclosure and articulates some key insights regarding what critical adult learning and education can gain from understanding disclosure as a phenomenon.

Introduction and Purpose

Disclosure refers to the process of revealing guarded personal information to another

person or group of people (Chelune, 1979). This personal information might include stigmatized identity that in the absence of disclosure may remain invisible and unknown. A stigmatized identity according to Goffman (1963) is “an undesired differentness from what we had anticipated” (p. 5). The ‘we’ in his definition refers to society, a society composed of white, middle and upper class people who are Christian, heterosexual, and without disability or blemish and considered ‘normal’. The stigmatized identities described by Goffman include people with disabilities, sexual minorities, the poor and others. The manifestation of their differentness is visible and ‘normal’ people know they are different. Knowing that someone is different is where stigma begins since the knowledge of difference is entwined with judgment. The judgment is negative – the person is less able, immoral (because of status, i.e., sexual minority or sex worker, poverty, or race/ethnicity), and not a contributing citizen. In this paper, we discuss invisible stigma—that is a person whose ‘difference’ may not be immediately discernable. The ‘normal’ person might suspect something but must be told to really know. The types of invisible stigmatized identities include being a sexual minority, having certain physical or mental disabilities, or coming from a lower socioeconomic class, to give a few examples. Because identity and marginalization is unquestionably linked to how adults learn and develop (Freire, 1970), it is crucial to understand adult learning and education where it intersects with invisible stigmatized identity and the process of disclosure.

Research supports the need for additional theoretical and conceptual explorations of disclosure within an adult education framework. Because we know that disclosure can be a cognitive (Pennebaker & Francis, 1996), emotional (Borkovec, Roemer, & Kinyon, 1995),


disorienting (Adams, 2011), and confusing (Petronio, Flores, & Hecht, 1997) process, it seems logical to explore why, how, and what adults learn in and from the process of disclosure. This information can be used to influence and dictate future policy and practice in adult learning and education. Individuals may bring invisible stigmatized identities with them to various formal and informal learning sites. Thus, we argue that the exploration of disclosure as a form and location of critical adult learning is crucial to continuing to advance the field through research and practice. Critical adult learning, as we discuss the concept, is defined as those aspects of the adult educational process that “imagine and theorize how the cultures and societies in which we live interact with and influence the ways in which people relate to each other” (Fleming, 2008, p. 50), for the purpose of proposing, creating, and sustaining meaningful change. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to explore the disclosure of invisible stigmatized identity and the implications of such disclosure for critical adult learning. This paper examines the impetus (nature and pace), function (sought outcome), and expression (degree or extent) of the disclosure of invisible stigmatized identities. In this examination, we aim to uncover aspects of power and privilege as they relate to how adults navigate communication, build relationships, and learn despite obstacles.

The Impetus, Function, and Expression of Disclosure

Disclosure is often associated with information that the discloser expects will be kept

confidential—“something truly personal” (Derlega, Metts, Petronio, & Margulis, 1993, p. 2). Most interpretations of disclosure theory point to a mutually transformative transaction, meaning that both the discloser and the recipient of the communication benefit in some way from the process. Interpretations also infer that both individual (i.e., the discloser or the recipient) and collective (i.e., both the discloser and the recipient, and perhaps other individuals affected by the disclosure) attitudes toward the subject of the disclosure are directed and re-directed as a result of the communication. Thus, “when people disclose in certain ways, the recipient may be expected, or be forced, to define the nature of the relationship differently” (Derlega et al. 1993, p. 15). The relationship and the individuals in the relationship are transformed by the disclosure of guarded information.

The impetus of disclosure is primarily dependent upon time, as it defines and supposes the nature and pace of communication between parties. In understanding the impetus of disclosure, we might ask, “What was the underlying reason for either disclosure or nondisclosure and what situation(s) influenced the process?” The concept of time in relationship development assumes that with more time, relationships become more intense and intimate (Derlega et al., 1993). Indeed, time is often among one of the most influential factors in the disclosure process. For example, the first author of this paper knew that he was gay from a young age. However, because his family upbringing was conservative and Christian, he sensed as a teenager and very young adult that coming out (disclosing his sexual orientation) would not be safe choice. He waited to come out to his parents until he was in graduate school, living away from home, and completely financially independent. Thus, the impetus of his disclosure, the nature and pace associated with the process, greatly influenced his experience with not only coming out but also with learning about and dealing with his own gay identity.

Different from the impetus of disclosure, the function of disclosure describes the sought or affected outcome of the communication. It should be noted that while a person with an invisible stigmatized identity may seek a certain reaction to disclosure, that is not always what is


received. Nondisclosure is exercised presumably for primarily positive reasons like avoiding discrimination or a change in a relationship with another person by remaining silent, but the outcomes are not always positive, either. This can convolute the disclosure process and make it difficult for the discloser to ascertain how others will react to the secret information, no matter how intimate a relationship the discloser may have with the recipient. On the contrary, though one of the major motivations for disclosure is often relationship development (Derlega & Grzelak, 1979), disclosure does not always lead to increased fondness. This depends on the recipient’s perception of the invisible stigmatized identity and the existing relationship with the discloser. By its nature, disclosure can violate what most would likely see as normative expectations in relationships with others, and this can actually lead to decreased fondness. A few questions arise in considering the function of a disclosure. First, if someone discloses because they have to (i.e., for someone at work or school to understand a situation) or they want to (i.e., just because they feel like it is time), what are they seeking to gain in the disclosure (accommodation, respect, relationship development, etc.)? Second, if someone discloses involuntarily, can the result still be positive—what is the affected disclosure outcome? And last, if someone decides to conceal who they are (exercise nondisclosure), what are some positive motivations for doing so?

Finally, the expression of disclosure describes the degree to which disclosure is exercised. It describes the situations in which and people to whom the discloser feels comfortable sharing such guarded personal information. Because identity is “an interactional accomplishment, an identity continually renegotiated via linguistic exchange and social performance” (Cerulo, 1997, p. 387), the development and embodiment of identity is political (Bernstein, 2005). Choices and actions related to the continual expression of disclosure are processed in which many parties may be invested, beyond just the discloser. For this reason, disclosers often feel a sense of responsibility to concern themselves not only with their own thoughts, actions, and reactions in the communication, but also with the thoughts, actions, and reactions of others. This can sometimes limit the situations and contexts in which the disclosure ends up taking (or not taking) place. For example, it is possible for someone with an invisible stigmatized identity to be open about who they are with close friends and to remain silent when in the presence of family or at work. In this way, the juxtaposition of disclosure and nondisclosure can create simultaneous and conflicting realities for the discloser. Thus, it seems appropriate to ask, “How do individuals experience disclosure or nondisclosure as an ongoing reality?”

In higher education students make decisions about when, where, and to whom to disclose. Some disclosures or sharing of personal information are done simply to allow another person to know them. At other times students feel they must disclose or they must stay silent about aspects of their identity that stigmatize them. We will discuss two stigmatized identities that can be invisible until disclosure occurs, disability and sexual minority. A person can become disabled at any point in time (Rocco & Fornes, 2010). Conditions that are considered disabilities can be lifelong but are diagnosed or discovered at any point in a person’s life. For instance, a student might excel in school until graduate school where learning and engaging becomes more difficult then it should be. The student seeks professional help and receives a diagnosis of a learning disability midterm. Or students who enter college with diagnosed disabilities often buy into the dominant discourse that they should grow out of the learning disability or attention deficit disorder and do not seek accommodations until they are in trouble. In order to receive accommodations the student must disclose the diagnosis to the university’s disability services. This office will then notify the instructor or ask the student to inform the instructor that accommodations are required. This seems


like a simple process but it is not. Instructors are suspicious of students that disclose midterm questioning their integrity and credibility (Rocco, 1997). In the case of a student disclosing a disability to an instructor the power resides with the instructor. Relationships are not enhanced by a disclosure of disability status in many cases.

Another strong example of disclosure of stigmatized identity is that of sexual minority status. An interesting and important subpopulation is gay men employed in masculinized industries (Collins, 2013) such as oil and gas (Collins & Callahan, 2012) and law enforcement (Collins, 2014). Particularly for gay men working as law enforcement officers, the complexities of the disclosure process are almost always directly related to industry standards of and acceptance for heterosexual privilege, elevated status of expertise as a form of masculinity and value, a sink or swim work environment, inequitably enforced implicit and/or formal policies, and task-oriented work relationships (Collins, 2014). Together, these factors uncover and interpret nuances in the experience of being a gay [law enforcement officer] that reveal the possibility these men sometimes choose not to acknowledge, or at least have learned to cope with, a system that continues to marginalize, minimize, and even encourage the silence of their lives and perspectives at work. (p. 185)

Because of this, gay male law enforcement officers face truly unique stressors and risks related to disclosure on the job. Many choose not to ‘come out,’ the impetus of their nondisclosure choices often being that the surrounding environment will not accept them, or that being openly gay will diminish the extent to which they are perceived to be competent officers (Collins, 2014). However, those who do choose to come out often choose to do so because the disclosure functions either as a form of self-expression or relationship development (Derlega & Grzelak, 1979), shifting the dynamics of power and control over communication in their favor (Collins, 2014). But as is the case with many people with invisible, stigmatized identities, for these gay officers the expression of disclosure changes with time and is dependent upon context. For example, some officers report being out only to certain work colleagues, chosen for a specific reason – generally either a close friend (like a field partner) or another gay man or lesbian. One officer in Collins’ (2014) research even said that he was fully ‘out’ at his first job in law enforcement but after a few bad experiences chose not to disclose in future positions. This is consistent with the research of Hudson (2011), who found evidence supporting the assertion that various stigma characteristics and environmental factors interact with invisible stigmatized identities and perceived disclosure consequences to impact the choice of disclosure. In the disclosure process, individuals sought institutional support, supportive others, and to relate with those who they felt had similar experiences. Whether the disclosure process could be controlled and manipulated was especially salient in the decision making process. This demonstrates how an individual’s relationship with disclosure can develop and change over time largely dependent on when, where, and to whom disclosure takes place.


Implications for Critical Adult Learning

Scholars of critical adult learning and education seek to explore privilege, power, and development through praxis, or “reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it” (Freire, 1970, p. 36). Privilege can be viewed as an “unearned asset or benefit received by virtue of being born with a particular characteristic or into a particular class” (Rocco and West, 1998, p. 173). Privilege influences disclosure through the interpretation of meanings, labels, and interactions. Power manifests itself as “the control, use, and protection of economic, political, and social resources and the conscious or unconscious use of these resources against others. Power in adult education is seen in terms of identity politics, marginalization, and access to economic, political, and educational resources” (Rocco, 2010, p. 146). Power influences disclosure through the recognition of institutionalized and internalized ideologies. Development influences disclosure through the shaping of behaviors, competencies, skills, and thinking. As noted by Alfred (2002), “Building a more critical adult education means having a clear understanding of the issues and the knowledge base to choose among alternative procedures” (p. 92). These alternative procedures can take place in physical (for example, classroom or workplace), metaphorical (for example, in or out of the closet for gay men and lesbians), and cognitive (for example, the self) spaces. Identifying and enacting these alternatives involves learning about the context, the symbolic meaning, and the essence of something, someone, someplace, or some time. So, in exploring the implications of disclosure of invisible stigmatized identity for critical adult learning, we propose the following statements. First, to understand the impetus, function, and expression of disclosure or nondisclosure for individuals with invisible stigmatized identities, we must understand what situations and people influence the process. Second, individuals who have invisible stigmatized identities have experienced the world differently than those who do not have such identities; thus, it is important to consider how the outcomes of disclosure and nondisclosure might affect their learning and development over time. Third, an individual’s experience with learning is likely to be influenced by instances of forced disclosure, or situations where they had no control over whether or not people knew about their invisible stigmatized identity. Fourth, disclosure and nondisclosure are ongoing realities for people with invisible stigmatized identities and these realities are brought into every situation in which learning takes place. The creative responses to these statements may result in development of more tangible alternatives for the practice and scholarship of adult education, from a critical adult learning perspective.

References Adams, T. E. (2011). Narrating the closet: An autoethnography of same-sex attraction. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Alfred, M. V. (2002). Linking the personal and the social for a more critical democratic adult education. New

Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 96, 89-96. Bernstein, M. (2005). Identity politics. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 47-74. Borkovec, T. D., Roemer, L., & Kinyon, J. (1995). Disclosure and worry: Opposite sides of the emotional

processing coin. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure, & health (pp. 47-70). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Cerulo, K. A. (1997). Identity construction: New issues, new directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 385-409. Chelune, G. J. (1979). Self-disclosure. Origins, patterns, and implications of openness in interpersonal

relationships. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Collins, J. C. (2013). Stress and safety for gay men at work within masculinized industries. Journal of Gay and

Lesbian Social Services, 25(3), 245-268.


Collins, J. C. (2014). A critical examination of the experience of being a gay officer in the masculinized industry of law enforcement (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Florida International University Digital Commons.

Collins, J. C., & Callahan, J. L. (2012). Risky business: Gay identity disclosure in a masculinized industry. Human Resource Development International, 15(4), 455-470.

Derlega, V. J., & Grzelak, J. (1979). Appropriateness of self-disclosure. In G. J. Chelune (Ed.), Self-disclosure. Origins, patterns, and implications of openness in interpersonal relationships. (pp. 151-176). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Derlega, V. J., Metts, S., Petronio, S., & Margulis, S. T. (1993). Self-disclosure. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Fleming, T. (2008). A secure base for adult learning: Attachment theory and adult education. Adult Learner: The

Irish Journal of Adult and Community Education, 25, 33-53. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed, trans. New York: Herder and Herder. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Touchstone. Hudson, J. (2011). The disclosure process of an invisible stigmatized identity (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from

http://via.library.depaul.edu/etd/93. Pennebaker, J. W., & Francis, M. E. (1996). Cognitive, emotional, and language processes in disclosure. Cognition

& Emotion, 10(6), 601-626. Petronio, S., Flores, L. A., & Hecht, M. L. (1997). Locating the voice of logic: Disclosure discourse of sexual abuse.

Western Journal of Communication, 61(1), 101-113. Rocco, T. (1997). Hesitating to disclose: adult students with invisible disabilities and their experiences with

understanding and articulating disability. S. J. Levine (Ed.), Proceedings of the 16h Annual Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education (pp. 157-163). Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

Rocco, T. S. (2010, January-December). The invisible people: Disability, diversity and issues of power in Adult Education. International Journal of Disability Studies 4(1 & 2), 144-153.

Rocco, T., & Fornes, S. (2010). Perspectives on disability in Adult and Continuing Education. In A. Rose, C. Kasworm and J. Ross-Gordon (Eds.), The Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education, (pp. 379 – 388). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Rocco, T. S., & West, G. W. (1998). Deconstructing privilege: An examination of privilege in adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(3), 171-184.

Joshua C. Collins, Ed.D. Assistant Professor, Adult and Lifelong Learning University of Arkansas [email protected] Tonette S. Rocco, Ph.D. Professor and Graduate Program Leader, Adult Education and Human Resource Development Florida International University [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.




Learning Readiness and Student Success in Online Learning: A Planned Experiment To Identify Differences Between Students Who Pass and Those

Who Fail

Frank L. Conner

This study compared the learning readiness of students taking online classes at a large community college. The focus of the research was to determine if there was a difference between students who completed the class with a C or better versus those who failed the class. The results of this research identified a strong relationship in the presence of preexisting academic self-efficacy with those students who passed their class(s) compared to those who did not pass.

Introduction

With a cultural push for the expansion of online learning there becomes a greater

emphasis on the success of this learning modality. The definition of success ranges from what is actually learned (Wilson & Allen, 2010) to student retention (Xu & Jaggars, 2011). This research study was designed to consider what individual student attributes might contribute to student success. Success was defined as completing a class with a C grade or better (2.0 on a 4.0 scale).

The fundamental question for this research was, “Is there a relationship between a student’s learning readiness and success in an online class?”

The tool used to measure learning readiness was the College Learning Effectiveness Inventory (CLEI). This instrument measures six scales previously identified as contributing factors to student success in college (Yeager, 2009) These six scales include – (1) Academic Self-Efficacy (ASE): Expressing confidence in academic ability, awareness of effort toward study, and expectation for success in college attainment. (2) Organization and Attention to Study (OAS): The organization of tasks and structuring of time to set goals, plan, and carry out necessary academic activity. (3) Stress and Time Pressure (STP): Dealing with pressures of time, environmental concerns, and the academic demands that impact academic study. (4) Involvement with College Activity (ICA): Belonging to organizations and participating in activities, including informal gatherings of friends and classmates, within the campus environment. (5) Emotional Satisfaction (ES): Degree of interest and emotional response to academic life including people and environment. (6) Class Communication (CC): Both verbal and non-verbal effort to engage in class activity.

Methodology

The methodology was an independent group research design. This research was

conducted in the winter semester at a large, urban, Midwest community college. During this semester, there were a total of 4168 students taking an online or hybrid class. In the first two weeks of classes, faculty introduced and promoted the inventory in their classes. Additional outreach included a batch email to all online students and a notice posted the college’s Learning


Management System. During this time students voluntarily selected a URL link which took them to the online CLEI inventory. Students accessed the inventory with their college login or student ID. The inventory typically took 10 – 15 minutes. A database was generated with individual t-scores for each scale. Students did not see their scores. All data were aggregated and no individual student score was identified.

Of the potential 4168 students, 1038 took the inventory (25%). 832 of those inventories provided usable data (20%). Data was excluded for three reasons; the inventory wasn’t complete, the student did not provide a valid student ID, the student could not be verified as being registered in a specific online class.

Once the semester was complete and grades were entered, student data was divided into two independent groups, those that passed the class with a C or better and those that received less than a C grade. An additional data set was created that separated students with a B or better from those with less than a B grade. A t-test for independent means was performed on the aggregate scores of each scale between these two groups. Effect size was also determined for each scale identified as having a significant difference. Table 1 presents the results of this research. Table 1: Comparative Analysis Of Learning Readiness Between Groups CLEI GPA Mean Std.

Dev. t df Sig. Effect

ASE Less than 2.00 4.37 0.46 2.00 or Greater 4.54 0.39 5.03 808 .001 .43 3.00 or Greater 4.57 0.37 5.78 668 .001 .54

OAS Less than 2.00 3.40 0.64 2.00 or Greater 3.52 0.64 2.47 808 .05 .19 3.00 or Greater 3.57 0.64 3.25 668 .005 .26

STP Less than 2.00 3.35 0.71 2.00 or Greater 3.47 0.66 2.38 808 .05 .19 3.00 or Greater 3.53 0.65 3.31 668 .005 .28

ICA Less than 2.00 2.59 0.59 2.00 or Greater 2.58 0.56 0.31 808 .75 3.00 or Greater 2.58 0.56 0.26 668 .76

ES Less than 2.00 3.79 0.60 2.00 or Greater 3.85 0.52 1.52 808 .13 3.00 or Greater 3.88 0.52 2.07 668 .05 .18

CC Less than 2.00 3.49 0.60 2.00 or Greater 3.60 0.60 2.38 808 .05 .18 3.00 or Greater 3.63 .60 2.88 668 .005 .23

Further Analysis

Once the results of the learning inventory were known, a second set of data were analyzed on the characteristics of the students in this study as well as the overall student


population at the college. The purpose of this review was to determine if there were any additional obvious differences between the two populations.

One interesting set of data showed that students who eventually passed the class completed the inventory at a rate of more than twice that of students who eventually failed the class. Of those who took the inventory, 567 students passed with a 2.00 or better providing 70% of the usable data. Of those who took the inventory, 244 students failed with below a 2.00 providing 30% of the usable data. This was also disproportionate to the percentage of students who passed which comprised 57% of the student population verses the 43% who failed.

Additional analysis showed that students who failed signed up for more online classes than those that ultimately passed the class. Students who failed averaged 1.7 classes taken online with a max of 5. Students who passed averaged 1.4 classes taken online with a max of 4. Table 2 below shows a full breakdown by percentages of online classes enrolled and percentages of pass/fail.

Table 2: Number of Classes By Percentage Between Groups

Number of Online Classes Pass Fail 1 70% 53% 2 22% 30% 3 4% 10% 4 2% 5% 5 1%

GPA as a predictor of success, was evident and consistent whether the class was online or

on-ground. Table 3 below provides these data for both populations representing students with a 2.0 or better and those with less than a cumulative GPA of 2.0. Table 3: Number of Students and Associated GPA Between Groups

Average GPA of Students Enrolled in Online Courses in Winter Semester Winter Enrollments

N, Enrollments in Winter 2011

N, with Incoming Cumulative GPAs

Incoming Average Cumulative GPA

2.0 or better 2,381 (57%) 2,263 3.02 less than 2.0 1,787 (43%) 1,674 2.27 All 4,168 3,937 Average GPA of Students Enrolled in All Courses in Winter 2011 Winter Enrollments

N, Enrollments in Winter 2011

N, with Incoming Cumulative GPAs

Incoming Average Cumulative GPA

2.0 or better 36,216 (67%) 32,330 3.01 less than 2.0 17,444 (33%) 14,250 2.25 All 53,660 46,580

Looking more closely a tables 2 & 3, it can be seen that students with a lower GPA

signed up for online classes at a disproportionate rate. While the general population of students with less than a 2.0 is 33% (Table 3), the percentage of students with a GPA of less than 2.0 comprise 43% of the online student population.


Interpretation of Results

It is clear from the results that unsuccessful students have deficits in several areas compared to those students that completed the class with a 2.00 or greater. This deficit is even larger and includes more scales of greater variation when the difference is those with a 3.00 or better. Of these six scales two do not show much of an effect, if any. Emotional satisfaction shows no difference at 2.00 with a significant difference at 3.00 but with minimal effect. Involvement with College Activity shows no difference regardless of the cut score for success. This being an online class or the fact that this was a community college where the involvement of students with college activities or their being a lesser overall connection to academic life could explain why there was little difference in these scales.

The remaining four scales all show a very significant difference at a compared value of 2.00 that becomes even greater with success being measured at 3.00. However, the clear difference, particularly when considering effect size, is Academic Self-efficacy, defined as expressing confidence in academic ability, awareness of effort toward study, and expectation for success in college attainment. This is buttressed by several studies (Bandura, 1997, Pajares, 1996; Silver, Smith, Greene, 2001) which link success in college with individual self-efficacy for traditional learning environment.

Implications for Practice

Standards for online learning do not suggest considering self-efficacy as a key component in creating a class. The Quality Matters standards which provides a national, peer reviewed process for the certification of online classes in higher education (qualitymatters.org) minimizes the behavior, emotion, or cognitive aspect of the learning in the design of online classes. However, a review of the literature does provide some common elements that help foster improved self-efficacy in a learning environment. These general concepts include helping student reframe past experiences, modeling the process of learning and/or performing, constructive feedback, proximal goal setting, and student control of the learning process.

Bandura (1986, 1977) suggested that to increase one’s self-efficacy, a person must reframe the events of the past that resulted in failure. The most efficient way to do this is to reconstruct the experience from a dispositional to situational attribution. In doing so the event moves from something wrong with the individual to a broader understanding of external factors that contributed to the failure. Once this occurs, students must be given the tools to understand how they can affect these circumstances and thus have control over their own learning.

Having a teacher verbalize his or her own cognitive processes isn’t a new concept in education. This viewing of a more competent other engaging in successful problem solving helps students understand the struggle inherent in the learning process (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 2000). This knowledge privileges students with the personal acceptance that it is okay to not know the answer to a problem; that even those individuals who are much more competent within a specific domain must work and struggle to find answers. Alderman (1999) suggests just the sharing of stories of self-efficacy by successful peers and professionals has an effect.

Success breeds success. Creating activities where students can experience success increases student self-efficacy (Bandura 1986, 1997; Margolis & McCabe, 2006). It is important however that these task be meaningful, connected to the objectives of the class, and require effort. It is through real hard work that students develop self-efficacy.


Feedback that is clear, frequent, and constructive is an important strategy for students (Schunk, 2000). A student with low self-efficacy has minimal confidence in his or her abilities and is equally lacking in the belief that they can problem solve to overcome obstacles. The teacher has a very important role in assisting these students with explicit feedback and positive encouragement on how to successfully proceed (Bandura, 1997) . As with tasks completion, the feedback must be sincere and accurate. False praise and unwarranted criticism can have the reverse effect of decreasing a student’s efficacy even further.

Helping students create real, obtainable goals is a key component of the building of self-efficacy (Locke and Lantham, 1990). In setting goals, it is important that the student focus on proximal goals; those that are near and specific (Schunk, 2000). The goals must be meaningful and the more challenging and obtainable the better.

Increasing self-efficacy in any person is a huge task in any environment. In an online environment where student – teacher interaction is often times less frequent and highly structured is even more problematic. This research was not intended to outline the teaching strategies to improve self-efficacy in an online learning environment. The identification of the possible cause for the difference in student success and an expansion of the topic is the best outcome at this date. However, this research summary does provide a few conceptual strategies for the improvement of student success in online learning. The integration of these into an effective online learning environment is a far more ambitious future endeavor.

However, based on the supplemental data generated by this study, a quick and efficient solution to decrease student failures would be to limit the number of online classes a student can take during any single semester. Since poor performing students take a disproportionately higher number of online classes, it would be effective to limit those with less than a certain GPA to one or two classes. This might not improve their success, but it would at least minimize their failure. However, the work of Chang and Ley (2006) suggests that students with low self-efficacy often experience cognitive overload from too many different teaching modalities, online learning being one of these. Minimizing this effect may increase success.

Another tool would be to use GPA as a filter for enrolling in online classes. The data suggests at least a correlation between a student’s GPA and college success in general. While this paper presents evidence that self-efficacy may be a contributing factor, most colleges would not want to use GPA as a blanket factor in limiting student options for all classes. However, until a model is created that demonstrates how to increase self-efficacy in an online environment, directing students to on-ground classes may be to their benefit.

Summary

With the push for the expansion of online learning, more needs to be understood about which students are likely to benefit from this medium. Often times the emphasis is on technology or organizational skills. While important, this research suggests there are other, more important factors, most prominently Academic Self-Efficacy. Unfortunately for the online world, Academic Self-Efficacy takes time to develop, often times rooted in childhood experiences (Schunk & Pajares, 2002). Given this, more emphasis needs to be placed on an evidence based identification of individuals likely to succeed in the moment while gently directing those lacking in the prerequisite learning readiness toward other learning environments while at the same time helping them develop the fundamental skills needed for success.


References

Alderman, M. K. (1999). Motivation for achievement: Possibilities for teaching and learning. Mahwah, NJ:

Erlbaum. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York, New York: W.H. Freeman. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2),

191-215. Chang, S. L., & Ley, K. (2006). A learning strategy to compensate for cognitive overload in online learning: learner

use of printed online materials. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 5(1), 1004-117. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice Hall. Margolis, H., & McCabe, P. (n.d.). Improving Self-Efficacy and Motivation: What to Do, What to Say. Intervention

in School and Clinic, 41(4), 218-227. Pajares, F., & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school

achievement. In Self-perception (pp. 236-266). London: Ablex Publishing. Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543-578. Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2002). The development of academic self-efficacy. In Development of achievement

motivation (pp. 16-31). San Diego: Academic Press. Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill. Silver, B. B., Smith, E. V., & Green, B. A. (2001). A study strategies self-efficacy instrument for use with

community college students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, 849-865. Wilson, D., & Allen, D. (2011). Success rates of online versus traditional college students. Research in Higher

Education Journal, 14. Xu, D., & Jaggars, S. S. (2011). The Effectiveness of Distance Education Across Virginia?s Community Colleges:

Evidence From Introductory College-Level Math and English Courses. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis.

Yeager, M. E. (2009, December). A cross-validation study of the college learning effectiveness inventory (CLEI). Retrieved from http:////krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/1647

Frank L. Conner, PhD, Chair and Professor, Department of Psychology, Grand Rapids Community College, 143, Bostwick, NE, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie Indiana, September 19-20, 2014


http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/1647


Veterans in Higher Education: An Ethnographic Study of Veterans’ Higher Education Experience

Steven P. Dalcher Ed.D.

This ethnographic study examined the higher education experience of six Global War on Terrorism combat Veterans, using two research questions: 1) How does a Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) Veteran student perceive his/her educational experiences at a four year university? 2) What are the educational, emotional, and psychological needs of the (GWOT) combat Veteran while pursuing higher education? The findings indicated that the Veterans interviewed experienced three major themes through their higher education process: 1) Transitions, all Veterans interviewed experienced a series of rapid transitions which forced them to shift their focus and daily routines from extremes of rigidity during military service to the non-directive life as student. 2) Alienation, all Veterans interviewed expressed a sense of isolation and alienation as they transitioned from military life to the life of a student. 3) Disability, all Veterans interviewed discussed stereotypes of disability to include PTSD, not necessarily their own, but of other Veterans they knew.

Introduction

Higher education is entering a new era of service to men and women who have served

their country through the armed forces. There are an estimated 4.5 million Veterans from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan (United States Census, 2010) who through their service have earned a myriad of educational benefits. With the drawdown in Afghanistan imminent and the occupation of Iraq all but over and coupled with a tough job market and tanking economy, it has been forecasted that there will be an even larger influx of Veterans into academic institutions across the United States (Moon & Schma, 2011; O’Herrin, 2011; Ostovary, 2011). According to the Military Family Research Institute (MFRI) (2009), educational institutions have typically done a poor job in understanding the unique perspectives, needs and issues that are an inherent part of Veteran lives. This is further supported by Ackerman, DiRamio, and Mitchell (2009) who stated that student Veterans sometimes believe that higher education institutions are poorly prepared to understand them.

The literature supports that Veterans differ from other non-traditional students in a variety of ways. However one of the most significant is the prevalence of so called “invisible wounds” of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) (Caplan, 2011). A large percentage of combat Veterans, 40% reported by Ostovary and Dapprich, (2011) suffer from injuries incurred as a part of their service. These injuries range from physical trauma type injuries to non-visible injuries such as PTSD and TBI. United States Department of Veterans Affairs (2013) estimated that 20% of returning service members have TBI and an additional 11% are diagnosed with poly-trauma. PTSD and TBI have become the signature wound of the Global War on Terror (Caplan, 2011; DiRamio, 2011; Ostovary, 2011). These silent wounds give little in the way of clues that a disability exists and if encountered in the hallway the Veteran with these wounds would be thought to be normal. Horrowitz and Solomon


(1975) stated that while the Veteran may adapt well to society upon his return from combat and pursue normal familial concerns, he was subject to the emergence of nightmares, intrusive images and emotional attacks related to their wartime experiences.

Lokken, Pfeffer, McAuley, and Strong (2011) reported that 49% of National Guard members and 38% of Regular Army members report some symptoms of PTSD. This becomes problematic for the following reasons: Veterans are well known for not seeking help with their problems especially from civilians (Hogue et al., 2007; Ostovary, 2011). The impact that these types of wounds have on Veterans is far reaching with reported issues in difficulty in maintaining attention, easily distracted, inability to transfer lessons into short term memory, agitation and discomfort around strangers. Additionally there are social contextual differences with an often repeated theme of feelings of alienation on campus by Veterans (DiRamio et al., 2008; MFRI, 2009; Rumann & Hamrick, 2010). Other frequently cited issues revolve around differences in maturity level of Veterans and their counterparts. Veterans bring an even broader perspective into the classroom as they have traveled extensively, been exposed to, and interacted with cultures different from the American perspective. The combat Veteran has been exposed to life and death scenarios as part of the everyday fact of life (DiRamio & Jarvis, 2011). The combat Veteran also tends to be more realistic in their expectations and worldlier. This difference in experience and maturity many times leads to a difficulty in interacting with other students and forming new friendships (Bennet, 2000; DiRamio et al., 2008; Rumann & Hamrick, 2010).

Veterans also have a propensity to avoid asking for help, whether it is disability support services as the result of injury or simply not asking for further clarification of classroom materials during class. This avoidance of asking for help is well documented in the literature. Some link this reluctance to expose weakness or vulnerability to a military culture where members are taught to be self-reliant and those who ask for help to be considered shirkers (DiRamio et al., 2008; Grasgreen, 2013; MFRI, 2009).

The Study

This ethnographic study sought to provide clarity about the experiences of combat

Veterans returning to higher education. Through the lenses of six combat veterans and their experiences returning to the university, I sought to answer my research questions by first identifying and then conducting interviews with self-identified GWOT combat Veterans. Data analysis was performed using the constant comparative method where each interview is examined from the context of previous interviews to assist in the identification of trending themes. This process was greatly enhanced through my positionality as an insider researcher, which allowed me instant familiarity with the military culture, language, perceptions and semiotics. Each participant was interviewed twice; the first interview was a short unscripted open interview used to develop rapport and establish connections, while the second interview was in-depth and semi-structured and was conducted using the Interview Guide. A total of six Army Veterans were interviewed for this study. Five were males and one was a female. Two participants were current undergraduate students one participant had recently graduated with an undergraduate degree. Two participants were currently enrolled in graduate course work one for a master’s degree and the other for a doctoral degree. The final participant had recently graduated with a second master’s degree and was considering returning for a doctorate degree. Each of the participants had served in the United States Army. Three participants had deployed


as members of the Army National Guard and three participants had deployed as active Army Soldiers. All six participants were enlisted soldiers ranging in rank from Private First Class (PFC) through Sergeant First Class (SFC) E-7.

Findings

As I immersed myself in the data from the interviews conducted, I used research notes

that I took during the interviews, reflective journals and the transcripts from the interviews, which were prepared by a third party. There were three major themes that became evident as I reviewed the data: Transitions, Social Context, and Disability. There are many subsets of data grouping that fall within each of these three areas, yet by careful consideration I could group all data within these three major themes. There also are some subset themes that have overlap from one category to another. In these instances, they are discussed independently from the context of the major theme. Transitions

Each combat Veteran interviewed experienced a series of transitions. All experienced transition from civilian to Soldier through basic training and MOS training. All experienced transition from Soldier to combat and all experienced transition from combat Veteran to student. In most cases these transitions were rapid and with little warning for the Soldier. In some cases there were multiple transitions occurring simultaneously. Social Contextual

All participants interviewed had emergent themes that were centered on their social context as a returning student within higher education. Sub-themes that emerged within social context were: Alienation, Loneliness, Difficulty Making Friends, Focus, Stereotypes, Ties to Other Service Members and, Political Ideology.

Alienation. All of the combat Veterans interviewed described a sense of alienation on campus. Much of this was attributed to differences in life experiences and focus. Jack had a particularly relevant statement regarding this. “It’s kind of like you have lived two separate lives … at school sometimes people forget” that “you have these other experiences that people just don’t understand”.

Difficulty making friends. All participants related difficulty in making friends outside of the military culture. This was mostly attributable to differences in level of experience from the Veteran to the average college student.

Ties to other service members. Every one of the combat Veterans interviewed went to great lengths to stay in touch with other Veterans that they had served with. The most common method reported was the use of Facebook.

Focus. All of the participants interviewed described a high level of focus on degree completion. They expressed an internal drive that most compared with the average college student as a dichotomy, where Veterans were focused on school work and studies while the


average college student was portrayed as immature with a focus on living in the moment rather than focusing on the future.

Political ideology. This topic was frequently raised through the interviews as each Veteran interviewed discussed that they sometimes felt as though their own political views were far from the mainstream of the university campus. Brady eloquently summed it up: “While the average civilian has idealistic views about world affairs, it is my ass on the line attempting to enforce these views in a non-ideal world”. The term “liberal” was used frequently and Brady even stated that a military democrat and a civilian democrat where two entirely different things. Disability

Only one of the combat Veteran interviewed had obvious physical injuries that a person could see in passing. Jon’s injuries were blatantly obvious as he walks with a cane and wears sunglasses to reduce the obvious signs of an IED blast that left his face in need of many surgeries to correct. Additionally Jon is missing the thumb of one hand. The other interviewees had no obvious physical injuries. Bill has several scars in his neck region where a steel plate had been inserted, but the casual observer would never know. Jack was wounded in action, yet other than state he was wounded, he did not discuss his injuries. Some of the participants talked openly about their injuries and disabilities that resulted from them. Some talked more openly about physical injuries but steered away from discussing PTSD. However one participant, Jill, talked very openly about PTSD, and the effects that it had upon her life. This willingness to discuss PTSD is likely linked to her career field where she is completing a doctorate in Counseling Psychology. Only two of the Veterans interviewed openly disclosed that they suffered from PTSD. While it is not my role as the researcher to diagnose PTSD, I am cognizant of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual-5 (DSM-5) (United States Department of Veterans Affairs, 2014) that is used by the Veterans Administration to diagnose PTSD in Veterans. The DSM-5 lists eight criteria for diagnosis of PTSD and while it is not my role, nor am I qualified to diagnose PTSD, the words of the participants could be matched to many of these criteria.

Conclusions and Discussion Transitions

It became abundantly clear that transitions and the resultant changes in identity and roles was the main theme. This was a surprise to me as I initially felt that isolation and alienation would become the main theme, however after much musing and critical thinking I was able to link alienation and isolation as a subset of the transition equation. The literature discussed how transitions moved expectations for self and others from clearly defined to unknowns in many cases. The testimonial from the interviewees echoed this. If we look at the stories described by my participants they all enlisted at a young age; some enlisted while still in high school and all of them had within a year of graduating high school. I think this transition is critical and may need to be further researched! There is a lot of anecdotal evidence that points to the fact that at 18-19 years old we simply don’t have the maturity needed to be self-directed. However when enlisted in the military at such a young age what does this do to the development of this person as an adult? While most 18-19 year olds look for a job and contemplate what they might do for a career in the upcoming years the military person is undergoing indoctrination, where as a part of this indoctrination they lose a good portion of their self-identity and gain a team centric outlook that will be carried with them throughout their tenure in the armed services. How does this affect


them as they begin to transition back to a self-identity with self-directed obligations that the Veteran may not even understand? Alienation and isolation

They all described a sense of alienation and aloneness, especially Bill. I will always remember the events after we had finished his interview as we each sat quietly reminiscing of places far away and retrospective of all that had come before. We each sat quietly with nothing said. Nothing needed to be said as we quietly basked in the camaraderie that only two combat Veterans can know. Of all the interviews I conducted this one hour of silence spoke to me more than all of the other interviews. I connected with a man who was hurt and alone who strove every day to put one foot in front of the other until he was done. His silence spoke volumes about the gulf of loneliness that threatened to engulf him. What more can I say other than this is the reason that this research is important. I have only to wonder what stories might have unfolded if I were able to make the same connection with each of the other participants? This alienation and isolation is problematic in a more than one way. It serves as a barrier between the Veteran, their family, other students, faculty, and staff who are well intentioned and wish to provide support and assistance yet may not know where they can provide this assistance and support. It also disrupts the communication barrier and makes it much more difficult for the Veteran to ask for help. I have personally experienced this in my own life as I have difficulty talking about some subjects of concern with my family and caregivers. It is my natural response to become defensive about some topics that I keep very close to my chest. I saw this with the interviewees as well. All of the participants were eager to talk about other Veterans and the issues they perceived, however they become much more close-mouthed when discussing their own internal battles. In order to bridge the chasm between Veterans’ needs and universities’ responses we must first cross this barrier of isolation and alienation. I believe that programs designed to showcase how Veterans improve the campus; classroom and world will go a long way toward earning the trust of Veterans and opening lines of communication where honest non-judgmental conversations can occur with the express intent of improving the atmosphere and making for a truly Veteran friendly campus. Disability and negative stereotyping

The statistics are alarming and when interviewing participants enough and out of six people interviewed three had been wounded in action and all described things that can be matched with the DSM 5 for PTSD. Two of my Veterans had TBI injuries and talked at length about slowed processing and coping mechanisms they had developed to become successful. It became apparent to me that the military, the Department of Veterans Affairs and colleges are not doing enough to identify potential wounded warriors. I believe that we must strive to identify Veterans on campus and educate the Veteran as well as faculty and staff about the wide range of accommodations that can be made and how easy it is to request an accommodation. We must also work towards de-stigmatizing these services. We would never question the need for a parking place for a person who uses a wheelchair, yet we might question a request for extended time on tests due to slowed cognitive processing due to PTSD. In my own past as a faculty I have dealt with similar issues and was circumspect about a request like this. Now after I have experienced first-hand how PTSD and TBI have affected how I learn and how I process information it suddenly becomes clear. This must become a mainstream concept that every


faculty member is familiar with and where Veterans are not afraid to ask for accommodations that will help them succeed.

References

Ackerman, R., DiRamio, D., & Mitchell, R. L. G. (2009). Transitions: Combat Veterans as college students. In R.

Ackerman & D. DiRamio (Eds.), Creating a Veteran-friendly campus: Strategies for transition and success: New Directions for Student Services. 12, 5-14. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bennet, M. J. (2000). When dreams came true: The GI Bill and the making of modern America. Brassey’s Inc. Washington, DC.

Caplan, P. J. (2011). When Johnny and Jane come marching home: How all of us can help Veterans. MIT press. Cambridge, MA.

DiRamio, D., Ackerman, R., & Mitchell, R. L. (2008). From combat to campus: Voices of student veterans. NASPA Journal, 45, 73–102.

DiRamio, D., & Jarvis K. (2011). Veterans in higher education: When Johnny and Jane came marching to campus. ASHE.

Grasgreen, A. (2013). If you build it will they come? Inside Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/10/new-veteran-support-centers-struggle-gain-students-trust .

Hogue C. W., Terhakopian, A., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., & Engel, C. C. (2007). Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war Veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164 (1), 150-153.

Horowitz, M. J. & Solomon, G. F. (1975). A prediction of delayed stress response syndromes in Vietnam Veterans. Journal of Social Issues, 31(4), 67-80.

Lokken, J. M., Pffefer, D. S., McAuley, J., & Strong, C. (2011). A statewide approach to creating Veteran-friendly campuses. New Directions for Student Services, 126, 45-54. Retrieved from DOI: 10.1002/ss.315

Military Family Research Institute (2009). The higher education landscape for student service members and Veterans in Indiana. West Lafayette, Purdue University.

Moon, T. L., & Schma, G. A. (2011). A proactive approach to serving military and student Veterans. New Directions for Higher Education, 153, 53-60.

O’Herrin, E. (2011). Enhancing Veteran success in higher education. Association of American Colleges and Universities Peer Review, 13(1).

Ostovary, F. & Dapprich, J. (2011). Challenges and opportunities of Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom Veterans with disabilities transitioning into learning and workplace environments. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 132, 63-73.

Rumann, C. B. & Hamrick, F. A. (2010). Student Veterans in transition: Re-enrolling after war zone deployments. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(4), 431-458.

United States Census (2010). Facts for features: Veterans Day 2010. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb10-ff21.html.

United States Department of Veterans Affairs (2013b). Understanding traumatic brain injury. Retrieved from: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/PTSD-overview/basics/index.asp

Steven Dalcher, Ed.D., Ball State University, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie Indiana, September 19-20, 2014



Innovative Family-Centered Programs for Mothers in Prison

Kaitlyn M. Davis

This paper advocates for the implementation of family-inclusive programs for incarcerated mothers. These programs include the mother and children in hands-on visitation as well as assigning a caseworker to facilitate interaction between mother and child in between visits. These programs will maintain the rudiments of a healthy and nurturing relationship to outlast the sentenced time and withstand release from incarceration. This paper aims to shift the conversation about mothers in prison away from the ideas that mothers in prison are unable to parent to a new conversation founded on the increase of awareness about important programs that can help incarcerated mothers.

Introduction

Family-Centered Programs in Prison Prisoners are stereotypically seen as “bad people”

unworthy of luxuries and fortunate for being provided with their basic needs. This mentality has created an institution lacking in services for the assistance and support of inmates. The effects of this void in programming have permeated into the lives of the inmates and continue after their release. While the consequences of these programs distress all inmates, incarcerated mothers undergo the most detrimental ramifications of this insufficiency in the prison systems.

Imprisoned mothers are often seen as being unfit to take care of their own children. The absence in their children’s lives is seen as a potential benefit to their children, allowing them to lead lives untarnished by their “criminal mothers” (Kauffman, 2001). This mind set is destructive to the well being of the incarcerated women and their children. The relationship between a mother and child should be revered and preserved by the institutions in anyway possible, especially for offenders of non-violent crimes. Mothers have an intuitive bond with their children, and if prisons build on this instinctive characteristic, it can progress into an enduring and invaluable sense of agency amongst the mothers.

To remedy this relationship, the primary concern of program planners is the separation of the mother and child. Prisons serving women currently employ a variety of visitation schedules. Programs often have restrictive visitation (Case-Acevedo, Bakken, & Karle, 2004), which prohibit a range of freedoms. Mothers may be restricted in available times for visitors. Prisons may also regulate physical contact; preventing mothers from extenuated touching with loved ones. Mothers are sometimes reduced to minimal contact including letters or infrequent conversations over a video screen (Case-Acevedo, Bakken, & Karle, 2004). Maternal grandparents often take on the caretaking of children although some children may be placed in foster care (Thompson & Harm, 2000). These caretakers do not always allow children to participate in visitation with their incarcerated mothers because of a lack in transportation, family disapproval, or fear of the prison (Thompson & Harm, 2000).

Although severance between the mother and child are inevitable at this time, frequent visitations and programs aiming to bridge the gap between visitations significantly impact the prisoners and their families. At the Washington Corrections Center, newborn babies are permitted to remain with their imprisoned mother for 18 months, and then may be eligible to


participate in a transitional center together with the mother for an additional 18 months (Kauffman, 2001). This allows a possible three years of parenting for their inmates. Eligibility for these programs requires that the mother remain the primary caregiver of these babies after her release (Kauffman, 2001). The mothers participating in these programs are able to be primary caregivers to their babies despite being incarcerated.

At a maximum-security prison in Bedford Hills, NY, pregnant inmates are permitted to keep infants with them in prison until the child turns one year old. The mother and baby are kept in a separate nursery area. Babies living with their mothers during this time lead conventional lives and are able to share important milestones with their mothers. Inmates are also granted regularly scheduled visitation and encouraged to interact with their children in brightly decorated playrooms. Mothers are also permitted and encouraged to be involved with the child outside of visitation. Bedford is also responsible for hosting “summer camps” where children of inmates stay overnight with hosts from a neighboring community (Kauffman, 2001). During the day of these camps, mothers and children engage in programs designed by the prison. In Frankfurt, Germany, mothering is seen as a legitimate job, which provides justification for placement on work release. Mothers are permitted to leave their prison and work for their own families doing housework and caring for children (Kauffman, 2001). This may include prepping children for school during morning routines, cooking meals, shopping for family needs, or other necessary housework. Once the children are sent to bed, the mother returns to the prison to sleep.

As families are impacted by the incarceration of the mother, programs similar to the above-mentioned need to be implemented in additional prisons. Children of incarcerated women “suffer from low self-image, underachievement, high anxiety, depressive tendencies, and difficulties in developing relationships” (Shamai & Kochal, 2008). Grades and social relationships deteriorate, while children experience an increase in hyperactivity, withdrawn attitudes, sleep difficulties, bitterness and disciplinary issues during the mother’s imprisonment (Newan, Fowler, & Cashin, 2011).

In order to help the children of incarcerated women, we must first help the mothers. Mothers in prison have been stripped of any sense of agency. When mothers enter the detention sphere, they report a sense of inadequacy and a lower sense of self-worth (Thompson & Harm, 2000). The guilt the women feel weighs them down until they feel incapable of taking care of their own children. As Shamai and Kochal explain, “All the participants experienced a sense of failure in their maternal functioning during imprisonment,” (2008). This loss of agency prevents the women from finding empowerment that could have resulted from overcoming this difficult experience. Women are set up to fail when they are robbed of their innate mothering qualities and prohibited from practicing them.

Family-centered programs offer women a chance to be an environment in which agency can blossom. The mother is free of other concerns (hunger, safety, comfort, shelter) and able to fully concentrate on enhancing her mothering skills through these programs (Shamai, Kochal, 2008). When children visit their mothers in the playroom of Bedford Hills, the inmate transforms into the loving and caring mother that she is. When mothers are motivated to continue parenting when released from prison, she is less likely to re-enter incarceration (Thompson & Harm, 2000). Mothering is a powerful motivation that should be cultivated by the help of the prison system to foster relationships and keep women out of prison.

Some studies contradict these findings and state that programs for women can actually hinder the women’s experiences in prison. Casey-Acevedo, Bakken & Karle express their concern that visitations are too emotional for the inmates, which lead to aggressive behaviors


after visitation (2004). However, these critics are evaluating programs that are not as involved as the family-centered program model. The women in these programs receive regularly scheduled visits with their children, including a highly involved Mother’s Day celebration, summer camps, and even overnight stays. The anxiety revolving around sporadic visitations is non-existent.

Critics also fear that visitations are a time when mothers learn about disciplinary actions at school or delinquent behavior of children which leads to aggressive or non-compliant inmates dealing with this stress (Case-Acevedo, Bakken, & Karle, 2004). Astonishingly, the mothers at Bedford are assigned a caseworker that advocates for her involvement in the child’s life in between visitations. The mothers are able to attend parent-teacher conferences via telephone with the caseworker and keep up with the child’s schoolwork so that visitations are not the main source of ill updates. Transportation for families wishing to see their mothers is provided by a volunteer agency at Bedford, so there are less reasons for missed visitations.

As previously mentioned, current programs allow infrequent visitation with no other contact with the children outside of visitation. An innovative family-centered program includes the mother with regular visits and additional interaction, thus making the arguments against programs for mothers obsolete. Women in prison are being stripped of maternal agency, therefore impeding a natural empowerment, which could fuel the women’s successful parenting. To help these women, innovative family-centered programs provide subtle tools to restore competence in a safe setting. The relationship between imprisoned mothers and their children should be the focal point of correctional facilities. By implementing family-centered programs, institutions arrange for mothers to be successful.

References Casey-Acevedo, K., Bakken, T., Karle, A., (2004). Children visiting mothers in prison: the effects on mothers

behavior and disciplinary adjustment. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 37(1), 418-430.

Kauffman, K., (2001). Mothers in prison. Corrections Today, 63(1), 62-65. Newman, C., Fowler, C., Cashlin, A., (2011). The development of a parenting program for incarcerated mothers in

Australia: a review of prison based parenting programs. Contemporary Nurse, 39(1), 2-11. Shamai, M., Kochal, R., (2008). Motherhood starts in prison: the experience of motherhood among women in

prison. Family Process, 47(3), 323-340. Thompson, P. , Harm, N., (2000). Parenting from prison: helping children and mothers. Issues in Comprehensive

Pediatric Nursing, 23, 61-81. Kaitlyn M. Davis, Ball State University, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie Indiana, September 19-20, 2014



Gender Stratification in Higher Education: Research to Practice

Emily Austin Duran

This research study focused on the question: What factors have contributed to the gender divide in higher education? Our roundtable discussion will focus on the question: What needs to be considered to aid higher education institutions to incorporate inclusive curriculum and policies? Research is presented on the historical research that has contributed to gender stratification by the college level. Women’s milieus are relatively ignored in areas such as theory, curriculum, and language. Exclusion occurs in the classroom, major selection, and in policy. Structuring a new framework that incorporates inclusive theory and institutional reform may provide transformation towards a gender supportive environment.

Introduction The original Policy Position Paper on Gender Stratification in Higher Education focused

on the question: What factors have contributed to the gender divide in higher education? Diverse forms of literature were used to focus attention on two key aspects: curriculum and institutional politics. The cumulative effect of the issues raised by each proponent quantifies a sound divide in both the male and the female student’s collegiate experiences. The purpose of this policy review is to examine the traditional practice of experiential learning theory and feminist theory as a solution.

United States higher education institutions are being faced with serving the educational and learning needs of ever growing diverse populations. Yet fundamental structures and atmospheres within these institutions contribute to outcomes of gender inequalities. A brief background is of course necessary to understand the current climate.

Experiential Learning has been utilized since the 1960’s using the tested works of John Dewey (1916), on the premise that learners learn by doing. This hand on approach utilizes participation, interaction, and application. A major tenant of this theory proclaims that knowledge build off of the previous experiences of the learner to facilitate durable knowledge. The learner in turn must be able to organize their experiences effectively. Instructors must pace the material and flow of the course to provide continuity.

This theory might be an effective method for lasting knowledge, but it does not take into account differential experiences. In his reaction paper Experience & Education, John Dewey (1938) acknowledged that the quality received depended on the experience which was had. As Dewey admits, there can be positive or negative experiences had, depending on the process. When a negative experience is achieved, the possibilities of having richer experience in the future are restricted (The Need of a Theory Experience section, para. 2). Dewey’s observations bring to light the question: what happens when the material and/or the instructor lack meaningful content and tools to facilitate a needed connection?

From a feminist perspective, traditional learning navigates the learner into a relatively narrow margin of that durable knowledge. Women’s negative and restrictive experiences are a primary target of feminism. As Margaret Andersen (2008) points out, “Women’s studies has


developed from feminist’s radical critique of the content and form of the academic disciplines, the patriarchal structure of education, the consciousness education reproduces, and the relation of education to dominate cultural, economic, political, and social institutions” (p. 440). In order to enrich existing pedagogy we need to restructure the standard by incorporation of feminist critiques and feminist pedagogy (Abbott, 1991; Endeley, 2002; Jackson, 1997; Schuster & Dyne, 1984); which will, from a new angle, “facilitate a new context” (Maher, 1986, p. 217). Because men and women’s experiences are stratified throughout all levels of education, a multidimensional reconstruction of knowledge is needed.

Hidden Curriculums extrapolate women’s knowledge. As Eric Margolis (2001) explains in his article, The Hidden Curriculum in Higher Education, “The traditions of the hidden curriculum remain similar: educations are an agency of differentiation and stratification, holding the keys that access valued cultural elements” (Conclusion section, para. 3). Margolis references many studies that infer that hidden curriculum varies the universality of edification. Margolis (2001) writes:

Many critical and resistance theorists, such as Nihlen (1982), Thorne (1993), Gail Kelly and Ann Nihlen (1982), have produced studies in regards to hidden curriculum’s role in the reproduction of gender divisions. Linda Grant (1992) studied ways in which girls in the same classroom experienced hidden curriculum differently based on race. The study by Kathleen Weiler (1988) gave us examples of student teacher resistance to applying feminine curriculum. Michael Apple (1993) examined covert curricular forms that exist in curriculum, activities, processes, and standardized texts, and concluded that legitimate knowledge proceeds from complex relations (p. 11-12). Power, or lack of power, exists in language, based upon what dominant ideology controls

it. In Crossing Borders and Changing Pedagogies: from Giroux and Freire to Feminist Theories of Education, Sue Jackson (1997) analyzes the works of Henry Giroux (1992) and Paulo Freire (1971) by identifying, “language as an indicator of self and personal identity” (para. 13). Many theorists have discussed the generic pronouns such as “he” used in textbooks, and the sexist content embedded within them. Maher (1986) states, “This andocentric bias is even more pronounced in the public school curriculum as a host of research studies now testify” (p. 226). For example, Barrie Thorne (1993) conducted a closely observed study of children’s behavior in classrooms and playgrounds, “Unearthing ways in which the language and practices of the classroom confirmed the separation of the sexes” (as cited in Margolis, 2001, p. 11).

The cold hard truth is that female representations are lacking in student material and textbooks. In their article, Confronting Gender Issues in a Novice Teacher’s Classroom: Student and Parent/Teacher Educator Perspectives, J.H Sandholtz and S.H. Sandholtz (2010) referenced research done that emphasized the male experience in textbooks and reading. Sandholtz and Sandholtz write:

H. Grossman and S. Grossman (1994) report that only 5% of the content in history texts is focused on women’s experiences and contributions. M. Sadker and D. Sadker (1994) conducted a content analysis of 15 mathematics, language arts, and history textbooks and reported an emphasis on males in both pictures and texts. One world history text for sixth graders included only 11 female names, and not one of them was an American adult woman. They quoted the Sadker’s as saying, “In an entire 631 pages of a textbook covering the history of the world, only seven pages related to women” (p. 122).


Even in areas of curricular inclusion, universities and textbooks “add on,” a gender or diversity class or chapter, rather than rethinking theoretical approaches. (Abbott, 1991; Hooks, 2008; Jackson, 1997) As Anne Pratt (1971) argues, “Colleges which pretend to a liberal arts curriculum will have to devote attention to feminist literature not only for the scholarly reason that it has been neglected but because of the pedagogical imperative that no institution which calls its curriculum humanist can be justified in ignoring it” (p. 878). Hidden curriculum denies women the human right of identity and personal introspection. Women need a base history from which to derive meaning.

Some feminists suggest that transformative curriculum needs to be introduced through a phase process. Anderson (2008) critiques several of these processes, but for the purpose of this paper it focuses on McIntosh’s 5 phases, as Anderson proposes. McIntosh phases include: Phase 1, ‘womanless studies,’ or a select few areas in the curriculum where highly exclusionary standards of excellence are established; Phase 2, ‘woman-in,’ or how are women represented now and in the past; Phase 3, ‘women absence,’ or to, seek to redefine the terms, paradigms, and methods through which all of human experience is understood; Phase 4, ‘women in society,’ or how do women’s experiences and perspectives create history, society, and culture ; Phase 5, ‘lateral consciousness’ (p. 445).

Many universities have already begun curriculum transformation. Observation of this process would be a key element towards modification. Anderson (2008) mentions that programs are in place at Wheaton College, Towson State University, Montana State University, University of Arizona, University of Massachusetts, and University of Delaware, she reasons that, “these case studies may have insight into changing current curriculums” (p. 441). Collaboration with other universities should be a priority.

Using established disciplines (Business, Communication, Education, English, History, Leadership, Psychology, and Sociology), courses could be redesigned to include women. However, the need for having a women’s studies department and a full range of classes available on diversity issues cannot be overstated.

Institutions need to evaluate the materials that their professors use to teach. They need to ask such questions as: Are they inclusive? Do they have counter arguments? Do they depict women and other minorities in a poor light? Textbooks are an invaluable resource in higher education and this selection needs to be considered carefully, because what is chosen sends a clear message. Changes may not need to be applied equally to all disciplines. For example, ancient history or philosophy instructors may purposefully decline from changing their curriculum, but will be able to defend that decision to staff and student.

Oddly enough, teachers themselves are targeted as impediments to gender equality. Teachers are human and products of their own socialization and education. It is only logical that their personal set of values, emotions, issues, and social awareness would contribute to hostile environments. Research shows that teachers often pay more attention to boys in the classroom. (Hooks, 2008; Maher, 1986; Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Unterhalter & Aikman, 2005) For example, M. Sadker and D. Sadker’s (1994) did extensive research in over 100 schools and published their findings in their book, Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. Their findings showed pre-dominate male emphasis in texts. Their report also showed that male students dominated classroom conversation and were, “Eight times more likely to call out,” (Sandholtz & Sandholtz, 2010, p. 129). They wrote that, “Above average teachers bent the rules, paid more attention too, listened, and offered more precise feedback to boys more than girls”


(Sadker & Sadker, 1994). The teachers that participated in these studies were often unaware of their preferential behavior. So what can be done to enlighten behavior and content?

Transformation should also focus on the training and instruction of teachers and adult educators, which not only raises their status and self-esteem, but would empower them and their students. Teacher curriculum needs to be modified to accompany gender issues. (Sandholtz & Sandholtz, 2010; Maher, 1986; Schuster & Dyne, 1984) Maher (1986) adds that, the benefits go beyond simply opening the classroom to girls, as she states, “Course assignments and structures integrating and accepting female perspectives on teaching can involve students in relating course themes to their own education, to their own social and personal history, and to the schools in which they observe and work,” (p. 230).

Adopting Feminist Theory into practice in combination with traditional forms may counter some of the adverse effects listed above. Feminist Adrienne Rich describes the feminist theory, “As the hitherto ‘invisible’ and marginal agent in culture, whose native culture has been effectively denied, women need a reorganization of knowledge, or perspectives and analytical tools that can help us know our foremothers, evaluate our present historical, political, and personal situation, and take ourselves seriously as agents in the creation of a more balanced culture” (as cited in Andersen, 2008, p. 439).

While it is true that there are a wide range of available choices for male and female students of areas of study, choosing a major is often motivated by gender stereotypes. Women are encouraged to pursue gender appropriate paths; thereby predisposing women to lower levels of the occupational hierarchy. As Jerry Jacobs (1996) in her article, Gender Inequality and Higher Education explains, “Sex typing of fields can be attributed to precollege socialization (Wilson & Boldizar 1990), since students enter college roughly as segregated as they leave” (Jacobs, 1996, p. 169). Women tend to fill education, health, and social science sectors; while, men tend to fill trades, technology, science, and engineering. (Vincent-Lancrin, 2008; Peterkin, 2012) Margolis (2001) proves this point by writing, “Linda Muzzin and Kenren Tonso give complementary views of how women become second-class citizens in professional schools: Tonso demonstrates how women are systematically excluded both physically and socially from the world of engineers; and Muzzin explains how the woman-dominated profession of pharmacy is devalued and disrespected in pharmacy schools controlled by international biotechnology firms” (Conclusion section, para. 2). The sex typing of fields contributes to numerous life-long consequences.

The segregation of women is not limited to tertiary education and socialization, but manifests itself in many ways via the workforce. Despite laws in the workplace that protect against discrimination, equal opportunity remains elusive.

First, women contend with a pay gap. Jacobs (1996) noted that, “The chilly climate for women in male professions becomes defined after graduation because women’s fields pay less initially and exhibit slower earnings growth than do male fields” (p. 168). Reviewing statistics from the American Association of University Women, Peterkin (2012) reports: Men earn nearly $8,000 more than women one year after graduating. The study also showed that college major is an important factor in graduates’ earnings. For example, women who majored in business earned about $38,000, while their male counterparts earned about $45,000 one year out (para. 5).

Second, women contend with a glass ceiling, the unbreakable barrier that keeps them from rising to the upper rungs of their organizations despite qualifications. They observe the glass escalator and their male counterparts soar quickly to stations of attainment. Third, because


of socialization women juggle many simultaneous roles and take on not one but three shifts: the first from nine to five, the second at home, and the third in their minds as they review the decisions and actions of the day. Currently, many universities adopt only minimum standards, as required by law, to secure women’s positions and rights.

Women are not represented in top managerial and administrative positions in academia compared to their male counterparts. An effort by women needs to be made to take on these roles because they have already been disadvantaged at every step in the educative process (Endeley, 2002; Jacobs, 1996). According to the American Association of University Professors, women in academia in the U.S. are 44% tenured compared to the male 62% tenured (Professors, 2012). As Unterhalter & Aikman (2005) point out, “These and other analyses indicate the ambiguity inherent in decentralization policies in societies where there are severe constraints on women’s participation in decision making” (p. 23). Women leaders are needed to not only balance the scale of disadvantage, but because their representation in decision making is imperative.

Women’s lack of representation at the top may affect many aspects of their lives from a lower pay scale, to the decision to have children. For example, as Colleen Flaherty (2013) reports in her piece, The Mom Penalty, “A woman’s income incrementally decreases 1% for each child she has (men’s income is unaffected)” (para. 8). This decrease in pay may account for the number of top females that remain childless. Flaherty reports on the National Science Foundation’s survey of PhD recipients, by writing, “tenured female professors are also likelier to be unmarried, divorced and childless than their male counterparts (12 years after receiving their PH.Ds, 44% of female tenured faculty were married with children, versus 70% of male tenured faculty” (para. 6). In an interview with Marc Goulden, director of data initiatives at Berkley, Flaherty quoted Goulden as saying, “From a policy perspective, investing years of training in individuals and then losing those to academic careers because of unnecessary rigidity-particularly during early career formation-makes no monetary sense” (Flaherty, 2013, para. 9). As Flaherty and others point out this has become a social values issue (Andersen, 2008; Flaherty, 2013). We have invited men to balance both career and family with success, and it is time to modify our core institutional values to embrace the female as both mother and professional.

In her work, A Feminist Perspective on Parental Leave Policies, Margaret Sallee proposed that institutional commitment, “to eliminating penalties can shape the availability and usage of policies” (Sallee, 2007, p. 183). Sallee points out that several associations such as the American Association of University Professors (2001) and the American Council on Education (2005) argued for creating a family-friendly workplace that required commitment from leaders and faculty. She references Drago (2005), Quinn (2004), Sullivan (2004), and Waltman (2005) by scripting that, “department chairs play a critical role in faculty members’ success in balancing work and family responsibilities” (as sited in Sallee, 2007, p. 183). Institutions, as employers, have an obligation to promote a climate of acceptance and to aid in the balance of home and work, for faculty members.

As representatives of our countries values, universities have a responsibility to address gender issues through policy and training. Regular diversity, methods, and theory training seminars have proven successful. Scholars, from around the world, should be invited to come and lecture about new projects and methods. To reenergize the field of teaching, teachers should be encouraged to incorporate new paradigms and share their results. Evaluations of current policies, gender participation, and best practices would help maintain status quo. Above all,


policies should be family friendly, written in clear and concise language, and apply to everyone, regardless of sex or authority. Experiential learning is a quality durable method of learning. However, it does not naturally encompass the feminine experience in its practice. Women make up half of the world’s population. Without proper representation, traditional methods of education, limits half of the population’s identities and histories. In order to create democratic citizenry among student’s curriculums should be modified to represent women in all areas of study through text, language, and teaching. Women need to be encouraged to pursue careers that break out of the feminine sphere and pursue higher pay and rank positions to redistribute their negotiating power. Women’s milieu can be improved for students and employees through commitment of universities to produce diverse, inclusive, balanced, and fair policies and programs. These measures could aid in the destruction of gender stratification in higher education.

References Andersen, M. (2008). Changing The Curriculum in Higher Education. In C. Conras, & J. Johnson, College &

University Curriculum (pp. 439-459). Boston: Pearson. Endeley, J. B. (2002). Challenging gender inequality in higher education: Attitudes and perceptions of teaching staff

and administrators at the University of Buea, Cameroon. Flaherty, C. (2013 йил 6-June). The Mom Penalty. Inside Higher ED , pp. 1-5. Jacobs, J. A. (1996). Gender Inequality and Higher Education Annual Review of Sociology. Annual Review of

Sociology , 22, 153-185. Maher, F. A. (1986). Teacher Education and Feminist Theory: Some Implications for Practice. American Journal of

Education , 214-235. Peterkin, C. (2012 йил 24-October). Male-Female Pay Gap Persists and Starts Early, Study Finds. The Chronicle of

Higher Education , pp. 1-16. Professors, A. A. (2012). Distribution of Faculty: Table 11. Sadker, D. M., & Sadker, D. D. (1994). Failing at Fairness: How America's Schools Cheat Girls. New York: First

Touchstone Edition. Sallee, M. W. (2007). A Feminist Perspective on Parental Leave Policies. Innovated Higher Education , 181-194. Sandholtz, J., & Sandholtz, S. (2010). Confronting Gender Issues in a Novie Teacher's Classroom: Students and

Parent/Teacher Educator Perspectives. The New Educator , 118-134. Schuster, M., & Dyne, S. V. (1984). Placing Women in the Liberal Arts: stages of Curriculum Transformation.

Harvard Education Review , 413-428. Vincent-Lancrin, S. (2008). The Reversal of Gender Inequalities in Higher Education: An On-going Trend. Higher

Education to 2030 , 265-298. ______________________________________________________________________________ Emily Austin Duran Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


Transformative Learning Meets State Standards: How Innovative Pedagogy Illuminates the Core Curriculum

Max Elsey

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) represent the latest iteration in a long history of governmental mandates established to improve educational theory and practice in the public school system. Historically precipitated by disorienting crises, education has traditionally been perceived as the liberator of our democratic way of life. Viewed through the lens of transformative experience, change becomes more comprehensive and meaningful because it resonates with learners on multiple levels of consciousness. This paper examines transformative phenomena from historical and practical perspective in order to provide dependable pedagogy for all students. To better understand the transformative dynamics at work in the CCSS I offer the Improvisational Theater Art Form (ITAF) for blending academic content with rational and affective elements of the self.

Introduction

Whenever changes to public education are imposed through Federal mandates, reaction inevitably runs hot and cold on pragmatic and emotional levels. With compelling fervor, one side criticizes the compromises to liberty while the other is concerned about the loss of personal freedom in the teaching and learning of children and young adults. For the thousands of educators working within CCSS guidelines governmental decree in fact makes tremendous sense when viewed as creative opportunity (Denham and Hamre, 2010).

With the emergence of psychology as a new branch of science Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) developed his theory of individual psychology showing that by focusing in on sensation and consciousness subjects increased their capacity for intrinsic awareness. Today, this psychological factor becomes increasingly helpful to teachers and students experimenting with a broad array of inherent eccentricities and proclivities essential in the learning process.

Conversely, educators locked into a one right way mentality will have greater difficulty connecting with learners on these critically important levels so essential in illuminating Core curriculum. Misdirected energy emanating from the inability to engage students on intrinsic levels accomplishes very little and frequently digresses into a dysfunctional self-fulfilling prophesy as we frequently hear from detractors of CCSS (

Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014).

Because of the tremendous consequences for students desperate for knowledge they can apply right now, in the moment, transformative learning (TL) provides a much needed shift in perception.

Long before Mezirow (1978, 2000) began his theory of TL working with adult women returning to college and the workforce, transformative opportunity was present in classrooms everywhere, however the temperament of the power elite, responsible for implementing the Prussian model of education was interested in guaranteeing a predictable workforce occupying a standardized, role in society. Students who flourished would move on to universities and those who floundered were destined for labor intensive roles. The industrial revolution greatly influenced the elitists thinking as an assembly line progression made perfect sense for the


teaching and learning of children. These basic tenets are still in place today, however now there is the opportunity to greatly and significantly expand their role.

Public Education in Historical Context

In 1843 Horace Mann (1796-1859) founded the Common School Movement (CSM)

based on the Prussian model of education. It is a design familiar to all of us with its age specific grade levels, set curriculum, test score evaluation, and strict authoritarian control and protocol all designed to guide children toward the direction of their future place in the world. In addition, hard work, self-control, intelligence, and other highly regarded qualities directed a pathway for economic success or a lifetime of drudgery regardless of inherent talent or gifts. Rapid expansion west following the Civil War stirred the 39th Congress to found the Department of Education “for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education” specifically, “methods of teaching” and “establishment of efficient school systems” (Sess. II, 1867). Almost immediately the CSM filtered into the South to fortify reconstruction using the Prussian template. These examples of unprecedented growth and development inspired Wundt (1832-1920) to envision a psychology of self, grounded on adventure, action, and dreams of a better life. In 1878 Wundt’s research on individual sensation and consciousness enabled psychology to move itself forward from a moribund branch of philosophy into the realm of a truly experimental science of the mind (Ash, 1980; Hearst, 1979). This early causality with its powerful educational implications is, in the opinion of this author, the true origin of TL (Elsey, 2009c, 2011, 2014). The Advent of Transformative Teaching and Learning

Evidently influenced by Wundt’s research in the science of experimental psychology, the famous American reformer John Dewey outlined a policy for education which remains consistent today. In his famous pedagogic creed (1897) Dewey discusses the relationship between social and emotional aspects of the self and their critical rapport with teaching and human development.

Of these two sides, the psychological is the basis. The child’s own instincts and powers furnish the material and give the starting point for all education. Save as the efforts of the educator connect with some activity which the child is carrying on of his own initiative independent of the educator, education becomes reduced to a pressure from without. It may, indeed, give certain external results, but cannot truly be called educative. (p. 78)

Dewey’s analysis provides yet another compelling argument for the role of self-guided,

participatory teaching (Garrison, 1997), but it is Ellwood Cubberley (1919) in his remarkably forward thinking book Public education in the United States who pinpoints an endemic flaw in the reality of public education. Cubberley was not impressed with the progress of teaching and learning which “as usually written and taught had so little relation to present day problems in education” and its failure “in orienting the prospective teacher” (p. vii) captures the wealth of transformative challenge awaiting the CCSS today. Transformative Learning from a Sputnik Moment

By the fall of 1958 America had become complacent with its post war prosperity and wealth however a new and uncharted territory was about to be released in dramatic fashion with


the successful launch of the first artificial satellite called Sputnik. Russia astonished the world with the satellites simultaneously frightening and compelling beep…beep…beep…radioed back to Earth as Sputnik circled the globe. Clearly observable in the night sky, the moving light from space awed millions of Americans who stood in their backyards night after night, mesmerized by the visitor from outer space. Stunned into a truly transformative moment on par perhaps with the Civil War, Pearl Harbor, and even the events of 911, America looked within its self to make rational sense of a psychologically disorienting experience and came to the pragmatic realization that the best minds in the fields of mathematics and science were wasting their talent and resources producing luxury appliances and automobiles with swoopy fins (Elsey, 2014). Sputnik had delivered a wakeup call transforming America’s belief system literally overnight. How could the Russians have eclipsed the US in the race for Space? After much hand wringing and finger pointing, the blame it was decided rested squarely on the shoulders of an inferior educational system (Hearst, 1979). Entering Dangerous Territory. These are the dangerous territories. Butterwick and Selman (2003), Elsey (2008, 2014) and Mezirow (1981, 2000), Taylor and Cranton (2013) describe where the psychological resistance to perspective transformation is either dysfunctional or an illuminating clarification. Preparing learners to move forward engagingly and intellectually is the hallmark of ITAF pedagogy. In evaluating the quality of modern educational reform and the intrinsic skills required of our teachers to evidence true growth and development involves a highly social yet individualistic, self-directed application of inherent talent and instincts, specifically learners’ perceptions and feelings that make them the unique person they are and applying skills to achieving a self-directed presence and awareness in the classroom, and in life. Either child or adult, the flow of knowledge creation and critically reflective thinking can align consistently and seamlessly with the directives of the CCSS (Elsey, 2009a, 2009c, 2014). I now turn my attention to the practice of transformative learning and how ITAF pedagogy helps drive it.

Recognizing Transformative Phenomena in Classrooms

Highly charged transformative moments have always been present in federally mandated classrooms awaiting only effective pedagogy capable of bringing curriculum to life (Elsey, 2007, 2010, 2014). In is most rigorous and minute detail the Core is desperate for pedagogy capable of engaging learners on physical, intellectual, and intuitive levels simultaneously making learning meaningful for students, each in their own way. Any unexpected insight surfaced into consciousness by learners deserves credence through exploration when dovetailed with the specific lesson on the page for that day. What ITAF does is transform prevailing blasé status quo attitudes of students frustrated because their passion for learning has not been met. In the process, teacher and student apply inherent art form communication to reinforce and empower each other through one’s capacity for original thinking (Elsey, 2007, 2008, 2014). Helping multiple levels of personalized self-awareness resonate with the Core is perhaps the greatest challenge facing educators today and demystifying learning phenomena in math, science, language arts, special education, or social studies a substantive gift. Growth and Development from Unexpected Sources


Transformative awareness is stable and consistent in its ability to reveal unfamiliarity (Elsey, 2009a, 2009b). Like the Sputnik moment, CCSS, or philosophy turned science in the case of psychology, creative imagination made real in the here and now requires persons to intrinsically own a self-empowering pedagogy for understanding change. Be it CCSS mandates or the bully in the lunchroom, disorientation becomes rational and emotionally empowering when met with intrinsic comprehension. Making sense of confusing or conflicting ideas, concepts, pragmatic information, and creative possibility are uniquely interpreted through students’ eyes. In other words, there is no one right way to think. In this significant respect, CCSS clearly invites content processing on these important levels (Achieve the Core.Org., 1014). Since the Common Core does not specify any pedagogy at all, responsibility can shift from authoritarian control to self-directed participatory strategy with the teacher directing lessons as an adventure into the unknown. The juxtaposition of academic content and intuitive imagination forces a shift in perception of the status quo which is heightened through critical reflection. In the process, students apply Core content by teaching themselves how to think (Elsey, 2009c, 2014). Change by Necessity

Remember, the educational production line of the Prussian model was reinforced in the States by the Industrial Revolution as it reconciled well with Mann’s original vision of organized efficiency leaving little doubt that workers were metaphorically cogs within a great machine (Cubberley, 1919). The second part of that model, the humanistic side, is where the majority of change through necessity has systematically occurred. Although Prussian ideas may sound antiquated by modern standards, by necessity the CCSS had no say in the matter, as its focus is on content and not prevailing structure. After all classification by age, bell schedules, and set curriculum are not about to change any time soon. Nevertheless, there is a critical remnant of power and control at work in classrooms and it has to do with the training and temperament of persons entering the teaching profession (Achieve the Core, org., 2014). By nature human communication takes on different tone, content, and meaning depending on situation, therefore university programs are wise to cultivate pre-service teachers in temperament management to help them harmonize personal energy with the energy of their students without becoming overwhelmed (Elsey, 2009a, 2009b). Too often children are discredited in class or ignored through the compromised capacity of teachers’ self-understanding which often expresses itself as judgmental, unenquiring, or confined by the text, test scores, and position. With punishment from teachers and administrators yielding merely band aid solutions growth and development are further frustrated (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2013). Eye on the Future

Mezirow (1978, 2000) reminds us that learning opportunity emerging from disorienting dilemmas, are usually past over or left to digress into defensive arguments, lost self-empowerment, and sacrificed growth and development. In public school classrooms misbehavior and bullying are the most familiar characteristics emblematic of learners’ frustration at not being reached for the lack of effective pedagogy at school. The capacity for original thinking surfaces daily in classrooms waiting to illuminate the Core Curriculum yet its signals are continuously misread or ignored. These are huge problems facing the implementation of Core as learners’ inherent genius conflicts with one right way mentality. Ironically, these are the criticisms leveled against Transformative Learning’s dependence on overt rationalization leaving


limited consideration for innovation (Taylor, 2001, 2007). With structure and content in place, realize that the ultimate qualifier is the quality of the pedagogy, in other words, how effectively Core content is delivered, and it is here where TL opens new territory for public schools.

Conclusion

The dangerous territories of alternative perspectives Butterwick and Selman (2003)

describe meet reality when precipitated by unforeseen crisis forming a gateway to knowledge creation. These are organic living forms that enter our consciousness not as complete pragmatic understanding but rather disorienting dilemmas of creative origin waiting to be exploited (Mezirow, 1981, 2000). Anyone unprepared emotionally or rationally to accept new learning digresses into their own particular dysfunction of distorted assumptions be they child, administrator, teacher or scholar. What is interesting from a transformative perspective is that nowhere else than from the unique individual self, is learning more optimally understood, adapted, and applied to meet whatever challenge life throws our way. Good pedagogy in the classroom is collaborative assisting learners in becoming more flexible themselves and available to understand the personalized belief system of others. As we have seen, events across the history of education have done little to perpetuate knowledge creation in meaningful and sustainable ways. Rather we tend to wrap ourselves inwardly instead of pitching ourselves out to make sense of the unknown through imagination, and pragmatic explication. Similarly transformative Learning struggles to break new ground given its own relatively long history of scholarly research and practice (Taylor, 2001, 2007; Taylor and Cranton, 2013). Despite our advances in the literature we are living through truly dangerous times calling upon the best thinking from our students and ourselves. The history of education therefore is a barometer reading the Sturm und Drang of teaching and learning and the distances we have yet to travel.

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______________________________________________________________________________ Max Elsey MFA, Ed.D Center for Governmental Studies, Northern Illinois University [email protected] (815) 753-1907, (816) 288-3080 Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



Social Media as “Motivational Interference”: A Phenomenological Study of Student Strategies for Academic Success

Abraham E. Flanigan and Wayne A. Babchuk

This qualitative research study explores how university students describe their experiences with social media as they attend to academic tasks within and outside of the classroom setting. We assess how findings generated from a phenomenological analysis of ten semi-structured interviews with traditional age college students intersect with the larger and rapidly growing literature base on the effects of social media on academic success, and provide suggestions as to how students and teachers may benefit from what we have learned. Implications for student learning outcomes and best teaching practices to help university students overcome the motivational interference potential of social media are discussed.

Introduction

Imagine that you are a fly on the wall of a university student’s dorm room. As you

watched this student work on a homework assignment or study for a quiz, what would you see? Most of us would not be surprised to see a cell phone lying close by, a laptop open with Facebook or Twitter prominently displayed on the screen, or any number of other distractions competing for the student’s attention. Unfortunately, this kind situation is all too familiar for university students across the country. A growing body of literature is yielding some fairly alarming findings related to the amount of distractions university students are exposed to as they work on academic tasks, both within and outside of the classroom setting (i.e., Junco & Cotten, 2012; McCoy, 2013). These distractions have been shown to create “motivational interference” or a decrease in motivation towards successfully completing the task (Fries, Dietz, & Schmid, 2008). The original purpose of this inquiry was to extend this growing body of literature through a phenomenological exploration of university students’ experiences with social media while attempting to work on academic tasks outside of the classroom. Our goal was to uncover how university students perceive their experiences with social media use and how these experiences impact academic outcomes. Moreover, we sought to identify and discuss potential implications of this research important for educational success in and out of the classroom for traditional college students and other adult learners across contexts and settings. Though we originally planned to focus solely on out-of-class experiences, participant responses indicated that social media use and temptation permeate their in-class experiences as well and therefore this aspect of motivational interference earned its way into this analysis.


Statement of the Problem

For decades, researchers have demonstrated the academic benefits of completing homework assignments and studying outside of the classroom setting (e.g., Rohwer, 1984). However, since these tasks take place without the supervision of an instructor, students are asked to complete them autonomously. For some, this can be difficult. Arranging a successful study environment, identifying and implementing effective learning strategies, and managing one’s time are obstacles university students face. Recent technological advancements have compounded this problem by increasing the amount of distractions today’s university students confront outside of the classroom setting (Junco & Cole-Avent, 2008). One of these distractions is the presence of social media. Readily available through cell phones and laptops, university students are always just a click away from sending a text message or updating a Facebook status. To understand how today’s university students complete academic tasks outside of the classroom setting, one must first understand how the use of social media permeates their experiences.

The impact of readily available distractions (such as social media) on academic outcomes has been well-documented in the literature. Fries and Dietz (2007) explored how the presence of physically- and psychologically-present leisure alternatives to academic tasks impact certain academic outcomes. These researchers found that whether a leisure alternative was physically or psychologically present was enough to elicit motivational interference. Additionally, motivational interference has been negatively associated with self-regulation and pursuit of a learning task (Fries, Dietz, & Schmid, 2008). For university students attempting to work on homework or study, these findings suggest that exposure to, or awareness of, a leisure alternative is enough to facilitate motivational interference and diminish self-regulatory behaviors.

One major source of distraction for university students are digital devices, such as cell phones, laptops, and iPods. Using a survey-based methodology, McCoy (2013) explored the use of such devices within the classroom setting. The results of this study found that the majority of university students (65.1%) reported using their digital devices at least four times during daily class periods, with a large minority (22.7%) using their digital devices more than 11 times during class. Participants reported using their digital devices during class for a range of activities, including texting and web surfing. Interestingly, a large percentage of participants identified several negative outcomes resulting from their use of digital devices: not paying attention (89.8% of participants), missing instruction (80.4%), and losing grade points (26.6%).

Additional research has explored the relationship between social media distractions and academic outcomes outside of the classroom setting. Junco and Cotten (2012) surveyed 1,839 university students about their experiences with social media use while completing academic tasks outside of class. The majority of participants reported regular use of texting and other forms of social media while completing homework or studying. Additionally, linear regression analyses revealed that time spent on social media and texting while doing schoolwork shared a statistically significant negative relationship to overall GPA. Additional studies have also found that university students struggle to self-regulate during academic tasks when faced with distractions (Bembenutty & White, 2013; Junco, 2012).

These findings suggest that the presence of social media during homework and study sessions creates barriers to success for university students. In his explorations of university students’ tendencies to delay gratification from competing leisure alternatives to homework and study, Bembenutty (2010) shed light on the benefits of delaying gratification and exposed challenges of giving into it. By presenting university participants with a series of hypothetical


scenarios in which a leisure alternative is pitted against an academic task, the relationship between delay of gratification tendencies and academic outcomes was explored. Results suggested that students who reported a greater tendency to pursue academic tasks over leisure alternatives scored more highly on measures of self-regulation, academic self-efficacy, academic achievement, and homework completion.

Taken together, this literature demonstrates how, even in the face of motivational interference, overcoming distractions can enhance a student’s homework or studying experiences. However, what remains unanswered is how university students perceive their experiences with social media. The motivational interference literature suggests that the mere awareness of the availability of social media through a cell phone or laptop is enough to decrease a student’s motivation towards an academic task. What impact does this have on their homework and studying experiences? How are university students able to successfully overcome or manage their motivational interference and complete assignments or study for their courses?

Central Research Question and Sub-Questions

To address these gaps in the literature, the initial central research question driving this inquiry was: How do university students describe their experiences with social media as they complete academic tasks outside of a classroom setting? Sub-questions included:

SQ1: How do university students define social media? SQ2: How and in what ways do university students feel that social media interferes

with their academic motivation outside of the classroom setting? SQ3: What factors influence student decisions to delay gratification from social media

while working on an independent academic task? SQ4: What strategies do students use to delay gratification from social media usage?

Methodology

Phenomenology is a qualitative methodology effective for exploring how individuals

experience a shared phenomenon (Creswell, 2013; Litchman, 2013). For this study, university students’ experiences with social media use while completing independent academic tasks (i.e., studying for an upcoming quiz or completing a homework assignment) outside of the classroom setting represented the central, shared phenomenon of interest. After obtaining approval from the university’s Institutional Review Board, the researchers recruited participants from undergraduate classrooms on campus. In order for participants to provide meaningful interview responses, experience with social media use and temptation while working on independent academic tasks was essential. Therefore, criterion sampling was employed to obtain participants who had experience with the phenomenon of interest. Students were offered a $15 gift card to the university bookstore as incentive to participate. The final sample consisted of 10 undergraduate students. Participants represented a variety of academic majors and grade levels. Ages of the participants ranged from 19 to 22 years old. A semi-structured interview protocol consisting of 12 open-ended questions was utilized. Interviews were conducted in an office setting on the university campus and were recorded and transcribed by the PI.

After conducting and transcribing the interviews, phenomenological data analysis techniques (Creswell, 2013; Moustakas, 1994) were used to identify emerging themes in the


responses. Initially, the PI explored the transcriptions using the preliminary exploratory analysis procedure advocated by Creswell (2012). During this preliminary analysis, critical memos were written within the transcripts in order to become closer to the data. The procedure of horizontalization advocated by Moustakas (1994) was then applied to the interview data. Through this step, “significant statements” related to university students’ experiences with social media were identified. The PI analyzed all of the transcriptions in order to identify significant statements relevant to answering the research questions guiding this study. These were provided to the secondary investigator for peer review, feedback, and continued analysis.

Following identification of these significant statements, researchers engaged in the lean coding process described by Creswell (2013). Through this approach, codes were assigned to the significant statements, resulting in 29 initial codes for the interview data. These codes were organized into “clusters of meaning” based on similarities in their content. For example, responses coded as “no perceived impact on homework quality” and “social media use impacts study quality” were merged together to form the “Perceived Impact of Social Media Use on Homework and Study Outcomes” theme. Codes were combined into clusters of meaning until the point of saturation was achieved and no new themes were emerging from the data (Creswell, 2012). This process resulted in the emergence of 11 themes related to university students’ in-class and out-of-class experiences with social media use. The emergence of these themes allowed for the researchers to generate a textural description of university students’ experiences with social media use while working on independent academic tasks outside of the classroom setting and of their experiences with social media use and temptation within the classroom.

Emergent Themes

The original purpose of this research was to explore university students’ out-of-class

experiences with social media use while working on independent academic tasks. However, participants from the very first interview until the last spoke about how social media temptation and use infiltrates their in-class experiences as well. Based on these findings, the themes that emerged from the participants’ responses can be classified into two distinct areas: out-of-class and in-class themes. We will identify and expand upon several of these key themes below. Out-of-Class Themes

Social media as a constantly available distraction. Many of the students were quick to suggest that the temptation to use social media is constantly present while they are studying or working on a homework assignment. For Chip, many of his homework assignments are computer-based in nature, which means that, “When I’m working on my homework it will be on my laptop and it (social media) is always just a click away.” Flo agreed, stating that social media is “right at my fingertips.” However, university students did not view this constant availability as a positive. Drew said that while social media is always available, “it can be a huge distraction” when he is trying to work on homework or study. Marissa lamented, “They (social media outlets) are available, but I wish they weren’t because it’s really distracting to me.”

Perceived impact of social media use on homework and study outcomes. University students almost unanimously described that social media use has two distinctly different impacts depending on whether they are working on homework or studying. The impact on homework quality was summarized by Kayleigh as, “The quality of the homework, not so much. I’ll spend the extra two hours if I need to.” Jordan agreed, stating, “I don’t feel like it affects the quality of


my work.” However, students sung a different tune when describing the impact on their study quality. By splitting his focus between social media and his study materials, Woody noted that, “It definitely does decrease your ability to study better.” Rose agreed, saying, “It definitely takes away from your retention.” For Kayleigh, the use of social media during study divides her attention and, once she shifts it away from her textbook and towards social media, she tends to “forget everything I just learned.”

Multiple factors influence social media use. Responses of the participants suggest several factors influence whether they will turn to social media while working on a homework assignment or studying. Computer-based assignments appear to increase the temptation to use social media. Dennis stated that “most of my stuff is computer-based,” while Jordan pointed out that, “If I’m going to be on my laptop, it’s just a click away in a new tab…I would say the urge is a lot stronger as compared to something offline.” Additionally, the due date of an assignment may cause it to seem less pressing, thus increasing social media’s temptation. When Flo is approaching a paper’s due date, she knows that she needs to “focus more on that than on the social media because I only have about two hours to do it.” Marissa said that the temptation to use social media is so easy to give into when a deadline isn’t pressing because “a big reason why I use it when I do homework is because I think I have a lot of time to do it.” Finally, personal interest in an assignment or study topic may enhance a student’s ability to delay social media use. Kayleigh said, “If I’m interested in it, then it’s not a problem. I could study it for hours.” In-Class Themes

Social media use as a regular in-class experience. University students described consistent use of social media during class, ranging from a few glances at their phones to extended use. For Marissa, use of social media begins when she takes her seat. “I would say (I use it) right away,” she said, “I think it’s just more of a reflex to check your phone and social media.” For others, the use of social media is spread through-out their time in class. Chip believes “you kill five or ten minutes every class on your phone,” while Flo estimates that she uses it “about half of the whole class time.” Drew wasn’t very far behind, suggesting that he uses social media “25% of the time” he is in class. Participants suggested that their in-class use of social media is a result of multiple factors, including: boredom, confusion, lack of interest in the course or topic, large class sizes, and the use of laptops to take notes during lectures.

Perceived impact on the academic experience. Participant responses suggest that their in-class of use social media has direct, negative impacts on their academic experiences. Kayleigh said, “If I’m texting or something else, that’s all I’m focused on. Then I get out of class and it’s like I learned nothing.” Marissa agreed, saying that focusing on social media during class “definitely takes away from my learning and how much information I retain.” Fortunately, instructors can help minimize these negative impacts. Participants suggested that when instructors include policies against cell phones and social media use in their syllabus and consistently enforce these policies during class, their temptation to use social media decreases.


Implications and Conclusions

The findings of this study suggest that the temptation and use of social media has become a prominent aspect of university students’ academic experiences, both within and outside of the classroom setting. Overall, university students tended to perceive their experiences with social media use as detrimental to their academic experience, but too tempting to overcome. Surprisingly, students reported a lack of self-regulatory strategies in order to offset the temptation to use social media. To combat against this growing distraction, university students should be made aware of the pitfalls of dividing one’s attention between distractions and an academic task. Additionally, university faculty would be wise to incorporate self-regulatory instruction into their pedagogy to arm students with the learning strategies necessary to negate the temptation of social media and other distractions. Finally, responses of the participants indicate that proactive in-class policies against cell phones and social media use are effective in minimizing the temptation to use social media during class, assuming these policies are included in the syllabus and consistently enforced by the instructor.

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processes. The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, 6(1), 1-20. Bembenutty, H., & White, W. C. (2013). Academic performance and satisfaction with homework completion among

college students. Learning and Individual Differences, 23(2), 83–88. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative

research (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fries, S. & Dietz, F. (2007). Learning in the face of temptation: The case of motivational interference.The Journal of

Experimental Education, 76(1), 93-112. Fries, S., Dietz, F., & Schmid, S. (2008). Motivational interference in learning: The impact of leisure alternative

activities on subsequent self-regulation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 119–133. Junco, R. (2012). Too much face and not enough books: the relationship between multiple indices of Facebook use

and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.026. Junco, R., & Cole-Avent, G.A. (2008). An introduction to technologies commonly used by college students. New

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Computers & Education 59, 505-514. Lichtman, M. (2013). Qualitative research in education: A user’s guide (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. McCoy, B.R. (2013). Digital distractions in the classroom: Student classroom use of digital devices for non-class

related purposes. Journal of Media Education, 4(4), 5-14. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rohwer, Jr., W.D. (1984). An invitation to an educational psychology of studying. Educational Psychologist, 19(1),

1-14. Abraham Flanigan, Department of Educational Psychology, 114 Teachers College Hall, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0345. [email protected]. Dr. Wayne A. Babchuk, Department of Educational Psychology, 114 Teachers College Hall, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0345. [email protected]. Presented at the Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, September 19-20, 2014.




Adult Literacy for Social Empowerment: Exploring the Motivations, Expectations, and Barriers of Women in Adult Learning in Adult Literacy

Programme in a Northern Nigerian State

Ayo Garuba

This paper presents the report of a study conducted on women participation in adult literacy programme (ALP) in Adamawa, a state within the North East zone of Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to find out (1) the factors that motivate women to participate in adult literacy programme as well as their experience of learning literacy and (2) the barriers they face in the course of learning literacy as well as how they cope with the barriers. Through a combined use of interview protocols and focused group discussions, twelve (12) female participants in three (3) different literacy centres were interacted with. Though there were common grounds, women motivations were found to be varied. The major motivators found to be common to all the women were marital considerations and perceived ability of ALP in leading to improvement in the quality of participants’ lives. Virtually all the women described their experience of learning literacy as interesting while the rigour of having to combine literacy learning with their normal household chores and family sustenance were considered challenging. The paper advocates a shift of approach from the present traditional primer model of adult literacy and numeracy delivery which tends to limit literacy learning to mere acquisition of basic skills of reading and writing to a social practice model with its emphasis on literacy as practice that is relevant to the immediate needs and concerns of people. The paper also suggests that themes such as healthy living, income generation and resource management should form the core content of ALP.

Background

Literacy is increasingly being seen as a development issue. With its affirmation as one of

the central factors in the attainment of global development aspirations especially in the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS), literacy has become a focus in development planning and strategy in virtually all the countries of the world irrespective of level of development. The Dakar Framework for Action specifically sets as one of its main target, the achievement of a 50 percent improvement in the level of adult literacy especially for women by the year 2015, and an equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults by the same year. This goal has now assumed a centre stage in the development programmes of the UN where it is believed that “literacy is crucial to the acquisition, by every child, youth and adult, of essential life skills that enable them to address the challenges they can face in life, and represents an essential step in basic education, which is an indispensable means for effective participation in the societies and economise of the twenty-first century” (United Nations 2002, Resolution 56/116). To further demonstrate her commitment to literacy, the UN declared 2003-2012 as the literacy decade and set four main targets as outcomes for the decade. Though these literacy targets have remained largely unachieved, the setting of the target has at least served to continue


to raise the status of literacy as a central issue in development of both the individual and the society. The global recognition of literacy as a factor in development has also been extended to poverty reduction programmes of countries and development agencies especially, the World Bank. The reason is not far farfetched. Literacy is both a cause and effect of poverty. In addition, incidence of illiteracy and poverty are both on the rise especially in sub Saharan Africa. More people are below the UN officially defined poverty level of one dollar per day (now 1.5 dollars)) while about 40% are functionally illiterate with 2/3 of these two categories being of female gender. The 2008 EFA reports indicate that poverty profile was more resilient in large households and those with no employed member, household with children and those whose members have limited education. This explains the emphasis on adult literacy as an integral part of most programmes designed to alleviate or reduce poverty.

To achieve the global target of halving illiteracy by the 2015, most developing countries (that house the highest population of world’s illiterates) have put in place strategies for addressing the literacy issue. Illiteracy is now seen as an issue that requires an all-out efforts and strategy to contain. For instance, Nigeria is presently concerned with re energising her adult education, the goal of which is “to revitalise adult and youth literacy by strengthening the commitment and capacities to improve and accelerate national literacy efforts” (UNESCO, n.d). In both the conceptualisation and implementation of most of these efforts and strategies, there is a special focus on the female gender. Again, Nigeria has the female gender as one of the prime concerns of the revitalising project. The third MDG is quite specific in recognising the fact of the unique role women play in the welfare of their families, a role which is being hampered by unhealthy and biased social norms and practices. The emphasis on women in the Dakar declaration may thus not be unexpected especially when considered against the fact that women and girl-children continue to trail behind in literacy statistics and remain in deplorable conditions of lives generally.

Despite all acclaimed efforts and affirmation at containing its scourge, illiteracy remains a major issue in development “and a global disgrace’’ (UNESCO, 2007; 1) particularly among the women folk. For instance, there has been steady rise in population of illiterates in Nigeria in the past two decades. In a news report, the Nigeria Education Minister has been quoted as lamenting that “the number of illiterate adults has increased by 10 million over the past two decades, to reach 35 million … Besides, Nigeria has the highest number of out of school children put at 10.5 million and based on this premise the Ministry of Education has intensified effort in the task of eradicating illiteracy” (Vanguard Newspaper Online, September 11, 2013).The problem of illiteracy is further aggravated by the fact that it has continued to receive ‘minimal political attention and ... [keep] one in five adults on the margin of society” (UNESCO, 2007; 1). The global gender dimension to the issue of literacy and the illiterates in is also manifested in Nigeria. For instance, the 2007 National Demographic Health Survey (2007) revealed that male literacy rate was 67.3% while that of the female 43.7%. Apart from its fact of being low and unacceptable, the gap between the male and female can also be considered alarming.

The concern of this paper is to explore the nature of women participation in adult literacy programme in the Nigeria by focusing on the factors that motivate them to participate in ALP, their experience of learning literacy and the barriers they face in the course of learning literacy. The main questions for this study is two fold; The first is, what factor(s) motivate or inhibit women participation in adult literacy programme and two, how does the women participants perceive the experience of learning literacy?


Literacy and Women Empowerment Literacy is popularly assumed to be an essential element in the empowerment of people

particularly the women. For instance, the theme for the 2010 UNESCO literacy day celebration was on empowerment of literacy and its importance for participation, social progress and citizenship. According to Bhola (1984), literacy is said to possess the capacity to effect change in the socio-economic situations and lives of people and society. Bhola however cautioned that the capacity being conferred on literacy in terms of furthering social and individual development cannot be claimed in the absolute. Assertions such as “literacy has been proved to be key to peace, health, and the economic success of people and nations” (Terryn, 2010); “Life without literacy is life without hope, security and freedom” (Ahmad 2010, p. 1) and “those who cannot read are unable to participate in the democratic process” (Pascal, 1991, p. 230) are all attempts to adorn literacy with a larger than life robe as if the literates are already immunized against social and economic deprivations. The point here is that there is a limit to the extent to which literacy can perform the magic of empowering individuals.

However, real or imagined, these assumed capacities of literacy are only acknowledgments of the fact that it is a major precursor of development. This is more so when experience has shown that the non literates are vulnerable to a lot of economic and social afflictions, the effect of which can be quite devastating both for the individual and the society. Though it has been argued that acquisition of literacy skills by women may not necessarily translate to higher social, economic and political status (Longwe, 1998; Punchner, 2003) but the fact still remains that exclusion of women from opportunities to benefit from literacy programme will tend to perpetuate their dependency status and remove them farther from the mainstream. Even when literacy is acquired, the extent to which the woman benefits from the newly acquired practice is determined largely by the socio-cultural milieu within which she operates. In a study of literacy for rural women in Mali, Puchner (2003) concludes that “the ideological forces within the communities studied would not allow women’s litracy to benefit women” (p. 440). In a similar vein Walter (2004) argued that women participation in literacy programme can be influenced by the overriding gender roles and relations in her society. Walter further argues that “an understanding of the gendered division of labour, women’s multiple gender roles (reproductive, productive and community) and their practical strategic gender needs became a powerful analytical tool in explaining their participation in the literacy programme” (p. 424). It is within this context that critical literacy now emphasises multiple literacies which centre on the various ways in which literacy is reflected in women life. Here literacy is seen as a power that can challenge existing practices that tend to engendered unfair cultural practices and put the woman in perpetual dependency. This is the position of Sen (1999) when he presents literacy as an empowerment tool which expands the agency of women. Women and Motivation for Literacy

The major distinctions between the adult and the child learner are the fact that the latter is autonomous and self-directed (Knowles. 1975. Motivation can be defined as the strength to pursue a goal oriented behaviour. The adult is in a programme of learning to achieve a goal and the pursuit of this goal provides the push and pull to forge ahead in the programme. Success in the programme is thus determined by the feeling that the programme will indeed lead to the attainment of the goal he/she has set to achieve. This informs Pintrick and Schunk’s definition of motivation as the “process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (2002; 5). Etymologically, motivation derives from the Latin term ‘motivu’ which means “ a moving


cause”. To Fraken (1994) motivation is the disposition that “leads to action through the interaction of biological, learned and cognitive activities. Though the adult is in a programme for a reason, different situations however present different reasons for the adult to want to learn in different context. For instance, while the need to acquire knowledge and skills for meeting job demands have been prominent among reasons for adult participation in learning emerging reasons that bother on quest for continuing relevance and competence in the new ICT dominated world now offer valid reasons for the adult’s engagement in learning. It is when learning activity is believed to be capable of furthering the attainment of an identified goal that such activity becomes relevant to the adult. Hence the need to identify the particular factor that propel the adult learner as it is this reason that will provide him/her with the motivation to forge ahead in the programme. Understanding the motivation for participation in educational activity serves to provide insights to human activities and provide basis for programme planning. Knowledge of underlining motivation for participation especially in adult learning programme can assist in arresting dropout as programme will now be tailored to meet specific needs and demands of participants.

Cyril Houle is generally acknowledged as the pioneer in the study of motivation for adult’s participation in learning programme. In his seminal work, (the inquiring mind), Houle (1961) identified three main learning orientations of the adult learner. The first is goal-oriented in which case the adult’s participation is premised on the need to attain a particular goal. Here education is seen as a means to achieve personal end. The second learner is activity oriented who takes part in learning for the sake of activity and for the social contact it offers while the third learner embarks upon learning mainly for learning sake in which case learning is not really attached to other benefits.

Cross (1981) has also built on the need hierarchy motivation theory of Abraham Maslow to come up with a two in one model that provides some understandings about developmental stages of adults, their participation as well as barriers in learning . In her popular book, Adults as Learners, Cross (1981) came up with Chain of Response (COR) and Characteristics of Adult as Learners (CAL) as frameworks for adult learning. Cross sees COR as the “rough beginning of a conceptual framework designed to identify the relevant variables and hypothesize their interrelationships" (Cross, 1981, p. 124). The second framework is the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) where Cross identified two classes of variables as central to adult participation in learning. The first refers to those variables that are personal to the adults: Physiological/Aging, Sociocultural/Life Phases, and Psychological/Developmental Stages. Situational characteristic is the second and these include variables like Part-Time Learning Versus Full-Time Learning and Voluntary Learning Versus Compulsory Learning. Cross borrows from andragogy in her frameworks as she attempt to emphasise the characteristics that differentiate the adult from the children in order to evolve an alternative teaching strategy that will seek to address the unique needs of the adult in learning. Cross herself attests to this when she states that some "of the assumptions of andragogy can be incorporated into CAL construct" (1981, p. 238). Though one may agree with Merriam and Cafarella (1991 who observed that the variables in Cross’ theory were too broad, the fact however still remains that Cross has offered a plausible explanation of motivation for adult engagement in learning. With her emphasis on the changing needs of the adults across the developmental stage, the synthesis of existing works and theories in adult learning and participation, Cross has presented a model for explaining the what, the when and the how of adult participation in learning. Little wonder Cross’ assertion that "If adult educators wish to understand why some adults fail to participate in


learning opportunities, they need to begin at the beginning of the COR model - with an understanding of attitudes toward self and education" (1981, p. 130).

From our theoretical exploration of adult participation in learning activities, it becomes obvious that adults are in learning environment for different reasons. For instance, since literacy serves different ends to different people, it is only natural to expect that women are in literacy classes for different purposes. Opportunity to be literate may just be one out of the many different reasons. What could be the other possible reasons?

The Study

Adamawa state falls within the northeast geo political zones in Nigeria. The country has

thirty six states divided into six geo political zones. A multi ethnic state, Adamawa is among the states officially classified as educationally disadvantaged in the country and a state with high incidence of poverty. It is also one of the three states currently under emergency rule as a result of the activities of boko haram insurgency. The Boko Haram insurgents have been described as “a group of Muslim faithful who, as a result of extreme and obviously misguided interpretation of religious codes see formal education as sinful and have consequently chosen to exclude themselves from participation in it”(Garuba, 2012; 77). The group now results to terrorism in the propagation of their belief. It must however be noted that this study was conducted before the official emergence of Boko Haram in the state and in the country generally. Adamawa is quite backward in terms of economic and educational development. In a study on knowledge, perception and beliefs about childhood immunisation in Northern Nigeria by the National Programme on Immunisation (NPI), it was revealed that the Northeast’s 70% is second to only Northwest in all poverty indicators among the zones in the country (NPI, 2006). Adamawa state has a total population of 3,168,101 out of which 1,606,123 representing 50.1% are female. However the woman in Adamawa state from which ever ethnic or religious inclination is disempowered as men hold all the aces in virtually all aspects of development. Being mostly non literate and economically dependent the woman is excluded from the mainstream including participation in decision making on issues that are critical to her as an individual member of the society. Methodology. A qualitative methodology was employed in the study. This allows for intense interaction between the researchers and the respondents. Twelve (12) female participants in 3 different literacy centres in Adamawa, a state in Northern Nigeria were involved in the study. The population for the study consists of all registered female participants in the state adult literacy programme. The total population is put at around 100. To obtain the sample for the study, the existing zoning arrangement in the state was followed with one local government area randomly chosen to represent each of the three zones in the state. The average age of the participants was 32 with 10 out of the 12 being married and the remaining 2 divorced. In‐depth, one‐to‐one interviews and focus group discussions were used as tools for data collection. Participants were asked direct open-ended questions about the reasons for their enrolment in the literacy programmes, their aspirations and expectations (including the specific activities they would expect to be able to perform at the end) from the programme, their experience on the programme, the various challenges they encounter and how they cope with the challenges. One FGD was latter conducted with all the four (4) participants in each of the three groups.


Findings and Discussions

The following three main research questions were posed to guide data collection, analysis and discussion: 1. What factors motivate women to participate in Adult Literacy Programme? 2. How do women participants in ALP perceive their experience of learning literacy? 3. What barriers do women face in the course of learning literacy and how do they cope with

the barriers? Presentations and discussions of findings on each of the above research questions now follow Women Motivation and Expectations

The findings on women motivation for, and expectations from participation in adult literacy were quite revealing and reasonably varied. Though there were common grounds, marital consideration appears to be the most palpable of all the factors motivating participation. Most of the women were in to polygamous marriage with most of them being the first wife of the marriage. In most of the cases the second and subsequent wives were literate. Some of the women felt inferior and unable to compete favourable in the world of African polygamy. Fatima (not real name) captured the whole scenario when she stated that “my husband and second wife always use turenchi (English) to scheme me out of their discussions most of the times in the house. I feel so inferior to her whenever she plays with her children in Turenchi in my presence and she is fond of flaunty her literacy especially when her friends visited” (interview with Fatima). On her part, Zainab felt the need to also (like the other wife in the house) be able to read her son’s school report and be able to assist him with class assignments. Hence her enrolment on the programme. Paradoxically, at another interaction not connected with the present research, Aisha (not real name), a senior executive in the administration of one of the tertiary institutions in the state and second of two wives in a polygamous home once told me that her mother had always been admonishing her “not to use my boko (school education) complex and lord it over my non literate senior (wife) in the house. It is worth noting that Faty’s mother was illiterate first wife in her own marriage. In all a total of 8 representing 66.7% of the total participants in the study cited marital consideration especially the sense of competition with mate(s) as one of the reasons for their participation in the literacy project. A significant number of the participants (N = 5) also cited the need to make up for lost opportunity to go to school as reasons for enrolment. Maryam, 36 years old divorcee presented her case in the following words: “had it been I had the opportunity to go to school early in life I wouldn’t have been here now doing what I am supposed to have done more than twenty years ago. I had wanted to be a ‘mistress’ (female school teacher) like aunty Carol who was living in my father’s compound but unfortunately my hope was dashed because my father married me out at a very tender age and here am I now struggling to be literate” (interview with Maryam). When pressed further on what she intended doing after completion of the ALP, she disclosed she would want to proceed further in her education so that she can at least be an adult literacy facilitator. This particular finding is in full accord with Cross (1981) who disclosed that the reasons behind adult engaging in learning is usually consistent with their life situations and circumstances. According to Cross, while people already in employment might be motivated to engage in further learning for professional advancement, married women with domestic commitment might be moved to participate in learning programmes in order to prepare them for employment (like Maryam in the present


study). Cross further disclosed that men are more concerned with job-related learning than women with domestic responsibilities.

The level of support and encouragement received from husband is another major consideration in women enrolment in adult literacy project. This is especially so where the husband himself was literate or work in government establishment. Three of the participants disclosed that it was their husband that introduced the programme to them. One participant, an only wife of a school teacher stated that the husband virtually had to compel her to enrol on the programme. Generally these findings are in agreement with the conclusion of Blair and McPake (1995) who examined the various motivators which can inform adults return to education. The duo established that adult participation is a product of the interplay of the purpose and circumstances. Participation is seen as the consequence of interaction between the two factors. Women experience of learning literacy

Virtually all the women described their experience of learning literacy as interesting. The joy of knowing they would be able to make up for lost opportunity was especially pleasant for Marya, a divorcee mother of two. However, a participant (Asabe) disclosed that she was disappointed with the programme as her expectation was that the Government would absorb them into the Special Assistant (SA) programme. SA is a poverty alleviation programme of the sate through which unemployed youth are given monthly stipend work in essential services like sanitation, agriculture, vocational training etc which would enable them. Asabe’s expectation was that adult literacy learners would be absorbed into the programme. One another experience the participants described as unpalatable is the lateness and irregular attendance of literacy facilitators in schools. Virtually all the participants lamented that the instructors have not been consistent in attending lesson and this has created a bad impression of the whole programme on the learners. As a matter of fact, it was revealed that at least one of the learners had lost interest and stopped coming to the learning centre. Perceived barriers to participation and mechanism for coping

Most of the barriers experienced by the participants are mainly in the category of what Cross (1981) described as situational barriers. Situational barriers are influences that are external and beyond the control of the adult. These arise mostly from the life circumstances of the adult at a particular time. The rigour of having to combine literacy learning with their normal household chores and family sustenance were considered challenging. Virtually all the participants indicated that they have to add the demands of learning with the burden of regular heavy domestic works and other gender roles. Children have to be prepared for school, food must be prepared for the household and the husband must be attended to. This finding is in tandem with the findings of Walter (2004) when he states that “gender roles and relations had overriding importance in explaining the women’s participation in the literacy programme” (p. 424). Some of the participants have been lucky to have supporting husband who have provided resources to enable them cope with challenges of their new status as adult literacy learners. This has helped greatly in assisting them to cope with barriers experienced in learning literacy. Hanatu disclosed that “my husband had been quite understanding and supportive. Since I started my literacy learning, he has employed an house help to assist with household chores” (interview with Hanatu). But Mary had not been this lucky as the spouse has been very antagonistic. When pressed for reason for the spousal antagonism she explained that the hubby tend to feel being in literacy class could expose her to other men or women who might influence her. It appears there


is a kind of complex in Mary’s husband uncooperative attitude to her wife’s participation in literacy learning. He felt becoming literate “would open my eyes and I might start querying his authority” (Interview with Mary). On how she has been coping with the seeming opposition of the husband to her participation in literacy learning, Mary disclosed that she has been persuading her husband to see the potential effect of her participation on their two children whom she would now be able to assist in their schooling. She had also had to enlist the intervention of one of her husband’s friend to help appeal to the student. She is however resolved to continue until “I achieve my objective of being able to help my children in their studies” (interview with Mary).

Conclusion and Recommendations

Knowledge, as Foucault (1995) would argue is power. This explains the increasing

realisation by Nigerian women that power is manifested in knowledge and that no effort should be spared to acquire knowledge even when it seems somehow late to start. The findings from this study have revealed that female adults’ decision to participate in literacy learning is informed by both long and short term expectations. The expectation is that participation in adult literacy programme will serve to empower them to be on a level playing field with both domestic and non-domestic competitors. This draws heavily on Cross (1981) who argues that adults’ expectation that participation in learning will produce an outcome is a determinant of the final decision to participate. These expectations can be tapped by both designers and facilitators of adult literacy programme to ensure continuing dedication and commitment of the participants. For the female adult literacy learners in Adamawa state, it is a case of toiling to learn as they have to manage a plethora of problems without some kind of institutional supports. Removing situational barriers to female participation in learning should be accorded top priority by both the National Commission for Mass Literacy and the State Agency for Mass Education. There is the need for a shift of approach from the present traditional primer model of adult literacy and numeracy delivery which tends to limit literacy learning to mere acquisition of basic skills of reading and writing to a social practice model with its emphasis on literacy as practice that is relevant to the immediate needs and concerns of people. To this end, an assessment of the learning needs and orientation of adults will be go a long way in making learning more meaningful and relevant to the adult learners especially, the female. Relevant themes like healthy living, modern child care, active citizenship, resource generation and management should form part of the core content of adult literacy programme. Adult literacy facilitators need proper training and orientation to put them on the same page with the orientation and aspirations of the learners. Facilitators and instructors must learn why the learners are in the learning centre and ensure that they identify the challenges and barriers the learners experience in learning and then design a way of addressing these challenges in order to sustain the learner in the learning environment. The learner must be assisted to appreciate the relationship between a learning task and his/her personal expectations from the programme.

References

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%20COMPLETEfinal1.pdf. accessed 18/07/2013. UNESCO (n.d).Revitalizing Adult and Youth Literacy in Nigeria.Available online http://uil.unesco.org/home/news-

target/revitalizing-adult-and-youth-literacy-in-nigeria/ba66a1d15c335563914d5e229e278288/. Accessed 25/04/2013.

Ayo Garuba, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


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http://uil.unesco.org/home/news-target/revitalizing-adult-and-youth-literacy-in-nigeria/ba66a1d15c335563914d5e229e278288/

A Woman President’s Identity, How Participation in an All-Women Community of Practice Influences Professional Identity: An Exploratory

Qualitative Case Study Results

Georgina M. Ginn, Frederick Kauser, and Sunny L. Munn

This study helps us to understand how participation in a community of practice (CoP), comprised of all women presidents of for-profit companies impacts a woman’s identity and what factors comprise a woman’s identity as a woman president. In-person or telephone interviews, one hour to one and a half hours in length, were conducted with 11 members of an all-female, all-president, CoP. The study demonstrates how gender influenced the formation and operation of specific learning practices for this CoP, illuminating the mechanisms women use to make such groups work for them in predominantly men-only environments. Findings demonstrate that the information women shared and exchanged was influenced by the meeting structure. If a participant was satisfied with the structure of the group, they were more willing to share and receive feedback from peers. Satisfaction with the group could also be linked to the woman president’s sense of increased confidence within their role.

Introduction

Headlines of multiple popular publications indicate a raised level of consciousness about women in professional settings and the types of networks they create for learning. A (Columbus) Business First article, states, “Women executives aren’t shy about turning to their peers for help to solve business problems and discover new approaches to leadership” (Tortora, 2012). Women business owners who take the time to build strong relationships and networks for their companies experience a positive impact (Tortora, 2012). This support system can result in leads for new employees and for new business. However, the overall intention of these groups is not to increase business; instead, it is to provide a safe place for women executives to share and learn new ideas regarding issues they face within their organizations (Tortora, 2012). Because women business owners invest in these types of relationships and expanded networks of support, the growth of women-owned businesses is surpassing that of male-owned companies by 1.5 times (Tortora, 2012).

Some would call what Tortora (2012) is describing a community of practice. A community of practice (CoP) is a group of people linked by common interests or motivations that come together—either spontaneously or through a sponsored initiative to improve their area of practice. Most CoPs are formed around a specific job field or task (Wenger, 1999). Specific to this study, the Women Presidents Organization was identified as a community of practice, utilized by women presidents to help grow their company.

Communities of practice differ from other types of work groups or professional organizations because a CoP can exist to help members form their identity within that position or area of practice. Participation in a CoP can also influence how the participants do their work and view other aspects of their lives (Wenger, 1998). Participation reaches far beyond the times that the community meets and can influence their identity in all other aspects of their life. For


example, in the fields of teaching and nursing there is an identity among those who practice in that field that is rooted in their profession and their role. Each of these professions has an established culture, identity, language, values, and norms that impact how individuals enter, navigate and engage the profession. These established norms aid in the formation and continuous evolution of the community as well as how that community of practice operates. In addition, communities of practice can be utilized throughout a person’s career to help the participant continue skill development with support from peers, thus adding to their professional identity (Booth, Tolson, Hotchkiss, & Schoefield, 2007; Tolson, McAloon, Hotchkiss & Schoefield, 2005).

Gomez and Rico (2007) identified three factors that must be present for a group to operate as a CoP (a) the presence of a leader; (b) members with similar experiences to draw from; (c) reference materials are available for members to refer to; and the creation of artifacts that contain a shared repertoire. If these attributes are present, then the group is operating as a community of practice and interdependent learning is promoted. When these factors are operating, communities of practice can impact a person’s identity or professional identity (Gomez & Rico, 2007). In addition, communities of practice can be leveraged throughout a person’s career to help the participant continue skill development with support from peers, further adding to their professional identity (Chinn, 2006). Several studies on CoP’s choose to distinguish the occupation of teacher and nurse (Gomez & Rico, 2007; Booth, Tolson, Hotchkiss, & Schoefield, 2007; Chinn, 2006; Tolson, McAloon, Hotchkiss & Schoefield, 2005). Their profession, they believed, had an impact on how the communities of practice formed and operated and their impact on the participants’ identity within that profession. That is why it is important to evaluate other types of communities of practice that are specific to other professions or roles. Each profession or occupation may have different cultural properties, values, norms and language that affect the operation of the group and the identity development of the participant. Studying how an all-female and all-president community of practice impacts the identity development of its participants will help to broaden the understanding of what is currently known about different types of communities of practice.

This void in the literature as to what actually happens within these communities and how it impacts a participant’s personal and professional lives has led to the need for this study. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to build an understanding of how participation in an all-women community of practice impact a woman’s identity as a president and what factors comprise a woman’s identity as a woman president. This research helps to deepen our knowledge of how an all-female community of practice operates and how it impacts the participants’ identity.

Sample and Methodology

Participants of this study are all members of the Women Presidents Organization (WPO).

Members of each chapter meet monthly. They utilize a roundtable format to solve problems within their organization, and share knowledge with other female presidents in hopes of improving the practice and innovation in each of their companies. A chapter has 20 members and all members are woman presidents from a company that grosses more than $2 million a year in gross annual sales or $1 million per year if in a service-based business. The woman president must also have some form of ownership in her company. Members must come from noncompeting organizations, and all members are required to sign a confidentiality agreement.


To pursue a study of the WPO as a CoP, a qualitative method of research design and inquiry was used to allow the voices of these female learners to serve as the center of the data analysis. Fifteen women were asked to participate. Of the fifteen, thirteen (87%) women responded and were interviewed. Eleven of the interviews were used for the purpose of analysis in relation to the research questions. Two of the interviews were used for the purpose of triangulation or to create creditability within the research by providing another source to validate inferences or messaging made by members or the researcher. One contextual interview was conducted with the President of the International organization and the other was conducted with the chapter chair in the area in which the study was conducted. Study participants were all members of one of two chapters. In-person interviews or telephone interviews, one hour to one and a half hours in length, were conducted with each participant to understand how the group functions and to gain insight on the role that gender plays within the community of practice and how their identity is influenced by participation.

All interviews were transcribed, coded verbatim and time stamped. The researcher and two peer reviewers completed the thematic analysis individually, and then met to discuss and compare findings. From the eleven interviews, 46 unique key words and themes were identified. The identifiers were reviewed and categorized; grouping like key words together to formulate the code book. The researcher also obtained feedback from faculty regarding needed revisions to the code book. The final codebook resulted in four primary themes that the women identified as shaping or influencing their identity as a women president.

Each of the primary themes is presented in Table 1.1 supported by one to four subthemes and several descriptors. The most prevalent theme was “Sisterhood”, an engendered “relational” theme identified simultaneously with gender and position within the group. The relationships that the women have forged from participation in this CoP had the greatest impact on their identity as a woman president. Additionally, the role of gender and language is foundational to each and embedded within each identified theme.

Table 1.1: Final Code Book and Themes Theme 1: Sisterhood: “It is nice to have a good ole girls’ network”

Subtheme A: Relationships with and between Members Refers to how the women discussed their relationships with other women in the group.

The women discussed how the close relationships that they forged have provided personal and professional support resulting in the growth and success of their company.

Subtheme B: Organizational Structure References discussions of organizational structure and experiences with and the outcome

of group participation. Subtheme C: Accountability Refers to how the women felt when their issue was presented to the group; whether they

felt accountable to report back on the issues resolution; and meeting attendance. Theme 2: Skills - “All the while you can have side conversations and pick some people out and say ‘I need to talk to you about this issue.’ ‘Here’s my situation, can you help me?’”

Subtheme A: Business and Technical Skills Acquisition References to the business and technical skills acquired to improve their company,

including hiring and firing skills; audit procedures; and implementing a new technology platform.


Subtheme B: Interpersonal Skills Acquisition References the women made to acquiring interpersonal skills required in their business, for

example speaking in front of a large group. Subtheme C: Implementation References made by the women towards changing an element of their management style or

trying out new skills learned within the group. Within this safe environment, the women can discuss or “try-out” different management styles. Some discuss employing certain tactics that may be commonly referred to as masculine or feminine management techniques.

Theme 3: Role Negotiation - “It’s your family, it’s your company and it’s your husband.”

Subtheme A: Balance References the women make to balancing of work, family, gender and title of woman

president. They discuss how this environment provides space to finding solutions for feeling guilty and apologizing because they cannot be everything to everyone at all times.

Subtheme B: Role within WPO References the length of time it took to feel like a fully engaged member (i.e., six months,

two years, etc.). Feeling a sense of trust and confidentiality among their fellow members before being comfortable enough to participate in the conversation or ask for advice on personal business matters was important.

Theme 4: Self Assurance - “Women face different challenges in business than men do…it’s nice to have a non-threatening environment…”

Subtheme A: Confidence References the woman made to a change in their confidence level and being able to more

fully embrace their role as a woman president. This increased confidence empowered them to make company, family and personal decisions more easily.

Subtheme B: Validation and Affirmation References to how the participation in an all-women group and the relationships that were

forged resulted in being able to attain the positive praise and validation that they had been lacking in their professional lives. This affirmation from peers resulted in an increased sense of self and ability to do her job.

Subtheme C: Confidentiality Reference to how the women discussed the concept of confidentiality and the impact that it

makes on the conversation within their meetings. The woman felt confident sharing issues they were struggling with making it a “safe place for the hard truth.”

Subtheme D: Creditability/ Legitimacy References how membership within the organization added creditability and legitimacy for

them personally as well as their company within the marketplace, especially with male counterparts.

Findings

The findings based on feedback given by the participants, indicate that the learning

occurring within the organization is influenced greatly by the meeting structure. Also the


woman’s identity as a president was most influenced by the support received from peers within the group. The support that they receive from their peers allows them to carry the confidence that they need to tackle other aspects of their presidency that they may have difficulty with without this support. The women describe how these close relationships have given them personal and professional support and further associated them with the growth and success of their company.

In describing the relationships that they have formed, the word sisterhood had common placement in the vernacular among the women. This was especially true for a small subgroup of women that have formed very close bonds in Chapter Two, Sammy, Sharon, Diane and Brandy (one of the women asked to participate but could not because of scheduling conflicts). As Sammy discusses, participation in the group has filled a void that she was feeling and experiencing as a woman president. Sammy states “the part of WPO from the support side of it that has been very important for me, and has plugged a hole for me emotionally. I've cried with those women, I've laughed with them. They've laughed and cried with me, and I think there's just a level of understanding.” Diane speaks specifically about her close relationship with Sammy and how she depends on this relationship to seek advice and be there to help make decisions or problem solve through certain business situations,

So, I mean, Sammy is one of my best friends, and so I can call her, and I can cry to her, and I know that she’s not going to judge me or be like, “What the hell’s your problem?” and [I] feel confident that she’s going to be there for me. If I need something, she will literally drop everything to make sure that I can … she could help. Literally, she would drop anything. Sammy and Diane’s comments are examples of how the relationships that they have formed within the WPO have become integral to their identity as a woman president. The women within the group and how they relate to one another is a part of who they are now, both personally and professionally.

Peer support was followed by the validation and affirmation received in regards to decision making. This validation and affirmation from peers led to an increased level of confidence in decision-making. Finally, the ability to share and receive feedback regarding how to balance work and family, described in stereotypical terms of the roles of mother and wife, allowed the women to more fully embrace their role as a woman president and communicate with their families.

Conclusion

The deep relationships that have developed over an extended period of time, within this all women’s CoP, support previous findings within the CoP literature that the group supports the development of a participant’s identity and further that this identity is translated into competence and confidence that is transferred into their enterprise. The study demonstrates how gender influenced the formation and operation of specific learning practices for this CoP, illuminating the mechanisms women use to make such groups work for themselves in predominantly male dominated career environments, such as the role of a woman president.

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School Press Georgina M. Ginn, Frederick Kauser, and Sunny L. Munn. Presented at the Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, September 19-20, 2014.


Understanding Preskill and Brookfield's (P&B) Model of Learning as a Way of Leading with Women of Achievement Awardees

Michelle Glowacki-Dudka, Ph.D., Cristina Vetor-Suits, Lois Weiss, and Katharine Herbert

Leadership and leaders each have their own unique qualities. Despite these differences, common characteristics can be found. Preskill and Brookfield (2009) sought out to explore these characteristics in their book, Learning as a Way of Leading: Lessons from the Struggle for Social Justice. Through their research they identified nine learning tasks that identify transformative leaders. These tasks include: 1) learning to be open to the contributions of others; 2) learning critical reflection; 3) learning to support the growth of others; 4) learning collective leadership; 5) learning to analyze experience; 6) learning to question; 7) learning democracy; 8) learning to sustain hope in the face of struggle; 9) learning to create community. This research project explored the leadership characteristics of the Indiana Women of Achievement awardees and how a graduate course examined these women through interview transcripts and aligned them with this leadership model. The interview transcripts were shared with each member of “The Institute of Transformative Leaders” and, together as a class, codified themes and recognized the strong connections these women had with their families, their determination, perseverance, and goal-oriented behaviors. This assignment assisted the class to transform as a unit, making decisions and collaborating in a research project.

Introduction

Learning as a Way of Leading: Lessons from the Struggle for Social Justice, published in

2009 by Stephen Preskill and Stephen Brookfield, explores and illustrates organic leadership originally established by Gramsci (1971) who wrote stories and biographies of leaders within social justice. Organic leadership is focused on assisting members to recognize how they can use their strengths to contribute to their cause (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009). Many times these leaders are humble community members working, contributing and leading their community forward in issues of social justice. Their service resembles that of a facilitator as they lead according to their experiences with the well being of the greater community in mind. In this manner they naturally emulate the organic leadership described (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009).

In the fall of 2013, a graduate course, “The Institute of Transformative Learners,” used the Preskill and Brookfield (2009) text and group exercises designed to draw out organic leadership strengths in order to model transformational leadership within the class. Through this experience the instructor recognized the connection between Preskill and Brookfield’s (2009) leadership model and stories shared during the recent interviews conducted with the “Indiana Women of Achievement” (IWA), awarded by Ball State University. First awarded in 1999, Women of Achievement has recognized outstanding achievements of more than 80 local women who have been instrumental in the lives of others and significantly impacted vital social movements through their leadership.


The instructor recognized that, as the learners reviewed the Preskill and Brookfield’s (2009) model of leadership, they could also gain understanding by analyzing these interviews with local women and applying their characteristics to the model. This also provided these graduate students, who came from diverse careers and majors, an opportunity to grow and publish together through research and within the context of the course.

Research Question

The research question used in this study was: How closely do the interview stories gathered from “Indiana Women of Achievement” awardees align with the nine leadership tasks as described by Preskill and Brookfield (2009) in their book, Learning as a Way of Leading: Lessons from the Struggle for Social Justice?

Methods

As described above, this research study was derived from the capstone project from the graduate level course. The students in the course analyzed interviews from twenty IWA awardees. The interviews were conducted by the instructor in the spring of 2013 prior to the course and archived for future projects. Permission for use of the interviews was granted prior to each interview. During the 60-90 minutes interviews, the awardees were asked to share stories of their professional and personal journey that brought them to their accomplishments. Personal characteristics, challenges, successes, mentorship, ways they supported other women, and words of advice were also discussed. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, shared back to the interviewee for member-checking, and posted on a secure, private website.

Within the leadership course, the students collectively created a code sheet, using information from the textbook to clarify and better understand the nine learning tasks. Each student examined and analyzed up to three interview transcripts using these codes, and organized them into a spreadsheet with columns for each quote, its location in the transcript, its corresponding learning task, and rationale. These spreadsheets were then compiled and reviewed by the whole class in order to affirm selections and categories for the quotes. The findings portion of the paper will include selected quotes fitting each learning task, along with the rationale for the quote.

Literature Review

Transformation and leadership in women often come from learning based on their own life experiences. As people grow and move through different life stages the way they see their own processes shift and their understandings and meaning making deepens. Espino, Vega, Rendón, Ranero, and Muñiz (2012) suggest that when women self-reflect, change occurs in women’s personas. Adapting to change and shifting actions has been a survival strategy throughout time, particularly in the realm of “social and institutional structures” (p. 456).

Taylor and Cranton (2012) share the value of establishing relationships and building the conditions that support their “ways of knowing” (p. 11). Transformational learning in women often occurs in environments or positions that question, examine, and revise perceptions, they can reexamine their frames of reference and better approach situations from a holistic view. When women are able to critically reflect and view interconnected relationships, they are more


capable of changing opinions and beliefs to guide social action (Regine, 2010). Learning then occurs when an alternative perspective arises and the individual questions, “previously held, perhaps uncritically assimilated perspective – rational process” (Taylor & Cranton, 2012, p. 8).

Women’s leadership and learning, while recognized as valuable, is still marginalized, especially as it pertains to their contributions to social movements and social change. In Iron Butterflies: Women Transforming Themselves and the World, Regine (2010) describes women in leadership roles worldwide whose feminine power leads to healing and social transformation. “In a complex environment and an interconnected world, skills associated with women will prove more and more effective and keenly pertinent: their holistic view of the world, their ability to see interconnections among things, their relational intelligence, their tendencies” (p. 15).

Findings and Connections to the Model

The Indiana Women of Achievement Awardees (IWAA) exemplify many of the

characteristics of transformative leadership as discussed in Preskill and Brookfield (2009) on a local and personal level. Their stories showed how each awardee learned to lead through their life experiences. It was these experiences that helped shape these women into the leaders that they are today. Some common themes found among the IWAA experiences as defined by Preskill and Brookfield (2009) included learning to be open to the contributions of others, learning to support the growth of others, learning to sustain hope in the face of struggle, and learning to create community. Given the limits of this paper, only four of the nine components of the model will be shared. More than 40 women participated in the interviews, but for this paper, only a few representative quotes are used to describe some of the connections to the model. Learning To Be Open To The Contributions Of Others

Many of the IWAA reported the importance of being open to the contribution of others. According to Preskill and Brookfield (2009), this means, “to hold in temporary abeyance our own assumptions and preconceptions so that we can consider fully what others want to contribute” (p. 21).

Terry Whitt-Bailey, Director of Community Development for the City of Muncie, Indiana, stated, “I think even the sign of a good leader is to bring people along in your team and in your circle, who have that expertise, that are smarter than you” (personal communication, Line 423-424). Annette Craycraft, a women and children’s advocate, also noted the importance of working with others as seen by her comment,

I always try to work well, especially with people who didn't agree with me. The other thing is I try to when someone doesn't agree with me, I always hear them out, listen to their side. I sometimes feel like I learn more about an issue if I don't necessarily agree with them but can understand where they're coming from. (personal communication, Line 328-332). Learning To Support The Growth Of Others

Supporting the growth of others was an important theme found among many of the IWAA. Preskill and Brookfield suggest that practices such as “listening, staying curious about others, asking constructive questions, learning stories of co-workers, and championing follower goals” (p. 62) are powerful ways to support others in their development. Mary Dollison, a teacher and community leader who work with youth shared,


I would tell women to first of all try to feel good about themselves and take good care of themselves. And then try to help other women to know that they can do whatever. I work with a lot of students from Africa and other cultures and they overcome so many struggles to succeed (personal communication, Line 492-495).

Annette Craycraft also felt that it was important to support others in their personal growth. “In my workplace I am not a micromanager because I want people to have the autonomy to grow and find their own strengths and then to know to come to me when they need help. I think that's really important in delegating things to people so they can grow” (personal communication, Line 374-376). Terry Whitt-Bailey summed up this critical skill of transformative leadership as, “It's not about me bringing spotlight to me. It’s about others” (personal communication, Line 329). Learning To Sustain Hope In The Face Of Struggle

When writing about hope and struggle, Preskill and Brookfield (2009) differentiated between “naïve hope” and “critical hope” (p. 171). Naïve hope pronounced change, but without effort or challenge; whereas, critical hope seeks to support social justice through an active struggle. Each of the IWAA shared experiences of personal struggles at some point in their lives. Despite these personal challenges and the professional obstacles that they faced, each IWAA found hope that they could make changes.

Jane Hardisty, Indiana State Conservationist stated, “It is challenging out there when your budgets are getting cut, your resources are limited but you are still expected to do as much work. You have got to be creative, be a change agent no matter what…” (personal communication, Line 149-151). Learning To Create Community

Creating community, the final chapter in Preskill and Brookfield’s text (2009) is where a group of people can come together around a common purpose greater than themselves. The act of community building was important to each IWAA. Roni Johnson, former Executive Director of the Community Foundation of Muncie and Delaware County, identified early on in her life the importance of giving back to the community through service. “So there was that sense of community and responsibility back to people who have helped you” (personal communication, Line 16). Roni’s commitment to the community is evident by her comment, “I also felt this sense of wanting to do more, because this is what you did, especially if you live in the community…” (personal communication, Line 19-20). This sentiment of wanting to give back was common among most of the awardees. They often shared the bible quote, “To whom much is given, much will be required” (Luke 12:48).


A Summary of the Findings/Conclusions

The IWAA women highlighted in this study exemplified many of the leadership characteristics discussed in Preskill and Brookfield (2009). The students recognized that the stories of these women were rich with examples of each of these characteristics and how they were developed over the course of their lives. The students described how each woman demonstrated individual transformative leadership characteristics, and recognized their value of interconnectedness and open communication. These women never placed their own importance above others; rather they viewed themselves as equal to those they led. Without diminishing themselves, they allowed others to grow and encouraged the use of their gifts and talents collectively for the benefit of the community in which they lived. All of the women understood the value of their own experiences, as well as the experiences of others and enthusiastically advocated for those in the community who did not have a voice.

Beyond the nine characteristics of the leadership model, the graduate students noted other significant themes demonstrated among these women who found themselves in positions of influence and leadership. For example, the graduate students recognized that each woman identified strong connections to their families and were influenced by their family values. Students discovered and recorded characteristics of determination and perseverance as secondary theme in each of the interviews. While each story was unique, students identified and included all possible barriers these women experienced, which required hard work and commitment to overcome in order to accomplish bring their visions to fruition. Another significant theme found in the interviews was that the women were goal-oriented. Students suggested that each woman began with a desire to learn and diligently sought to apply that learning beyond what their initial circumstances allowed. As a class, the Institute of Transformative Leaders highlighted these women’s experiences and relationships, which impacted their goal and accomplishments.

The graduate students within the Institute of Transformative Leaders also recognized a common theme of humility in regards to their work and achievements. Many of these women highly valued being mentored themselves, and therefore provided mentoring and professional opportunities for others. Whether intentional or not, these women worked to create a new path for other women to walk and experience. The actions of these revolutionary women aligned with Preskill and Brookfield (2009) by self-reflection within existing leadership structures or routines that had been established and recognized their own need for change or need to adapt in order to better service the greater community.

Implications of Applications to Practice/Theory

The women leaders chosen for this study exemplify the ideas of organic intellectuals posited by Gramsci (1971) and transformative learning by Mezirow (1991). Each of these women experienced times of oppression whether it is from their culture or the social/political context of their world. Through formal and informal educational experiences, these women were transformed and became agents of change in their communities. By examining and reflecting on aspects of their lives, their stories can inspire and serve as models for other women who face a similar journey of leadership.

Undertaking this research project as a class, the students learned how to recognize these themes with examples from the Preskill and Brookfield (2009) text and in class discussions. They were able to connect with the various leaders on a more intimate level and see that


although leaders are celebrated for their achievements, much effort and learning has gotten them to that point in their lives. When digging into the life narratives of the IWAA, the students could travel through some of the challenging journeys with the women and take away lessons for their own lives. Through the experiences within the context of the class, the students were able to collectively and successfully analyze behaviors and characteristics and recognize similar themes. Other leadership courses could include work with biographies or personal stories that make the celebrated leader more human and connected to the lives of the learners.

References

Ball State University: Communications Center (nd). Empowering Women--Panel Discussion. Retrieved from https://apps.bsu.edu/CommunicationsCenter/Story.aspx?CategoryID=90&MessageGuid=6CBD280B-9A8A-4178-AB65-BACEFDEDC2E7&OptIn=Y

Espino, M. M., Vega, I. I., Rendón, L. I., Ranero, J. J., & Muñiz, M. M. (2012). The process of reflexión in bridging testimonies across lived experience. Equity & Excellence In Education, 45(3), 444-459.doi:10.1080/10665684.2012.69818

Gramsci, A., Hoare, Q., & Smith, G. N. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, New York, International Publishers Co.

Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Preskill, S. & Brookfield, S. D. (2009). Learning as a way of leading. Lessons from the struggle for social justice.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Regine, B. (2010). Iron butterflies: Women transforming themselves and the world. New York: Prometheus Books. Taylor, E., Cranton, P. , & Associates. (2012). The handbook of transformative learning. San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass. Michelle Glowacki-Dudka, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Adult, Higher, and Community Education, Ball State University, [email protected] Cristina Vetor-Suits, Doctoral Student of Adult, Higher, and Community Education Program Burris Laboratory School Faculty, Ball State University; [email protected] Lois Weiss, Doctoral Student of Adult, Higher, and Community Education Program Ball State University; [email protected] Katharine Herbert, Graduate Student of Adult, Higher, and Community Education Program Administrative Coordinator, Chemistry Department Ball State University; [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


https://apps.bsu.edu/CommunicationsCenter/Story.aspx?CategoryID=90&MessageGuid=6CBD280B-9A8A-4178-AB65-BACEFDEDC2E7&OptIn=Y

https://apps.bsu.edu/CommunicationsCenter/Story.aspx?CategoryID=90&MessageGuid=6CBD280B-9A8A-4178-AB65-BACEFDEDC2E7&OptIn=Y





An Oral History of Women’s Week at Ball State University

Courtney Jarrett

This research examined the annual Women’s Week events hosted by Ball State’s Women’s and Gender Studies Program. It served to paint a historical picture of how the local Muncie community has been linked with the academic community at Ball State through events about women’s issues. The program began when a group of people wanting to broaden the educational offerings and evolved into an academic program that brings community education related to women’s issues to the Ball State campus. This research used qualitative research interview with four key informants to examine the community links and history of Women’s Week at Ball State University by answering two specific research questions. The participants described their roles in the Women’s Week events from organizing the program to presenting about their lifelong passions.

Introduction

Traditional historical accounts have robbed women of their place in history by burying

rather than illuminating women’s stories and lives (Gluck, 1977). In the official written history of Ball State University (Edmonds & Geelhoed, 2001), the Women’s and Gender Studies Program is not once mentioned. Edmonds and Geelhoed (2001) mentioned other programs and departments formation and their achievements, but did not mention Women’s and Gender Studies directly. The only note in the Edmonds and Geelhoed (2001) history related to women’s studies was a protest led by the student group, Feminists for Action, when Ball State University was labeled a “party school” by Playboy (p. 255). This omission is consistent with histories of higher education institutions that fail to mention women’s and gender studies programs and the impact on the institution (Bowles, 2009; Crowley, 1999; Ginsberg, 2008).

Women’s and gender studies as a discipline within higher education was created in order for both men and women to learn about issues not normally discussed in formal education, such as the role women played in history and in issues of gender and class (Lucas, 1996).

Women, especially, have often used learning as a way to change their social status and move forward in society (Klein et al., 2007). Historically, women’s and gender studies has been a discipline where feminist activism and ideology can connect with academia, creating space where students can learn about new issues and move forward in society. Oral histories about women have helped fulfill a feminist goal of countering patriarchal histories with more inclusive versions that reveal and validate women’s lives and contributions (Gluck, 1977).

History of the Ball State Women’s and Gender Studies Program

The atmosphere was set for change in the 1970s at Ball State University. People were reading The Feminine Mystique, Ms. Magazine, and hearing about Roe v. Wade in the news. Things really got started for Women’s Studies at Ball State University in the summer of 1971. The History Department sponsored a series of films and presentations, entitled, “Adam’s Angry


Rib: Women on the Move.” Many of the speakers were prominent national feminists and large groups of people attended.

After one of these presentations, a group of people went out for conversation and drinks. The idea of creating a course in Women’s Studies was discussed. Aware that there was a national trend towards programs and departments, this group felt that Ball State should be part of the movement. They made the decision to start the arduous paperwork process. The two people most influential women in this process were Sharon Seager and Betty Newcomb. They were aided in their efforts by Victor Lawhead, Dean of Undergraduate Programs, who offered his support during the process.

With this support and because of these individuals’ hard work, the first Women’s Studies class (ID 210) was taught in the Spring of 1972. ID was the title for the interdisciplinary aspects of the class, and it was team taught by Seager, Newcomb, and Marie Vogel. It was comprised of 60 students, a huge class compared to those is taught in Women’s and Gender Studies today. No one had been trained in Women’s Studies, not at Ball State, not anywhere. The instructors relied on helpful librarians for books, as well as guest lecturers from campus and the local community.

The movement continued with more speakers, like Shirley Chisholm, and more classes. An informal Women’s Studies Committee was formed in 1974. In 1975, Richard Burkhardt, the Dean of Faculties, gave the committee official status and asked them to create a program that would house a minor in Women’s Studies.

Althea Stoeckel, a professor from the History Department, became the first chair of the Women’s Studies Committee. The committee worked on getting more courses approved, and by 1977, there were 12 new courses being taught in several disciplines. Securing these approvals they shifted their focus to getting the minor approved, and that was accomplished in December 1980.

The decade of the 1980s led to several further changes, including the naming of a new chair of the Women’s Studies Committee. In addition a quarterly newsletter was published for started, published for a few years, and then discontinued. In lieu of a newsletter, The Purple Sheet began later in the 1980s. Publication was sporadic, having been stopped for a few years, but was later resumed so friends and alumni of the program could be updated to the news from the program. In 1986, Women’s Studies received their first office space, in North Quad room 113/114. Also in this decade the committee was at long last given official program status, and underwent a title change, to become known as the Women’s Studies Program. The program has gone through several name changes since then and is currently known as the Women’s and Gender Studies program.

The 1990s was a time of continued growth for the program. Women’s Studies originally gained more room in North Quad for the expanding program, but by 1999, the program moved to its current space, Burkhardt Building 108. Throughout this decade, the program continued its outreach and activism activities. Over time, the program has sponsored a Lunchtime Book Discussion Series, the Winterfest Information Fair, and Women’s Week. The Women’s Studies program is a member of the National Women’s Studies Association, and has had a collaborative, work relationship with several community agencies. Some of these include, the American Association of University Women, A Better Way, League of Women Voters, Ball Memorial Hospital, Planned Parenthood, Habitat for Humanity, and the National Organization for Women.

From 1994 until 2009, the Director of the program was Dr. Kim Jones-Owen. She was instrumental in moving the program forward with classes designated specifically as Women’s Studies classes, as well as the new major in Women’s Studies. In 2005, the very first major in


Women’s Studies graduated, and many more have followed. Julee Rosser was named the Acting Director of the program in 2009. The Dean of the College of Sciences and Humanities appointed a new Director, Dr. Lisa Pellerin, from Sociology. She has been the Director from the summer of 2009 to the present day (2014).

Description of the Women’s Week Program

Women’s Week is an annual event at Ball State University planned by the Women’s and

Gender Studies program to celebrate the achievements and experiences of women. Women’s Week is held during the last week of March to coincide with National Women’s History Month. The Women's and Gender Studies Program at Ball State University is an interdisciplinary program embracing a wide variety of academic approaches relevant to the study of women, gender, and feminisms in contemporary and historical societies.

Research Questions & Methods

The research questions that guided this study were:

1. How do the organizers who were involved in the Women’s Studies program describe their experiences in creating events and activities for Women’s Week?

2. What are the perceptions of the organizers regarding how these events linked Ball State University and the local Muncie community? Through qualitative methods for collecting data, I preserved the stories themselves and

coded the interviews for an analysis of content. I emphasized the stories that the participants told. Oral histories of the Women’s and Gender Studies Program as well as the Women’s Week events themselves were preserved through the telling of their personal stories.

The methodology for this oral history included narrative inquiry with critical feminist analysis from data gathered by interviews with four participants. Each of the participants has played a part in Women’s Week, both past and present. Three of them worked directly for the WGS program and one was a community member who both attended events and presented. The narrative inquiry involved asking a set of predetermined questions, but allowing the participants to speak freely and off-topic. This allowed new ideas and stories to be included in the overall oral history created in this project. The critical feminist lens allowed me to analyze the participants’ stories and the archival data by showing the connection between individual experiences and societal contexts, specifically the context of Ball State University. Their stories and the history of Women’s Week were analyzed along with the archival data from the program to create a detailed oral history of the activities of Women’s Week from 1988-2008.

Research Themes & Findings

Based on a critical feminist analysis of the information gained through the interviews,

five prominent themes have emerged. They include: 1. Specific ways in which community members have participated in Women’s Week. 2. Challenges to organizing Women’s Week. 3. Collaboration and support between Ball State University and the community of Muncie,

Indiana.


4. Camaraderie through Women’s Week 5. Women’s Week as a broader view of feminism and women’s studies

Participants shared many stories from their experiences with Women’s Week programming.

Themes emerged from this information and were strengthened by the archival data. Stories that may have never been recorded are now preserved for future generations of WGS students and alumni.

Overall, the participants of this research project have provided some vital information on how Women’s Week at Ball State University has been organized and how the local community has participated. They discussed challenges and growth for the events. The participants also described ways that they built camaraderie amongst themselves and the participants during Women’s Week. Finally, several of the participants discussed the benefits of participation for those who attend, including knowledge about feminism and Women’s Studies that they can use outside the college setting.

Recommendations

Women’s Week should continue and grow upward and onward, with or without direct

university funding and support. The program should go back to its roots and involve more community members with the planning, organization, and overall attendance. The Women’s Week committee should be recreated so that the current Director and Administrative Coordinator do not shoulder the whole burden. The committee could be made up of volunteer faculty, staff, students, and community members. The committee could utilize feminist program planning topics (Bracken, 2008; English, 2006; Tisdell, 1998) for future planning and leadership. Tisdell’s (1998) discussion of themes of positionality or difference, the construction of knowledge, voice, and authority should be really beneficial to the structure and content creation of events for future Women’s Week.

Student involvement is also important. They are just being introduced to feminism, and are beginning see the social structures that marginalize others firsthand. They are eager to be active with their newfound feminism, and they are willing to help out with events, advertising. They can and should be a big asset. Women’s Week can be better and I hope to help it thrive.

A final recommendation that comes from this study relates to the way to transfer research outcomes in qualitative research. While, it is not important or even possible to generalize the results of the research, lessons learned from this specific example may be shared with other programs. The events and activities from Women’s Week might be compared to another university’s outreach programs, but the stories from the participants are uniquely their own.

References

Bowles, G. (2009). Living ideas: A memoir of the tumultuous founding of Berkeley women's studies. Self-published. Bracken, S. (2008). Submerged feminism(s)? Perceptions of adult education students experiences with women's

studies scholarship. In J. K. Allen, D. R. Dean, & S. J. Bracken (Eds.), Most college students are women: Implications for teaching, learning, and policy. (pp. 159-172) Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Crowley, H. (1999). Women's studies: Between a rock and a hard place or just another cell in the beehive? Feminist Review, 61, 131-150.

Edmonds, A. O., & Geelhoed, E. B. (2001). Ball State University: An interpretive history. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.


English, L. (2006). A Foucauldian reading of learning in feminist, nonprofit organizations. Adult Education Quarterly, 56, 85-101.

Ginsberg, A. E. (2008). The evolution of American women's studies: Reflections on triumphs, controversies, and change. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Gluck, S. (1977). What's so special about women? Women’s oral history. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 2(2), 3-17.

Klein, S., Dwyer, C.A., Fox, L., Grayson, D., Kramarae, C., Pollard, D., & Richardson, B. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook for achieving gender equity through education, (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Lucas, C. (1996). American higher education: A history. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Tisdell, E. (1998). Poststructural feminist pedagogies: The possibilities and limitations of feminist emancipatory

adult learning theory and practice. Adult Education Quarterly, 48, 139-157. _________________________________________________________________________ Courtney Jarrett, Ed.D., Associate Director, Disability Services, & Affiliate Faculty, Women’s & Gender Studies Program, 2000 West University Avenue, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, 47306, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



The Wii as an Educational Tool for Anatomy and Physiology

James D. Justus

Embodied learning is an educational theory based on the role of the body in the learning process. Researchers in the field of cognition provide compelling evidence that our bodies are the nexus of learning experiences. Anatomy and Physiology is taught today the same basic way it was taught fifty years ago. Then, didactic lecture, the blackboard and overhead projector were the methods of choice. Today, all that has changed is that the blackboard has been replaced by the whiteboard and the overhead projector with power point presentations. This paper details one possible approach of using the Nintendo Wii gaming system as a tool for the study of Anatomy and Physiology.

Introduction The material taught in beginning Anatomy and Physiology classes at the college level is

difficult to grasp. The complexity of the material, coupled with the time frame allowed, the amount of material to be covered, and the inexperience of first year students can make the task overwhelming. There is a large amount of memorization of basic material involved. The brain’s ability to organize this quantity of material in the time frame allowed is problematic. Methods used by students to overcome this are repeated drilling or various mnemonic strategies. Newer techniques use cognition and chunking. Cognition uses the learner’s ability to place material in context and use it in a thoughtful mode. Chunking involves categorizing information into workable groupings.

Embodied learning takes the above methods to a new level and involves the physical body in the learning process. Physical activities over time and space leave a neurobiological imprint which makes connections throughout the body, particularly the neural and endocrine systems. It is hypothesized that the body-brain interaction forms new neural pathways, thus allowing additional, more effective neurotransmission within the brain (M. Zemansky, personal communication, 2007). This is similar to a long distance runner developing additional capillaries for the perfusion of blood to the tissues.

The Nintendo Wii was introduced in December 2006. Since that time it has grown in both games and applications. In 2007, a hackers group announced they hacked the system and produced open source “wii-ware” available to anyone. Nintendo has also provided source information to potential programmers. This allows almost unlimited ability to develop game style programs which can be used for educational experiences (Randall, 2009).

The Nintendo Wii is a game console which connects to a user’s television. Application and game discs load into the console. The primary controls for the system are a Wii remote, a Wii wand, and a Wii balance board; there are also several other adaptive devices which can be used for specialized tasks. What makes the Wii system so popular is that it is easy to install and use. By using the various controllers, objects can be manipulated in a realistic manner.

The Wii has been used in several settings to assist with the instruction of individuals with disabilities (Agmon, Perry, Phelan, Demiris, Nguyen, 2011). The game system has also been used to improve surgical skills using nonsurgical tasks (Boyle, Kennedy, Traynor, Hill, 2011; Bashanaev, Baido, Wexner, 2011). Goris (2014) developed a Wii based game to develop physical skills needed for the use of laparoscopic equipment under conditions similar to actual events: lack of depth perception and inverse movements.


Although the Wii is used for practicing surgical procedures and knowing the anatomy involved for those procedures, no generalized anatomy game/software has been published. The Wii system can be easily adapted to assist students with their study of anatomy and physiology. Since the Wii system is readily available, it can be used both in the classroom and at home. A used system can be purchased for as little as $30.00 at a game store.

Wii for Anatomy and Physiology

The concept for a Wii game for anatomy and physiology first came to me while watching

my wife and her grandson play “Running with Cows”. The players and course reminded me of a RNA replication video that I had presented to a class. After some consideration I determined that it would not be hard to adapt the game system to concepts studied by anatomy and physiology students.

One of the games that our classes play in class is a race to put two skeletons together that are completely disassembled. The first team to correctly assemble the skeleton wins. This provides an excellent example of both embodied learning, as the students must touch, feel, and handle the parts to put the skeleton together. The obvious limitation to this exercise is that there are only two skeletons and they can not be taken home.

Taking this game one step further and adapting it for the Wii system would allow students to complete the same task at home either by themselves or with a co-player. The bones would have to be manually manipulated with the Wii controllers and placed in their proper orientation. The major plus side to this is that students could put the skeleton together as many times as required to develop proficiency with the skeletal system.

Students have a difficult time understanding the concepts involved with light transmission through the eye, the optic nerve and to the brain. Using the Wii system, students could use the controller to manipulate light photons and the molecules that they interact with when entering and encountered in the eye. The various chemical pathways and chemical conversions are complex and difficult to grasp for the first year student. Variations could take into consideration day vision, night vision and color blindness. The controller could be used to manipulate the chemical reactions that take place to allow vision in a virtual environment

The controller allows for manipulation of virtual objects in a 3-D virtual environment. Animation of the constructs allows for a dynamic environment to be constructed. Examples of this would be alveolar gas exchange and renal tubular ion exchange. The student would be required to move gas molecules within the blood stream to the alveolar sacs where gas exchange takes place and then exchange the correct molecules to keep the blood chemistry correct. This would also require students to manipulate enzymes and intermediate products.

Summary

First year students studying anatomy and physiology have a difficult task, especially if

they are non-traditional students. The material is complex, requires a lot of memorization, and time is limited. Students who use meta-cognition and embodied learning techniques have a less difficult time.

The development of a series of game modules based on the popular Nintendo Wii would have similar advantages. The combined physical cognitive interaction would reinforce and develop deeper cognitive abilities of the subject matter. Due to the low cost of the gaming


system, it would be an affordable addition to the classroom, or for the student to use at home. The ability to pursue the subject matter in the convenience of the home allows the student better opportunities for self-directed or self-guided learning experiences. Practicing the concepts in the privacy of one’s home also relieves the stress many first year students feel about making errors in the classroom in front of their peers. The gaming modules would are not designed to replace the conventional classroom education, but would enhance the overall learning experience of the students.

References

Agmon, M. P. , Phelan, C.K., Elizabeth, Demiris, G, Nguyen, H. (2011) A Pilot Study of Wii Fit Exergames to Improve Balance in Older Adults. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy. .

Bashankaev B, Baido S, Wexner S.D. 2011. Review of available methods of simulation training to facilitate surgical education. Surgical Endoscopy. 25, 28-35.

Ching-Hsiang, S., Yeh, J., Ching-Tien, S., Chang, M. 2011. Assisting children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder actively reduces limb hyperactive behavior with a Nintendo Wii Remote Controller through controlling environmental stimulation. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 32(5), 1631-1637.

Goris J, Jalink M, Hoedemaker H. 2014. Training basic laparoscopic skills using a custom-made video game. Retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40037-013-0106-8#page-1

James D. Justus, MPA, MLScm (ASCP), Adjunct Instructor, Ivy Tech Community College, 7536 W. County Road 700 South, Jamestown, IN 46147, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00464-010-1123-x

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00464-010-1123-x

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0891422211000898



http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40037-013-0106-8%23page-1


Task-Based Language Teaching in the Business Chinese Classroom

Liu Li

Business Chinese instruction can prepare students for jobs in international business as well as improve their Chinese proficiency. One current instructional method is Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) which promotes learning through pedagogical tasks. Students are scaffolded to carry on tasks while the teacher acts mainly as a language guide. Since doing business involves various tasks, TBLT can teach both business knowledge and language skills. This paper examines the characteristics of Business Chinese and TBLT, and discusses how TBLT is suited for Business Chinese instruction. The basic steps of TBLT are examined. A sample lesson plan is included to show how TBLT can be used in the Business Chinese classroom. This TBLT lesson plan illustrates how TBLT can be used to teach Business Chinese by implementing pedagogical tasks that mirror real world business situations. It serves as a reference for other instructors.

Introduction

With the rapid development of Chinese economy, there is an increasing demand for

Business Chinese around the world. Despite this growing interest, the field of Business Chinese is still rather new. Little research has been done on how to teach Business Chinese in classrooms. International business consists of individual tasks such as email writing, presentations, and meetings. The pairing of Business Chinese instruction with Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) will help prepare students for careers in international business with China.

The goal of this paper is to show that TBLT is an effective method of Chinese instruction for the Business Chinese class. In this paper, I will first investigate the field of Business Chinese instruction and the basic theories behind TBLT. Then I will demonstrate the application of TBLT in a Business Chinese classroom. The sample TBLT lesson plan not only teaches students Business Chinese but also guided them to use the target language in authentic business settings.

Background

Business Chinese Business Chinese is designed to meet the needs of learners who will be/are in business

occupations. Since Business Chinese is just burgeoning, there is little research in the field. Researchers and educators have to draw upon the theories and applications in related fields such as English for Special Purpose (ESP), which has become popular since 1960s’, and has produced rich achievements in research and application. Recently, some studies showed successful application of TBLT in Business English class (e.g. Hyde, 2013). The research on ESP provides useful insight into Business Chinese instruction.

Like Business English, the roots of Business Chinese lie in the analysis of the language and situations that take place when Chinese is used by business professionals. Specialized languages and professional jargons usually refer to the specific discourse used by professionals


in order to communicate and transfer information and knowledge of international business. Business Chinese, therefore, can be considered a unique genre. Researchers use genre-analysis to study Chinese in the business sector to find out what kind of specialized language can be categorized as part of the unique domain of Business Chinese.

Students of Business Chinese must develop an awareness of this specific genre in order to handle various business situations effectively. This means that students need to be aware of what is appropriate in Business Chinese at the word, sentence, and discourse level. Instructors need to develop their lessons in such a way that students can internalize vocabulary, sentence patterns and discourse structures used specifically in Business Chinese. This genre knowledge of Business Chinese needs to be built up through exposure to authentic business discourse, explicit instruction of the genre, and opportunities to produce language. Instructors can combine these aspects through TBLT. Business Chinese Learners

In a Business Chinese class, instructors should first take into account the learners’ background knowledge and their goals of taking the course. Students taking Business Chinese usually have rather diverse backgrounds. In terms of working experience, they can roughly be divided into two groups: pre-job experience students and job experience students. The students’ exposure to the business skills in their native language affects the amount of business knowledge their instructor needs to provide in the Business Chinese class. Typically, students with working experience have some level of previous business exposure, but the range of each individual student’s business experience is varied. The class can have students with only internship experience to students who worked several years in business. This wide range of business experience among students should be taken into account when instructors design their courses, because they need to teach not only the target language but also necessary business skills. Since many students in Business Chinese class have working experience, the best way to teach business knowledge is not through explicit instruction, because it sounds boring and sometimes a waste of time in the eyes of students with working experience. But it will work better if the instructor can encourage students’ autonomous learning of business knowledge through “doing” things, that is, through completing various tasks in the classroom. In this sense, TBLT may better serve the purpose of learning. Therefore, it’s important for the instructors to be aware of their students’ backgrounds when they begin the course. Instructors not familiar with their students’ backgrounds should start the course with an assessment of the students’ language proficiency and a questionnaire on the learners’ needs, their business experience level, and their expectations.

In addition, instructors need to take into account the individual students’ goals for the course. Most students take the course in order to increase the chances of success when doing business with Chinese. They want to learn not only the target language but also the business skills needed in the business world. Therefore, real life situations should be mirrored as much as possible in the classroom. Business Chinese classes need to balance the students’ needs for academic success at the university and their needs for success in their future careers. Another unique aspect of Business Chinese students is that they have a strong sense of purpose. Business is all about competition, and learners of Business Chinese learn to focus on business success. This is more evident among students with working experience. Because many students’ primary goal is job performance, language-learning goals sometimes seem secondary to them. It is particularly true for students with working experience. Instructors should be aware of this


discrepancy, and strike a good balance between business skills and language skills accordingly. For example, they need to raise the students’ awareness on the importance of language skills. They should let the students know that performance conducted in their non-native language has an implied element of risk: “mistakes and misunderstandings could cost the company dearly” (Ellis & Johnson, 1994). Through these methods, Business Chinese learners will grow a stronger motivation to become proficient in the target language. TBLT and Business Chinese

TBLT has taken a central role in many language classrooms for the past several decades (Ellis, 2009). This teaching method has characteristics that reflect current linguistic theories on language teaching such as the importance of meaning and the use of tasks that mirror the real world. Nassaji and Fotos (2011) provide four important features of TBLT. First, TBLT is student-centered, and it largely focuses on communication over accuracy. Second, lessons revolve around tasks that challenge students to stretch beyond their language levels while being exposed to realistic situations. Third, TBLT has been adopted by many instructors worldwide as a preferred approach to teach language because it allows learners to develop authentic language. Last, TBLT provides a flexible framework for language instructors to create a classroom that facilitates second language acquisition. Pedagogically, TBLT has strengthened the following practices and principles (Nunan, 2004): • A need-based content selection. • An emphasis on learning through communication in the target language. • The introduction of authentic texts to the learning situation. • Provision of opportunities for the students to focus on both the skills and learning process. • An enhancement of learners’ personal experience as an important contributing element to

classroom learning. • A link between classroom language and the language used outside classroom

Ellis (2009) gave a thorough definition and wrote that for an activity to be called a task, it must meet these criteria: 1. The primary focus should be on ‘meaning’. 2. There should be some kind of ‘gap’. 3. Learners should largely have to rely on their own resources (linguistic and non-linguistic) in

order to complete the activity. 4. There is a clearly defined outcome other than the use of language. For Ellis, meaning is more important than grammatical forms. There is also an emphasis on imitating the real world and trying to create authentic tasks.

According to Ellis (2003), there are three steps in TBLT. The first phase is “pre-task” and concerns the various activities that teachers and students can undertake before they start the task, such as whether students are given time to plan the performance of the task. The second phase, the “during task” phase, centers around the task itself and affords various instructional options, including whether students are required to operate under time-pressure or not. The final phase is “post-task” and involves procedures for following-up on the task performance. Only the ‘during task’ phase is obligatory in task-based teaching.

Formulaic language and common business situations can be better taught using TBLT. Although the language of Business Chinese is not bound to Western cultures, there is an emphasis on logical, clear communication in business, which is a characteristic of Western culture. The importance of Business Chinese to students’ careers and the inherent risk involved


in doing business make it important for the instructors to combine language skills and business skills through various well-designed tasks in the classroom. TBLT instruction, with emphasis on real business tasks, can better prepare the students to perform these tasks correctly in the business context and foster confidence in interactions with business professionals. The Role of the Teacher in TBLT

Language teachers need to be conscious of what roles they play in their classrooms. The role of the teacher in TBLT is a complex one, and the teacher actually takes on many different roles at the same time. Willis (1996) argued that the teacher’s primary role is a facilitator. That is, the teacher sets up the task, makes sure the instructions are understood, and wraps up the lesson. During the bulk of the task, teachers are primarily language guides, although they also take on other roles such as being a task monitor. They are there mainly to support the learners who are the implementers of the task. The teacher acting as a language guide can take on many different facets in response to the needs of the language learners. As for how to be a good guide in classroom, Hismanoglu and Hismanoglu (2011) suggested that the language teacher aiming at implementing task-based language learning in the foreign language classroom should: 1) select and sequence the tasks; 2) prepare learners for tasks; and 3) raise students’ consciousness of combining language and business knowledge. This final “consciousness-raising” role would be the main role of the teacher during the task cycle and is similar to what Willis (1996) described as the teacher as a language guide. Applying TBLT to Business Chinese Teaching TBLT in Action

I taught Business Chinese to students who were at the advanced level of Chinese language. The dual goals of the course were (1) to improve the students’ Business Chinese knowledge so as to attain a good score in the HSK exams (Chinese proficiency tests administered by the Chinese government); and (2) to prepare students to use Chinese effectively in their international business careers.

TBLT Lesson Plan on Price Negotiation

Each class spent time working on all four language skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing. The main textbook was Business Chinese—An Advanced Reader. I also prepared supplementary materials. The outline of the sample lesson plan followed the framework of a TBLT module. Emphasis was on meaning over form, and the objective of the sample lesson was to learn how to negotiate prices, which was a common practice in business environments.

Pre-Task Phase. The introduction to the task consisted of reading and learning the text in the textbook. The text described how Chinese businessmen negotiate prices. Students studied the meanings of any unknown vocabulary words before coming to the class. The teacher started the class by asking about the basic steps of price negotiation.

The teacher then showed some video clips to get the students familiar with how to negotiate prices in real life. The class discussed this topic as a whole in Chinese for approximately ten minutes, and the teacher wrote down on the blackboard the basic steps of price negotiation and some negotiation strategies. The students then were separated into groups with assigned roles as buyers or sellers. Each group was given a list of commodities and a blank chart for prices to negotiate the prices. The teacher told the students that she would help if the


students needed assistance in the target language or clarification of the task per se. But how to get best prices for themselves was up to the student groups.

Task Cycle. The students then started the task. They made offers and counter-offers in several rounds before they finally reached an agreement on every aspect of the pricing. Students had learned vocabulary associated with price negotiation from the textbook. They had already done vocabulary practice with the words and phrases. The students, therefore, had already got a good base of language to do the task. The teacher walked around the classroom to make sure that the students used the target language appropriately to solve their problems.

After-task Stage—Presentations. Students next moved onto the presentation stage.

Working in pairs for 5 minutes, they brainstormed two presentations: one from the buyer’s perspective and the other from the seller’s perspective. In the presentations, they were supposed to explain to “their company” how they negotiated the prices and why those were the best prices they could get from their “business counterpart”. Each student then presented their report to the whole class, which acted as the company this time. The presenter took questions from the teacher and class about their decisions. This would give students the chance to play with language by describing the negotiation process and explaining how they made their decisions. Language Focus

Analysis. The next stage of the lesson was analysis. First, the teacher highlighted some good expressions used by the students. Then she corrected some mistakes, and analysis the grammar and genre. For example, the students most likely would report the negotiation process in the past tense. The teacher could use the blackboard to write the tenses and aspects used by the groups. So the class could compare the different aspectual particles that were used and find out why. The teacher could explicitly explain which work best for this task. The whole class then brainstormed and discussed other applications for these forms in grammar.

Practice. The class would get another chance to practice their new skills in their homework. The assignment due the next week would be to bargain prices in a weekend trip to China Town. At the beginning of the next class, they would show the class the items they would have bought, and how much price they would have reduced through bargaining and negotiation. The students would present a summary of this trip to the class in five minutes.

Conclusion

The need for better Business Chinese instruction and materials will continue to grow with the development of China’s booming economy. The increasing demand for effective Business Chinese instruction means that language teachers need to look for the best instructional methods currently available. In the Business Chinese class, students need to learn both the Chinese language and the business knowledge. TBLT has proved to be an excellent method of instruction for this purpose, because it combines the classroom instruction with the real world situations. The tasks of the business world can be transported into the classroom with TBLT and bridge the gap between the classroom and the business world. The nature of TBLT allows it to be versatile, and teachers can combine both form and meaning in a single lesson. Pedagogical


tasks also create a learning community within the classroom where students can learn from each other and by interacting with their teacher.

References Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2009). Task-Based Language Teaching: Sorting Out the Misunderstandings. International Journal of

Applied Linguistics. 19 (3): 221-246. Ellis, M. & Johnson, C. (1994). Teaching Business English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hismanoglu, M. & Hismanoglu, S. (2011): Task-Based Language Teaching: What Every EFL Teacher Should Do.

Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences. 14: 46-52. Hyde, C. (2013). Task-Based Language Teaching in the Business English Classroom. Unpublished MA thesis.

University of Wisconsin-River Falls. Nassaji, H. & Fotos, S. (2011). Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms: Integrating Form-Focused

Instruction in Communicative Context. New York: Routledge, Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Tasked-Based Learning. London: Longman. Liu Li, Assistant Professor of Chinese, Ball State University, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014



Use of Critical Incident Posts (CIP) in the Graduate-Level Hybrid Classroom: Impact on Communication and the Community Learning Environment

Karen M. Morgan, Elena Y. Polush, Ruby Cain, Carolyn K. Shue

The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the potential impact of the Critical Incident Post (CIP)—adapted from Brookfield’s (1995) Critical Incident Questionnaires (CIQ)—on communication and the learning environment within the graduate-level hybrid course at a public university. This study drew upon the constructionism theoretical perspective, using both individual and collective narratives in its methodology. The emphasis of this study was on students’ reflections on their experiences with CIPs as they engaged in learning and interactions within the graduate-level hybrid course. The study employed multi-method (qualitative) design. Data were gathered from four students via individual and focus group face-to-face interviews and CIP posts. Findings indicated participants were able to engage in active listening to their classmates through the use of the CIP tool, enhancing communication. Further, CIPs deepened student-participants’ reflection on their learning. Finally, student-participants stated that CIPs enabled them to understand their classmates’ perspectives better, which, in turn, contributed to experiencing the learning environment as open and accessible.

Introduction Study’s context

The hybrid classroom design is one of the teaching and learning strategies used in the university setting in US. It originated as a way to leverage the combined power of face-to-face and online interactions. Fiol and O’Connor (2005) studied differences in face-to-face, hybrid, and virtual teams in organizations. Contrary to the authors' expectations, members of the hybrid teams developed a contradictory set of perceptions from the initial contact in one environment (virtual or face-to-face) and the subsequent contact in the other environment. This mixing of environments increased uncertainty about other team members and complicated communication processes. Fiol and O’Connor argued that this uncertainty destabilized the sense of community within the team. Thus, the context of the hybrid course has the potential to introduce confusion into the communication process. Further, the structure of hybrid classes differs significantly from university to university and within individual colleges and departments at a single university.

Other researchers have pointed out that verbal and non-verbal cues are reduced in computer-mediated communication (CMC). Rovai and Jordan (2004) cautioned that this could “generate misunderstandings that adversely affect learning” (“Distance Education,” para. 2). Studies in online dynamics have shown that individuals often post things they might not say to another individual in a face-to-face setting, and that when individuals are allowed to post anonymously, this tendency increases (Haugh, 2010; Lanamäki & Päivärinta, 2009).

The focus of this study was on students’ interactions and learning experiences within a graduate hybrid course taught at a Midwestern university in US. All students enrolled in this course are required to (1) attend five full day on-campus (face-to-face) sessions and (2) participate in interacting on-line. This integration of and balancing two learning environments


could impact communication and learning dynamics and result in some challenges, compared to either face-to-face or online learning environments. CIQ and CIP instructional tools.

One of the instructional tools used to provide students with anonymous feedback about the classroom environment and to facilitate critical reflection is Critical Incident Questionnaires (CIQs) developed by Brookfield (1995). Glowacki-Dudka and Barnett (2007) adapted Brookfield's method for the online classroom where students posted anonymous CIQ responses to a Blackboard class site and had access to other students' (classmates’) CIQs. However, the authors described a storming phase that occurred during their courses that may have been impacted by the CIQs and student interpretations of those CIQs, because students gained access to an aspect of the classroom exchange previously reserved for instructor-eyes only. While CIQs provided opportunities for reflection by both teacher and student and are used in online learning for this purpose, they also may have caused flaming behavior where students blamed each other for a negative learning environment through the medium of the CIQ.

Keefer (2009) reviewed various adaptations of the CIQ as it has been used in education, and asked, “What role does trust and transparency play, especially if the class facilitator (or other learners themselves) gets unpleasant or outright negative feedback?” (pp. 177-178). Adams (2001) posed a suggestion that CIQs should maintain learner privacy. To partially address these concerns, the Critical Incident Post (CIP) was developed as an adaptation of Brookfield’s (1995) CIQ. The CIP questions ask students to reflect on their role in their learning experiences relative to the original questions included in the CIQ, thereby shifting the focus from the classroom environment to the self. The CIP adaption of the CIQ, along with its usage in a hybrid course, has not been addressed in research. Study’s Purpose and Questions

Therefore, this study’s purpose was to examine the potential effects of CIPs as a teaching strategy on the communication and learning environment as experienced and perceived by students within the graduate-level hybrid course. The research specific questions included: 1) What were the students’ experiences with and perspectives about CIPs as they engaged with their learning and interactions in the graduate-level hybrid course? 2) How could the generated narratives that captured the participant-students’ experiences be used to inform an understanding of the CIP potential effects on communication and learning environment in the graduate-level hybrid course?

Methodology Approach

Theoretical perspectives. This study’s conception was guided by an assumption that students create meaning of their learning experiences as they reflect upon those experiences and interact with the course environment and each other, consistent with constructionism (Crotty, 1998; Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). Crotty (1998) argued that “all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon human practices, being constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an essentially social context” (p. 42). This describes this study’s view of a graduate course learning environment designed to engage students in their learning and to make meaning of their


experiences as they interact with other students. Specifically, this study employed a basic interpretivist theoretical lens to understand (1) how students interpret their experiences with the CIPs, (2) how they construct their hybrid classroom environment as it relates to communication and learning, and (3) how they make sense of their experiences (Merriam & Associates, 2002). The emphasis was on students’ reflections and generating narratives that would capture their experiences with CIPs, for as Goodall, Jr. (2008) pointed out, narratives are a way of knowing.

Participants. A total of six graduate students were enrolled in the gradate-level hybrid course taught at the Midwestern university during the Spring semester of 2014. Four students agreed to participate. Pseudonyms were used to maintain the participants' confidentiality.

Design and methods. A qualitative multi-method design was employed. Participants completed CIP assignments as stipulated by the syllabus. Students posted their CIPs during the semester on both the class and the study Blackboard sites. The CIP narratives were used in the analysis. Two individual face-to-face in-depth semi-structured interviews with each participant were conducted (Wengraf, 2001). The first interview was conducted after the students posted their first CIP (at the beginning of the semester); the second interview was conducted after the students had posted at least three of the five required CIPs.

The purpose of the individual interviews was to learn about participants' individual experiences with and perceptions of the CIP potential effects on their communication and learning. In addition, a focus group with all participants was conducted at the end of the semester. The purpose of the focus group interview was to gain the participants’ collective perspectives about the CIP's potential effects on the group communication and learning processes. All interviews were transcribed verbatim; the generated interview narratives and CIP posts were used in the analysis. The study was conducted in the Spring of 2014. The Office of Research Integrity at this Midwestern university approved this study.1

Data Analysis

Narrative analysis. The focus of narrative analysis is generally upon “the individual or a small group of individuals” (Savin-Badin & Major, 2013, p. 236). This study used narratives based on the interviews (i.e., face-to-face individual and focus group), the CIPs’ posts, and course documents (syllabus, texts) to provide an insight into the way CIPs may potentially affect communication and the learning dynamic within the graduate-level hybrid course. During the analysis, each method (i.e., individual interviews, focus group interview, CIPs) narratives were analyzed separately guided by this study’s main questions by using thematic content analysis (Krippendorff, 2013). Krippendorff argued that content analysis is appropriate for communication and social science research because it focused on the meaning ascribed to the text by specific individuals. The three resulting narratives were then brought into a dialogue to generate this study’s integrated findings. This study’s integrated findings were then compared and contrasted with the results of the analysis of the course syllabus and texts.

Findings

The findings are organized based on this study's focus, specifically the potential effects of

the CIP on the communication and learning processes. Communication


With respect to the participants' views about the CIP potential effects on communication, one of these themes related to the way participants perceived other participant’s CIPs, and how that impacted their classroom interactions. Shanna found it helped to be more accepting of different opinions:

I think it’s helping you to be more personal. If you read them it helps me to hold my tongue and accept others. Their truth may be their truth; it may not be how I feel. It helps me to communicate with less judgment. I think everyone should be a liberal hippy like me. But that’s not life. This excerpt focused on aspects of communication that the participant felt were enhanced

through the use of the CIP tool. By reading posts written by other class members, it helped Shanna “listen” to class members as they shared their feelings about the classroom experience in a way that let everyone express personal opinions without rebuttal. As Shanna considered other perspectives, she realized that their opinions had merit, even if she disagreed with those opinions. This helped to be less judgmental in communication with others. Shanna noted that the acceptance of others that she found through reading other CIPs extended into the classroom environment as well. She commented,

I think even in me I can already see that I’m becoming more tolerant of intolerance. . . I’m learning to let it go. I’m learning to say, ok, they may have a reason to feel that way. I’m starting to say, that’s your opinion, and that’s fine.

Participants were asked whether they ever responded to other CIP posts, and all indicated

they did not. When asked to speculate about what might happen if someone were to respond, most felt that it would be positive, but acknowledged that knowing someone could respond to what you posted might inhibit personal expression for fear some comments could be taken the wrong way. This also related to the perceptions participants had of others’ CIP posts; that the anonymous nature of them and the lack of replies, created a safe space for students to express their reactions to the class. During one interview, Teri stated that she had deliberately chosen to be more reflective and open when posting the CIPs in order to gain more from the assignment.

However, some of the participants stated that since it is a small class, it was possible to know who posted something, and even though the CIP posts were anonymous, there might still be personal things they did not want to share with the entire class, and would prefer to share only with the professor. Shanna pointed out, “we can figure out who wrote what. We know how people talk, we can tell. If they really want to share something they might feel it is too personal to share with the entire class.” Wilson commented that since the class also met face-to-face, when posting the CIPs “it makes it more difficult to make generalizations about another person based on their post.”

Analysis of the CIP posts reflected the interview narratives.2 Participants stated they felt more engaged in the classroom when they listened to their classmates share other perspectives. One respondent noted, “I like the interaction among us and do find that we can be open.” Others also described a “freedom of expression,” and an “affirming . . . tone of the class.” Finally one participant specifically commented about how the communication process was improved through the classroom design, “I am learning so much about myself and how other think and communicate just by allowing myself to be an open book.” Learning


The majority of participants felt that the CIPs significantly increased their reflection upon the learning taking place in and out of the classroom once they began to pay attention to the purpose of the CIP activity. Teri stated that one of the questions about how the class experience had affected her helped her to focus on the personal learning experience rather than focusing on others. She explained the phrasing of the questions turned the focus consistently to learning:

I’m always thinking about what I’ve learned, what the purpose of the class is, what I’m supposed to be learning, how I’ve kind of learned it, reacted to it, and it also makes me think about how I can apply what I’ve learned as well outside of the classroom.

Teri remarked that one question in particular helped her to consider her response to the

learning experience, and elaborated, “It makes me think on a deeper level, like how did this really affect me, you know, what learning did I really do here?” Arron noted that the CIPs helped him to “think about things that have taken place in the class and examine how I interpret them.” He also pointed out that this activity required critical reflection, and that “if I understand the theory correctly, you cannot have transformational educational without critical education.” Other participants indicated that their reading of other CIPs pointed out things they had missed during class, and provided additional learning opportunities. Finally, all participants commented that the content of the course generated more open communication and reflective learning beyond the scope of the CIP tool, suggesting the need for additional research.

Conclusion and Recommendations Based on this analysis, it appears that the use of CIPs in this particular hybrid graduate level classroom provided rich opportunities for enhanced student communication and learning so long as certain criteria were met, including maintaining a no-response environment for CIPs in order to sustain open and safe communication, and emphasizing the importance of CIPs to the learning and communication experience for students early in the course. Further studies in additional classrooms are warranted to distinguish between the impact of course content and the CIP tool.

Implications

The CIQ tool has been used to facilitate reflection in the adult classroom, regardless of whether students are reflecting upon the classroom environment, the teacher, or themselves. The adaptation of the tool in the form of the CIP had not been studied previously. This research provides insight for educators in adult, higher, and community education to understand the CIP’s potential effects on communication and learning by focusing on the learner as s/he claims responsibility for his/her individual learning, particularly as learning environments move to hybrid and online classes. ________________________ 1Appendices, including a comparison of CIP and CIQ questions, recruitment instructions, interview guides, and the study timeline, may be obtained from the first author of this article. 2CIPs were posted anonymously. It is therefore impossible to identify participants by name.

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traditional and fully online graduate courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2), 1–9.

Wengraf, T. (2004). Qualitative research interviewing: Biographic narrative and semi-0structured methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Karen M. Morgan, Communications Specialist, Office of Institutional Effectiveness, Ball State University, 200 West Quad, Muncie, IN. [email protected] Elena Y. Polush, Assistant Professor of Educational Studies, Department of Educational Studies, Ball State University, 824 Teachers College, Muncie, IN. [email protected] Ruby Cain, Assistant Professor of Adult & Community Education, Department of Educational Studies, Ball State University, 845 Teachers College, Muncie, IN. [email protected] Carolyn K. Shue, Associate Professor of Communication Studies, Department of Communication Studies, Ball State University 363 Letterman Building, Muncie, IN. [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.






The “Non-Traditional” Dissertation: An Autoethnography of Three Early Career Scholars

Sunny L. Munn, Joshua C. Collins, and Tomika W. Greer

The non-traditional dissertation refers to the “collected papers” format increasingly available to doctoral students in fields of education but most common in public policy and economics. Typically, this format includes a minimum of three publishable papers on a unifying topic with opening and closing chapters. This paper contains brief autoethnographical sketches of three early career scholars as they reflect on their experiences with writing a non-traditional dissertation. Through their various processes the authors identify lessons useful to both students and faculty to aid in creating successful non-traditional dissertations.

Introduction

The non-traditional dissertation refers to the “collected papers” format increasingly

available to doctoral students in fields of education but most common in public policy and economics. Typically, this format includes a minimum of three publishable papers on a unifying topic with opening and closing chapters. In many cases, at least one paper must be an empirical study and at least one paper must be submitted to an agreed-upon peer-reviewed scholarly outlet prior to defense. Other institutions may require the “promise” of publication after graduation. Requirements will vary by institution and program as will be illustrated in this paper. The purpose of this paper is to provide information regarding the process of writing a non-traditional dissertation.

This paper contains brief autoethnographical sketches of three early career scholars as they reflect on their experiences with writing a dissertation requiring publishable papers instead of the traditional five chapter dissertation. The scholars include Sunny Munn, who earned a Ph.D. in Workforce Development and Education, Joshua Collins who earned an Ed.D. in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, and Tomika Greer who earned a Ph.D. in Human Resource Development. Further, we examine our individual lessons that emerged in our autoethnographic reflections of the dissertation process and offer suggestions for navigating the process of successfully completing a collected papers dissertation. We conclude with implications for higher education, including doctoral students, writing, and the publication process.

Merits of the Collected Papers Dissertation Format

The collected papers format enhances the potential benefit of more quickly preparing

dissertation work for submission to peer-reviewed journals. This is of critical importance for Doctoral students who are seeking to gain employment as faculty members upon completion of their studies. Historically, few completed dissertations are published in academic journals, likely due to the time and effort required to transform the dissertation into a journal article (Thomas, Nelson, & Magill, 1986). The non-traditional dissertation format, consisting of three journal-


length articles, ensured that at the end of our dissertation journey, we had three papers that could readily be prepared as journal submissions. The journal article dissertation format also afforded an opportunity to practice writing journal articles – a skill that, as developing scholars, we want to hone throughout our careers.

While the idea of alternative dissertation formats is not new (for instance, Duke & Beck, 1999), it appears that the prevalence of alternative formats varies substantially among academic disciplines and programs. The fields of Adult Education and Human Resource Development are still largely dominated by doctoral students who complete a traditional five-chapter dissertation to fulfill their degree requirements. We support the collected papers format because of the potential to help junior scholars to contribute to the expanding research literature earlier in their careers. Additionally, as doctoral students are charged with making unique contributions to the literature, these unique contributions will finally make it into journals rather than sitting in a traditional dissertation format, which has a far more limited audience.

Our Paths the Non-Traditional Dissertation

Sunny began her Ph.D. program with ideas about studying fathers and work-life experiences as part of her Workforce Development and Education (WDE) program. From the very beginning of her doctoral journey, she began to research and write about work-life including using the topic for every class paper. Ultimately, she determined that an investigation of fathers was too specific and not related enough to WDE, so her advisor suggested looking at the impact of work-life benefits on organizational performance as a means of focusing on the organizational aspect of her research interests rather than the individual aspects. Upon further exploration, Sunny realized that she wasn’t satisfied with solely investigating work-life from the organizational perspective, and second that work-life was really an interconnected system created of people (workers), organizations, and public policy (government) (Munn, 2013). Subsequently, studying work-life from the interconnected perspective of all three was a major gap in the literature.

Based on this observation, it was suggested that Sunny take a non-traditional approach to her dissertation – writing 3 publishable papers as opposed to a single five-chapter dissertation – on a related topic but with different research questions. Thus, Sunny became the first person in her program to try this less traditional approach. Consequently, her dissertation journey created an informal process for non-traditional dissertations as she progressed.

Slightly different from Sunny, Joshua established early on his interest in and inclination toward the non-traditional dissertation format. Joshua established a broad area of research interest (gay men in masculinized industries) and then worked towards publishing in that area prior to doctoral candidacy and the proposal stage. Every class paper became something else, even if it was only a local or regional conference presentation. By successfully publishing early in his doctoral career, Joshua was able to establish a clear and cohesive rationale for his collected papers research (an exploration of the experiences of gay police officers) more easily because he was intimately familiar with the literature in a way that was similar to students working on traditional dissertations might be after writing Chapter 2. Additionally, he had built a foundation that helped justify his claim that his collected papers dissertation (Collins, 2014), when considered alongside his prior publications, was evidence of his abilities and expertise as a scholar. He was the first student in his program and his college to successfully defend a non-traditional dissertation format.


Finally, when Tomika entered her Ph.D. program in the fall of 2007, she had virtually no idea what she wanted to study. But, when put on the spot during one of her first classes, she verbalized that she wanted to “study the experiences of working mothers.” It was vague, but good enough at the time. A few weeks later, Tomika’s academic mentor encouraged her to dig deeper into the topic. He asked her to work on a literature review related to her new research interests. From there, Tomika worked on the literature review, which she eventually presented at a research conference. Similar to Sunny and Joshua, every class paper that she wrote was related to work-family issues, as was her comprehensive exam.

Tomika’s committee chair (HRD professor and aforementioned trusted advisor and assistantship supervisor) introduced the idea of abandoning the traditional 5-chapter dissertation for an alternate format. The committee and Tomika agreed that this could be a good way to start preparing journal publications while still working on the dissertation. Tomika’s advisor had not previously had a student complete a non-traditional dissertation and she believes she was the first HRD student to do so in her program.

Sunny’s Lessons

The biggest lesson Sunny learned during this process was to create a plan from the very

beginning. Because she was the first in her program to write a non-traditional dissertation, there was no process established by the faculty for students pursuing this option. Since there was no set procedure this meant that things frequently changed along the way. This created some difficulty in identifying the aim of the completed dissertation as well as misalignment between the faculty in terms of expectations for the completed dissertation. Yes, the purpose was to produce “three publishable papers,” yet everyone had a different idea of what this meant within the context of producing an actual dissertation. This resulted in a dissertation structured as separate papers but with content that reflected the “everything but the kitchen sink” approach of a traditional dissertation. Instead of 35-40 page papers that could be automatically submitted for publication, Sunny ended up with 30-80 page papers which required extensive massaging to shape into publishable manuscripts after graduation.

Each paper was its own separate study with different data. The original intent was to model the dissertation after a traditional five chapter dissertation with an introduction to work-life, two empirical studies (one focused on the individual and the second on the organization), a state-by-state analysis of work-life policy and a concluding chapter. The weight of this became much too difficult to manage because in reality each was its own full dissertation. The solution was to create a dissertation that was more manageable by eliminating the policy analysis paper resulting in a non-traditional dissertation which included four sections - an introduction, two empirical studies and a conclusion. From this Sunny learned that she wasn’t limited to publishing the empirical studies but could publish the introduction as a conceptual piece (Munn, 2013) and the conclusion as a discussion piece.

Finally, make sure there is an overarching theme in both topic and methodology when possible. As mentioned, Sunny wanted to study work-life but realized that solely studying it from the individual or the organizational perspective wasn’t satisfactory allowing the “work-life system” to surface (Munn, 2013). She was able to pull apart the different forces of the work-life system as a topic for each paper and analyze different data sets but use a common methodology of cluster analysis for both empirical studies. This decreased the load of implementing a different methodological design for each study. Also, because of the overarching theme of work-


life the literature review Sunny wrote for her comprehensive exams was divided appropriately to fit each paper. This created more opportunity to focus on the data analysis for each empirical paper since the literature review was previously completed.

Joshua’s Lessons Joshua’s experience with the collected papers dissertation can be summed up in three

simple pieces of advice. First, do not opt to do a non-traditional dissertation format because you think it will be easier than a traditional dissertation – it is not. In many ways, the collected papers were actually more work because he had to juggle multiple methods, IRBs, journal expectations, conceptual and theoretical frameworks, and research rationales, while still presenting something cohesive and scholastically rigorous. Joshua’s first paper was a structured literature review on masculinized and male-dominated industries, in which he systematically reviewed over 1,000 journal articles. Because he demonstrated the same mastery of subject matter that is expected from a Doctoral student’s traditional Chapter 2 his committee easily agreed with this new dissertation format. His second paper was a case study on one former gay police officer that claimed to have been fired for being gay. When proposed, he thought he would be able to get an interview with him, but this did not happen and he had to rely on data from other sources. This was a serious roadblock that might have been more easily avoided in a traditional dissertation where the officer’s story was only a small part of a larger narrative, but for the non-traditional dissertation it had to be a full scholarly paper worthy of publication in an academic journal. Finally, the third proposed paper ended up as two creating an additional roadblock that could have potentially delayed graduation.

Second, if you are interested in the collected papers format because you want to be faculty, then start thinking of yourself as an assistant professor while you are a graduate student and aim to write like one. To be clear, the collected papers format is not for students who have not demonstrated a clear interest in publishing throughout their doctoral studies. If you wait to write for publication until it is time to write your collected papers, you will be in trouble. Learning to write for publication and to receive and incorporate feedback professionally takes time and effort.

Last, set a schedule for completing your collected papers dissertation early in the process and stick with it. This applies to traditional dissertations as well, but is perhaps more salient for the non-traditional format because so many unexpected obstacles can arise. Josh had a very supportive committee that was on board with his timeline and proposal from the start, but some may not be so lucky, especially if members of the committee have never been exposed to a non-traditional dissertation format. Many faculty are creatures of habit and the non-traditional format can throw them for a loop. If you have a set schedule for completion in mind, every step of the way, and you do your best to stick with it, you will be more equipped to handle the barriers and roadblocks that will undoubtedly present themselves as you go through the process.


Tomika’s Lessons

After searching for some other dissertations that used an alternate format (there really weren’t many out there to be found), Tomika understood that it was important to unify the pieces of her dissertation so that together they still represented a deep investigation of a topic. To help with passing her alternate format dissertation by her dissertation chair and committee, she had to think creatively about how to connect the pieces of her dissertation so that the alternative format was not an obstacle for passing the dissertation phase of her doctoral journey. As a result, she had planned to do three journal length papers with an introductory chapter to introduce the three studies upfront and a concluding chapter to bring everything together at the end. So, though, it looked like 5 chapters, Tomika was able to approach her dissertation as a means of honing her journal writing skills while still a doctoral student.

The alternative dissertation format is also an effective means of exploring a variety of methodologies to pursue research interests. The first journal article in Tomika’s dissertation was an integrative literature review (Greer & Egan, 2012) that helped her to narrow down her research questions for the subsequent studies. The second journal article was a meta-analysis and the third journal article was a quantitative study in which Tomika tried to connect some of the ideas from the previous two journal articles using her own data. Accordingly, students that pursue this dissertation format should capitalize on this opportunity to utilize a variety of research methods and methodologies. This format allows for maximum flexibility in how a doctoral students approaches research interests.

The alternative dissertation format can also alter the time it takes from start to completion of the dissertation. For Tomika, the alternate format was probably a quicker road to completion than a traditional dissertation would have been. Psychologically, the thought of writing a 180-page paper terrified her. But, writing five 35-page papers seemed like an achievable task. It was easier for Tomika to process the smaller chunks than the entire project at once.

Implications and Recommendations for Higher Education

As the field of adult education continues to grow and the experiences of students, their

interests and learning styles continue to vary, alternate methods of learning the research process should also be considered. The non-traditional dissertation may not be for everyone but it certainly has its advantages and disadvantages. This paper sought to illuminate some of those constructs through the experiences of three emerging scholars and provide the tools to future doctoral students and faculty to make an informed decision regarding the dissertation processes they choose for themselves and their students.

If you are a student and interested in pursuing a non-traditional dissertation consider the following prior to doing so: • Why is this best approach for you? How does your topic lend itself to using this approach? • Create a plan, however be open to changes (within reason) along the way, especially if this

style is new for your program/committee. • Weigh the pros and cons and understand that “new” and “different” does not necessarily

translate to “easier.” • What is your goal post-graduation? Does publishing matter for your future career? • Start early – use class papers, conference papers and presentations and other outlets to write

about your topic creating a foundation for your dissertation.


If you are faculty and interested in the non-traditional dissertation approach for your students consider the following prior to doing so:

• What is the protocol in your program for non-traditional vs. traditional dissertations? If there isn’t one then create one. This will decrease confusion, repetition and unnecessary work along the way for both yourself and your student.

• Will your students be required to submit each paper for publication prior to graduating or just prepare them in such a way that they can publish more easily post-graduation?

References

Collins, J. C. (2014). A critical examination of the experience of being a gay officer in the masculinized industry of

law enforcement (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Florida International University Digital Commons. Duke, N. K., & Beck, S. W. (1999). Education should consider alternative formats for the dissertation. Educational

Researcher, 31-36. Greer, T. W. (2011). An Investigation of Role Salience and Linkages to Work-Family Conflict (Doctoral

dissertation). Retrieved from Texas A&M Open Access Digital Repository. Greer, T. W., & Egan, T. M. (2012). Inspecting the Hierarchy of Life Roles A Systematic Review of Role Salience

Literature. Human Resource Development Review, 11, 463-499. Munn, S. L. (2012). Developing a work-life system using types of organizational culture: An integrated perspective

of individuals, organizations and policy. (Doctoral dissertation), The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Munn, S. L. (2013). Unveiling the work–life system: The influence of work–life balance on meaningful work. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 15(4), 401-417.

Thomas, J. R., Nelson, J. K., & Magill, R. A. (1986). A Case for an Alternative Format for the Thesis/Dissertation. Quest, 38(2), 116-124.

Sunny L. Munn, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Leadership Studies, Ashland University, [email protected] Joshua C. Collins, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Adult and Lifelong Learning, University of Arkansas, [email protected] Tomika W. Greer, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Professor and Program Manager, Human Resource Development, University of Houston, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.





Becoming One’s Own Gatekeeper: Why Novelists Choose to Self-Publish

Jennifer Murray

Five novelists described their reasons for choosing self-publishing and their experiences of this. Their reasons included believing it would be difficult for an unknown author to publish traditionally, an unwillingness to compromise the integrity of the writing, a sense of urgency, and wanting to give the novel as a gift to someone. Most of the experiences with self-publishing were positive, though some chose to be more involved in the work than others. One person had unrealistic expectations of what the company would provide and went into debt paying for services. Writing and publishing the novel brought satisfaction to each author. The self-monitoring component of self-directed learning is important to develop for those who wish to pursue their dream by bypassing the gatekeeper.

Introduction

Many adults have dreams to write a novel, to paint, to sing, or to start a business but they

wait for permission from the gatekeepers to tell them they deserve to follow their dream while others decide to make their dream come true on their own. While a self-published novel may never generate a profit, the sense of pride, accomplishment, and satisfaction often remains strong for the authors. Now, more than ever, the proliferation of Web 2.0 tools has opened the way “for extremely easy publishing of words, images, videos, and other media” (Prensky, 2010, p. 103) which makes it possible for people to create and publish their work on their own or with assistance of various professional services. As technology has increased the capacity for the individual to create and share her or his work, a person has more autonomy to achieve important dreams, though not necessarily in a financially profitable way.

The adult educator has students with a wide variety of goals, which might have once seemed unrealistic because of a gatekeeper barring the way. With technological capability making it more possible to create and share one’s work, it is no longer so much a question of the possibility but rather the reasons for making the choice. Understanding the reasons some novelists choose to become their own gatekeeper may help adult educators gain insight on the importance of people finding their own personal meaning in life through the pursuit of important goals (cf. Frankl, 2006/1959, Vallerand, 2003) even if they may not find monetary success when achieving these goals.

Methods

A practical-oriented phenomenology informed by van Manen (1990, 2014) guided this study. The first semi-structured interview was the primary data collection instrument. The transcription of the first interview was used to identify additional questions and possible themes of this person’s experience and meaning in writing and publishing the novel. During the second interview, those additional questions were asked and then the participant offered opinions about the possible themes presented. Additionally, each participant completed a questionnaire about experiences as a writer. Once the interviews had been completed, the analytical stage involved


going back and forth between the particulars of each participant’s experience and the whole, or essence, of the experience for all novelists (van Manen, 1990).

The first participant in the larger study discussed gatekeepers, the people who tried to control the books that would be published, and how she resisted allowing others to decide the style of her book by choosing to self-publish. While the reasons for choosing to self-publish and the meaning of self-publishing were not part of the original study’s semi-structured questions, the particular meaning and experience of self-publishing were shared during the interviews by those who chose to self-publish. Of the nine participants in the larger study, five chose to self-publish for a variety of reasons.

Findings The Participants

The following is a brief description of each of the novelists who self-published. Pseudonyms are used to maintain confidentiality.

Molly was 62 when she began to write her first novel which she began soon after an enforced, early retirement. She wrote a novel that was largely an account of her own personal experiences, although she changed the names and many of the actual events in the book. In fact, years earlier she wrote a fictionalized account of her experiences therapeutically and later took this manuscript as the basis of the novel, though with some significant changes to the plot. She chose to self-publish after learning that it is difficult for an unknown author to find an agent or traditional publisher. She has two printed editions of her first novel and has self-published two more novels which are not based on her life. After writing more novels and learning more about writing, she decided that she did not write her first novel well and did not feel finished with the novel. The interview process seemed to reactivate a need in her to return to the first novel again to substantially rewrite and publish it again even as she continued to work on other stories.

Brad was 79 when he began to write a historical mystery. His novel idea began while searching for history of his own ancestors which led to questions and he imagined an entire story that had little to do with the historical facts of his ancestors. Brad chose to self-publish because, given his age, he was not certain he would have the time to wait through all the rejections before he finally had an acceptance letter. He also did not know if he had the patience to deal with waiting for agents and traditional publishers to accept his work. At the time of the interview, he was writing another novel inspired by the first novel.

Caroline was 53 and in graduate school when she woke up with a vivid scene in her head and, three years later, she had written and published a novel. Caroline had several reasons for choosing to self-publish. She understood that authors are expected to market their work anyway so self-publishing seemed to take out the middle man. Perhaps more importantly, she viewed those agents and traditional publishers as gatekeepers who imposed their views about what constituted a good novel and she did not agree with their standards. She spoke passionately about her book, the themes and the language she used, and did not want to compromise the quality of her work. Also she mentioned having a “do it yourself” attitude and had previously written self-help publications on her own computer to distribute to clients. She managed most of the details of self-publishing herself. At the time of the interview, she was writing another novel based on one of the characters from her first novel and was working on the computer to create her own audio book of the first novel.

Eric was around 55 when he began to write a novel about a romance. Initially the man was the main character but then he realized the woman was the true protagonist. He tried to find


agents for about six months but found the agents were overwhelmed with manuscripts. Previously he had co-written a non-fiction book which was published traditionally but he was also aware of self-publishing. So he began to research self-publishing and he chose a package that included creating the cover and some promotion. He also wrote letters to book clubs and bookstores. He continued to write two more novels which he self-published and tried to market with very little success. At this point in his life, he is not willing to self-publish again and would only be willing to write another novel if he believed he could have it published traditionally.

Theresa was 54 when she began writing her first published novel. An image came to her in a meditative state while she was gardening and she went to type it on the computer and image followed image until she had written several chapters. On another day, more images came to her and she typed them and then she forgot about it until a few months later when she reread it and decided to make a novel. Her story was based on her relationship with her husband and their home. Prior to writing this, Theresa had written and self-published several memoir-style books. When she first considered publishing her earlier books, she spoke to traditionally published writers who wished they had self-published. Additionally, she did not feel she was ready to send her work out for rejections. She generally gives her books as gifts to family and friends and does not try to promote them. The novel was her gift to her husband only. She chose to have it published because she wanted the finished product to give to him. There was never a question of trying to market and earn money from her self-publication. At the time of the interviews, Theresa indicated she was considering writing fiction that was further away from her personal experiences and was also starting to find ways to share her writing beyond her family and friends.

Decision to Self-Publish

Both Molly and Eric looked into traditional publishing before deciding to self-publish because they believed it was too difficult for unknown authors. Brad never considered traditional publishing. “I don’t know how much time I have left in my life and I wanted to get it done” and after writing the novel manuscript, he “wanted to see it done professionally.” Caroline knew “it was totally unrealistic” to have her debut novel published traditionally with almost 200,000 words. She also had “a very strong . . . independent streak” and had already self-published some self-help books, so she felt confident in her ability to put the book together and market the novel herself. She described the traditional publishers and agents as gatekeepers “making the rules for [publishing novels that] are not necessarily the way people feel like writing or people feel like reading . . . . We have a beautiful language . . . . Why can’t we use it?” Caroline cared deeply about the meaning of her novel, which included many controversial, uncomfortable topics, and the language she used to write it. By self-publishing, Caroline did not compromise on either. For Theresa, it was a gift to her husband. “It was a finished product and that piece for him again was a gift. It was an anniversary gift. I wanted to honor the relationship, the couple in the book, as our relationship. ”


Experience of Self-Publishing The participants described various packages available through the self-publishing

companies, ranging from no money upfront with the writer responsible for editing, formatting, and either accepting a generic cover or creating one to various formatting and marketing packages.

Theresa had the most experience with the self-publishing company she used, not only because of her six previous books but also because she handled some publishing with them through her job. She did everything herself, including the cover and paid just for the cost of the book and shipping for her husband. The experience was a smooth one with no surprises.

Caroline had some experience with self-publishing but these were books she created with her home computer and a combining machine. However, Caroline was “a very committed continuous learner” and she applied that to discovering what she needed to do to self-publish. On a limited income, Caroline said, “I’m going with the guy who says no set up fee.” During the interview, Caroline described in detail the work she did to format her novel, creating the cover, and she also described the work she was currently doing on her audio book. Caroline remained in control of decisions and was not swayed to give up her autonomy. She read the contract for Amazon’s Kindle electronic book. “Rude, rude, rude. . . . I don’t like to go with somebody who wants to usurp my legal right to sue them and who wants to have exclusive distribution rights even if it’s just for the 90 days.” She did convert her novel to other electronic books but believed Amazon did not promote her print version because of her unwillingness to sign their contract for Kindle. She sounded very knowledgeable about the process of self-publishing and her rights.

Brad and Eric were willing to pay for packages from the self-publishing, including some promotion and formatting. Both did some of their own promotion as well. Brad took his book to some local libraries and participated in book signings. Eric wrote letters to book companies and book clubs. Neither mentioned being surprised about anything and both seemed to understand what they were purchasing through the companies. Both mentioned feeling pleased with the final product of the book.

Molly seemed the least informed about what the self-publishing company would do. She researched the websites before choosing the company and spoke to their representatives. She sent her manuscript in, believing they would take care of formatting and editing. “They said don’t worry about it. We’ll take care of everything . . .yeah. They didn’t do anything but publish it.” Later she found errors in it and had it reprinted about six months after the first edition. For the first novel, they told her that the novel should go to Hollywood so she paid for that. She would like to reprint the first novel a third time after revising it but she said “there was so much crap that happened that . . . I’ve gotta get that out of my head so I can sit down and really rework the book. Because they told me so much and promised so much. And I listened to them. I trusted them. They were the publisher.” Despite this negative experience, Molly went on to publish two more books through the same company and purchased their marketing programs “and they literally have sent me into bankruptcy because they didn’t tell me the truth to start with.” By the end of the interviews, she said she believed her writing has improved a great deal and she might try to find an agent. Although she was frustrated with this self-publishing company, she never said she would not return to them though.


Meaning of Self-Publishing Regardless of their experiences with the self-publishing process, each participant seemed

to take pride in the published work. Several mentioned the sense of accomplishment of writing a novel. As Molly stated, “it gave me a sense of I can do this. Something I’ve always wanted to do in my life.”

Several mentioned after doing the work of writing the novel, they wanted to see it published because, as Theresa said, “When it’s together, and when it’s bound and when there’s a cover and a picture and all of that, it feels like it’s final. It feels like it’s done. It kind of validates the experience.” Also, they wanted to present their book for others to read, whether that was an audience of one or many.

Conclusions

Technology has opened up the possibilities for people, such as writers, to follow their

dreams but this requires adults to learn how to achieve their goals in a satisfying manner. Garrison’s (1997) comprehensive model for self-directed learning includes three components: self-management, self-monitoring, and motivation. To finish a complete novel manuscript, all the participants exhibited the necessary motivation and self-management. What seemed lacking in the interviews with Molly was self-monitoring. Many writers learn from the mistakes of writing their first novel so it was not surprising that Molly later decided her first published novel was not well written. However, throughout the interviews, Molly had not seemed to use self-monitoring in the self-publication process. After her experiences of feeling betrayed, she was still considering self-publishing through the same company again.

The participants found meaning in the writing and publishing of their novels. McGregor and Little (1998) found that when a person matches personal projects to his or her core self-identity, he or she may experience a higher level of meaning and all of the participants seemed satisfied with their accomplishment of writing the novels. Vallerand (2012) found that passion and motivation are important to leading a meaningful life while Frankl (2006/1959) explained that each person has a unique purpose that no one else can fill and finding that purpose helps a person find meaning in life. Novelists who choose to self-publish have found great satisfaction and meaning in writing this particular novel and they are unwilling to allow someone else to stop them from offering it to the world. Others who hesitate to pursue their dreams could learn from this determination to sidestep the gatekeepers.

Self-directed learning is important for the adult learner. However, when one decides to bypass the gatekeeper to pursue his or her dream, it is crucial to develop the ability to self-monitor to avoid having to say, as Molly did, “So I kind of felt like I had egg all over my face.”

References

Frankl, V. E. (2006). Man’s search for meaning. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. (Original work published 1959). Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48, 18-

33. McGregor, I., & Little, B. R. (1998). Personal projects, happiness, and meaning: On doing well and being yourself.

Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 74(2), 494-512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.494 Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching digital natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Vallerand, R. J. (2012). From motivation to passion: In search of the motivational processes involved in a

meaningful life. Canadian Psychology, 53, 42-52. doi: 1-/1037/a0026377


Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. London, England: The State University of New York.

Van Manen, M. (2014). Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

Jennifer Murray, doctoral student in Adult, Higher, and Community Education, Ball State University, Muncie IN 47302, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



A Qualitative Ethnographic Portrait of Women’s Studies

Julee Rosser

In this research study, I sought to understand and describe the Women’s and Gender Studies (WGS) Program at Berea College by exploring it through the experiences of students, faculty, administrators, and alumnae. I designed and implemented a feminist organizational ethnography. Organizational ethnography is a naturalistic, qualitative research tool for understanding organizational communication and culture in organizations. I used qualitative research methods to create a portrait of the WGS Program at Berea College by observing and interviewing students, administrators, faculty, and alumnae, and interpreting their stories using constant comparative analysis. Standpoint theory is the theoretical framework that guided how I collected data because it requires the researcher to begin with the lives of marginalized peoples. It also requires inclusion of multiple perspectives. I concluded that the WGS Program at Berea College is a model program because the leadership uses student-centered feminist pedagogy and they celebrate diversity, succeed with low resources, and clearly value the experiences and voices of the students. The leadership in the WGS Program at Berea College creates a home on campus where students go to learn about things they can’t find anywhere else on campus.

Introduction

Women’s studies programs within higher education institutions are often overlooked or

misunderstood, as they blend into other programs and are often interdisciplinary without their own departmental structure, full time faculty, or large number of students. These administrative constraints force women’s studies to live in the margins of higher education.

In many instances, the contributions of women’s studies programs, go unnoticed or recognized by higher education administrators who are in positions to make decisions about the position, status, and funding of women’s studies’ programs at their institutions. The marginal position and continued patriarchal policies within universities contribute to the stereotypes about women’s studies programs and all this contributes to the corporatization of women’s studies. While each women’s studies program has its own mission statement, the general purpose of women’s studies is to educate students about women’s experiences and women’s contributions to society.

The purpose of this qualitative research study is to highlight a strong women’s studies program that is nationally known and recognized. Through a close examination of Berea College and the WGS Program, other higher education institutions may see it as a model to use for their own programs in the future.


Research Questions and Methods

The research questions pursued through this study helped me to understand the culture of the Women’s & Gender Studies Program at Berea College by exploring the experiences of students from multiple perspectives. The overarching research questions were:

1. How is the Women’s and Gender Studies Program at Berea College perceived or experienced by its stakeholders (students, administrators, faculty, and alumnae)?

2. How is its reality constructed through the overlapping lenses of each? 3. How does the WGS Program approach, prepare for, and respond to political and

economic challenges? I used observation, in-depth interviews, and document analysis to collect data for this

organizational ethnography to understand the multiple standpoints and perspectives that inform the culture of the WGS Program at Berea College. The key stakeholders were selected through purposive sampling and snowball sampling. Students, program faculty members, administrators, and staff members were clear stakeholders. They suggested other stakeholders in the categories of students and alumni who were all integral to my data collection. Standpoint theory (Collins, 2000, Hartsock, 1998, Harding, 1995, 2004) was my theoretical guide for data collection. I analyzed the transcripts and developed inductive codes through a constant comparative data analysis process (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1994).

My own observations and data collection was an immersive experience in the culture. I immersed myself into the WGS Program community scene at Berea College by participating in the Peanut Butter and Gender Luncheon preparation and clean up, helping prepare for the Take Back the Kitchen class, and wrapping the presents for the gifts to give senior students at the end of the year recognition reception. In Peggy’s Take Back the Kitchen class, I learned how to cook with basic foods like dried beans and legumes, greens, and corn bread, as well as how to make an incredible blueberry cobbler.

I stayed in the WGS Program office between classes and had tea with students. I sat in on the WGS Program labor meeting as well as the classes. During my time in Berea, I stayed with the Director of the WGS Program in her home. I walked to campus with her on sunny days and drove on cold and rainy days. It was an incredible time of relationship building and learning not only about the WGS Program community, but also about Berea.

During my visits I conducted 12 interviews including: six students, two alumnae, the program director who is also a faculty member, a faculty member in a three- year position, the Office Manager, and an administrator in higher education. For purposes of accuracy, and with permission of the participants, the interviews were digitally recorded and then transcribed.

As part of the data collection process, I gathered some historical documents created by and about the WGS Program at Berea College. Information from these documents is included in my analysis in Chapter Four. I searched for program documents that would share the history of the WGS Program at Berea College. I also searched for newspaper articles to supplement the information about the WGS Program.

Women’s Studies at Berea College

Berea College has a distinctive commitment to equality through the full-tuition scholarships for all students, the student work program, and the student’s involvement in community service projects. The scriptural foundation of Berea College is “God has made of


one blood all peoples of the earth” (Wilson, 2006, p. 16). This foundation has had an incredible influence on the culture and programs at Berea College. When Berea College “opened the doors of educational opportunity,” both women and men where invited to be students. However, “in spite of its prophetic commitment to abolition and interracial education, the College retained strong patriarchal values” (Self Study for Berea College Women’s Studies Program, 2008, p. 3).

In 1988, President John Stephenson commissioned the Gender Issues Task Force, chaired by Keila Thomas (Self-Study, 2008, p. 3). This Gender Issues Task Force formalized the women’s studies curriculum and “women's studies was officially added to the academic curriculum at Berea College in 1991, through a vote of college faculty to establish both a Women's Studies Program and an interdisciplinary minor in women's studies (Proposal for Women's Studies Major, 2001, p. 2). The major in women’s studies was added in May of 2001 (Self-study, 2008). The Women’s Studies Program at Berea changed their name in 2011 to be the Women’s and Gender Studies Program.

The organizational structure of the WGS Program, at the time of this study, included: a full-time Coordinator tenured in WGS, a tenured joint faculty position in General Studies and WGS, and a three-year non-tenured faculty position in WGS and African and African American Studies. In 2011, the person in the tenured faculty position in General Studies and WGS moved into an administration position, with the new title of Associate Vice-President for Academic Affairs. The organizational structure also includes the part-time Office Manager and the students who work in the WGS Program office as labor workers. Some of them are classified as Teachers’ Assistants and others as Office Assistants. The interdisciplinary faculty are also members of the team, but they change from semester to semester, so they are hard to capture as a constant part of the WGS Program.

One of the most important things the WGS Program does on a continual basis is the Peanut Butter and Gender luncheon. During the 2012-2013 academic year, the WGS Program held seven Peanut Butter and Gender luncheons that drew approximately 50-70 people each, except for one that brought in 116 people. Students and community members are invited to these luncheons that feature scholars and prominent activists doing work within women and gender studies topics. The scholars and guests featured in 2012-2013 included: Dr. Vandana Shiva, Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards, Rabbi Chava Bahle, Dr. Mary Watkins, Dr. Rangita de Silva de Alwis, Nikki Giovanni, and Matthew Fox.

Research Themes and Findings

The following six themes emerged strongly from the data came from my ethnographic immersion at Berea, resulting from my constant comparative analysis of twelve interviews, one WGS Program labor meeting, ten classroom visits, two Peanut Butter and Gender Luncheons, one end of the year recognition reception, and document analysis.

1. The Peanut Butter and Gender Luncheons created space for students to heal and thrive because they could see themselves in the speakers and they appreciated to exposure to diverse ideas and philosophies in a space were it is small enough to be able to have discussions about them.

2. Rewarding Conference Experiences 3. The Environment of the WGS Program was welcoming. 4. The Culture of the WGS Program was student-centered and included high levels of trust,

academic achievement, and activism.


5. Engaging Classes 6. Challenges and the Marginalization for the WGS Program was often expressed

Recommendations

I gave recommendations to the WGS Program at Berea College, the higher administration

at Berea College, women’s studies programs in general, higher education administrators who have power over women’s studies programs, and society in general. WGS Program Recommendations

My recommendations for the WGS Program at Berea College result from my concern related to the double majors, reaching out to the alumni, and self-care. Why is there such a high need for WGS students to double major? The problem essentially is the concern about, “What will I be job ready to do with a WGS degree?” I recommend addressing this question early on, so that students are able to explicitly connect the skills one learns as a WGS major to employment. The WGS Program can address this problem through an assignment in the WGS 124 Introduction to WGS course, by dedicating a Peanut Butter and Gender luncheon to this topic, or by doing a workshop with the affiliated faculty to help them incorporate how their course applies to what WGS majors can do.

What happens after the students graduate from the WGS Program? I recommend creating a way for the WGS Program to stay in contact with the WGS graduates to be able to grow this community of support. The WGS Program could engage the alumni and current students who are in their junior and senior years, to get involved in this endeavor. The students could start an alumni association as a class project or as part of the student labor program. It would be good to connect them to graduates of the WGS Program, so that they can start networking and building relationships. This could also be a project of Triota (Iota, Iota, Iota), Women’s Studies Honor Society. It is important to build this base of support through a social media network in addition to sending out a survey to discovery what the alumni wish to have as part of their organization. Ultimately, it grows into leadership in the community of graduates that continue to stay connected to the WGS Program at Berea College.

If students want to complete a double major, how can the WGS Program best help them? I recommend that the WGS Program continue to be available to students by advising them through the maze of classes on the best way to make it through. Through this support the students will be more likely to stay with the WGS Program as their major program. I understand the myriad of obligations that people in the WGS Program have, so I am suggesting that the current students could use these ideas as opportunities to engage in activities that will ultimately help them professionally and to leave a legacy in the WGS Program.

How does the higher administration at Berea College learn about the WGS Program? I recommend creating more internal marketing to educate up and reach the higher levels of administration at Berea College. Share the contributions of the WGS Program with them, especially to those who have no experience with women’s studies in general. Share the work being done in the WGS Program to internationalize the program and the success the student- centered feminist pedagogy is having by bringing more students to the WGS Program. Berea College Recommendations

To the higher administration at Berea College, I want to bring awareness of the


outstanding WGS Program to your campus. The WGS Program has been able to grow in an environment where its mission is supported, but the Director is doing the work of two or three people. Her work not only fulfills the primary commitments of Berea College, but it also makes Berea College a desirable place to work and visit. The Peanut Butter and Gender luncheons are a signature experience one can only have at Berea College.

I recommend continuing to support the WGS Program by allowing students and faculty to attend conferences and I recommend increasing support to the WGS Program as well. I also recommend that Berea College allocate more support to the WGS Program. One way to give more support would be to change the part-time Office Manager into a full-time position. This would help the Director to continue to advance the program by providing the full-time staff necessary to organize the Peanut Butter and Gender luncheons, to manage many of the administrative tasks related to helping students succeed, and to cultivate the connection between the Seven Sister’s Colleges through the Women’s Public Service Project, which will help mobilize students into global leadership positions. This support will help attract more students to the WGS Program, which will increase the number of students graduating from Berea College with WGS degrees.

Another very important way to provide support would be by allocating another faculty line to the WGS Program. In the 2008 Program Review for the Women’s Studies Program, the outside reviewers emphasized that the program was understaffed with teaching faculty. All the students and alumnae in this study spoke about the need to have more faculty lines dedicated to the WGS Program. The NWSA Governing Counsel Statement, What Programs Need: Essential Resources of Women’s Studies Programs (2000), states that, “It is critical that at least some permanent base-budget FTE lines be controlled by Women's Studies programs.” Higher Education Administrators in General

In the 2007 report, A National Census of Women’s and Gender Studies Programs in U.S. Institutions of Higher Education, Reynolds, Shagle, and Venkataraman explain that the benefits and contributions of women’s studies programs, like the opportunities to connect the intersections of theory, experience, knowledge, activism, civic engagement, and citizenship, think critically, consider issues from multiple perspectives, and apply global awareness about women and gender to cross-cultural research, go unnoticed or unrecognized by higher education administrators. Often, these contributions go unnoticed by higher education administrators who are in positions to make decisions about the position, status, and funding of women’s studies programs at their institutions.

I recommend for administrators in these positions to learn about the very real contributions of women’s studies. Women’s studies is an interdisciplinary area of study that provides valuable services to institutions of higher education and unique opportunities for students. By creating space for feminism, women’s studies programs provide a space largely missing from other classrooms. Women’s studies programs also provide opportunities for civic engagement in higher education. Many offer internships inside women’s studies offices and outside the university at community organizations, non-profit organizations, and businesses. Women’s studies programs also provide programming of educational and entertaining events that tend to be made available for free to the campus and community. They also offer students the ability to network with women’s studies scholars through the National Women’s Studies Association. These opportunities provide the experience and the connections needed to pursue gainful employment and further their education. I recommend considering these contributions


and the research on women’s studies program assessment before making any decisions about the position, status, and funding of women’s studies programs. Societal Recommendations

The general public should pay attention to the current debates that revolve around women’s bodies, women’s safety, and women’s freedom, and then get involved in the local organization to advance the movement for equality. There has been a great movement toward understanding the need for activism for women’s rights over our own bodies, whether that refers to the right to not be raped or the right to decide when to have children. On social media and on the news, it appears that people are becoming very engaged in these issues.

I recommend addressing stereotypes about women’s studies programs in higher education by considering the importance of understanding women’s experiences and how people experience the intersections of gender, race, sex, religion, ability, sexuality, and more. I also recommend considering the importance of having a place to learn how to discuss these intersections humanly and how to move forward through researching and learning about these topics more fully.

References

Collins, P. H. (1990; 2000 2nd ed). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of

Empowerment. New York: Routledge. Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago:

Aldine. Harding, S. (1995). “Strong objectivity”: A response to the new objectivity question. Humanities, Social Sciences

and Law, 104 (3), 331-349. Harding, S. (2004). A Socially Relevant Philosophy of Science? Resources from Standpoint Theory's

Controversiality. Hypatia, 19, (1), 25-47. Hartsock, N. (1998). The feminist standpoint revisited & other essays. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. National Women’s Studies Association Governing Counsel Statement (2000). What programs need: Essential

resources of women’s studies programs. Retrieved from http://www.nwsa.org/files/WhatProgramsNeed.pdf.

Reynolds, M., Shagle, S., & Venkataraman, L. (2007). A National Census of Women’s and Gender Studies Programs in U.S. Institutions of Higher Education. Found on September 1, 2012 at

http://082511c.membershipsoftware.org/files/NWSA_CensusonWSProgs.pdf Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 273-285. Wilson, S. H. (2006). Berea College: An illustrated history. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky.

Julee Rosser, Ed.D., Assistant Professor of African and African-American Studies and Women’s Studies, Phelps-Stokes 202, Berea College, Berea, KY, 40404, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



Race, Religion, and Multiracial Congregations in America

Dan W. Royer

In this paper, I reflect on the statement made by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. that Sunday morning at eleven o’clock is the most segregated hour in America. In the time since Dr. King made that statement we might have expected a different outcome. This study examines ways in which these organizations either deal with or do not deal with matters of racial identity and whether or not they are able to successfully become truly multiracial. These questions are of interest to community educators, due to the changing demographics in America coupled with the significance of these organizations as places of voluntary association. Understanding ways in which voluntary organizations address racial differences not only offers insight for community educators, but also suggests ways in which these organizations can be structured as assimilating, pluralist, or integrating, contributing to the successful engagement of diverse members. Keywords: Multiracial congregations, social justice, racial and ethnic identity

Introduction

Stewart and Lozano (2009) poignantly reflected, “Martin Luther King, Jr. said that Sunday morning at eleven o’clock is the most segregated hour in America” (p 27). While we may have expected this to be true in the days prior to the civil rights movement, we might reasonably have expected this to have changed over the intervening years. This is particularly salient when considering the changing demographics in America. Milem, Umbach, and Ting (2004) observed, “No other nation in the world is (or ever has been) as racially and ethnically diverse as the United States” (pp 87-88). Emerson and Kim (2003) observed, “Given that congregations are the largest and most extensive voluntary associations in the United States, multiracial congregations may have a significant impact on racial attitudes and actions and, therefore, race relations in the United States” (p 218). This paper seeks to both understand multiracial congregations, but also as Emerson and Kim (2003) suggested, to ask why more congregations are not classified as multiracial.

Discussion Internal Factors and Homogeneity

One consideration for the lack of multiracial congregations is the internal theological focus of these organizations. For example, Bob Jones University, located in South Carolina, was theologically rooted in the separatist movement. Its segregationist practices included refusing to admit black students until 1975, and even then instituting a policy which prohibited interracial dating. This university was founded by evangelist Bob Jones, Sr. in 1927 as a reaction to perceived secularization of education. The founder also wrote a pamphlet, Is Segregation Scriptural, which argued that racial segregation could be justified by the university’s adopted


theological interpretation of biblical passages (Bob Jones University, 2010). The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (2002) reported that the university bestowed honorary degrees on segregationists, George Wallace, Strom Thurmond, and Lester Maddox and defended its ban on interracial dating with the following statement, “Bob Jones University is opposed to intermarriage of the races because it breaks down the barriers God has established” (p 66). The university terminated its interracial dating policy following a visit from then presidential candidate George W. Bush during the 2000 election cycle, which generated immense public pressure against the existence of this policy (Good Luck, 2002). It is important to note that in 2008, the University issued a formal apology for its previous racist policies, reversing the position of its founder by finally admitting that such policies were not based on the Bible (Bob Jones University, p 47).

The case of Bob Jones University commingling theology with segregationist practices demonstrated the importance of internal factors in religious organizations when determining attitudes toward diverse racial groups and integration. Christerson and Emerson (2003) noted, “volunteer organizations in the United States are overwhelmingly racially homogenous. Religious congregations certainly are no exception” (p. 163). This trend toward homogeneity appears to be a daunting challenge. However, Dougherty and Huyser (2008) argued that factors which included; denominational emphasis on race relations, worship rituals that reach across ethnic groups, and racially diverse church leadership express strong statements about congregational commitment to diversity. Emerson and Kim (2003) defined a multiracial congregation as, “more than 20 percent of the congregation must be racially different than the largest racial group” (p. 217). A significant contributor to the presence or absence of a multiracial congregation originates within theological approach and the way the congregation engages diversity in organizational leadership. The Need to Change the Discourse

When considering the changing demographics of American culture, the historical practice of segregationist practices in some religious institutions, and the desire to create a more diverse landscape, we would do well to consider, as Hampton, Magarian, and Gullotta (2004), observed, But the truth is that hate spans all races, all party affiliations, all genders, all religious groups, and all ethnicities, and its progeny—poverty, discrimination, and violence—threaten to hold future generations hostage unless we can begin to repair the moral, spiritual, and ethical foundations of our society, not just the latest decay (p. 2).

In light of the past events, and present trends, there is a hopeful optimism that congregations become more reflective of social demographics. It is also hopeful that segregationist policies, established by religious institutions like Bob Jones University have been exposed, discredited and discontinued. However, it is important to recognize the inadequacy of merely silencing vitriolic ideology, something much more substantive is required. This kind of change is something that is much more intentional and does not merely impose the absence of something, but actively works to create a culture which goes beyond acceptance to celebrate, honor and engage congregants. As Daugherty and Huyser (2008) argued, “In these congregations, cultural differences are neither swept away nor diversity promoted over similarity; rather, religion serves as a bridge to make the rich mixture of cultures in society a part of the congregation’s consciousness” (p. 26). Examples of Congregations Defined as Multiracial


Pitt (2010) observed that one congregation which narrowly met the definition of a multiracial congregation is Willow Creek Community Church. This congregation seemed to follow a pattern of “making cosmetic changes in their worship, music, and leadership in order to attract or retain ‘highly race conscious’ nonwhite congregants” (p 218). The question which was raised by Pitt (2010) was whether the approach at Willow Creek has been successful in some respects because many black congregants were drawn to these churches because they were “havens from black culture as much as they are supposed havens for diverse cultures” (p 219). While this may be the case, a congregation identified as multiracial is still the exception.

Marti (2010) conducted a study of one such congregation in Los Angeles which was identified by its multiracial composition estimated, At 45 percent, African Americans comprise the largest proportion. Whites are the next largest at 40 percent, followed by Hispanics (10 percent), Asians (3 percent), and other including Middle Eastern and non-native blacks (2 percent) (p. 205). In addition to this composition of attenders, it was also noted that a significant number of African Americans were involved from its founding, as were leaders from Hispanic, Asian and other racial groups, however, the founding co-pastors were both white (Marti, 2009).

In this study, the researcher was a participant observer and conducted his observations to understand the African American experience in a multiracial congregation. Marti (2009) indicated that African American attendees shared common experiences with the Black Church yet they presented joking characterizations of these experiences used to acknowledge their racial identities while at the same time indicating they did not embrace an exclusivist black orientation. Specifically, “African Americans members at Oasis actively sought a church characterized by diversity” (Marti, 2009, p. 207). Pitt (2010) commented on the above study, connected it to other similar studies and suggested that the members’ commitments are sustained “to a church that, like others analyzed in this literature is more multiracial in makeup than multicultural in behavior” (p. 220).

Perhaps one of the most significant characteristics of this multiracial congregational study was the intentionality of this congregation to pursue diversity as a central mission of the church. Additionally, the co-Pastors intentionally highlight racial issues and address them proactively and openly, discussing ways to overcome them (Marti, 2009). As one white congregant observed, “When you talk about diversity, the people of color understand the situation. It’s the White folks that need to get the clue” (Marti, 2009, p. 209). Another distinctive in this congregation was revealed in the comments quoted from Pastor Holly, “We say, ‘don’t ask if you are prejudiced, just ask; where am I prejudiced?’” (p. 209). Ultimately, this multiracial church has been able to transcend ethnicity while at the same time emphasize specific ethnic distinctives, while couching all of this in a theme of religious unity (Marti, 2009). Models for Multiracial Congregations

Martinez and Dougherty (2013) conducted a study in which they examined multiracial congregations, understanding, “The tendency toward homogeneity is strong in congregations” (p. 714). Their stated goal in this study was to, “further the discussion on race in religious organizations by examining racial group differences in belonging and participation in congregations” (p. 714).

Through a theoretical framework utilizing organizational ecology they examine the competition between racially homogeneous and racially heterogeneous congregations. Their concept was that these different organizations competed for resources (members) from their own


particular niche (Martinez & Dougherty, 2013). In the study they defined three types of multiracial congregations based on the way power is distributed and shared. The three classifications used were; assimilated, pluralist and integrated. The assimilated model was defined by characteristically maintaining the power in the hands of one dominant racial group, which assimilated all other racial groups in the congregation. Power in this model was not shared outside of the dominant racial group. In the pluralist approach, multiple racial groups existed independently of one another. Power was more evenly distributed, but the degree to which interracial interactions occurred was still relatively low. Finally congregations classified in the integrated category through sharing of power and identity. In this model there were high levels of cross-racial interactions and resulted in congregational culture fostered based on the contributions of all racial groups. The resultant identity was co-constructed by all congregants resulting in a higher degree of unity across different racial and ethnic groups (Martinez & Dougherty, 2013).

Martinez & Dougherty (2013) concluded that being a member of the largest racial group did correlate more significantly to having close congregational friends and developing a sense of belonging, however, they found no evidence to suggest that membership in the largest racial group produced any increase in congregational commitment. This study did point out something of interest to my research. Congregation size was “inversely related to belonging and participation in nearly all our models” (p. 728). This was expanded on by examining the phenomenon of Protestant megachurches (congregations with an average attendance of 2,000 or more per week) which were characterized by their intentional focus on diversity. Martinez & Dougherty (2013), concluded, however, that these congregations “may operate with a form of internal segregation in which programming functions within rather than across racial lines. Diverse racial groups may find themselves together inside large congregations, but this does not seem to produce a sense of unity” (pp 728, 729).

When considering the wide range of responses observed related to race and religion, I am reminded of the words of Cornell West (1999) who wrote, “There is an undeniable decline in the clarity of vision, complexity of understanding and quality of moral action among religious Americans” (p. 357). The shock of this statement comes not from the fact that it has been said, but that it was originally written over 25 years ago. With incredible perceptive insight, West suggested that American religious life accommodated the dominant cultural status quo rooted in personalistic and individualistic concerns, and became grounded in consumerist and narcissistic tendencies. Accommodation of this sort compromised the prophetic role of religion, which was to challenge and question the structures of the dominant culture, lest they become a new form of idolatry (West, 1999). This problem was further clarified in a clearly defined sense of prophetic outlook which included “a call for heroic, courageous moral action always against the odds; and a biblically motivated focus on and concern for the wretched of the earth” (West, 1999, p. 359). We must acknowledge ways in which American social values have infiltrated and distorted the role of religion in America.

Considering the sins of the past and present when it comes to matters of race, it is important for me to comprehend, as much as any white man can, ways in which the American church has ignored the plight of people of color marginalized by American culture. We cannot pretend that the incidents reported at Bob Jones University are isolated and somehow indicative of a past which is no longer a reality. When religious organizations surrender their prophetic mantle in order to reflect the cultural values of dominant society, they tend to reflect fear, ignorance, and segregationist belief systems which do not require thoughtful examination.


Conclusion

When I think about the desire for a multiracial/multiethnic church, I often wonder why

anyone would be willing to risk participation with the racial group with whom I identify, particularly when so much suffering has been caused by those who identify as white. Fortunately, I have been pointed in a direction which identified a critical need in understanding ways in which healing can begin. That was suggested by Worthington & Berry (2004) as they examined the pathway toward reconciliation and healing through forgiveness. There are deeds both past and present which seem to defy the ability of the surviving victims to forgive the people who have wronged them. Forgiveness has been described generally as “the emotional replacement or juxtaposition of the negative emotions associated with a transgression with other emotions that motivate the person to seek reconciliation or conciliation with the transgressor” (p. 164). This is not always the case, but it is important to understand that healing comes from the party practicing forgiveness. This paradox seems impossible, and defies reason. How then do we understand it? We must begin as members of the white church by acknowledging our need for forgiveness when it comes to the lack of concern over racial reconciliation within Christianity. We must also recognize the need to develop new collaborative efforts which cross racial lines and build cooperative partnerships that demonstrate faith, bridging all cultural and ethnic barriers. In the light of the theology practiced at institutions such as Bob Jones University, we must embrace, as Dougherty and Huyser (2008) proposed, a theology of oneness which “emphasizes reconciliation as a centerpiece of faith” (p. 26).

My understanding of faith has been transformed over the years. I echo the words of Cornel West (1999) who commented that he banks everything “on the courage to love enacted by a particular Palestinian Jew named Jesus, who was crucified by the powers that be, betrayed by cowardly comrades and misconstrued by corrupt churches that persist, and yet is remembered by those of us terrified and mesmerized by the impossible possibility of his love” (p. xvii).

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Chaves, M., & Anderson, S. L. (2008). Continuity and change in American congregations: Introducing the second wave of the national congregations survey. Sociology of Religion 69(4). 415-440. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20453246

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Good luck! Bob Jones University looks to recruit black students. (2002) The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 35, (pp. 65-66), http://www.jstor.org/stable/3133847.

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Pitt, R. N. (2010). Fear of a black pulpit? Real racial transcendence versus cultural assimilation in multiracial churches. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 49(2), 218-223. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01504.x

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R.L. Hampton & T.P. Gullotta (Eds.), Promoting racial, ethnic, and religious understanding and reconciliation (pp. 159-191). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.

Dan W. Royer, Doctoral Assistant, Ball State University, P. O. Box 346, Fortville, IN 46040 [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



Journey of Racial Discrimination in Education— Genealogical Analysis

Dan W. Royer and Bo Chang

In this paper, we explore the shifting nature of racial discrimination in education in different periods of time. Using the genealogical analysis method, we examined three distinct time periods in terms of racial discrimination in education. Racial discrimination does not disappear, but penetrates into the micro-educational context through assessment, funding policy, and white privilege which assimilates students into mainstream culture. This study is meaningful since it uncovers a trail of how racial discrimination in education has shifted its focus in different periods of time to achieve the power groups’ agenda. Knowing the changing agenda of racial discrimination in different periods of time will shed some light on breaking structural barriers, social and cultural constraints in racial issues, and promote students’ equal access to education.

Key words: Racial discrimination, equality in education; shifts of the history; Genealogical analysis

Introduction

Racial discrimination has been in existence from the earliest days of the United State’s slave trade, “Slavery was an institution based upon widely held assumptions regarding the relationship between whites and blacks” (Thompson, 1993, p. 333). In the 21st century, slavery has been permanently abolished and civil rights legislation has been enacted. The effects of these civil rights and legal successes were to ensure that poor students and students of color have opportunities for an education similar to students who live in wealthier neighborhoods (Hewitt, 2011). Racial discrimination veils itself behind the mask of white privilege in the micro-context of classroom, curriculum, etc. (For example, Isaac, Merriweather, & Rogers, 2010; Nurenberg, 2011; Parker, 2012; Ridley & Kwon, 2010). In this paper, we will examine how racial discrimination in education has shifted its focus in different periods of time.

Analytical Method

A genealogical analysis will be used to examine nuanced racial discrimination in

education and how its focus in different periods of time has shifted. Different from the total historical account which “seeks a governing principles of a civilization, epoch or society” (Kendall & Wickham, 2000, p. 24) and establishes “a system of homogeneous relations: a network of causality that makes it possible to derive each of them” (Foucault, 1972, ) across a period of time, Foucault (1998)’s genealogy is situated in deconstructionism and attempts to record those that are absent from the dominant history. Genealogy reminds us to pay attention to the ignored and unrealized, unacknowledged by history but reflecting unnoticed truth; missing and absent in our knowledge asset (Foucault, 1998). This genealogical analysis emphasizes the role of power in the structure of discourse (McPhail, n.d.). In other words, it focuses on “how power is exercised in a particular context” (Kearins & Hooper, 2002, p. 752). It is the tactics of


analyzing the discursive formation of a certain event/history (Foucault, 1980). It reveals the hidden meaning behind the discourse and attempts “to discover the chain of causes which lead to particular historical events” (McPhail, n.d., p. 21).

Three independent historical eras with three distinct racial assumptions/discourses and agendas will be examined. Through this examination, we expect to locate differences in the way education was conducted for black students. We also expect to reveal a trail of how powerful groups used policies, norms, discourses, and strategies to assimilate students into the mainstream dominant culture through the institution of education.

The documents and articles we reviewed reveal underlying power relationships which governed the education of black students. Our search for articles in the antebellum period focused on slave codes and the prohibition against educating slaves. In the post-civil war period, we sought out journal articles and documents which described approaches to educate liberated slaves. In the current period, we found articles, stories and reports which examined questions of multicultural education, minority serving institutions, and policies which have been enacted through the legislative process.

The Antebellum Period—Legally Denying the Slaves’ Access to Education (1781 to 1860)

The Antebellum period followed the colonial period and ended with the beginning of the US Civil War in 1861. This period revealed the conflict between white slave owners who denied education and the covert and subversive pedagogy of slaves in their family and religious life. While in the North schools were established in Boston for black children. However, many questions remained related to the equality of education between the races (White, 1973).

Education for slaves in the Antebellum South was only available through covert operations (Freedman, 1999), while education for the white middle class experienced rapid growth (Green, 2005). Academies in the south grew and focused on the instruction of a more ‘practical’ form of education, shifting away from classical programs of the past to a science based course of study. Such a change was not restricted to the South alone, but illustrated a growing national trend promoted by prominent national leaders (Slotten, 1991). Green (2005) also stated that “the practical curriculum and interest in progress benefited non-elite young men. . . Enrollment in military institutes, then, expanded the opportunity for advanced education to middle-class Southerners in the late antebellum period” (p. 364). The conduct of an owner toward his or her slaves was dictated by a series of ‘slave codes’ enacted on a state by state basis. Many of these codes held strict penalties for teaching slaves to read or write (Thompson, 1993).

In addition, many Southerners sought to avoid sending students to the North where they might embrace ‘heretical’ northern ideas (Green, 2005). At Southern University, a committee examined the curriculum to ensure that it met the needs of ‘loyal southern men’, in addition to pressuring faculty to adopt ‘southern textbooks’ to replace those labeled ‘undesirable’ (Flynt, 1968). Thompson (1993) observed; “A clear line of distinction between the two races was needed in order to maintain black subordination and race control” (p. 324).

While in the North one cooperative effort to create an institution of higher learning for African Americans also met with resistance (Moss, 2006). The proposed educational institution was planned and announced in 1831, and was impacted significantly by a backlash following the Nat Turner rebellion in Virginia on August 22, 1831 (Moss, 2006). The proposal was considered controversial, but many whites now saw it as seditious. A vote denied the school approval by a margin of 700 to 4 (Moss, 2006). As Moss (2006) noted, “Historically, most Connecticut whites


believed in the concept of universal education, except insofar as it applied to African Americans” (p. 18). Those who controlled the access to education in the antebellum period gained power from knowledge and denied those who were not a part of the dominant class access to education.

The Post-Civil War Era--Training Blacks to be Efficient and Subordinate Workers (1865 – 1914)

In the Post-Civil War era, emancipation eradicated all slave codes, and theoretically

allowed former slaves access to education. The dominant white class adopted a new scheme, “paradoxically, while university progressives advocated education for social improvement, they also propagated a pedagogical scheme that fit conveniently into a scheme for racial submission” (Dennis, 2001, P. 115). Considering this new approach, Dennis (2001) observed, “simply put, theorists of industrial education held that practical training in the skills needed by southern agriculture and industry was best suited to the educational needs of blacks” (p. 117).

While the debate continued, Kentucky formed a new policy approach to deprive African Americans of any education. Within the state under the watchful oversight of the Freedman’s Bureau education was provided to all former slaves. In an attempt to rid itself of Federal oversight, the state passed legislation to fund African American education. The law established education for blacks funded entirely by a tax charged only to the former slaves, the poorest residents in the state (Howard, 1977). However, the funds from the tax were diverted to provide relief for paupers by allowing county courts and trustees to oversee use of the monies (Howard, 1977). Local control responded to “the demands of local prejudice” (Howard, 1977, p. 308).

It was in this climate that Booker T. Washington, a former slave and a graduate of the Hampton Institute advocated for practical education. Dennis (2001) explained this advocacy, “considering the antagonism of most whites to any form of black instruction, industrial education seemed a pragmatic compromise that would keep the channels of public support open for black schools” (p. 117). W.E.B. DuBois realized the contributions of the structural system to racial inequality. He criticized the formal structures of education, as well as, dominant interpretive frameworks of imperialism and whiteness (Apple, 2013). Du Bois emphasized that African Americans needed to rise above the typical menial labor offered (Peterson, 1999) and advocated “transforming the educational and social conditions by changing the consciousness of dominant groups” (Apple, 2013 p. 38).

The Current Period — Racism and Inequality Being Subtle, Hidden and Unspoken

(1945-Present)

In this current period, slavery no longer exists, diversity is a part of daily life, basic education is available to everyone, and there are examples of highly successful individuals from every ethnic and racial background, including the first U.S. African American President. However, racism and inequity remain deeply embedded in a micro-educational context and are subtle, hidden and unspoken. “The demographics on college campuses are increasingly diverse . . .In short we are dealing with a rapidly growing diverse society” (Baumgartner & Johnson-Baily, 2008, p. 46).

However, Guy (1999) observed that the Anglo-Western-European cultural values still dominate society. Groups outside this culture are alienated, since their cultural experiences do not fit within the norms of an Anglo-Western-European framework. The focus of the dominant


group becomes as Dijk (1993) observed, “less interested in majority problems such as xenophobia and discrimination than in alleged minority crime, deviance, or cultural differences interpreted as a threat to white, Western norms and values” (p. 1). The framework of white privilege permeates ideology and drives policy decisions. The result is distortion in education to the dominant norms while student needs are not considered. The result is that “African American students are more often placed in remedial courses that do not adequately prepare them to compete with whites either in academic settings or in the workplace” (Peterson, 1999, p. 86).

Lund (2010) observed that, “It is the invisibility and silence of racism that renders us unable to see it, unable to name it, unable to take action against it” (p. 16). The invisibility of racism is made possible because “those who have white privilege have tremendous power; they never have to think about race or challenge racism” (Lund, 2010, p. 16). It assumes that any questions of race or racial issues are not consequential when they are not expressed as a part of a classroom environment (Brookfield, 2003). Brookfield (2003) reminded us to recognize that one’s “lifeworld, positionality, and sense of cultural identity comprise a set of preconscious filters and assumptions that frame how one’s life is felt and lived” (p. 499). Intentionally tracing the racial framing of the discourse reveals how White keeps distance from racial privilege and use certain strategies to deny their privilege (Brookfield, 2003; Baumgartner & Johnson-Bailey, 2008).

Conclusion and Discussion

Openly expressed racial discrimination has diminished and equal access to education has improved with the development of the policies resulting from the Civil Rights movement. The macro-legal and visible structural barriers of accessing education have been removed; however, racial discrimination persists within main stream discourse and veils itself in the micro-context of classroom, curriculum, and white privilege, etc.

The differences between the antebellum period and our current time are, on the surface, quite marked and different. Slavery as an institution has been abolished, basic education is available to all people, and there are highly successful individuals from all ethnic backgrounds and racial origins. Though racial issues in education have improved, racial discrimination persists, due to the common thread throughout these historical periods—White privilege as the assumed default ideology. Three periods of historical time show tools such as legitimated knowledge, assessments, etc. were used to achieve the built-in discourse and hidden agenda.

Racial discrimination nowadays is much more subtle, varied, and complicated than it was before. When we examine the discrimination in education, we should peer through the surface to look for the things which are hidden and ignored (Foucault, 1998) and ask ourselves the chain of causes which cause particular events happen (McPhail, n.d.). It is necessary to examine the official documents and well accepted data such as data in grades and funds, since they can provide the context of the events and the overall direction of the decision making process (Kearins & Hooper, 2002). However, we should also look for the stories and voices of the struggles, and examine the issues uncovered in the official data, such as family support, social connections, transportation, and “unspoken cultural norms favoring whites” (Jackson, 2011, p. 440). We should examine how the legislative mechanisms were used to normalize certain perceptions and how power is exercised through the use of the associated administrative


techniques such as funds, tests, normalization, physical spaces, policies, and the body of legitimated knowledge (for example, Foucault, 1976/1978; Kearins & Hooper, 2002)

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Dan W. Royer, Doctoral Assistant, Ball State University, P. O. Box 346, Fortville, IN 46040 [email protected] Bo Chang, Assistant Professor, Ball State University [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


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http://www.discourses.org/OldBooks/Teun%20A%20van%20Dijk%20-%20Elite%20Discourse%20and%20Racism.pdf




Engaging international Asian students in online collaborative activities

Anita Samuel

Institutions of higher education are becoming global entities creating virtual campuses and offering online courses to an international body of students physically located in different parts of the world. Collaborative learning activities are used within these courses to engage online learners and reduce their sense of distance and alienation. However, the cultural background of students affects how they perceive and interact with these activities. Educational cultures in Asia have a specific hierarchical system and students coming from this background are largely unfamiliar with the collaborative learning style. When they experience collaborative activities for the first time, they are uncomfortable and unsure of what is expected of them. This session will shed light on some issues encountered by Asian students in online collaborative activities, and present strategies that can be utilized to successfully engage international students within the online collaborative environment and enhance their learning experience.

Introduction

In 2012/2013, international students contributed $24.7 billion to the US economy making

education a valuable export service sector of the country (IIE, 2013). Forty nine percent of these international students were from China, India, and South Korea. Overall, a majority of international students come from Asia and the Middle East (IIE, 2013). In an effort to better leverage the economic potential of these students, institutions of higher education in the US are increasing their online presence by offering courses and programs online and even creating completely online campuses. Furthermore, the online environment enables international students to enroll in US institutions of higher education and obtain a US degree without physical relocation.

While the online environment is expanding opportunities for institutions and students, it also poses challenges. Studies indicate that online courses have a higher student dropout rate when compared to traditional courses (Levy, 2007; Tello, 2007) and research has shown that a sense of alienation and lack of community contribute to the dropout rates (Rovai & Wighting, 2005). In an effort to create a sense of presence in the online environment and to fully engage online students, instructors include a variety of collaborative learning activities. These activities are intended to facilitate social interaction between learners thereby enabling learners to feel more connected to a community as opposed to interacting with the study materials alone. However, for Asian students, these activities, by their very nature, are threatening and stressful.


Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is defined as a “joint intellectual effort by students” (Smith & MacGregor, 1992, p. 11), “a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together” (Dillenbourg, 1999, p. 1). In this learning environment, groups of students work together to solve an academically presented problem and in the process acquire new knowledge. Collaborative learning views the learning process as a social construct where learning depends on rich contexts and exposing oneself to others’ thinking processes (Vygotsky, 1978). Group diversity brings together different perspectives and is expected to enhance the learning process and develop critical thinking. Diversity of thought and academic abilities are viewed as strengths in collaborative learning where learners are able to bring together their unique experiences, learn from each other, and construct new knowledge.

Computer mediated collaborative activities are implemented in various ways by online instructors. A common form of collaboration involves asynchronous discussion forums where students engage in academic dialogue to create individual knowledge (De Wever, Schellens, Valcke, & Van Keer, 2006). In some forms of collaborative activities, students work together to co-create artifacts such as presentations or research papers. In all forms of collaborative activities, dialogue and interaction are seen as important facilitators of the learning process (Bandura, 1971).

Successful collaborative learning requires good communication and critical thinking skills of raising counter-arguments and reaching consensus. This form of interaction poses problems for international students especially from Asian cultural backgrounds given their educational culture and language proficiency.

Educational Culture of Asia

Asian students represent a diverse population spanning China, the Far East, South East

Asia, the Indian sub-continent and the Middle East. However, Buckley’s (2000) cultural framework shows that Asian students generally place very close to each other on the cultural continuum and for this paper these students will be considered as a single homogenous entity. Cultural attributes affect how Asian students interact and participate in online collaborative activities and Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions highlight key cultural differences in teaching and learning. Hofstede (1980) identified five dimensions: power distance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation. There are three key manifestations of these cultural attributes of the educational culture of Asia that come into play within the context of collaborative learning – the primacy of the teacher within the classroom (power distance and uncertainty avoidance), need for harmony (collectivist), and saving face (collectivist). Teacher focused

Asian students grow up in a culture where the teacher is the unquestioned authority and a figure of respect (Wang, 2006). The teacher’s authority is supreme (Feng, 1994) and respect for an individual is crucial. The teacher is also the primary source of knowledge and this leads Asian students to lean heavily on their teachers for direction. Within the classroom, there is a uni-directional transfer of knowledge from the teacher to the students creating a community of


passive learners (Wang, 2006; Liu, Liu, Lee & Magjuka, 2010). As a result, the educational culture is primarily a non-interactive learning environment (Yu, 2002).

Wang’s (2007) cross-cultural study found that Asian students were comfortable in a non-interactive setting as they were used to being passive listeners in the classroom setting (Kuwahara, 2005). Research also shows that Asian students have a tendency to be resistant to posing questions as this is seen as questioning the authority of the teacher or disrespecting a fellow student (Kuwahara, 2005). Non-confrontational

Culturally, Asians prioritize harmony within the group, even if it is superficial harmony, preferring cooperation and minimizing confrontation (Chang, 2001). Hence, Asian students have difficulty disagreeing with others’ opinions or strongly holding on to their own. Liu et al.’s (2010) study of Asian MBA students, found that in online collaborative activities, the students were uncomfortable saying ‘No’ to any group ideas however much they might disagree with it. This led to the Asian students stepping back and the American students took “the lead, set up the framework and…finalized the whole assignment” (Liu et al., 2010, p. 184). Some of the students in the study were also uncomfortable with the collaborative case study method as they found it too unstructured and lacking in stringent guidelines. Similarly, a prior study by Thomson and Ku (2005) also revealed that Asian students in the online environment tended to be less critical and less opinionated. Saving face

A study of Asians in an online knowledge sharing group revealed that they thought a lot before posting a question or response, fearing ridicule and motivated by the cultural concept of modesty that frowns on drawing attention to oneself (Ardichvili, Maurer, Li, Wentling, & Stuedemann, 2006).

Lack of language proficiency also plays a role in this scenario. Wang’s (2007) study found that Asian students “experienced difficulties in freely expressing themselves” (p. 304). In addition, some Asian students adopt the role of ‘lurker’ wherein they read discussion posts online and yet, do not contribute to the discussion itself (Wang, 2007).

Intersection of Culture and Collaboration

Cultural predispositions have a direct impact on a students’ behavior within the learning

environment be it online or in-person. Nataatmadja, Sixsmith, and Dyson (2007) in a survey of Asian students at an Australian university found that while Asian students appreciated the need to participate in class discussions, they did not find the experience enjoyable. Asian students also conveyed that unsuccessful attempts at participation in discussions deterred them from further participation. They were very conscious of not “losing face”, i.e. their dignity and pride. In keeping with their teacher-centric background, their preferred participation style was a teacher-led Question and Answer session.

Wang (2007) studied the effect of the power distance index on learner’s perceptions of online learning and found that the Chinese and Korean participants preferred the asynchronous discussion forums that provided them with more time to think through their postings. The live meetings were limiting for the Korean students who could not compose their thoughts in English fast enough. The cultural background of non-participation in a classroom also prevented the


Chinese and Korean students from freely participating as they were unsure of what to do when they were expected to speak in the class sessions.

Li and Campbell (2008) in their study of Asian students in group scenarios discovered that Asian students viewed group discussion as an opportunity to connect with international students and learn more about other cultures and perspectives yet, they viewed group assignments very negatively which was also seen in Zhao and McDougall’s (2008) study of Asian students in Canadian universities. They felt uncomfortable sharing the same marks with other group members irrespective of the contributions of each member. They also viewed it as a situation that encouraged some participants to coast by with minimal effort. The Asian students in this study also revealed a need for training in group communication skills and conflict resolution.

Interventions

In spite of the stresses associated with online collaborative activities, Asian students are

not averse to collaborative learning (Chen, Caropreso, Hsu, & Yang, 2012). Asian students bring with them various learning styles, behavior patterns and thought processes which are uniquely cultural in perspective. In the online collaborative environment these influences can prove to be a challenge. However, simple strategies can be implemented by educators to maximize the learning outcomes from collaborative activities for Asian students. A teaching philosophy

Instructors can include a short statement of their teaching philosophy to their personal introductions at the beginning of a course. This helps clarify to learners what the role of the instructor will be within the learning environment and in collaborative activities. Asian students who are unfamiliar with the constructivist stance of instructor-facilitator will gain an understanding of how the course will proceed and what is expected of them. Higher order questioning and responses

Helping students become independent, critical thinking learners does not happen in a vacuum. To encourage higher-order questioning and discussion postings, scaffolded activities can be presented in the first weeks of the course. Students can be given one week of non-assessed activities wherein they post questions and responses. The instructor then provides detailed feedback citing strengths and areas for improvement using the grading rubrics as a framework.

This allows students to experiment and learn in a non-threatening environment (non-graded) where they feel more comfortable taking chances and making mistakes. It also enables the instructor to assess students’ personalities and address any potential issues at the beginning of the course. Dissenting and presenting counter arguments

Dissenting and presenting counter-arguments in a constructive manner is a learned skill that is important in collaborative learning. Asian students are reluctant to post their disagreement of others’ points of view in order to reduce confrontation and for fear of ridicule. Instructors can provide exemplar statements of counter-arguments. Students should then be encouraged to practice these skills. If students are uncomfortable voicing their dissent in the


public forum, they should be given the option to contact the instructor to discuss the situation. It should also be made clear that diverse viewpoints are encouraged and students should be recognized for their participation in these forms of discourse. Accessing resources

Proficiency in English is a deterrent to the participation levels of Asian students. They are reluctant to post in discussion boards as they worry about grammatical errors and also worry about the validity of their arguments. Support in the form of language assistance and library skills might help to alleviate this. While many Western universities provide robust student support services such as library services, writing and academic success centers, Asian students might not be familiar with them. Introductory activities that require students to use these facilities will enable students to familiarize themselves with the resources. In addition, students need to be reminded during the course of the program to utilize these resources as the need arises. Voicing counter-narratives

“Good discussions require good discussion topics” (Rovai, 2007, p. 87). Good discussion topics should not be limited to case study analyses, most important points, and benefits analyses. In the cross-cultural context, it is important to give voice to the narratives of students from other cultures. Hence, case studies based on students’ personal experiences within their cultural contexts creates an inclusive environment, makes knowledge relevant, and also facilitates the questioning of assumptions and biases. Collaborative discussions can also be built around texts and knowledge sources drawn from students’ individual cultures and countries. Flexibility

Live or real time meetings and sessions can create a powerful sense of presence among learners. Yet, it is important to keep in mind the geographical location of students and access to technology. The time difference is a key consideration when organizing real time meetings online. In addition, poor internet speeds can seriously thwart the success of a session. Furthermore, Asian students who are not very proficient in English might find these sessions difficult to participate in and sink into silence. The key is to remain flexible and remember that not all learners are the same. Real time meetings can be an option that every group decides on independently.

Conclusion

Integrating Asian students into the collaborative learning process first requires an understanding of the Asian perception of collaborative learning; what aspects of collaborative learning they are comfortable participating in, and how activities can be modified to incorporate the Asian sensibility. For online educators and instructional designers the challenge is to create inclusive environments that enhance the learning of all their students including Asian students. It is crucial for institutions to be sensitive to the cultural barriers that Asian students face when dealing with collaborative online learning and find ways to make the learning process more culturally inclusive.

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http://www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/Open-Doors/Data/Fast-Facts

http://www.catesol.org/


The Experience of Critical Self Reflection by Life Coaches: A Phenomenological Study

Dr. Lynn Shaw, LCSW, LCAC, CIC®

The purpose of the study was to describe the experience of critical self-reflection by life coaches. Life coaching is expanding within many disciplines including education, health care business, social work, and wellness. Life coaching involves a coach working with an individual or groups aimed at effecting change for professional and personal development. This qualitative study addressed the gap in understanding the experience of critical self-reflection in the coaches’ practices. The qualitative study was grounded in the phenomenology method. Five certified life coaches participated. Through the use of critical incident questionnaires (CIQ), journaling, and semi-structured interviews, the data derived was analyzed via the Epoche phenomenological analysis method. The results emerged five themes (a) structure and discipline, (b) increased self awareness, (c) passionate purpose, (d) professional development, and (e) enhanced relationships with self and others. The findings revealed critical self-reflection provided an introspective self-analysis for the coaches to enhance and expand their coaching skills, increase their energy for coaching sessions, and create a deeper connection with their clients. The coaches recommended critical self-reflection be taught within life coaching professional development trainings.

Introduction

Life coaching is a rapidly growing field of knowledge and practice aimed at helping people to achieve personal and professional development by focusing on their goals and aspirations. The business of life coaching is booming across the United States, and challenges are arising as to the definition, professionalism, and application in business, education, training, and other venues. An internet search revealed coaching for multiple purposes such as wellness, business, executives, life balance, motivation, nutrition, and many other personal or professional areas. As with any discipline, it is important to conduct research to explore the ways in which coaching works, so that the profession can be informed and practices enhanced. The discipline of life coaching is in its infancy compared to professions involving psychology, social work, sociology, and business. Empirical and descriptive research is needed to help practitioners understand, theorize, and contribute to the development of life coaching as a profession.

The International Coach Federation (ICF) defines coaching and a professional coaching relationship as:

• Coaching: Coaching is partnering with clients in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize their personal and professional potential.

• A professional coaching relationship: A professional coaching relationship exists when coaching includes a business agreement or contract that defines the responsibilities of each party (ICF, 2011, n.p. ).

A definition of coaching is a collaborative partnership between coach and clients where the clients ultimately discover their own truths to enhance their experience and to lead a full and


satisfying life (Kristal, 2009). Coaching is a method of conversation that empowers the client through probing questions and attentive listening. Coaching facilitates the client learning what is needed without the coach telling or advising (Williams & Menendez, 2007).

This study addressed the gap in understanding the experience of critical self-reflection by life coaches. There have been studies about the value of critical self-reflection with other disciplines and the impact of change within the coachee’s life (Kristal, 2009). Yet, there has not been as much emphasis placed on critical self-reflection for the coaches, which is a deeper and more meaningful process in deriving meaning from prior experiences.

Critical Self-Reflection Study

Reflection is frequently referred to in the psychology and social work literature, yet I was

surprised that the coach’s willingness and ability to critically self-reflect was not as prevalent. Reviewing the research on the use of reflection and critical reflection identified critical self-reflection was not as defined or separated from the reflection practices found in psychology. Would critical self-reflection take the coaching relationship to a new level if the coach utilized critical self-reflection and not just systemic methods of coaching?

As I identified myself as an adult educator and began my doctoral studies, I was introduced to several adult learning theories and practices. The connection between life coaching and adult education was cemented for me when I learned the concepts of andragogy and self-directed learning (Knowles, 1980) as well as transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 2009). The life coaching client could be defined as an adult learner with vision and goals to enhance learning for professional and personal development. The compatibility of life coaching with adult education influenced my topic selection for this study.

Another discovery influencing this study was critical self-reflection using the specific practice of a Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ) as designed and developed by Brookfield (1995; 2006; 2011). This critical self-reflection activity was primarily confined to the classroom. I spent four years in this doctoral program and participated in the use of the CIQ’s within most of my major courses. Could this reflective practice instrument be of value to the profession of life coaching as a method for data collection? I could not locate one reference to this instrument being used in life coaching as a tool for reflection or critical self-reflection to help identify the professionalism and effective practice of a life coach.

Brookfield (2006) defined critical reflection “as the process by which we research the assumptions informing our practice by viewing these through four complementary lenses-the lenses of students’ eyes, colleague’s perceptions, literature, and our own autobiography” (p. 26). He elaborated as adult educators and in the arena of adult learning, critical reflection is a practice to measure success as an educator and how learning is experienced. Through critical reflection, Brookfield (2006) maintains adult educators can reenergize. He wrote, “One of the problems many of us face as the years pass by is that our teaching can become stale” (p. 27). This premise aligns with this study to address complacency in life coaching practices. Life coaches, like adult educators, may experience mindful coaching as Brookfield (2006) believes with “awareness that things are rarely what they seem” (p. 28). Research Questions and Role of the Researcher

Phenomenology method is used in several disciplines working directly with people including psychologists, nurses, educators, and social workers. Moustakas (1994) explains the essence of phenomenology research is to deeply understand individual experiences of a


particular phenomenon. The research question in this phenomenology study was, “What is the lived experience of life coaches using critical self-reflection to improve their practice?” From this question of discovery, I explored the following secondary research questions.

1. How do introspective/reflective experiences provide meaning to the life coaching relationship?

2. What is the value of critical self-reflection activities within the life coach’s development as a life coach?

The researcher is directly involved with the research participants facilitating the data collection methods such as fieldwork which involves visiting the site of the study, interviewing face-to-face or via phone, or conducting focus groups through webinars and face-to-face interaction. It is essential that I define reflexivity in this study to remove bias, judgments, and preconceived ideas. “Reflexivity in research can thus be seen as being critically self-aware of one’s impact on the research rather than reflecting more generally on the research and evolving meanings” (Finlay, 2011, p. 84). My experience as a life coach, mental health practitioner, and adult educator certainly leads to assumptions and beliefs as to the significance of the study and to the outcomes. I value critical self-reflection as a component of skill and training needed to be competent and effective in one’s practice. This statement is a perspective of reciprocity found within qualitative research based on my life experience and professional development. Method

In choosing the phenomenology method for this study, I studied Edmond Husserl (1859-1938), who is credited with being the primary founder of phenomenology (Creswell, 2007; Finlay, 2011; Moustakas, 1994). Husserl’s approach to human science research was based on subjective openness with a rich steeping in philosophy. His basic assumptions described phenomenology as the study of the lived, conscious experiences of several persons resulting in the development of descriptions of the essences of those lived experiences (Husserl, 1962). Husserl developed the phenomenology research method of using Epoche, which continues to influence phenomenology research currently (Creswell, 2007; Hamill & Sinclair, 2010). Epoche means to “refrain from judgment, to abstain from or stay away from the everyday, ordinary way of perceiving things” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 33). Epoche allows the researcher to view the lived experience of the participants through a fresh perspective.

Moustakas (1998) developed a process for phenomenology research based on Husserl’s use of Epoche, the bracketing of one’s ideas and judgments to focus on a fresh perspective. The transcendental-phenomenological reduction data analysis process systemically guides the researcher to the meaning and existence of the experience. Transcendental means “to move beyond the everyday to the pure ego in which everything is perceived freshly, as if for the first time” (Moustakas, 1998, p. 34). One of the main distinctions in phenomenology research analysis is the role of the researcher’s experience. Though not a participant in the research study, such as an auto-ethnography research design, my experience does connect me as co-researcher. As such, it was significant that I possess the self-awareness to participate in a Hussurlian phenomenology study and put into action specific steps for bracketing. Hamill and Sinclair (2010) addressed the qualities of the bracketing researcher citing suggestions to accomplish bracketing in a Hussurlian phenomenological study. The qualities included being self-aware and self-critical; curious and quizzical; insightful; and possess a willingness to be wrong.

Five certified life coaches actually participated in the study. The criteria for the participants were (1) Certified Life Coaches who had completed a minimum of 100 coaching hours; (2) Committed to sharing their lived experience in an authentic and trustworthy manner;


(3) Engaged in an active coaching practice with a minimum of five clients per week; and (4) Willing to commit to a preliminary interview to discuss the concept of critical self-reflection, eight weeks of critical self-reflection activities, and a semi-structured interview concluding the data collection.

The five life coaches participated in the lived experience of the phenomenon, critical self-reflection, over a period of eight weeks. The critical self-reflection activities included completing a CIQ after each coaching session and then submitting a journal summary of their experience every two weeks. A semi-structured interview was conducted as the final data collection, which I transcribed. The psychological phenomenology data analysis method was applied to the data. As described by Moustakas (1994) and Creswell (2007), the data was put through the rigor of Epoche, open coding, memoing, horizonalization, formulation of meaning statements, clustering of statements to emerge the invariant formulation of themes, and descriptions for textural and structural formation of the essence of the phenomenon.

Throughout the data analysis, peer reviewers and the dissertation committee chair participated in dialogue, checking portions of the analysis for bias or incongruence. Five themes emerged from the study of critical self-reflection: (a) structure and discipline; (b) increased self-awareness; (c) passion and purpose; (d) professional development; and (e) enhanced relationships with self and others. Findings

The coaches identified several ways critical self-reflection constructed meaning to the life coaching relationship. Critical self-reflection provided the opportunity for the coaches to reflect deeper and with more understanding of the value of connection and presence within the coaching relationship. Increased self-awareness helped the life coaches connect more deeply by staying focused and present with their clients. This deeper sense of connection led to increased energy for the coach and the client as the coach could sense when an intervention or change of direction was needed. As a result, coaches felt more alive and responsive to the needs of their clients enjoying more fun and passion for their work.

The coaches found meaning through critical self-reflection by identifying the skill sets and competencies of coaching. Listening more and practicing self-management, which refers to focusing on the client’s agenda and not the coach’s, were two identified areas of meaning. When more aware of their listening or not listening, the coaches reflected on how their connection was impacted through listening skills. Feeling bored, disengaged, and disconnected were emotions and conditions experienced. Paying attention to the client interaction during these experiences validated the significance of taking time to critically reflect on behavior and thoughts in the life coaching session.

The coaches were occasionally surprised at the level of emotional intensity they experienced when they reflected after the sessions. By doing so, they could transition before seeing their next client by managing emotions and shifting energy. Critical self-reflection contributed to the coaches being mentally alert, energetically present, curious, and in the space of discovery, which led to a positive experience for the coach and client. This is a significant benefit of critical self-reflection as each client deserves the full presence and attention of the life coach who has been hired to guide them to their goals and aims.

The coaches found the structured discipline of the CIQ helpful in going deeper than a reflective perspective of a session. Though the five questions comprising the CIQ are simplistic in form, the encouragement to slow down, focus, reflect, and think meaningfully led to further insights about the coaches’ behaviors and thoughts captured in the moment for reflection. All of


the coaches described the CIQ as a good starting point to practice critical self-reflection. Having specific questions to answer and completing the journal summary questions led to an intensive period of critical self-reflection.

Conclusion

The interview-based, phenomenological study of critical self-reflection as experienced by

life coaches provided the opportunity to expand the existing research on life coaching and its value to life coaches, clients, credentialing organizations, and researchers. Life coaching is hitting a critical mass internationally and the definition, competency, and practice of life coaching called for empirical research to lend credibility to this expanding profession. Critical self-reflection, a primarily academic based learning method, has transferable properties to life coaching profession by encouraging the continued development of application of learning. This study was guided by the literature related to critical self-reflection, life coaching practices, and adult learning theories. Conducting rich interviews and maintaining the CIQ and journal summaries for data collection supported the qualitative approach to studying a phenomenon and described the lived experiences of the participants. The essence of critical self-reflection is richly represented in the life coaches’ data indicating application of this practice belongs in the life coaching profession.

References

Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Brookfield, S. (2006). The skillful teacher: On technique, trust, and responsiveness in the classroom (2nd ed). San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Brookfield, S. (2011). Critical Incident Questionnaire. [Website Document] Retrieved from

http://www.stephenbrookfield.com/Dr._Stephen_D._Brookfield/Critical_Incident_Questionnaire.html. Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage. Finlay, L. (2011). Phenomenology for therapists: Researching the lived world. Maiden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Husserl, E. (1969). Ideas: General introduction to pure phenomenology, Translated by

W. R. Boyce Gibson. London, New York: Macmillan. Hamill, C., & Sinclair, H. (2010). .Bracketing - practical considerations in Husserlian phenomenological research.

Nurse Researcher, 17(2), 16-24. International Coach Federation. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.coachfederation.org/research-education/icf-

research-portal/. Kristal, Z. (November 18-20, 2009). Critical reflection in the coaching process. Conference paper presented at the

Eighth International Transformative Learning Conference, Bermuda. Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Englewood, NJ:

Cambridge Adult Education Mezirow, J., Taylor, E. & Associates. (2009). Transformative learning in practice: Insights from community,

workplace, and higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Williams, P. & Menendez, D. (2009). Becoming a professional life coach: Lessons from the institute for life coach

training. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company. Dr. Lynn Shaw, LCSW, LCAC, Assistant Professor, University of Indianapolis, Department of Social Work, [email protected]


Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


What is the Transformational Learning Experience of Secondary Teachers Who Have Dealt with Burnout?

Dr. Julius R. Sims I, Ed.D.

Burnout is a syndrome consisting of emotional exhaustion (EE) and depersonalization (DPZ) (Yong & Yue, 2007). Educators who fall victims to burnout are likely to be less sympathetic toward learners, have a lower tolerance for disruptions within the learning process, be less apt to prepare adequately for content delivery and student interaction, and feel less committed and dedicated to their work (Fisher, 2011). A phenomenological study explored the burnout experiences among eight secondary teachers and their strategies for coping. Using in-depth interviews, the researcher was able to understand the personal meanings, expressed opinions, feelings, and other detailed descriptions of the participants' burnout experiences. Administration issues, administrative workload, negative teacher/student relationships, and lack of student effort were resulting themes associated with EE and DPZ effecting teaching performance. In contrast, mental efficiencies, interpersonal relationships, and outside resources were themes associated with the coping activities/strategies of participants. Consequently, learning and employing affective strategies that cope with burnout can help educators become more effective in their professional field (Maslach, 2003; Zonlnierczyk-Zreda, 2005). This study seeks to add to the adult education research in further understanding the transformational learning process of adults; and the social or environmental context that influences the learning that adults encounter.

Introduction and Background

The field of teaching requires educators to be equipped mentally, professionally, and

socially to face the responsibilities and demands of the vocation. However, the job demands, daily stress, and responsibilities of today's teachers exceed the expectations and demands of educational pioneers and teachers of yesterday. The potential increase in student population through 2015 could affect the number of new teachers needed within the field of teaching in the future (The Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006). A teacher learning to secure their well-being is monument. Burnout continues to be a pressing issue among teachers (Maslach, 2003; Mee, 2011). Teachers who fall victim to burnout are likely to be less sympathetic toward students, have a lower tolerance for classroom disruption, be less apt to prepare adequately for class, and feel less committed and dedicated to their work (Fisher, 2011). The best-skilled teachers can feel overwhelmed, highly pressured by the job, professionally frustrated, and emotionally stressed. The term burnout refers to the conditions of physical and emotional exhaustion (EE) and negative attitudes stemming from callousness, detachment, or depersonalization (DPZ). Consequently, such adverse conditions tend to emerge from intense interactions while working within human service occupations like the teaching field (Maslach, 2003; Skvoholt & Trotter-Mathison, 2010).

The overwhelming job responsibilities of teachers, increasing academic demands regarding all students, and the accountability factors facing teachers have caused new pressures


upon those in the teaching vocation (Evers, Brouwers, & Tomic, 2002). Additional pressures from federal and state mandates along with societal expectations have resulted in levels of emotional/physical breakdowns and indifferences within teachers (Ravitch & Chubb, 2009). However, quality teaching, professional care, and self-motivation of teachers have become an increasing challenging job for all in the professional teaching field. A combination of various on-going stress factors or intense engagements in any work environment can possibly trigger the effects of burnout (Gavish & Friedman, 2010; Rimm-Kaufman, 2011). It is essential that educators at all levels constantly maintain a quality degree of self-motivation, determination, resiliency, empathy, unwavering care, and passion about the interactive learning process of all learners.

For teachers to adapt or cope and productively progress while dealing with mental or emotional exhaustion may require meaningful transformations. Such transformations may help teachers preserve good qualities of teaching. The stressful job of teaching may require teachers to learn or self-educate themselves in how to preserve the quality of their well-being and, subsequently, services to their students/learners. According to Adams (2003), work-related stress, high-stimulating job environments, or occupational burnout can be a disorienting dilemma or personal crisis due to the adverse effects it can have upon the mental well-being of individuals. Transformational learning suggests that adults can psychologically change their specific beliefs, attitudes, and emotional reactions due to a personal crisis or difficult events they daily encountered. The following sections will briefly discuss the research problem, teacher burnout and coping, transformational learning, and selected methodology. It will conclude with implications, recommendations, and references.

The Research

For this study, the researcher took a qualitative approach to explore and understand the burnout phenomenon of high school teachers that experienced EE and DPZ and their coping strategies. This selected approach addressed the question: What is the transformational learning experience of secondary teachers who have dealt with burnout? This study gained an understanding of the coping strategies employed by secondary teachers who experienced burnout and their transformational learning experiences because of burnout. The following questions were used to guide the study: (a) What were the factors that lead to teacher burnout?; and, (b) How did teachers cope with handling their professional duties while dealing with burnout?

Considerable research has been devoted to studying teacher stress and burnout at all levels of teaching. Burnout is a known phenomenon within human-service occupations such as teaching, social work, health care, law enforcement, and mental health services. According to Black (2003), when burnout conditions negatively affect the mental and emotional state of teachers, the teacher/student relationship becomes toxic having negative results. There is a gap in the education literature regarding the importance of preserving quality classroom instruction along with the effectiveness of employing coping strategies or protective measures for handling teacher burnout. The transformational learning needs of adults often grow out of their larger life issues stemming from life-change events or pressing conditions of the workforce (Taylor et al., 2000). Teachers can experience personal and professional development while they continue to execute their demanding duties within the job. Just as the poor response to distress is a learned behavior in the teaching field, so is learning or relearning skills for coping with stress. Teachers, like many adult learners, can develop and learn to protect themselves from the pressures of


overload and the perceptions of failure.

Teacher Burnout The vast literature on teacher burnout suggests that there are a number of problematic

factors affecting psychological outcomes and teaching performance. These factors include social support, locus of control, negative affectivity, professional efficacy, and coping behaviors. These factors may affect outcomes independently of, or in interaction with, work stressors (Schonfeld, 2001). Nevertheless, due to the emotional and mental nature of their work teachers have become prone to work-related issues such as anxiety, depression, stress, exhaustion, callousness, and anger. The problems and impact of burnout has affected the performance abilities, or the lack thereof in many teachers along with other employees and administrators in the field of human-service occupations (O'Reilley, 2005). Some of the job-related frustrations of teachers are due to the negative or unhealthy teacher/student relationships they deal with daily (Benner, 2000; Brewster & Railsback, 2001). The neglect to employ strategies for coping or other preventive measures or if such strategies and measures have become ineffectual, burnout may become a severe issue.

Coping

The psychological development and quality performances of individuals are contingent

upon their abilities to form protective measures or strategies for coping with difficult conditions. Some researchers suggest that with some strategic training, mental development, and advanced learning, most educators can still perform adequately while dealing with demanding, stressful, or explosive job situations (Van Dierendonck et al., 2005). Some of the most effective means of preventing the effects of occupational stress and burnout among teachers has been the employment of coping strategies/activities. Coping seems to be the mental and/or physical ability of individuals to adapt, adjust, manage, or develop an emotional balance while facing challenging periods of life, challenging conditions, and/or high-stress environments.

However, coping is a learned behavior. Coping is associated to the idea of developing behaviors, mental activities, or methods that help sustain one's resiliency and protect quality performance. Biglan (2008) suggests that the personal expressions or any formulated activities for coping is a learned behavior. Unsuccessful strategies for coping or the absence of any such measures to adapt at all can affect the well-being of teachers and quality of teaching (i.e., success) in the classroom. Recognizing particular events or situations/conditions within the job setting that could act as a trigger that causes stress is paramount.

Transformational Learning Teachers in general want to resolve the problems of declining self-efficacy created by

stress and burnout. Thus, teachers are becoming open to develop or redevelop and learn their own solutions for self-efficacy coupled with developing new perspectives about themselves and their work environment (Betoret, 2006). The learning requirements throughout the many aspects of adulthood are not limited to the periods of vocational training needed, or the desire to progress through an educational system for an academic goal. The prevailing challenges adults face within certain work environments or conditions in life will require the kinds of personal learning


that will transform the mental perspectives of adults (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009). Transformational learning is an endeavor undertaken by adults to possibly build self-worth, redevelop personality, or develop one's belief system. Transformational learning involves acquiring a new perspective about an individual's worldview or personal viewpoint (Clark, 1993).

In short, transformational learning occurs because of a myriad of personal experiences, daunting work environments, or challenges that threaten the well-being of adults. This form of learning can lead to attitude change, personal growth, and ultimately succeed in adapting new skills and strategies that will allow teachers to remain as productive educators for the students they serve (Dana, 2007). A disorienting dilemma can be a large event or a series of smaller events that causes the need for change, usually experienced as an intense personal crisis or dilemma (Cranton, 2006).

Methodology and Findings

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the coping strategies employed by secondary teachers who experienced burnout and understand their transformational learning experiences. The following questions guided the study: (a) What were the factors that lead to teacher burnout?; (b) How did teachers cope with handling their professional duties while dealing with burnout? One-on-one interviews collected data regarding EE and DPZ of teachers and their strategies for coping. Using a qualitative approach to understand the opinions, ideas, concepts, feelings, and perceptions of participants were important. A phenomenological methodology for a research design strategy was appropriate to study things as they appeared to the participants (Smith, 2011). My active role as a qualitative researcher in this study, according to Patton (2002), was to position myself "on the inside of the phenomenon being observed" (p. 51). As an investigator, I would hear and understand how the burnout phenomenon affected my participants and their well-being. Eight high school teachers provided comprehensive and complete descriptions of their burnout experiences and coping strategies through one-on-one interviews. Participants in this study became co-researchers or co-investigators with the researcher (Patton). I used a purposeful sampling procedure (Creswell, 2013) to identify participants in order to conduct my phenomenological study (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011; Patton, 2002).

Administration issues, administrative workload, negative teacher/student relationships, and lack of student effort were resulting themes associated with EE and DPZ effecting teaching performance. In contrast, mental efficiencies, interpersonal relationships, and outside resources were themes associated with the coping activities/strategies of participants.

Implementations for Action and Recommendations

The benefits of relieving teacher burnout by learning and employing strategies for coping, before negative consequences or poor job performance start, would be of immense value to all student-teacher programs, novice teachers in the field, tenured teachers, school administrators and district officials, educational policy-makers, educational specialists, and all educational institutions that serve students (Yavuz, 2009). Using this research may help create some needed understanding of the relationship between high school teacher burnout and constant change or revising of school policies regarding discipline and organizational factors related to


burnout (i.e., lack of affective interventions and faculty support systems). For teachers preparing for the field, teacher education programs should foster collaborative efforts involving educational policy-makers, school administration, and presently employed teachers from all grade levels in pursuing initiatives/training programs that would assist teacher education programs in developing emotional regulations skills (i.e., skills for coping) for those adults advancing towards field that they then might use when addressing the various stressors of their work environments. Further research is required regarding the effects of burnout and its relationship with: teachers’ daily workload, ethnicity of teachers, teachers enforcing school rules, and overly populated classrooms of a teacher's daily class schedule.

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from http://www.sbec.state.tx.us/SBEC/Online/trunoverrpt.pdf Betoret, F.D. (2006, August). Stressors, self-efficacy, coping resources, and burnout among Secondary school

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Women and Gender Studies through History: Looking Where We Have Been, To Move Further in the Future

Rachael D. Smith

In order for students to understand the direction of Women and Gender Studies in the Third Wave of the Feminist Movement, it is important for them to understand the history of women and gender issues. My part of the round table will discuss the Introduction to Women and Gender Studies course and how students are educated in how the history of feminism has played an integral part in where Women and Gender Studies issues have been successfully championed and where work still needs to be done by the future generations.

Introduction

Before the 1960’s, the history of Women and Gender issues in America was not included

in most educational programs. Women and Gender Studies programs in higher education help to bring these issues to the forefront of American education and society as a whole. There is a direct correlation to how the history of Women and Gender issues were exhibited in the past to the need for champions against social injustice in the present. Students in Women and Gender Studies programs are those champions and while they learn the history of these issues in the classroom, they will be better prepared to lead the charge against prejudice and discrimination in the future.

Women and Gender Studies

The history of the issues dealt with by Women and Gender studies does not begin with the written language. It begins with the studies by archeologists and anthropologists in the Paleolithic era. During this time in human history, it has been determined that males and females were equals in life. Without an equal partnership between both sexes, the human race would have most certainly died out. Popular history would have many believe that males were sent to hunt because they are stronger in physical stature than females of the time. At the same time, women were left to gather in order to stay close to camp and take care of the offspring. While this last statement is partially true, it is not true for the reasons that popular opinion would believe. Males did have the dangerous duty of hunting and women did stay close to camp to gather. However, women could have hunted just the same as the men. But, women were of more value alive than men. Women had to remain close to camp with their children because they were the food source for the next generation and males were expendable. Males were trained to be warriors and fighters, while women were trained to know the differences in berries, fruits, and grains. In the Paleolithic era, everyone did their part to survive and did it without a sense of one sex being more important than another (Spielvogel, 2014, p. 3).

What happened to equality between males and females? Some historians would argue that the Agricultural Revolution played a significant role. As humans began to move out of the cradle of life and then began to discover agriculture, they settled down in one location and built a


home and farm. It was during this time that work outside the home became more important than work inside the home, and thus the inequality of the sexes began. (Spielvogel, 2014, p. 5)

In the years following the Agricultural Revolution, many more injustices occurred when it came to issues between males and females. For example, women’s roles in religion, the Witch-hunts, issues surrounding birth control, female rulers, and marriage to name a few. These issues did not stop in Europe, Africa, and Asia; they also came to the New World with European explorers. These explorers and the colonists that followed, brought with them disease, animals, crops, and sexism. These “traditions” would continue for the next four hundred years with some women “rocking the boat” during this time, but few gaining the recognition for their activism they deserved until many years after their deaths. Such women include, but are not limited to; Anne Hutchinson, Dorothea Dix, and Ellen Swallow Richards. Most introductions to Women and Gender Studies textbooks begin with the first wave of the Women’s Rights movement and women seeking the right to vote. While this is a very significant part of the history of Women and Gender Studies, it does not encompass the actual beginnings of sexism in human history, or even where the history of sexism derived in the United States.

It was the second wave of the Women’s Rights movement, during the 1960’s and 1970’s that led to the creation of Women Studies classes and eventually, programs and departments across college campuses. Women’s Rights were transformed into feminism. The movement that once concentrated only on women’s issues was moving toward full equality for every human, regardless of their sex. This movement included not only women, but men who wanted to see equality for women, as well as men. These individuals demanded that all marginalized individuals should be included in higher education studies, with a focus on social issues. These women and men wanted honest dialogue regarding poverty, racism, sexual values, and women’s rights. They fought these social struggles using the one thing that all Americans have access: the law. They moved to change attitudes regarding these issues and once attitudes started to change, they moved to change law and policies, successfully (Shaw and Lee, 2012, p. 3).

The third wave of the Feminist movement began in the 1990’s. This generation of individuals grew up benefitting from the success of the second wave. However, the work toward equality was not completed by the previous generation and there was backlash from the prior wave of feminism. Some argue that the movement is still in this wave of feminism, while others would state that it has moved on into the fourth wave. Regardless, the third wave still had social injustices to dismantle, while keeping the previous wave’s successes intact. The third wave took on such issues as gay rights, sexual identity, violence, and global atrocities against women (Shaw and Lee, 2012, p. 13).

Classroom Learning

Once students understand where the movement toward human equality began, they must learn how to take the next step. One backlash of the second wave of the feminist movement is the word, “feminism.” Most people who hold feminist ideals will not associate themselves with the word. Many students connect feminism with man-hating women, who want to take over the world. While this is not true, it is difficult to overcome with many students. Some students have even suggested changing the name of the movement in order to have more participation. Still after successfully completing the Introduction to Women and Gender Studies course, some students will understand the need for feminism, as well as understand the correct definition of


feminism, yet still not identify themselves as feminist. Regardless of how a student identifies, the main objective is for students to understand that there are injustices taking place in this country, as well as other countries and these injustices need to have an equitable resolution.

In the Introduction to Women and Gender Studies course at Ball State University students learn and discuss topics such as systems of privilege and inequality, family systems, the social construction of sexuality, health and reproductive rights, violence against women and men, work inside and outside the home, religion and spirituality, as well as state, law, and social policy. The course allows students to become familiar with various aspects of social injustices, as well as societal constructs that allow differences between males and females to remain “normal” within American society. These constructs also allow for differences in health care based on income, as well as differences based on violence. It has become acceptable for women to become violent with men and it is assumed that the males must have provoked the action. Differences such as these and many more are discussed in the course, as well as the action to take if students are subjected to these differences.

The final lesson in the Introduction to Women and Gender Studies course is activism and change. Students learn how to organize other individuals to their cause. They also learn the appropriate actions to staging a protest. However, it must also be stated that students also learn that to be an activist does not mean only public protesting and participating in marches. Students are instructed that an activist begins change at home, with their family and friends. Students learn that language is important and what some might consider a “joke” is in fact promoting sexism, racism, or other forms of prejudice based on the nature of the “joke.” Students also learn that gender is taught in that some parents purchase blue colored items and trucks for boys and pink colored items and dolls for girls. The course also instructs the students on equality in relationships and that there must be an equitable distribution of household chores for all participants in the home. Males should not be regulated to outside work, while female members of the home are regulated to work inside the home. Students are also taught that activism can occur in the workplace and in their particular religious organization.

In the 21st century, activism also takes place online and in social media. Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube have become places where ideas are shared and people come together to engage in activist activities. Now, more than ever, people can organize, share ideas, and meet other like-minded individuals quickly and in the privacy of their own homes. Through online activism, more people are exposed to social injustices, and in the age of access, they are able to see video of the injustice. Cell phones have made organizing easier for this century’s activist. With access to direct speaking, text messaging, video, and applications that allow for instance access to information, the cell phone is a tool that nearly all of the American population has on hand and can take anywhere. However, the question of whether or not online activism has made the future generations complacent is yet to be determined.

Conclusion

As with history students, Women and Gender Studies students must understand where humans have failed or succeeded, in order to know how to change the future for the better. The Introduction to Women and Gender Studies at Ball State University uses the past to determine where Women and Gender issues need to be addressed and improved upon. While today’s Women and Gender Studies students do not have to overcome the same challenges as the


foremothers and forefathers have over thousands of years, they do have to overcome the challenges that are still present in the 21st century. These challenges include, but are not limited to; sexism, classism, ageism, ableism, and still relevant in this new century, racism. It is the responsibility of the future generations to move forward and hopefully, fulfill the dreams of those who have come before them.

References Shaw, Susan M. & Lee, Janet. (2012). Women’s Voices, Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary Readings (5th

ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2014). Western Civilization: A Brief History (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage

Learning. __________________________________________________________________________ Rachael D. Smith, M.A., Instructor, Department of History, Women’s & Gender Studies Program, 2000 West University Avenue, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, 47306, [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.



Cutting Edge Technology in the Learning Environment

Casheena A. Stephens, Deborah R. Barnett, Xin Chen

Technology in higher education is constantly evolving. The research examines the use and role that technology plays in the higher education learning environment. The authors discuss the significance, defining characteristics, and the challenges that technology has on the field of education. Additional discussion provides insight into how technology links to adult education theory and practice with a particular emphasis on the differences between a technology-driven versus learner-driven approach.

Introduction

Social media and technology have changed the way educators teach, how students learn,

and the way teachers and students communicate. The use and role of technology is rapidly changing in higher education presenting challenges for institutions to remain on the cutting edge. Understanding how educators define and utilize technology is a critical component that may vary from field to field and even instructor to instructor. The cost of equipment, training, and implementation must be taken into account to compete in the global economy and workplace. This research provides insight into the integration of technology in the learning environment with a focus on improving student outcomes and providing learner-centered academic engagement.

Significance

Educators are embracing innovative technology in the classroom; however integration is not a one-step process. A recent study found that “roughly 65 percent of educators surveyed believe that students are more productive today than they were three years ago due to the increased reliance on technology in the classroom” (Lytle, 2011, para 4). In a world in which technology creates 24/7 access to information, 21st century students many times are forced to engage technology up to18 hours a day. Higher education institutions are responsible for not only educating its students and preparing the next generation of workers but, “employers have the expectation that college graduates will enter the workplace with some level of technology readiness” (Adebayo & McGrath, 2013, p. 6). The NYU Stern School of Business is just one of many examples of how an institution is using cutting edge technology (i.e. wearable devices) to transform their incoming student’s educational experience (Lloyd, 2014). Simply modeling the use of technology in the classroom and providing opportunities for students to become tech-savvy is a good start. However, the Langone Lab at NYU goes a step further by re-designing their student orientation by exposing their students to the process of collaborative learning while challenging them through experiential learning using digital tools (Lloyd, 2014).

Technology can be defined in multiple ways. An instructor’s belief and implementation of technology in the classroom can vary from using overhead slides to smart boards. Steinberg (2013) states that, “studies have shown that students using technology as an education tool become more engaged in the process and more interested in growing their knowledge base -- in


some cases, to the point that they don't even realizing they're actively learning” (para 8). Incorporating the right technology and utilizing it properly is critical to ensure that information is being effectively presented to students with hopes of it aiding in their overall comprehension and retention. Greenstein (2013) states, if “done thoughtfully and well, technology can help faculty provide a more personalized learning experience for their students and ease some of the financial pressure on colleges and universities” (para 10). There are different types of technological devices being used in higher education institutions like laptops, iPads, tablets, and smart phones, which are being used to enhance classroom instruction. The flipped classroom is among the best practices that educators are implementing in classrooms today abroad (Brame, 2012). Some instructors also incorporate technology in the classroom in the form of presentation software (i.e. Prezi, PowerPoint), audio podcasts, videos (i.e. YouTube), social media (i.e. twitter, Facebook), and web tools (i.e. poll everywhere). Technology is not a classroom trend, but a global certainty that will continue to evolve in the future. Technologies in Teaching and Learning

The 21st century classroom requires effective instructional practices, digital tools, and instructors who actively integrate technology into their classrooms. Applications of technology in the learning place include teaching and information sharing, collaboration/interaction, and individual use for learning. Teaching and Information Sharing

Multiple technologies are effective for teaching and information sharing. Lindbeck and Fodrey (2010) gathered information from 106 community college faculty members who integrated technology into their classes. The top five technologies reported for supporting teaching and information sharing were: video, PowerPoint, internet, lecture /screen capture, and smart board. Faculty members also commented that these technologies enhanced the in-class learning experience of students. Burns (2011) noted that teachers have a responsibility to create technologically-friendly learning environments. Teachers should encourage students to use technology for defined learning objectives in addition to using technology to access and create their own learning networks and/or collective space for knowledge sharing. Collaboration/Interaction

Technologies for collaboration are often used as tools for communication outside the classroom. The top five technologies for collaboration identified in Lindbeck and Fodrey’s (2010) research are learning management systems, discussion boards, Web 2.0 Collaborative, MS Office, Google apps and docs, and video/web conference. Burns (2011) found that Google documents were used as a medium to encourage students to participate in classroom discussion and for work together on class projects. “Flipping your classroom” is a popular model in which webcam, videoconferencing, discussion board, and other technologies are used to support in-classroom interaction. Instructors use both online and face-to-face instruction to manage course materials and provide instruction by creating online tutorials with the content they wish students to master outside of the classroom. A growing number of community college and university faculty members include “flipped” instruction in their classroom (Educause, 2012). Students can benefit from this instructional technique because flipped classrooms promote interaction between instructors and students while allowing students to learn at their own pace, a preference of adult learners. During in-class sessions, instructors


can spend valuable class time helping student with homework, practice, answering questions while observing and interacting with students to provide meaningful feedback (21things4teachers, 2014). This technique also allows instructors to focus on analysis, synthesis, and evaluation aspects of Bloom’s Taxonomy to promote critical thinking (Marshall, 2013). Individual Use for Learning

Technology not only supports collaboration, but fosters individual application in the learning process. Mobile technology is another development that impacts and provides benefits to individual learners. Mobile learning is a way to use electronic devices, such as netbooks, iPads, cell phones, iPods, and e-readers for educational purposes. More and more colleges are adopting mobile applications or plan to use them within the next year. Appropriately, 86 percent of subjects surveyed agreed that the use of mobile technologies for learning, such as tablets and smartphones, will be important in the future (Winston, 2013). Mobile learning technologies offer teachers and students a more flexible approach to learning. Research shows that students are more motivated and engaged in the learning process with mobile devices which can improve students’ academic performance (Wylie, 2014). Some technologies identified by Lindbeck and Fodrey’s (2010) research that enhance the learning process include computers/laptops, digital cameras/video, document cameras, and movie/image editing.

Links to Theory and Practice

Although technology is changing the learning environment, those changes are generally driven by either a technology-focused or learner-focused approach (Cromley, 2000). A technology-focused approach utilizes technology for the sake of technology, not necessarily because it has demonstrated improved student learning. A learner-focused approach integrates technology into the learning experience to enhance learning and increase effectiveness. Palfrey and Gasser (2008) explained that the goal should be to first identify learning outcomes or teaching goals and then identify technologies that might support those goals rather than integrating technology “just because we think that technology is cool” (p. 246).

For adult educators, connecting technological outcomes with andragogic principles is an important step to ensuring that technology is not viewed simply as a presentation tool but is used with intentional focus on improving student learning. Andragogical tenets that serve as a guide for adult educators include: (1) adults tend to be self-directed; (2) adults prefer engaged learning rather than passive receipt of instruction; (3) adults are problem-oriented learners as opposed to content-oriented; (4) adult learner life experiences play a key role in learning; and (5) adults seek relevancy when gaining new knowledge (Knowles, 1973). Adult learners are sometimes viewed as digital settlers or digital immigrants (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008) because they were not born in a digital age and have had to adapt to a new, technological world. However, the use of technology provides multiple avenues for engaged, problem-centered, relevant learning that self-directed adults can connect to real-world experiences.

Research indicates that the use of technology with adult learners, including virtual and interactive activities, can result in deeper learning and better understanding of theoretical concepts (Renfro-Michel, O'Halloran, & Delaney, 2010). Institutions also report technology as conducive to creating a student-centered learning environment (Renfro-Michel, O'Halloran, & Delaney, 2010; Thiele, Mai, & Post, 2014; Wade, Rasmussen, & Fox-Turnbull, 2013). Using technology to create multi-modal content delivery can also improve learning outcomes by



reaching multiple learning styles (Wolfson, Cavanagh, & Kraiger, 2014) and is a viable option for self-directed learners who might want more control over their learning. To prevent the use of the technology from becoming an additional and unanticipated learning outcome for students, technology should be easy to use or adapt to and, preferably, part of a platform or device that students are already familiar with. Examples might include a flipped classroom model in which students have access to assessments, multi-media, or recorded lectures prior to class which reserves class time for discussion, critical thinking, and application. For instructors who fear the learning curve of new technologies, simple solutions might include re-purposing existing PowerPoint presentations with add-ons, such as Office Mix, which allow for interactivity through audio-visual narration, quizzes, polls, and interactive simulations. Utilizing re-purposed, interactive PowerPoint presentations through the flipped classroom model also allows for the use of learning analytics which might include participation data or in-presentation assessment of course content viewed outside of class.

Other key trends in higher education learning technologies as revealed in a 2013 report (Johnson et al., 2013) include: openness; massive open online courses (MOOCs); skills from informal learning; learning analytics; content guide; hybrid and online learning models. Openness eliminates cost and access barriers to educational resources. MOOCs are no longer viewed just as free courses as instructors explore the use of MOOC content to supplement traditional courses. Informal learning might include the encouragement of self-directed exploration of a topic or other out-of-classroom learning that contribute to competency of course outcomes. The use of learning analytics provides instructors with real-time feedback and ongoing assessment of student progress as they learn rather than only at exam time. Similarly, the implementation of tablet initiatives is on the rise to increase student access to technological tools. With increased use of technology also comes the necessity for content guides to teach students the tools to navigate through the vast amount of resources to find credible ones. Hybrid and online learning models provide opportunity for student collaboration, digital skill development, and flexibility for adult learners with multiple roles and responsibilities.

Conclusion

Technology continues to become integrated into everyday life and the classroom is no exception. Recommendations for implementing technology, particularly for adult learners, are to keep it simple and to utilize user-friendly or familiar platforms to create a student-centered learning environment. A key point, however, is to first ensure that the technology is not being used just for the sake of technology but that it enhances the learning experiences through improved outcomes. Connecting technology use to andragogical principles with the goal of providing a self-directed, engaging, problem-based, and relevant learning environment can not only better connect adult learners to course content but can also increase confidence and literacy among generations of digital settlers and digital immigrants.

References 21things4teachers. (2014). Blended or flipped classrooms: Blending instruction, flipping your classroom, creating

tutorials, and homework in class!. Retrieved from http://www.21things4teachers.net/21-things/20---blended-or-flipped-classrooms


Adebayo, A. O., & McGrath, L. C. (2013). Technology skill for business students: The next level. Business Education Innovation Journal, 5(2), 6-11.

Brame, C. J. (2012). Flipping the classroom. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/flipping-the-classroom/

Burns, R. (2011). Creating a technologically-friendly environment for learning. Retrieved from http://www.hastac.org/blogs/becciwburns/creating-technologically-friendly-environment-learning

Cromley, J. G. (2000). Learning with computers: The theory behind the practice. Focus on Basics: Connecting Research & Practice, 4(C). National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy: Boston, MA. Retrieved from http://www.ncsall.net

Educause. (2012). Things you should know about flipped classroom. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7081.pdf

Greenstein, D. (2013, December 16). Change is coming. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/12/16/essay-arguing-major-changes-are-coming-higher-education

Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., and Ludgate, H. (2013). NMC horizon report: 2013 higher education edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.

Knowles, M. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. American Society for Training and Development. Houston: Gulf Publishing

Lindbeck, R., & Fodrey, B. (2010). Integrating technology into the college classroom: Current practices and future opportunities. National Social Science Association. Retrieved from http://www.nssa.us/tech_journal/volume_1-1/vol1-1_article5.htm

Lloyd, M. (2014). Cutting-edge tech gives students an orientation in experiential learning. Campus Technology. Retrieved from: http://campustechnology.com

Lytle, R. (2011, July 14). Study: Emerging technology has positive impact in classroom. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved from: http://www.usnews.com

Marshall, H. (2013). Three reasons to flip your classroom. Retrieved from http://newsmanager.commpartners.com/tesolbeis/issues/2013-08-28/6.html

Palfrey, J., & Gasser, U. (2008). Born digital: Understanding the first generation of digital natives. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Renfro-Michel, E. L., O'Halloran, K. C., & Delaney, M. E. (2010). Using technology to enhance adult learning in the counselor education classroom. Adultspan Journal, 9(1), 14-25.

Steinberg, S. (2013). Technology for schools and teachers: 5 reasons digital learning matters. The Blog. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com

Thiele, A. K., Mai, J. A., & Post, S. (2014). The student-centered classroom of the 21st century: Integrating web 2.0 applications and other technology to actively engage students. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 28(1), 80-93.

Wade, W. Y., Rasmussen, K. L., & Fox-Turnbull, W. (2013). Can technology be a transformative force in education? Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 57(3), 162-170, doi:10.1080/1045988X.2013.795790

Winston, H. (2013). Helping professors use technology is top concern in computing survey. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Helping-Faculty-Members-Use/142377/

Wolfson, N. E., Cavanagh, T. M., & Kraiger, K. (2014). Older adults and technology-based instruction: Optimizing learning outcomes and transfer. Academy of Learning Management and Education, 13(1), 26-44. doi: 10.5465/amle.2012.0056

Wylie, J. (2014). Mobile learning technologies for 21st Century classrooms. Retrieved from http://www.scholastic.com

______________________________________________________________________________ Casheena A. Stephens, Doctoral Candidate in Workforce Education and Development, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL. [email protected]. Deborah R. Barnett, Doctoral Candidate in Workforce Education and Development, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL. [email protected].



http://www.scholastic.com/



Xin Chen, Doctoral Candidate in Workforce Education and Development, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL. [email protected]. Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014



Self-Determination in Transitioning First-Year College Students With and Without Disabilities

Lorna C. Timmerman

This research project explored levels of self-determination in transitioning first-year college students using the MAP-Works Fall Transition Survey. Competency in self-determination skills has been called the most important element for students’ successful postsecondary experiences. The purpose of this research was to investigate whether there were statistically significant differences in levels of self-determined behavior between students with and without disabilities; and within the students with disabilities (SWD) grouping, whether there were meaningful differences in levels of self-determined behavior between students who had and had not registered with Disability Services and sought assistance. Comparisons of levels of self-determination were also made among students with varying demographic and student characteristics (i.e., gender, race, and GPA) as well as between SWD with visible and non-apparent disabilities. Gaining an understanding of how levels of self-determination differ among different incoming student groups can help success and retention strategists directly target interventions to students at risk and most likely to benefit. The paper discusses key findings and concludes with recommendations for practice and future research.

Introduction

While students with disabilities (SWD) are attending college in increasing numbers, they

are less likely to graduate than their non-disabled peers. Historically, SWD had little control over decisions affecting their educations and transitions into adulthood, and rates of college participation and retention for SWD were limited. One factor in the decreased college retention of SWD is lack of self-determination skills (Finn, Getzel, & McManus, 2008; Karvonen, Test, Wood, Browder, & Algozzine, 2004). Self-determination includes multiple elements (e.g., behavioral autonomy, self-regulation, self-realization, and psychological empowerment) that can counteract retention risks faced by SWD (Thoma & Getzel, 2005; Wehmeyer & Field, 2007).

Self-determined persons: Know how to choose – they know what they want and how to get it. From an awareness of personal needs, self-determined individuals choose goals, and then doggedly pursue them. This involves asserting an individual’s presence, making his or her needs known, evaluating progress toward meeting goals, adjusting performance, and creating unique approaches to solve problems (Martin & Marshall, 1995, p. 147).

When students have the capacity to assume responsibility for the choices and decisions they make, when they are aware of their strengths and limitations, when they persevere in the face of problems, and when they advocate for their needs, they are self-determined and have greater potential to be successful in college. Self-determination skills are important for all students to develop; however, due to additional transitional barriers faced by SWD, self-determination is of even greater importance for SWD transitioning to IHE.


Statement of the Problem

Self-determination skills are critical for postsecondary success; yet lack of self-determination skills has been identified as a major barrier to students’ academic success in college (Finn et al., 2008). Students who are self-determined are more likely to be successful in college because they are more aware of their strengths, weaknesses, preferences, and interests; they self-advocate for their needs; and they tend to believe themselves to be capable of achieving success in college. These self-determined dispositions, though necessary, are lacking in many transitioning students.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to see if statistically significant differences exist between

self-reported levels of self-determination among incoming first-year college students without disabilities and students with disabilities. Among the students with disabilities (SWD), there were two student groupings – those students who had an IEP (individualized education plan) or 504 Plan in high school and had not registered with the Disability Services (DS) office, and those who had an IEP or 504 Plan in high school and who had registered with DS. A further purpose of the study was to see if statistically significant differences exist between self-reported levels of self-determination based on demographic variables, including disability type among SWD.

Research Questions 1) Do statistically significant differences in self-determination (SD) exist between students with and without disabilities? 2) Do statistically significant differences in SD exist between students self-reporting disability who are registered and those who are not registered with the office of Disability Services? 3) Do statistically significant differences exist in SD based upon disability type (i.e., physical/sensory disabilities, non-apparent disabilities)? 4) Do statistically significant differences exist in SD based upon other demographic variables (i.e., gender, race/ethnicity, high school GPA, first semester GPA, retention to spring semester)?

Significance of the Study to the Field

Given the differences in opportunities and quality of life that college completion provides, students with disabilities must be supported in their pursuit of postsecondary education. While students with disabilities have increased participation in postsecondary education, successful postsecondary outcomes for adults with disabilities have not been realized. By assessing self-determination, this study enhanced students’ opportunities to realize their postsecondary goals and increase lifelong earnings. This research was a quantitative study of the qualities of self-determined behavior in first-year students attending a comprehensive university. Previous research on self-determination has focused on students attending certificate programs or two-year institutions and most has been qualitative in nature. This study analyzed data gathered very early in students’ college experience (during the third to sixth week of their fall semester) so that retention strategies could be targeted to students at risk of attrition.

Method


Quantitative research was used to produce findings arrived at through statistical analysis

of quantifiable, numerical data. Participants answered survey questions administered online through MAP-Works 2013 Fall Transition Survey, an assessment of self-reported student strengths and weaknesses designed to identify areas for further student growth and development. The setting for the study was a public, mid-sized, doctoral-granting, Midwestern university. The study population was all incoming first-year students matriculating in fall 2013. During the third week of fall semester, 3,660 first-year students received an email request to participate in the study. All data were analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 21 [IBM-SPSS]. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to develop a scale to measure the latent construct of self-determination. Independent samples t-tests and analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted.

Results

Of the 3,660 first-time freshmen students, 3,241 returned useable survey responses,

giving a response rate of 89 percent. Sixty-three percent of respondents were female (n = 2,053) and 37% (n = 1,188) were male. Ninety-five percent (n = 2,749) did not report a documented disability. Of the five percent of students reporting disability (n = 142), 24% reported a visible disability (n = 33), and 76% reported that their disability was non-apparent (n = 106). Of the first-year transitioning students with disabilities, only 38% (n = 54) self-reported that they had registered with the Disability Services Office. Caucasian students (n = 2,661) made up 82% of the first-year students, with non-Caucasian students comprising 18% (n = 580). Regarding high school GPA, 84% (n = 2,711) of incoming students reported that they had made mostly As and Bs. Sixteen percent (n = 522) reported making mostly Bs and Cs in high school. After one semester of college, first semester GPAs were lower, with only 54% (n = 1,710) making mostly As and Bs and 32% (n = 1,021) making mostly Bs and Cs. Of the first-year students who began attending Ball State in fall semester 2013, 95% (n = 3,073) were retained to spring semester 2014, with 5% (n = 168) not returning for their second semester.

The EFA supported three factors, or scales, of self-determined behavior. These scales were: Self-Regulation, Psychological Empowerment, and Resilience. All are indicators of self-determined behavior that assist first year students in making the transition to college. Independent samples t-tests and ANOVAs found notable differences in the self-reported characteristics of self-determined behavior among differing student populations. In brief, on the Self-Regulation Factor, SWD scored higher group means than did students without disabilities (SWoD). Students with disabilities who had registered with the Disability Services Office had higher mean scores on the Resilience Factor than SWD who had not registered. There were no statistically significant differences in self-determined behavior among SWD by disability type. Females scored higher levels of self-determined behavior than did males on the Resilience and Self-Regulation Scales; and males scored higher means than females on the Psychological Empowerment Scale. Non-Caucasians scored higher means on the Resilience Scale than did Caucasians. Students who reported higher high school and first semester GPAs scored higher mean scores of self-determined behavior than did students with lower GPAs. Similarly, students who were retained to spring semester scored higher in measures of self-determination than students not retained.


Discussion

This study investigated levels of self-determination among transitioning first-year college students and examined differences in acquisition and demonstration of self-determined behavior between students with and without disabilities and among varying student characteristics. Self-determination has been hailed as one of the most important traits for making progress toward postsecondary goals. While self-determination is a preferred dispositional quality for all transitioning students, having well-developed self-determination skills is imperative for students with disabilities. Recommendations for future research conclude the discussion section. Differences between Students With and Without Disabilities

The only significant difference found between SWD and SWoD was that SWD scored higher in Self-Regulation than SWoD. This suggests that SWD may more fully realize their need to implement regulatory skills to compensate for any limitations they may experience due to their disabling conditions. Part of the reason there did not appear to be greater differences in self-determination between students with and without disabilities may stem from the lack of college readiness soft-skills in the majority of transitioning students. Even students who are academically well prepared may be poorly prepared in non-academic ways to make the adjustment to college. Students may experience difficulties in goal setting, problem-solving, time management, and study skills and habits – all indicators of self-regulation and essential skills needed for postsecondary success. When most transitioning students have trouble with self-regulatory competencies, significant group differences are less likely to be found. Differences among SWD by Registration Status and Disability Type

This study found significant differences in self-determination among students with disabilities who had registered and those who had not registered on the Resilience scale but not on the Psychological Empowerment or Self-Regulation scales. No previous research investigating disability registration status could be located. It was assumed that SWD who had registered would exhibit greater self-determination than those who had not registered. As relatively few SWD register with their disability services office once they reach college, it bodes well that disability registration does not appear to radically affect self-determination. No differences in self-determination were found among SWD by disability type. Differences by Gender, Race, GPA, and Retention

Previous research exploring the relationship of gender to self-determination has been mixed (Lee et al., 2012; Martin & Marsh, 2006; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, & Paek, 2013). The current study found statistically significant differences in mean scores by gender on each of the three scales. Higher mean scores for males on the Psychological Empowerment scale symbolized lesser test anxiety, less stress over personal responsibility, and greater feelings of academic self-efficacy, which supported previous research. It may be more socially acceptable for females to admit weakness and report higher levels of test anxiety. Differences in test anxiety measures may thus be skewed due to different societal expectations of males and females. While previous research has found contradictory findings on the influence of gender on development of self-determination skills, this study added yet another piece to the puzzle of the complex relationship between gender and levels of self-determination.


Earlier research has suggested that race can influence the expression of self-determination and that persons from varying cultural backgrounds may perceive and experience self-determination differently; however, the intersection of race and self-determination has not been thoroughly studied (Shogren et al., 2013). This study did not find significant differences between Caucasian and non-Caucasian students on measures of self-regulation or psychological empowerment, but it did find that non-Caucasians scored significantly higher than Caucasians in resilience skills. This study found that both high school and first semester GPAs were positively related to self-determination on each scale. Regarding retention to spring semester, students were more likely to return when they scored high in Resilience and Psychological Empowerment skills. Recommendations for Practice and Future Research

During both high school and college, students need help acquiring, implementing, and practicing self-determination skills. As first-year students are known to experience the weakest self-determination skills, institutions of higher education (IHE) should directly address self-determination promotion in transitioning students. To date, little research on self-determination has been conducted in the postsecondary sector, and most of this has focused on the community college. The majority of research on self-determination has involved persons with lower cognitive ability and more severe disabilities than the disabilities represented by most SWD who attend four-year comprehensive colleges. Future research should investigate the most effective strategies for building self-determination in college students so that IHE can make informed decisions regarding implementation of evidence-based approaches most applicable for their student body. These strategies should build on student strengths and should emphasize proactive approaches to addressing transition challenges. Additionally, assessments of self-determination competencies, while notably important during transition and the first year, should continue through graduation. Development of self-determination is a lifelong endeavor.

References

Finn, D., Getzel, E. E., & McManus, S. (2008). Adapting the self-determined learning model for instruction of college students with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 31, 85-93. doi:10.1177/0885728808318327

Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Wood, W. M., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004). Putting self-determination into practice. Exceptional Children, 72, 23-41. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=EJ696632

Lee, J. H., Nam, S. K., Kim, A., Kim, B., Lee, M. Y., & Lee, S. M. (2013). Resilience: A meta-analytic approach. Journal of Counseling and Development, 91, 269-279. doi:10.1002.j.1556-6676.2013.00095.x

Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2006). Academic resilience and its psychological and educational correlates: A construct validity approach. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 267-282. doi:10.1002/pits.20149

Martin, J. E., & Marshall, L. H. (1995). ChoiceMaker: A comprehensive self-determination transition program. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30, 147-156. doi:10.1177/105345129503000304

Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., & Paek, Y. (2013). Exploring personal and school environment characteristics that predict self-determination. Exceptionality, 21, 147-157. doi:10.1080/09362835.2013.802231

Thoma, C. A., & Getzel, E. E. (2005). Self-determination is what it’s all about: What post-secondary students with disabilities tell us are important considerations for success. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40, 234-242. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno= EJ754165

Wehmeyer, M. L., & Field, S. L. (2007). Self-determination: Instructional and assessment strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.


Lorna C. Timmerman, Ed.D., Ball State University; [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


Arab Women, Online Learning, and Empowerment: Gender, Education, Culture, Tradition, Religion, and Class

Rey Ty, Manal Alkarzon, & Awni Alkarzon

This paper addressed the problem of Arab women’s challenges that prevent them from pursuing their educational degree, freedom, and career. This qualitative research aimed to discover Arab women’s perspective on distance education and to find out how distance education increases their independence. The findings revealed that distance education is a solution to empower Arab women to be independent and to surmount their cultural barriers which prevent them from pursuing their education. As policy implication, higher education administrators in the Arab world can systematically implement online learning for the empowerment female students.

Introduction

Problem Statement. In the Arab world, wives and mothers in families practicing

traditional patriarchal cultures have difficulty in taking time away from their husbands and children due to their domestic roles and different family responsibilities (Omar, 2005). “The emancipation of women and their equality with men are impossible and must remain so as long as women are excluded from socially productive work and restricted to housework, which is private. The emancipation of women becomes possible only when women are enabled to take part in production on a large, social scale…” (Engels, as cited in New Women in New China, 1972, p. 4). Hence, there is a need to shed light on the importance of distance education to enable Arab women to achieve their educational goals in the patriarchal Middle Eastern societies. “Any attempt to provide religious justification for refusing girls their right to education…[is] a betrayal of the very principles that religious leaders have the role to defend” (Dioup, as cited in Carter, 2014, p. 181).

Objectives of the Study. The objectives of this paper were twofold: one, to examine the

perspectives of Arab women on distance education; and, two, to find out how distance education can increase the independence for Arab women.

Research Questions. The questions this paper addressed were the following: How do

Arab women describe their experiences in distance education in relation to their cultural barriers? How do online courses support Arab women’s individual learning?

Theoretical Framework. Moore’s (1991) Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) guided

this study for two main reasons. First, this theory applies to the learner's individual requirements who cannot attend face-to-face or traditional classes. Second, transactional distance learning takes place in a setting when instructors and learners are physically separated.

Conceptual Framework. Arab women refer to women who come from West Asia and North Africa, coexisting with people of other backgrounds. Note that not all Arab women are the same: there are intra-state differences as well as interstate differences among Arab women


along a spectrum from social conservatism to social liberalism (Ty, Alkarzon, & Hunting, 2010). Power refers to “a whole series of particular mechanism, … which seem likely to induce behaviors or discourses” (Foucault, 2007, p. 60). Empowerment refers to the process of gaining such inducement to behavior or discourse. Gender refers to social roles that women and men are expected to play in society, noting that gender roles vary in each society from one historical moment and context to another (Ty, Glowacki-Dudka, & Berger, 2012). Traditionalism refers to “persisting values and attitudes” stressing “family and community relationships, which inhibits individual freedom and initiative,” and “keeps premodern societies backward” (Scupin, 2000, p. 286). Education can be formal, non-formal, and informal: it can take place in the classroom and the students obtain a degree or a diploma, it can be a short-term course leading to a certificate, or learning that takes place at home, in organizations, or in any other setting, respectively (Ty, 2011). Ever changing through time and space, culture refers to “that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Tylor, 1871, as cited in Scupin, 2000, p. 38). Forming part of human knowledge, religion principally comes from “sacred texts” (Scupin, 2000, p. 13). Religion serves the social function of influencing the beliefs and practices of the people, affects social change, or is a social product people invented to maintain order (Ty, 2013). Social class refers to the level of economic wealth. In layperson’s term, there are the rich, the middle class, and the poor or low income.

Review of Related Literature

Distance Education. Distance education is a form of education in which learners are

physically separated but are connected through telecommunication systems. Distance learning provides an opportunity which enables learners to manage geographic distance and time to receive their education and interact with instructors and learners (Lorenzetti, 2007). Distance learning is institution-based formal education influenced by changes in technologies, economics, politics, and society (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2009).

Distance Education in the Middle East. There are three modes of distance learning.

The first is Dual Mode in which traditional higher education institutions offer both face-to-face classes and distance education for learners (UNESCO, 2002). The open learning centers in the West Bank and Gaza Strip (Palestine) are examples of Arab institutions that use dual mode in their distance education approach. The second mode is Single Mode in which distance education institutions carry out their educational activities according to the need for distance learning (UNESCO, 2002). Al-Quds Open University in Palestine adopts the single mode in approaching Palestinian students. The third mode is Virtual Mode in which local universities provide world-class education without boundaries so that students do not have to leave their countries to study abroad (Al-Radhi, 2008).

Impact of Distance Education on Arab Women’s Education. Despite the

implementation of distance learning programs in Saudi universities, a void still exists there (Aljabre, 2012). The growing number of women joining new programs and the growing number of students denied admission due to overcrowding show that there is room for growth. Aljabre (2012) reveals that technological development has spurred the growth of distance learning and gave students who otherwise might not have the opportunity to receive higher education or


continue on to postgraduate degrees. Saudi educators realize the benefits of technology and use it throughout the country’s universities. Distance learning in the Arab world in general and in Saudi Arabia in particular opens up doors to women that have been closed. Research reveals that women who obtained higher education levels were able to gain self-confidence and job opportunities, but women with low education levels had limited job opportunities and less self-confidence (Kwapong, 2007). In fact, education paves the way for women to participate, develop, and improve various conditions in their own communities. Education increases women's self-confidence to be more creative and to be decision makers instead of relying on others in their decisions (Ojo & Olakuleein, 2006). There are few studies that deal with Arab women’s perspectives regarding online courses. Therefore, this study fills the gap in the literature, by examining how Arab women’s interaction in distance education can help surmount their traditional culture and improve their learning.

Methodology

This qualitative study involves four participants from different Middle East countries: Libya, Palestine, and Saudi Arabia. The study took place at Northern Illinois University (NIU). The data were collected from face-to-face interviews and artifacts. Analytical memo was used for data analysis. Concepts emerged from which themes were woven together about the online-learning experiences of Arab women to create a story. This research only began to scratch the surface on how Arab women find a solution for their situation through distance learning.

Findings

“Unfortunately …this is my culture:” Online learning and Cultural Barriers. Cultural

restrictions such as collectivism and masculinity force Arab women to struggle for the respect of their individuality and femininity. Participant Mai, a 30 year old from Saudi Arabia, praised online course: “It helps me a lot, especially for the late night classes, and the family wouldn’t like a girl to come home really late at night.” Online classes helped her to overcome restrictions imposed by her family and culture, which does not allow single women to leave and come home late and even, sometimes not to leave home at all. This is a problem that prevents Arab women from pursuing an academic degree. The other problem she faces in her culture is that girls should do all home responsibilities, especially if they have older parents. All these cultural obstacles prevent Mai from pursuing her master’s degree. Mai came with her family to the U.S.A. and started taking online classes. She found how online classes were helpful for her to overcome these cultural issues. Mai said: “Online classes permit me to choose anytime to work on my assignments and I don’t have to be stuck to a specific time, which really helps me. So I could go online any time I'm available.” She is able to help her family and stay at home and at the same time she is able to access her online classes and do her reading and assignments when she is free.

Yasmeen, a participant from Libya, single, 20 years old, belongs to a large family and she is the oldest among her siblings. She shared how online classes helped her to solve her problem, saying: “I believe online classes are very helpful for me to pursue my degree. I feel that they give me the flexibility and I need that.” Online classes gave Yasmeen the flexibility to help her family because of the size of her family and because her dad has a low income. Online classes helped her to go to her job in the morning and do her class assignment whenever she is able. In


addition, Yasmeen stated: “I live in Rockford and my parents and my culture do not allow me to travel far distance by myself especially because I am a girl even though I am 20 years old.” Again, this participant gave evidence about how online classes provided her with a good opportunity to solve her cultural restrictions regarding her movement.

Amany, from Saudi Arabia, has another story. She is a mother of three kids and married to a very conservative and strict husband. Amany found online classes as a solution for her to pursue a degree, saying: “Online classes are helpful for me because Arab women have lots of responsibilities so it would be easier for them to attend online classes rather than regular classes.” Without any assistance from her husband, she has to perform all house responsibilities. Her husband did not allow her to have a babysitter for her kids while she was in her classes. He believes that mothers are the only ones who can take care of their kids, as this was the way he was raised in his country. Amany said: “My husband cannot do anything for himself; he cannot make even a cup of tea. It is shameful in our country that men cook or enter the kitchen to help their wives." He believes too that women cannot go out and leave the kids with their dads. She cannot go out and leave him alone at home. He might need her to prepare a cup of tea or food for him. Amany said: "As I am taking evening classes from 6-9 and my daughter doesn’t take a bottle, I must feed her." This is another issue she is facing with her little baby as the baby needs her mom to be around during the time of the class. In this way she found online class was the only solution for her.

From Arab women's perspective: Online courses support individual learning. The four

Arab women from different countries concurred that online courses were very helpful in supporting their individual learning. They have been in the U.S.A. for one to four years. They have never experienced online classes in their countries. This has been the first experience for them to be involved in online environments. For example, participant Amany from Saudi Arabia has been in the United States for almost three years. She talked about her first experience with online classes and said: "The teacher was like an instructor, giving us instructions, material, and assignments to do. Online class helped me to teach myself and encouraged me to seek information by myself.” Noor, a participant from Palestine, said that she has been in the U.S.A. for one year. Concurring with Amany, Noor said the following about the instructor: “I appreciate how organized my instructor was on providing the material of the class and her fast feedback regarding any problem that I might have had as beginner to online classes.” Amany appears satisfied with this type of learning and she was excited when she was talking about how the instructor played the facilitator role and how she was enjoying being central to the learning process. This type of learning, from her view, is a good chance to be able to search for and find information. As her instructor developed the environment that motivates her and her classmates to learn, Noor is very happy and satisfied with her first online instructor. Noor appreciated her efforts to give the students the guidance that helped them to learn, saying:

She was actually very nice. She gave me CDs of all the slides, so in case I couldn’t go online, I could just look at them, look at the slides though the CD, and print them out, print all the slides out … she had the PowerPoint, she was talking, she recorded herself talking on the PowerPoint, so you watched it on the computer just like you would be sitting in a classroom, and the professor talking to the PowerPoint. So I printed off my PowerPoint slides ….and then I read them, so I did that and then my notes…She used to ask us to find some other sources that can help and motivate us to learn.


The material the instructor provided the students helped them take notes and do their

assignments. When the learner is self-directed, setting his or her own goals and standards, the instructor becomes a facilitator who reviews learner-set criteria, timelines, lists of resources, and collaborations. Students in this situation have choices in their education; they are responsible for their learning. They measure their own achievement, and they have power in the classroom and can become more independent. Mai and Yasmeen shared some other experiences related to individual learning, saying how they started to be more independent. Talking about being in the United States and about the most helpful aspect in online classes, Mai said:

The most helpful aspects from online classes were the individual learning…. For meindividual learning was a new type of learning and I thought it was a good type, and I liked it. In the past I wasn’t able to find the information that I need because the instructor should do everything. I even wasn’t spending any time to look or find what I need. I was thinking is just wasting time to search and find what you need by yourself since it is available.

When asked about being in the United States for two years and about her experience with

online classes, Yasmeen from Libya said: "I have a good experience with online classes because it made me more independent and search for information on my own using resources such as books and other sources."

In her previous academic life, Mai did not have the ability and the motivation to search for the information that she needed. She did not know how to start searching for information, lacked initiative, and lacked opportunity for initiative-taking. She was thinking that it was a waste of time. After her experience with how to be more independent in her learning, she understood how searching for information was helpful for her academic life. The same thing happened with Yasmeen, when she mentioned with a smile on her face, about how she became more independent and how she was able to look for information by herself. This study includes artifacts that show improvement in Arab women's learning style through distance learning. Thus, the participants benefit from online courses not only in terms of content-learning but in tools which helped them to be more active in their own learning. Online learning helped them to make their own decisions about what and how they will learn, construct new knowledge and skills, by building on current knowledge and skills, and understand expectations. They were encouraged to use self-assessment measures, monitor their own learning to develop strategies for learning, work in collaboration with other learners, and produce work that demonstrates authentic learning.

Discussion and Conclusion

Summary. This study responded to the need to find an appropriate way to empower Arab

women achieve their educational goals by overcoming the obstacles caused by their traditional culture in their countries. Across four case studies, the main findings for this study show that Arab women found distance education as a solution to surmount traditional cultural barriers to their education and to improve their individual learning.


Implications. There is a need to go beyond stereotypes. The limitation of this study is that more participants with a larger sampling size are needed in order to establish a general trend of women's perspectives on distance education to generalize the study about the online learning experiences of Arab women in the Middle East. For policy makers, higher education administrators need to realize that online learning could be one solution for female students in the Middle East. For practice, Arab women must consider online learning as a way by which to surmount their cultural barriers. This research is useful in Arab countries, because it encourages higher education administrators to reconsider their philosophy and approaches to online learning, curriculum, and higher education system.

References

Aljabre, A. (2012). An exploration of distance learning in Saudi Arabian universities: Current practices and future

possibilities. International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology,2 (2), 132-137. Al-Radhi, K. (2008). Distance learning/e-learning for Iraq: Concept and road map. Bulletin of the American Society

for Information Science and Technology, 34, 34-37. Carter, J. (2014). A Call to Action: Women Religion Violence and Power. New York: Simon & Schuster. Kwapong, O. (2007). Widening access to tertiary education for women in Ghana through distance education.

Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 8(4), 65-79. Lorenzetti, J. (2007). How to provide distance education in a challenging environment. Distance Education Report,

17(11), 3-7. Moore, M. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1-6. New women in new China. (1972). Peking: Foreign Languages Press. Ojo, O. D., & Olakulein, F. K. (2006). Distance education as a women empowerment strategy in Africa. Turkish

Online Journal of Distance Education, 7, 271-280. Omar, A. (2005). The potential of distance and open learning in Kuwait: A case study of the Arab Open

University-Kuwait branch (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Digital Dissertations and Theses database. (Document ID No. 974467471).

Scupin, R. (2000). Cultural anthropology: A global perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2009). Teaching and learning at a distance:

Foundations of Distance Education (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- Hall. Ty, R. (2013). The state, NGOs, social movements, and civil society: The struggle for power, human rights, social

justice, and social change. Saarbrücken, Germany. Lambert Academic Publishing. Ty, R., Alkarzon, A., & Hunting, E. J. (2010). Islam: Misconceptions, current trends and the role of social

movements and education in promoting development, conflict, and peace building. In Proceedings of the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

Ty, R., Glowacki-Dudka, & Berger, J. (2012). Deconstructing culture: An interdisciplinary critique of contending theories of culture. In Proceedings of the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference. Edmond, OK: University of Central Oklahoma.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2002). Open and distance learning: Trends, policy and strategy considerations. Paris: UNESCO.

_________________________________________________________________________ Rey Ty, Ed.D., Manal Alkarzon, MBA, & Awni Alkarzon, Ph.D., Northern Illinois University, Division of International Affairs, DeKalb, IL 60115, 815-753-1098, [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]. Presented at the Research-to-Practice (R2P) Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2012.





Ball State University Graduate-Level Course via Distance Education: Supervision of Instruction (EDSU 650)

Terry L. Wiedmer and Cindy S. Cash

This paper describes the course design, course management, and use of content documents as a model solution to managing an online graduate-level distance education course. Featured components of this Ball State University (BSU) course include the importance of institutional support, instructor and student workload, training, and ongoing collaboration between the professor and instructional designer. Quality measures (QM) are integrated in course design and delivery to insure optimal student learning and application of concepts, theories, and instructor and student exchange of content and experiences to optimize marketability of students as school administrators and supervisors. Included in the Master of Arts in Education (MAE) degree is the student’s principal license. Blackboard is featured as BSU’s learning management system for student and instructor interface. Multiple training sessions are available to instructors through the Integrated Learning Institute (iLearn) which offers ongoing workshops and tutorials online to assist faculty in course development and delivery. Students enroll in the BSU distance education courses to achieve both career advancements and personal fulfillment.

Introduction

Ball State University offers key academic programs via distance education including Nursing, Teacher Education (elementary and secondary) and Educational Administration and Supervision with principal’s license (this program is featured here). Other online BSU programs include the MBA, Health, Public Relations, Journalism, Curriculum, and Educational Technology. In addition many blended programs are offered to include online and on-site courses.

EDSU 650 Supervision of Instruction, a 3-credit graduate course taught strictly online, is featured. During the regular academic year EDSU 650 is offered via distance education in a 16-week format (fall and spring semesters). During summer school, it is typically taught in a 5-week summer session. The course contents are based on a 16-week series of modules to accommodate Fall and Spring semester schedules. Summer school collapses the 16 modules to five weeks as enrollees are typically out-of-school and have greater flexibility to engage in course projects, lectures, meetings with people, and to assemble their professional portfolio artifacts.

EDSU 650 Supervision of Instruction – A BSU Distance Education Model

As noted in the BSU Course Catalog, EDSU 650 is designed to analyze the supervisory functions of the superintendent, supervisor, and principal. The course lays the philosophical basis for supervision at all levels of the school system from early childhood through secondary education. Specifically, EDSU 650 is designed to develop an understanding of the principles and processes of supervising instruction within the framework of teacher growth through the


integration and balance of theory, research, and practice in the field of instructional supervision. EDSU 650 is a required course in the Administration/Supervision M.A.E. graduate-degree program that does include principal licensure. Initially the course was taught strictly face-to-face on campus and at remote sites throughout Indiana. Next, EDSU was taught in a blended-learning format with instruction being conducted in the BSU distance-education television studio to accommodate live students and those remotely connected via the Internet. Since the 2005-06 academic year, EDSU has been available to students strictly online. Students enroll for the course from all over the world and share freely with their course colleagues and instructor.

The knowledgebase emphasized is focused around key concepts that school administrators and supervisors need to be aware of and experienced in to successfully lead schools and instructors. These concepts include the role and responsibility of decision makers, key areas of research focused on becoming and remaining professionally knowledgeable, socially aware, and future-oriented leaders. With the ongoing evolution of education and educational leadership, students are encouraged to be and remain socially aware, future oriented, experientially broad, human-relations oriented, and technically proficient. Course Content

EDSU 650 course contents feature basic and advanced theoretical and research-based studies to include teaching and learning processes, school improvement, organizational theory, leadership and management functions, as well as the moral and ethical dimensions of schooling. Ultimately the course objectives and related student-generated projects are designed for students to acquire essential knowledge and skills for instructional improvement and to engage in collaborative problem solving. Opportunities are provided for students to research and explore staff recruitment, selection, development, and retention as key components of their future supervisory and administrative roles as reflective practitioners. Staff development has been directly linked to the implementation of curricular and instructional innovations and an overall improvement in the quality of the educational environment (Sparks & Hirsch, 1997; Drake & Roe, 2003). Since societal change is ever-present and ongoing, education is in a constant state of transformation and rarely is in a “stable state” (Schon, 1971). There is an ongoing need for continuous learning by staff, retooling of the school vision, and continuous staff development.

Historically, the development of instructional supervision is profiled throughout the course and supervisory functions are detailed to include management and services, instructional leadership, and their interpretations to both internal and external publics. The role and importance of instructional assessment of performance (evaluation) are addressed through the analysis of locally-adopted teacher evaluation assessment tool(s) and/or the Indiana State adopted RISE teacher evaluation model.

EDSU 650 students evaluate a colleague using an adopted and approved teacher-assessment tool and apply the Clinical Supervision format of the cognitive coaching model (Costa & Garmston, 1985) that incorporates the pre-observation conference, observation, and post-observation conference. This clinical supervisory procedure is emphasized to insure that the teacher is an active participant in the process of evaluation, observation, and integration of actual instructional observational data provided by the educator’s supervisor. EDSU students use the locally-adopted teacher evaluation tool OR the Indiana State RISE Evaluation System as an EDSU course project. RISE was developed during a calendar year by the Indiana Teacher Evaluation Cabinet, a group of Indiana educators whose majority of teachers had won excellence in teaching awards. RISE is a system built on the belief that all teachers deserve consistent and


meaningful feedback to continue to grow as professionals. Featured in this teacher evaluation component are three competency areas 1) administrative/supervisory issues; 2) program/curricular issues; and 3) instructional partnership issues.

Recognized sources of knowledge for the EDSU Supervision of Instruction students include philosophy, theory, research, and craft knowledge. A total of 75 points (75%) for EDSU 650 students’ assignments are project based, and are required by all enrollees: Administrator/ Supervisor Portfolio development-digital or electronic copy 20 points (20%); discussion board 10 points (10%); on-line job application 20 points (20%); self-evaluation 10 points (10%); and an interview project 15 points (15%). Students select one (1) project that is worth 25 points (25%) of their grade from among the following project-based options: staff development plan, supervision for all generations paper; peer evaluation; OR the Teacher Book staffing plan. In addition, all students create and place in their professional portfolios, but do not submit to the instructor, their resume and/or curriculum vitae (CV), personal brochure, and listing of Internet web-based resources. The student’s mentor/portfolio evaluator (and generally speaking, interviewee) has first-hand exposure to the student’s resume/CV, brochure, and delineation of web-based resources. The student’s mentor evaluates these items along with the rest of the portfolio using an instructor-prepared rubric. The mentor then submits the completed portfolio assessment rubric to the student and to the course instructor.

Project-based learning (PBL) course requirements have been identified for the EDSU 650 graduate students as a dynamic approach to teaching and for student learning. The students are able to explore these instructional supervision real-world issues and challenges while simultaneously developing cross-curricular skills through their active and engaged learning. Research indicates that students are more apt to retain the knowledge gained through this PBL approach more readily than through traditional textbook-centered learning and often find the assessments more meaningful and thrive on their self-identified real-life issues (S. Boss & J. Kraus, 2007). 16 Modules - Modular Design

The EDSU 650 course is divided into 16 modules—a 16-week arrangement that is delineated on the course syllabus and Graphic Organizer. These course components are easily identified on the course Blackboard Website by having specific tabs aligned along the left-hand side to assist students in accessing the various course components: Announcements, Meet your Instructor, Syllabus, Graphic Organizer, Course Modules, Assignments, Course Documents, Discussion Board, ELCC 2011, IDOE Tchr/Prin Rubrics, ISLLC 2008, PGP’s – License Renewal, Professional Organizations, and Web Resources. Additional tabs are accessible along the course Blackboard site for all students regarding generic Blackboard Assistance: Email, My Grades, Software Products, Blackboard Help, and Student Support Services. Course Packet / Materials and Text(s)

Terry Wiedmer, course instructor, developed a comprehensive course packet to include the various instructional supervisory topics addressed throughout the course. Free of charge to students, the course packet includes numerous chapters and appendices to assist students in receiving sample evaluation forms, staff development plans, and numerous tools and resources that are of use and interest to principals and instructional supervisors. In addition to the course packet being able to be downloaded to the students’ desktops and/or printed, there are instructor-developed PowerPoint presentations (in pdf-file format) that accompany each of the course


chapters and are shown in the Mediasite videos for each course module. The PowerPoint presentations can also be downloaded from the course Blackboard site. Another resource, referred to as the “Teacher Book”, Teachers: A Tribute to the Enlightened, The Exceptional, the Extraordinary, is available free of charge to course enrollees, compliments of authors John Yow and Gary Firstenberg. The course packet appendices include copies of materials, resources, research reports, and reference materials.

Course Modules

As noted above, the EDSU 650 course is divided into 16 modules for which a unique folder has been established for each module in Blackboard. Once the course module is logged into by the student, he/she reviews the module contents: Topics, overview, requirements, announcements, course packet sections covered, identified websites (topical), Mediasite link(s), and Student To Do’s—assignments, etc. Each module also contains a statement that at the end of the module the student will be able to do X, Y, or Z . . .and/or prepare and submit specific projects/assignments. Contained within each module’s folder are the specific PowerPoint presentations, notation about specific course packet pages covered, listing of additional resources, and often there are student samples of completed projects from previous semesters (posted on Blackboard with the permission of the students who created them) for students’ reference/collaboration and sharing.

Student Evaluation

There is a total of 100 points available to each student (100%). The course grading scale follows: 100% = A+, 96-99% = A, 94-95% = A-, 92-93% = B+, 90-91% = B, 88-89% = B-, 86-87% = C+, 84-85% = C, and 80-83% = C-. Any score earned less than 83% (C-) is recorded as an F and these students are then required to retake the course. iLearn – Course Design and Instructional Assistance

Cindy Cash, BSU Instructional Designer, has worked with Terry Wiedmer, the instructor, to redesign the online EDSU 650 Supervision of Instruction course. As noted by Cindy, iLearn is the department she serves whose mission is, to create high quality learning experiences for faculty and students, is part of the Division of online and distance education at Ball State University, and is a collaborative team of instructional designers, learning technologists, developers and researchers (Cash, C.S., 2014). Ball State University is an institutional member of Quality Measures since July 2012. As an instructional designer, Cindy works 1:1 with faculty to consult with the instructor to develop or redevelop online courses; ensure quality by following the Quality Measures and institutional guidelines (Title 34 and FERPA; research and implement innovative technologies (Storyline, My Mediasite); and help faculty determine best practices and technologies to fulfill course objectives. Former Students’ Comments Regarding EDSU 650 Supervision of Instruction

Each student is required to assess him/herself at the end of the EDSU 650 semester and provide responses to open-ended questions that enable the instructor and instructional designer feedback for course improvement and/or maintenance. A select sample of some previously enrolled students’ comments include the following:

Q: Having my self-selected mentor/portfolio reviewer assess my professional portfolio:


A. Has been a great opportunity for me to develop a relationship with a mentor who is new to administration—this has been a great choice to work with someone who is new to the position and still remembers being a leadership student---she will be a great reference someday. Q: The interview component of the course:

A. Was very insightful and allowed me to see what motivates and cultivates a successful school environment--that is compassion for the learner!

B. This aspect of the class was very beneficial to me. I was able to have so many questions answered by a professional. It gave me great insight to the daily tasks of an administrator—and I was able to establish a positive relationship with my mentor that will transcend time and my professional career. Q: The materials on the course “Blackboard” Internet-driven resource site should:

A. Not be changed . . .they are excellent and very helpful for me and other students to generate quality projects. . .they were great and very helpful, especially as a distance student. The examples were the most helpful.

Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations

EDSU 650 Supervision of Instruction is a very popular and widely requested online 3-credit graduate course in the BSU Educational Administration and Supervision MAE course sequence. During this past academic year, EDSU 650 has been redesigned and enhanced through consultation with Instructional Designer, Cindy Cash. This project-based, online, graduate education MAE-degree course successfully loads three course sections each semester and has enabled many administrators and supervisors to receive their BSU graduate degrees and principal licenses throughout the world.

Course enrollees engage in the development or updating of their professional portfolios, are brought up-to-date with current related research and best instructional supervisory practices. As teacher leaders, the EDSU 650 students engage in course-related administrative supervisory roles and prepare to serve as school principals, supervisors and/or superintendents. The instructor and instructional designer engage in ongoing professional efforts to insure that the course contents, modes of delivery, and projects/assignments remain meaningful, state-of-the-art, and research-based.

The working relationships that develop between the students and their self-selected mentors have reportedly been very positive and have encouraged the instructor and instructional designer to retain or modify course projects or assignments. Many EDSU 650 former course enrollees have self-reported that subsequent to completing the course requirements, they have assumed assistant principal positions to complement the work of their EDSU mentor (and/or interviewee). Many EDSU 650 students have gone on to assume principal positions throughout the United States as well as in several foreign countries. and licensure for our graduate students located throughout the Union and the world.

Although BSU has been offering online programs since the 1990s, there have been several distance education awards that BSU has recently earned that are reported on the BSU Website: http://cms.bsu.edu/academics/collegesanddepartments/online/aboutus/rankings The 2014 Strategic Innovation in Online Education Award for meeting strategic and innovative goals for online education – the highest award /distinction given by UCEA, an association of leaders in online education.


http://cms.bsu.edu/academics/collegesanddepartments/online/aboutus/rankings

In 2014, Ball State was ranked 29th in the nation for best online bachelor’s degree programs by U.S. News & World Report. This award included degrees in Business administration, nursing, and general studies. In 2014, Ball State earned four rankings, including three in the top 10, from U.S. News and World Report in its list of Best Online Programs for Veterans. Named a Military Friendly School for the past five years—placing BSU in the top 20 percent of all schools nationwide. The BSU main campus and Miller College of Business have also received this honor. Ball State is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and is a member of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools.

References

Boss, S. & Krauss, J. (2007). Reinventing project-based learning. (International Society for Technology in Education, ISTE), www.iste.org/docs/excerpts/REINVT-excerpt.pdf. 3-23.

BSU website (2014): http://cms.bsu.edu/academics/collegesanddepartments/online/aboutus/rankings Costa, A., & Gamrston, R. (1985). Supervision for intelligent teaching. Educational Leadership, 42(5), 70-80. Drake, T.L., & Roe, W.H. (2003). The principalship (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Schon, D. (1971). Beyond the stable state. New York: Random House. Sparks, D., & Hirsch, S. (1997). A new vision for staff development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision

and Staff Development. Terry L. Wiedmer, Associate Professor, Curriculum, Educational Studies Department, Teachers College 813, Ball State University, Muncie, IN. 47306-0610. [email protected] Cindy S. Cash, Instructional Designer, iLearn, Ball Communications Bldg., Room 220, Ball State University, Muncie, IN. 47306-0610. [email protected] Presented at the Research to Practice Conference in Adult and Higher Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, September 19-20, 2014.


http://cms.bsu.edu/academics/collegesanddepartments/online/aboutus/rankings



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